1.
Sir
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Sir is an honorific address used in a number of situations in many anglophone cultures. The term can be used as a prefix, especially in the Commonwealth, for males who have been given certain honours or titles. The term is commonly used as a respectful way to address a man. Equivalent terms of address to females are maam or madam in most cases, or in the case of a woman, girl, or unmarried woman who prefers to be addressed as such. The equivalent term for a woman or baronetess is Dame. Sir derives from the Middle French honorific title sire, sire developed alongside the word seigneur, also used to refer to a feudal lord. Both derived from the Vulgar Latin senior, sire comes from the nominative case declension senior and seigneur, the prefix is used with the holders given name or full name, but never with the surname alone. For example, whilst Sir Alexander and Sir Alexander Fleming would be correct, the equivalent for a female who holds a knighthood or baronetcy in her own right is Dame, and follows the same usage customs as Sir. For example, while Lady Fiennes is correct, Lady Virginia, the widows of knights retain the style of wives of knights, however widows of baronets are either referred to as dowager, or use their forename before their courtesy style. For example, the widow of Sir Thomas Herbert Cochrane Troubridge, 4th Baronet, would either be known as Dowager Lady Troubridge or Laura, Lady Troubridge. Examples include, Admiral of the Fleet Sir Bruce Fraser, GCB, KBE Field Marshal Sir Thomas Blamey, GBE, KCB, CMG, DSO, ED This is also the case with academic titles, such as professor. For example, Patrick Bateson is both a professor and a bachelor, his correct title would be Professor Sir Patrick Bateson. The title of Doctor, however, is not used in combination with sir, knighted doctors are addressed as knights, though they may still use any post-nominal letters associated with their degrees. Church of England clergy who receive knighthoods do not use the title Sir, for example, the Reverend Dr John Polkinghorne, KBE is never referred to as Sir John Polkinghorne. Clergy of other denominations may use different conventions, peers who have been knighted are not addressed as Sir in the formal sense of the style, as their titles of nobility take precedence. Other male heirs of an earl who lack courtesy titles, and the heirs of a viscount or baron, do however use the style of Sir if knighted. Dual nationals holding a Commonwealth citizenship that recognise the British monarch as head of state are entitled to use the styling, the permissibility of using the style of Sir varies. Regular creation of new knights of the order ended in 1921 upon the formation of the Irish Free State, with the death of the last knight in 1974, the Order became dormant
2.
Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature
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The Royal Society of Literature is a learned society. It was founded in 1820 by King George IV to reward literary merit, the societys first president was Thomas Burgess, Bishop of St Davids. Past fellows include Samuel Taylor Coleridge, J. R. R. Tolkien, yeats, Rudyard Kipling, Thomas Hardy, George Bernard Shaw, Arthur Koestler, Chinua Achebe, Robert Ardrey, and P. J. Kavanagh. Present Fellows include Margaret Atwood, David Hare, Kazuo Ishiguro, Hilary Mantel, Paul Muldoon, Zadie Smith, Nadeem Aslam, Sarah Waters and J. K. Rowling. A newly created fellow inscribes his or her name on the official roll using either Byrons pen or T. S. Eliots fountain pen. S. Pritchett Memorial Prize for short stories, from time to time it confers the honour and title of Companion of Literature to writers of particular note. Additionally the RSL can bestow its award of the Benson Medal for lifetime service in the field of literature, the RSL runs a membership scheme and offers a varied programme of events to members and the general public. The RSL also runs an outreach programme in collaboration with the literacy charity First Story. The society is a tenant at Londons Somerset House. The RSL administers two annual prizes, two awards, and two honours, through its prize programmes, the RSL supports new and established contemporary writers. The RSL Brookleaze Grants – a total of £5,000 is awarded annually to novelists, playwrights, poets or short story writers who need time away from their lives to write. The RSL Encore Awards - £10,000 for best second novel of the year, the RSL took over the administration of this award in 2016. The RSL Jerwood Awards for Non-Fiction – three annual awards, one of £10,000 and two of £5,000, to authors engaged on their first commissioned works of non-fiction. The RSL Ondaatje Prize – an annual award of £10,000 for a work of fiction, non-fiction or poetry. Pritchett Memorial Prize – an annual prize of £1,000 for the best unpublished short story of the year, the Benson Medal – awarded to those who have done sustained and outstanding service to literature. Companion of Literature – the highest honour that the Society can bestow upon a writer, the Council of the Royal Society of Literature is central to the election of new fellows, and directs the RSLs activities through its monthly meetings. They include most of the best novelists, short-story writers, poets, playwrights, biographers, historians, travel writers, literary critics, new fellows of the Royal Society of Literature are elected by its current fellows. To be nominated for fellowship, a writer must have published two works of merit, and nominations must be seconded by an RSL fellow
3.
Hay Festival
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The Hay Festival of Literature & Arts is an annual literature festival held in Hay-on-Wye, Powys, Wales, for ten days from May to June. Devised by Norman and Peter Florence in 1988, the festival was described by Bill Clinton in 2001 as The Woodstock of the mind, tony Benn said, In my mind its replaced Christmas. Florence continues to be director of the Festival, Hay-on-Wye was already well known for its many bookshops before the festival was launched. Richard Booth opened his first shop there in 1962, and by the 1970s Hay had gained the nickname The Town of Books. From its inception, the festival was held at a variety of venues around Hay, including the local Primary School, the Guardian was the main sponsor of the festival from 2002 to 2010, succeeding The Sunday Times. The Daily Telegraph and its brands in Telegraph Media Group are the current 3-year sponsors. The New York Times is currently a sponsor, along with the Telegraph and many companies such as Cardiff University. The festival has expanded over the years to include musical performances, a childrens festival, Hay Fever, runs alongside the main festival. In 2009 Hay Festival also took on the ailing Brecon Jazz Festival and it is run by a not-for-profit company, and entrance is free to students. The Hay Festival was one of 11 Welsh winners of The Queens Awards for Enterprise for 2009. Barrow, Martin Rees, Simon Singh, and general speakers Harry Belafonte, William Dalrymple, Stephen Fry, A. C. Grayling, Germaine Greer, Michael Ignatieff, and David Starkey. Sessions at the Hay Festival have been recorded for television and radio such as The Readers and Writers Roadshow
4.
Mumbai
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Mumbai is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is the most populous city in India and the ninth most populous agglomeration in the world, Mumbai lies on the west coast of India and has a deep natural harbour. In 2008, Mumbai was named a world city. It is also the wealthiest city in India, and has the highest GDP of any city in South, West, Mumbai has the highest number of billionaires and millionaires among all cities in India. The seven islands that came to constitute Mumbai were home to communities of fishing colonies, during the mid-18th century, Bombay was reshaped by the Hornby Vellard project, which undertook reclamation of the area between the seven islands from the sea. Along with construction of roads and railways, the reclamation project, completed in 1845. Bombay in the 19th century was characterised by economic and educational development, during the early 20th century it became a strong base for the Indian independence movement. Upon Indias independence in 1947 the city was incorporated into Bombay State, in 1960, following the Samyukta Maharashtra movement, a new state of Maharashtra was created with Bombay as the capital. Mumbai is the financial, commercial and entertainment capital of India and it is also home to some of Indias premier scientific and nuclear institutes like BARC, NPCL, IREL, TIFR, AERB, AECI, and the Department of Atomic Energy. The city also houses Indias Hindi and Marathi film and television industry, Mumbais business opportunities, as well as its potential to offer a higher standard of living, attract migrants from all over India, making the city a melting pot of many communities and cultures. The oldest known names for the city are Kakamuchee and Galajunkja, in 1508, Portuguese writer Gaspar Correia used the name Bombaim, in his Lendas da Índia. This name possibly originated as the Old Portuguese phrase bom baim, meaning good little bay, in 1516, Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa used the name Tana-Maiambu, Tana appears to refer to the adjoining town of Thane and Maiambu to Mumbadevi. Other variations recorded in the 16th and the 17th centuries include, Mombayn, Bombay, Bombain, Bombaym, Monbaym, Mombaim, Mombaym, Bambaye, Bombaiim, Bombeye, Boon Bay, and Bon Bahia. After the English gained possession of the city in the 17th century, Ali Muhammad Khan, imperial diwan or revenue minister of the Gujarat province, in the Mirat-i-Ahmedi referred to the city as Manbai. By the late 20th century, the city was referred to as Mumbai or Mambai in the Indian statewise official languages of Marathi, Konkani, Gujarati, Kannada and Sindhi, the Government of India officially changed the English name to Mumbai in November 1995. According to Slate magazine, they argued that Bombay was a corrupted English version of Mumbai, Slate also said The push to rename Bombay was part of a larger movement to strengthen Marathi identity in the Maharashtra region. A resident of Mumbai is called mumbaikar in the Marathi language, the term has been in use for quite some time but it gained popularity after the official name change to Mumbai. Mumbai is built on what was once an archipelago of seven islands, Bombay Island, Parel, Mazagaon, Mahim, Colaba, Worli and it is not exactly known when these islands were first inhabited
5.
British Raj
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The British Raj was the rule by the British Crown in the Indian subcontinent between 1858 and 1947. The rule is also called Crown rule in India, or direct rule in India, the resulting political union was also called the Indian Empire and after 1876 issued passports under that name. It lasted until 1947, when the British Indian Empire was partitioned into two sovereign states, the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. The British Raj extended over almost all present-day India, Pakistan and this area is very diverse, containing the Himalayan mountains, fertile floodplains, the Indo-Gangetic Plain, a long coastline, tropical dry forests, arid uplands, and the Thar desert. In addition, at times, it included Aden, Lower Burma, Upper Burma, British Somaliland. Burma was separated from India and directly administered by the British Crown from 1937 until its independence in 1948, among other countries in the region, Ceylon was ceded to Britain in 1802 under the Treaty of Amiens. Ceylon was part of Madras Presidency between 1793 and 1798, the kingdoms of Nepal and Bhutan, having fought wars with the British, subsequently signed treaties with them and were recognised by the British as independent states. The Kingdom of Sikkim was established as a state after the Anglo-Sikkimese Treaty of 1861, however. The Maldive Islands were a British protectorate from 1887 to 1965, India during the British Raj was made up of two types of territory, British India and the Native States. In general, the term British India had been used to also to the regions under the rule of the British East India Company in India from 1600 to 1858. The term has also used to refer to the British in India. The terms Indian Empire and Empire of India were not used in legislation, the monarch was known as Empress or Emperor of India and the term was often used in Queen Victorias Queens Speeches and Prorogation Speeches. The passports issued by the British Indian government had the words Indian Empire on the cover, in addition, an order of knighthood, the Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire, was set up in 1878. At the turn of the 20th century, British India consisted of eight provinces that were administered either by a Governor or a Lieutenant-Governor, during the partition of Bengal the new provinces of Assam and East Bengal were created as a Lieutenant-Governorship. In 1911, East Bengal was reunited with Bengal, and the new provinces in the east became, Assam, Bengal, Bihar, there were 565 princely states when India and Pakistan became independent from Britain in August 1947. The princely states did not form a part of British India, the larger ones had treaties with Britain that specified which rights the princes had, in the smaller ones the princes had few rights. Within the princely states external affairs, defence and most communications were under British control, the British also exercised a general influence over the states internal politics, in part through the granting or withholding of recognition of individual rulers. Although there were nearly 600 princely states, the majority were very small
6.
King's College, Cambridge
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Kings College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge in Cambridge, England. Formally The Kings College of Our Lady and Saint Nicholas in Cambridge, Kings was founded in 1441 by Henry VI, soon after he had founded its sister college in Eton. However, the Kings plans for the college were disrupted by the Wars of the Roses and resultant scarcity of funds, and his eventual deposition. Little progress was made on the project until in 1508 Henry VII began to take an interest in the college, the building of the colleges chapel, begun in 1446, was finally finished in 1544 during the reign of Henry VIII. Kings College Chapel is regarded as one of the greatest examples of late Gothic English architecture and it has the worlds largest fan-vault, and the chapels stained-glass windows and wooden chancel screen are considered some of the finest from their era. The building is seen as emblematic of Cambridge, the chapels choir, composed of male students at Kings and choristers from the nearby Kings College School, is one of the most accomplished and renowned in the world. Every year on Christmas Eve the Festival of Nine Lessons and Carols is broadcast from the chapel to millions of listeners worldwide, on 12 February 1441 King Henry VI issued letters patent founding a college at Cambridge for a rector and twelve poor scholars. This college was to be named after Saint Nicholas, upon whose saint day Henry had been born, William Millington, a fellow of Clare College was installed as the rector. Henry directed the publication of the colleges first governing statutes in 1443 and his original modest plan for the college was abandoned, and provision was instead made for community of seventy fellows and scholars headed by a provost. Henry had belatedly learned of William of Wykehams 1379 twin foundation of New College, Oxford and Winchester College, the King had in fact founded Eton College on 11 October 1440, but up until 1443 Kings and Eton had been unconnected. However, that year the relationship between the two was remodelled upon Wykehams successful institutions and the sizes of the colleges scaled up to surpass Wykehams. A second royal charter which re-founded the now much larger Kings College was issued on 12 July 1443, members of Kings were to be recruited entirely from Eton. Membership of Kings was a vocation for life, scholars were eligible for election to the fellowship after three years of probation, irrespective of whether they had achieved a degree or not. In fact, undergraduates at Kings – unlike those other colleges – did not even have to pass university examinations to achieve their BA degree. The gateway and south range of Old Court had already been built, Henrys grand design for the new college buildings survives in the 1448 Founders Will which describes his vision in detail. Behind the hall and buttery was to be another courtyard, the first stone of the chapel was laid by the King on St James Day,25 July 1446. However, within a decade Henrys engagement in the Wars of the Roses meant that funds began to dry up, work proceeded sporadically until a generation later in 1508 when the Founders nephew Henry VII was prevailed upon to finish the shell of the building. The interior had to wait a further generation until completion by 1544 with the aid of Henry VIII, the chapel would be the only part of Henry VIs Founders Will to be realised
7.
Magic realism
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It is sometimes called fabulism, in reference to the conventions of fables, myths, and allegory. Magical realism, perhaps the most common term, often refers to fiction and literature in particular, the terms are broadly descriptive rather than critically rigorous. Matthew Strecher defines magic realism as what happens when a highly detailed, many writers are categorized as magical realists, which confuses the term and its wide definition. Magical realism is often associated with Latin American literature, particularly authors including Gabriel García Márquez, Jorge Luis Borges, Miguel Angel Asturias, in English literature, its chief exponents include Salman Rushdie and Alice Hoffman. Roh identified magic realisms accurate detail, smooth photographic clarity, and it reflects the uncanniness of people and our modern technological environment. In 1926 he founded the magic realist magazine 900. Novecento, Rohs magic realism also influenced writers in Hispanic America, where it was translated as realismo mágico in 1927. Venezuelan writer Arturo Uslar-Pietri, who had known Bontempelli, wrote influential magic realist short stories in the 1930s and 40s that focused on the mystery, Luis Leal attests that Pietri seemed to have been the first to adopt the term realismo mágico in Hispanic America in 1948. French-Russian Cuban writer Alejo Carpentier, who rejected Rohs magic realism as tiresome pretension, developed his related concept lo real maravilloso, or marvelous realism, in 1949. While Flores named Jorge Luis Borges as the first magical realist, Borges is often seen as a predecessor of magical realists, with only Flores considering him a true magical realist. The extent to which the characteristics below apply to a magic realist text varies. Every text is different and employs a smattering of the qualities listed here, however, they accurately portray what one might expect from a magic realist text. Magical realism portrays fantastical events in a realistic tone. It brings fables, folk tales, and myths into contemporary social relevance, fantasy traits given to characters, such as levitation, telepathy, and telekinesis, help to encompass modern political realities that can be phantasmagorical. The existence of elements in the real world provides the basis for magical realism. Writers do not invent new worlds but reveal the magical in this world, as was done by Gabriel García Márquez who wrote the work of the style. In the binary world of realism, the supernatural realm blends with the natural. Authorial reticence is the withholding of information and explanations about the disconcerting fictitious world. The narrator is indifferent, a characteristic enhanced by this absence of explanation of fantastic events, Magical events are presented as ordinary occurrences, therefore, the reader accepts the marvelous as normal and common
8.
Postcolonialism
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Postcolonialism or postcolonial studies is an academic discipline that analyzes, explains, and responds to the cultural legacy of colonialism and imperialism. Postcolonialism speaks about the consequences of external control and economic exploitation of native people. As a genre of history, postcolonialism questions and reinvents the manner in which a culture is being viewed. Anthropologically, it records human nations between the colonists and the peoples under colonial rule, seeking to build an understanding of the nature and practice of colonial rule. It also examines the effects of rule on the cultural aspects of the colony and its treatment of women, language, literature. Postcolonialism is aimed at destabilizing these theories by means of which colonialists perceive, understand, Colonialism was presented as the extension of civilization, which ideologically justified the self-ascribed racial and cultural superiority of the Western world over the non-Western world. Especially in the colonisation of the Far East and in the late-nineteenth century Scramble for Africa, hence, Belgium and Britain, and France and Germany proffered theories of national superiority that justified colonialism as delivering the light of civilisation to unenlightened peoples. A decolonised people develops a postcolonial identity that is based on interactions between different identities which are assigned varying degrees of social power by the colonial society. e. Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Oceania, in The Wretched of the Earth, the psychiatrist and philosopher Frantz Fanon analysed and medically described the nature of colonialism as essentially destructive. Its societal effects—the imposition of a subjugating colonial identity—are harmful to the health of the native peoples who were subjugated into colonies. Fanon wrote the ideological essence of colonialism is the denial of all attributes of humanity of the colonised people. Such dehumanization is achieved with physical and mental violence, by which the colonist means to inculcate a servile mentality upon the natives, for Fanon the natives must violently resist colonial subjugation. Hence, Fanon describes violent resistance to colonialism as a mentally cathartic practice, which purges colonial servility from the native psyche, thus he supported the Front de Libération Nationale in the Algerian War for independence from France. Michel Foucault argues that colonial discourses are where power and knowledge become intertwined and his work implies that power does not exist for punitive measures but rather, power provides a consistent gratification during its perpetual expression. Orientalism thus conflated and reduced the world into the homogeneous cultural entity known as the East. In Edward Said, The Exile as Interpreter, about Saïds Orientalism and that the applied power of such cultural knowledge allowed Europeans to rename, re-define, and thereby control Oriental peoples, places, and things, into imperial colonies. The power–knowledge binary relation is conceptually essential to identify and understand colonialism in general, with this described binary logic, the West generally constructs the Orient subconsciously as its alter ego. Therefore, descriptions of the Orient by the Occident lack material attributes and this inventive, or imaginative interpretation subscribes female characteristics to the Orient and plays into fantasies that are inherent within the Wests alter ego
9.
Travel literature
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The genre of travel literature encompasses outdoor literature, guide books, nature writing, and travel memoirs. One early travel memoirist in Western literature was Pausanias, a Greek geographer of the 2nd century AD, in the early modern period, James Boswells Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides helped shape travel memoir as a genre. The travel genre was a common genre in medieval Arabic literature. Travel literature became popular during the Song Dynasty of medieval China, the genre was called travel record literature, and was often written in narrative, prose, essay and diary style. One of the earliest known records of taking pleasure in travel, of travelling for the sake of travel and he states that he went to the mountaintop for the pleasure of seeing the top of the famous height. His companions who stayed at the bottom he called frigida incuriositas and he then wrote about his climb, making allegorical comparisons between climbing the mountain and his own moral progress in life. Antoine de la Sale, author of Petit Jehan de Saintre, climbed to the crater of a volcano in the Lipari Islands in 1407, councils of mad youth were his stated reasons for going. In 1589, Richard Hakluyt published Voyages, a text of the travel literature genre. In the 18th Century, travel literature was commonly known as the book of travels, in 18th century Britain, almost every famous writer worked in the travel literature form. Captain James Cooks diaries were the equivalent of todays best sellers, Other later examples of travel literature include accounts of the Grand Tour. Aristocrats, clergy, and others with money and leisure time travelled Europe to learn about the art, a very popular subgenre of travel literature started to emerge in the form of narratives of exploration, a still unexplored source for colonial and postcolonial studies. Travel books range in style from the documentary to the evocative, from literary to journalistic and they are often associated with tourism and include guide books, meant to educate the reader about destinations, provide advice for visits, and inspire readers to travel. Travel writing may be found on web sites, in periodicals and it has been produced by a variety of writers, such as travelers, military officers, missionaries, explorers, scientists, pilgrims, social and physical scientists, educators, and migrants. Travel literature often intersects with essay writing, as in V. S. Naipauls India, A Wounded Civilization, whose trip became the occasion for extended observations on a nation and this is similarly the case in Rebecca Wests work on Yugoslavia, Black Lamb and Grey Falcon. Sometimes a writer will settle into a locality for an extended period, examples of such writings include Lawrence Durrells Bitter Lemons, Deborah Talls The Island of the White Cow, and Peter Mayles best-selling A Year in Provence and its sequels. Travel and nature writing merge in many of the works by Sally Carrighar, Gerald Durrell and these authors are naturalists, who write in support of their fields of study. Another naturalist, Charles Darwin, wrote his famous account of the journey of HMS Beagle at the intersection of science, natural history, a number of writers famous in another field have written about their travel experiences. H. Lawrences Twilight in Italy and Other Essays, Mornings in Mexico and Other Essays, Rebecca Wests Black Lamb and Grey Falcon, in the world of sailing Joshua Slocums Sailing Alone Around the World is a classic of outdoor adventure literature
10.
Padma Lakshmi
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Padma Lakshmi is an Indian-born American author, actress, model, television host and executive producer. Her debut cookbook Easy Exotic won her the Best First Book award at the 1999 Gourmand World Cookbook Awards, in 2010, Top Chef won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Reality-Competition Program. Her debut memoir Love, Loss and What We Ate was released on International Womens Day, Padma Parvati Lakshmi Vaidynathan was born in Madras, India. Her father was a Pfizer executive, and her mother, Vijaya, is a nurse who specialized in oncology. Her parents divorced when she was two, and both later remarried. Lakshmi is her mothers child, but she has a younger paternal half-brother and half-sister. The latter formerly worked as an actress and classical dancer but is now pursuing a career working with children with special needs, in an interview in The Guardian, Lakshmi said, My father had quit his job as an executive at Pfizer to manage her career. That was kind of like rubbing salt in the wound, I didnt understand why he wanted that relationship with her, and not with me. Lakshmis mother moved to the United States to escape the stigma of divorce in India and she grew up shuttling between her grandparents in Chennai and her mother in New York. Her native tongue is Tamil, her parents being Tamil Brahmin Iyers, two days after her discharge from the hospital, she was in a car accident in Malibu, California, which left her with a fractured right hip and a shattered right upper arm. The injury to her arm required surgery, which left her with a 7-inch scar between her elbow and shoulder, as a teenager growing up in Los Angeles, Lakshmi was bullied and endured racial taunts from classmates, which caused her to struggle to overcome internalized self-loathing. Lakshmi graduated from Workman High School in the City of Industry and she is a 1992 graduate of Clark University, in Worcester, Massachusetts, where she received a BA with Honors, in Theatre Arts. During her time in school, she chose to study abroad in Madrid and she speaks English, Tamil, Hindi, Italian and Spanish. Lakshmis modeling career began at age 21 while studying abroad in Madrid, as she has stated, I was the first Indian model to have a career in Paris, Milan and New York. Im the first one to admit that I was a novelty, Lakshmi was able to pay off her college loans by working as a model and actress. She has modeled for top designers such as Emanuel Ungaro, Giorgio Armani, Gianni Versace, Ralph Lauren and she was a favorite model of the photographer Helmut Newton, whose photographs of her often highlighted the large scar on her right arm. After Newtons endorsement of Lakshmi, she was sought after by other major photographers and designers. Lakshmi has appeared on the covers of Redbook, Vogue India, FHM, Cosmopolitan, LOfficiel India, Asian Woman, Avenue, Industry Magazine, Marie Claire, Harpers Bazaar, Town & Country, Lakshmi also posed nude for the May 2009 issue of Allure magazine
11.
British Indian
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The term British Indian refers to citizens of the United Kingdom whose ancestral roots lie in India. This includes people born in the UK who are of Indian descent, today, Indians comprise about 1.4 million people in the UK, making them the single largest visible ethnic minority population in the country. They make up the largest subgroup of British Asians, and are one of the largest Indian communities in the Indian diaspora, mainly due to the Indian-British relations. The British Indian community is the sixth largest in the Indian diaspora, behind the Indian communities in the United States, Saudi Arabia, British Indians are socioeconomically affluent and are primarily members of the middle class. A study by the Joseph Rowntree Foundation in 2011 found British Indians have among the lowest poverty rates among all groups in Britain. Studies have shown that Indians are more likely to be employed in professional and managerial occupations, No one knows the earliest settlement of Indians in Great Britain for certain. If the Romani, often known by the exonym Gypsies, are regarded as South Asian, the Romanichal and Kale originated in what is now North India and Pakistan, and began migrating westward around 1000 C. E. mixing with Southwest Asians and continental Europeans over the centuries. Romani began arriving in numbers in Western Europe during the 16th century. People from India have settled in Great Britain since the East India Company recruited lascars to replace vacancies in their crews on East Indiamen whilst on voyages in India. Initially these were men from the Indo-Portuguese or Luso-Asian communities of the subcontinent, including men from Bombay, Goa, Cochin, Madras, later Muslim Bengalis and men from Ratnagiri were hired. Many were then refused passage back and had no alternative than to settle in London, there were also some ayahs, domestic servants and nannies of wealthy British families, who accompanied their employers back to Britain when their stay in South Asia came to an end. British soldiers would sometimes marry Indian women and send their mixed race children back to Britain. Indian wives of British soldiers would sometimes ask for passage home after being abandoned or widowed if they did accompany their children, in 1835, Bridget Peter a native of the Madras region lost her husband, a British soldier serving in His Majestys 1st Foot Regiment. She petitioned the Directors from Chelsea Hospital in a state of destitution and they paid to return her and her three children to India. The Navigation Act of 1660 restricted the employment of non-English sailors to a quarter of the crew on returning East India Company ships, in 1797,13 were buried in the parish of St Nicholas at Deptford. During the 19th century, the East India Company brought thousands of Indian lascars, scholars and workers to Britain largely to work on ships and it is estimated 8,000 Indians lived in Britain permanently prior to the 1950s. Due to the majority of early Asian immigrants being lascar seamen, naval cooks also came, many of them from the Sylhet Division of what is now Bangladesh. One of the most famous early Bengali immigrants to Britain was Sake Dean Mahomet, in 1810, he founded Londons first Indian restaurant, the Hindoostane Coffee House
12.
Midnight's Children
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Midnights Children is a 1981 novel by Salman Rushdie that deals with Indias transition from British colonialism to independence and the partition of British India. It is considered an example of literature and magical realism. The story is told by its chief protagonist, Saleem Sinai, but, his style of preserving the history with fictional accounts was Self-reflexive which he himself explained with a term Chutnification. The frequent Intertextuality between his story-line and Bollywood films also gives it a flavor of a Pastiche, therefore, this novel is also an example of Postmodern literature. Midnights Children won both the Booker Prize and the James Tait Black Memorial Prize in 1981 and it was awarded the Booker of Bookers Prize and the best all-time prize winners in 1993 and 2008 to celebrate the Booker Prize 25th and 40th anniversary. In 2003, the novel was listed on the BBCs survey The Big Read and it was also added to the list of Great Books of the 20th Century, published by Penguin Books. The novel has a multitude of named characters, see the List of Midnights Children characters, Midnights Children is a loose allegory for events in India both before and, primarily, after the independence and partition of India. The protagonist and narrator of the story is Saleem Sinai, born at the moment when India became an independent country. He was born with powers, as well as an enormous. The novel is divided into three books, the book begins with the story of the Sinai family, particularly with events leading up to Indias Independence and Partition. Saleem is born precisely at midnight,15 August 1947, therefore and he later discovers that all children born in India between 12 a. m. and 1 a. m. on that date are imbued with special powers. Saleem acts as a conduit, with a telepathic nose. In particular, those children born closest to the stroke of midnight wield more powerful gifts than the others, shiva of the Knees, Saleems nemesis, and Parvati, called Parvati-the-witch, are two of these children with notable gifts and roles in Saleems story. Meanwhile, Saleems family begin a number of migrations and endure the numerous wars which plague the subcontinent, during this period he also suffers amnesia until he enters a quasi-mythological exile in the jungle of Sundarban, where he is re-endowed with his memory. In doing so, he reconnects with his childhood friends, Saleem later becomes involved with the Indira Gandhi-proclaimed Emergency and her son Sanjays cleansing of the Jama Masjid slum. The technique of magical realism finds liberal expression throughout the novel and is crucial to constructing the parallel to the countrys history, the story moves in different parts of Indian Subcontinent – from Kashmir to Agra and then to Bombay, Lahore, Dhaka. This self-referential narrative recalls indigenous Indian culture, particularly the similarly orally recounted Arabian Nights, the events in Salman Rushdies text also parallel the magical nature of the narratives recounted in Arabian Nights. He also notes that, the narrative comprises and compresses Indian cultural history, once upon a time, Saleem muses, there were Radha and Krishna, and Rama and Sita, and Laila and Majnun, also Romeo and Juliet, and Spencer Tracy and Katharine Hepburn
13.
Booker Prize
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The Man Booker Prize for Fiction is a literary prize awarded each year for the best original novel, written in the English language and published in the UK. The winner of the Man Booker Prize is generally assured international renown and success, therefore, from its inception, only Commonwealth, Irish, and South African citizens were eligible to receive the prize, in 2014, however, this eligibility was widened to any English-language novel. A high-profile literary award in British culture, the Booker Prize is greeted with great anticipation and it is also a mark of distinction for authors to be selected for inclusion in the shortlist or even to be nominated for the longlist. The foundation is an independent registered charity funded by the profits of Booker Prize Trading Ltd. In 1970, Bernice Rubens became the first woman to win the Booker Prize, the rules of the Booker changed in 1971, previously, it had been awarded retrospectively to books published prior to the year in which the award was given. In 1971 the year of eligibility was changed to the same as the year of the award, in effect, this meant that books published in 1970 were not considered for the Booker in either year. The Booker Prize Foundation announced in January 2010 the creation of an award called the Lost Man Booker Prize. Alice Munro has a place in Booker Prize history, The Beggar Maid is the only short story collection to have been shortlisted. Before 2001, each years longlist of nominees was not publicly revealed, John Sutherland, who was a judge for the 1999 prize, has said, There is a well-established London literary community. Rushdie doesnt get shortlisted now because he has attacked that community and that is not a good game plan if you want to win the Booker. Norman Mailer has found the thing in the US – you have to be a citizen if you want to win prizes. The real scandal is that Amis has never won the prize, in fact, he has only been shortlisted once and that was for Times Arrow, which was not one of his strongest books. He pissed people off with Dead Babies and that lodged in the culture. There is also the feeling that he has looked towards America. In 1972, the winning writer John Berger, known for his Marxist worldview and he blamed Bookers 130 years of sugar production in the Caribbean for the regions modern poverty. Berger donated half of his £5,000 prize to the British Black Panther movement, because they had a socialist, in 1980, Anthony Burgess, writer of Earthly Powers, refused to attend the ceremony unless it was confirmed to him in advance whether he had won. His was one of two books considered likely to win, the other being Rites of Passage by William Golding, the judges decided only 30 minutes before the ceremony, giving the prize to Golding. Both novels had been seen as favourites to win leading up to the prize, 1983s judging produced a draw between J. M. Coetzees Life & Times of Michael K and Salman Rushdies Shame, leaving chair of judges Fay Weldon to choose between the two
14.
Indian subcontinent
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Geologically, the Indian subcontinent is related to the land mass that rifted from Gondwana and merged with the Eurasian plate nearly 55 million years ago. Geographically, it is the region in south-central Asia delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west. Politically, the Indian subcontinent usually includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, sometimes, the term South Asia is used interchangeably with Indian subcontinent. There is no consensus about which countries should be included in each and it is first attested in 1845 to refer to the North and South Americas, before they were regarded as separate continents. Its use to refer to the Indian subcontinent is seen from the twentieth century. It was especially convenient for referring to the region comprising both the British India and the states under British Paramountcy. The term Indian subcontinent also has a geological significance and it was, like the various continents, a part of the supercontinent of Gondwana. A series of tectonic splits caused formation of basins, each drifting in various directions. The geological region called the Greater India once included the Madagascar, Seychelles, Antartica, as a geological term, Indian subcontinent has meant that region formed from the collision of the Indian basin with Eurasia nearly 55 million years ago, towards the end of Paleocene. The Indian subcontinent has been a particularly common in the British Empire. The region, state Mittal and Thursby, has also labelled as India, Greater India. The BBC and some sources refer to the region as the Asian Subcontinent. Some academics refer to it as South Asian Subcontinent, the terms Indian subcontinent and South Asia are sometimes used interchangeably. There is no accepted definition on which countries are a part of South Asia or Indian subcontinent. In dictionary entries, the term subcontinent signifies a large, distinguishable subdivision of a continent, the region experienced high volcanic activity and plate subdivisions, creating Madagascar, Seychelles, Antartica, Austrolasia and the Indian subcontinent basin. The Indian subcontinent drifted northeastwards, colliding with the Eurasian plate nearly 55 million years ago and this geological region largely includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The zone where the Eurasian and Indian subcontinent plates meet remains one of the active areas. The English term mainly continues to refer to the Indian subcontinent, physiographically, it is a peninsular region in south-central Asia delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west, and the Arakanese in the east
15.
Eastern world
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The term originally had a literal geographic meaning. It contrasted Asia with the cultures and civilizations of Western Europe, traditionally, This includes Central Asia, the Far East, the Middle East or Western Asia, Siberia, and the Indian subcontinent. Most of the people of Asia prefer to identify with their individual nations rather than with their continent, region, or each other and these attitudes can be found throughout the continent. The division between East and West is a product of European cultural history, and of the distinction between European Christendom and the cultures beyond it to the East, with the European colonization of the Americas the East/West distinction became global. The concept of an Eastern, Indian or Oriental sphere was emphasized by ideas of racial as well as religious, such distinctions were articulated by Westerners in the scholarly tradition known as Orientalism and Indology. An intriguing fact to be noted is that Orientalism has been the only Western concept that was about a unified Eastern world and not about any specific region, but rather all of Asia together. People from the Eastern world are known by certain regions in the West as Oriental, while in others, the concept is often another term for the Far East – a region that bears considerable cultural and religious commonality. Eastern philosophy, art, literature, and other traditions, are found throughout the region in places of high importance, such as popular culture, architecture. The spread of Buddhism and Hindu Yoga is partly responsible for this, Eastern culture has developed many themes and traditions. Islam — the majority of the world Muslim population have lived in Asia. Judaism — an ethnic culture and religion originating with the Ancient Israelites/Hebrews in the Fertile Crescent, or what is now Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Syria and they eventually evolved into the Ashkenazi, Sephardic, and Mizrahi Jews of the diaspora. Zoroastrianism — the monotheistic religion of Sassanid Persia. Hinduism Jainism Sikhism — a religion that developed in the plains of Punjab in an atmosphere of ideological clash between Islam and Hinduism. Its followers retain spiritual as well as martial qualities, vol.1, Coexisting contemporary civilizations, Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western
16.
Western culture
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The term also applies beyond Europe, to countries and cultures whose histories are strongly connected to Europe by immigration, colonization, or influence. For example, Western Culture includes countries in the Americas and Australasia, whose language, before the Cold War era, the traditional Western viewpoint identified Western Civilization with the Western Christian countries and culture. Ancient Greece is considered the birthplace of Western culture, with the worlds first democratic system of government and major advances in philosophy, science, Greece was followed by Rome, which made key contributions in law, government, engineering and political organization. European culture developed with a range of philosophy, medieval scholasticism, and mysticism. Rational thinking developed through an age of change and formation, with the experiments of the Enlightenment. More often an ideology is what will be used to categorize it as a Western society. There is some disagreement about what nations should or should not be included in the category, many parts of the Eastern Roman Empire are considered Western today but were Eastern in the past. Since the context is highly biased and context-dependent, there is no agreed definition what the West is and it is difficult to determine which individuals fit into which category and the East–West contrast is sometimes criticized as relativistic and arbitrary. Globalism has spread Western ideas so widely that almost all cultures are, to some extent. Stereotyped views of the West have been labeled Occidentalism, paralleling Orientalism—the term for the 19th-century stereotyped views of the East, as Europe discovered the wider world, old concepts adapted. The area that had formerly considered the Orient became the Near East, as the interests of the European powers interfered with Meiji Japan and Qing China for the first time. Thus, the Sino-Japanese War in 1894–1895 occurred in the Far East, the Greeks contrasted themselves to their Eastern neighbors, such as the Trojans in Iliad, setting an example for later contrasts between east and west. In the Middle Ages, the Near East provided a contrast to the West, concepts of what is the West arose out of legacies of the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire. Later, ideas of the west were formed by the concepts of Latin Christendom, Western culture is neither homogeneous nor unchanging. As with all cultures, it has evolved and gradually changed over time. Nevertheless, it is possible to follow the evolution and history of the West, and appreciate its similarities and differences, its borrowings from, and contributions to, other cultures of humanity. Nevertheless, the Greeks felt they were the most civilized and saw themselves as something between the wild barbarians of most of Europe and the soft, slavish Middle-Easterners. In the meantime, however, Greece, under Alexander, had become a capital of the East, the Celts also created some significant literature in the ancient world whenever they were given the opportunity
17.
The Satanic Verses
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The Satanic Verses is Salman Rushdies fourth novel, first published in 1988 and inspired in part by the life of Muhammad. As with his previous books, Rushdie used magical realism and relied on contemporary events, the title refers to the satanic verses, a group of Quranic verses that allow intercessory prayers to be made to three Pagan Meccan goddesses, Allāt, Uzza, and Manāt. The part of the story deals with the satanic verses was based on accounts from the historians al-Waqidi. In the United Kingdom, The Satanic Verses received positive reviews, was a 1988 Booker Prize finalist, however, major controversy ensued as Muslims accused it of blasphemy and mocking their faith. The outrage among Muslims resulted in a calling for Rushdies death issued by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, then Supreme Leader of Iran. The result was several failed attempts on Rushdie, who was placed under police protection. The Satanic Verses consists of a narrative, using elements of magical realism. The frame narrative, like many stories by Rushdie, involves Indian expatriates in contemporary England. The two protagonists, Gibreel Farishta and Saladin Chamcha, are both actors of Indian Muslim background, Farishta is a Bollywood superstar who specialises in playing Hindu deities. Chamcha is an emigrant who has broken with his Indian identity, at the beginning of the novel, both are trapped in a hijacked plane flying from India to Britain. The plane explodes over the English Channel, but the two are magically saved, in a miraculous transformation, Farishta takes on the personality of the archangel Gabriel and Chamcha that of a devil. Chamcha is arrested and passes through an ordeal of police abuse as an illegal immigrant. Farishtas transformation can partly be read on a level as the symptom of the protagonists developing schizophrenia. Both characters struggle to piece their lives back together, Farishta seeks and finds his lost love, the English mountaineer Allie Cone, but their relationship is overshadowed by his mental illness. Chamcha, having regained his human shape, wants to take revenge on Farishta for having forsaken him after their common fall from the hijacked plane. He does so by fostering Farishtas pathological jealousy and thus destroying his relationship with Allie, in another moment of crisis, Farishta realises what Chamcha has done, but forgives him and even saves his life. Farishta kills Allie in another outbreak of jealousy and then commits suicide, Chamcha, who has found not only forgiveness from Farishta but also reconciliation with his estranged father and his own Indian identity, decides to remain in India. Embedded in this story is a series of half-magic dream vision narratives and they are linked together by many thematic details as well as by the common motifs of divine revelation, religious faith and fanaticism, and doubt
18.
The Satanic Verses controversy
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Many Muslims accused Rushdie of blasphemy or unbelief and in 1989 the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini of Iran issued a fatwa ordering Muslims to kill Rushdie. Numerous killings, attempted killings, and bombings resulted from angry Muslims over the novel, the Iranian government backed the fatwa against Rushdie until 1998, when the succeeding government of Iranian President Mohammad Khatami said it no longer supported the killing of Rushdie. However, the remains in place. English writer Hanif Kureishi called the one of the most significant events in postwar literary history. Even before the publication of The Satanic Verses, the books of Salman Rushdie had stoked controversy, Rushdie himself saw his role as a writer as including the function of antagonist to the state. His second book Midnights Children angered Indira Gandhi because it seemed to suggest that Mrs. Gandhi was responsible for the death of her husband through neglect and his 1983 roman à clef Shame took an aim on Pakistan, its political characters, its culture and its religion. A central episode in Pakistans internal life, which portrays as a squabble between Iskander Harappa and his successor and executioner Raza Hyder. The Virgin Ironpants. has been identified as Benazir Bhutto, a Prime Minister of Pakistan, positions Rushdie took as a committed leftist prior to the publication of his book were the source of some controversy. He defended many of those who would attack him during the controversy. Rushdie forcefully denounced the Shahs government and supported the Islamic Revolution of Iran and he condemned the US bombing raid on Tripoli in 1986 but found himself threatened by Libyas leader Muammar al-Gaddafi three years later. He wrote a bitterly critical of US foreign policy in general and its war in Nicaragua in particular, for example calling the United States government. After the Ayatollahs fatwa however, he was accused by Iranian government of being an inferior CIA agent, ehement protest against Rushdies book began with the title itself. These Satanic Verses are found in verses eighteen to twenty-two in suraht An-Najim of the Quran, and by accounts from Tabari, the verses also appear in other accounts of the prophets life. They permitted prayer to three pre-Islamic Meccan goddesses, Al-lāt, Uzza, and Manāt—a violation of monotheism, the utterance and withdrawal of the so-called Satanic Verses forms an important sub-plot in the novel, which recounts several episodes in the life of Muhammad. Moreover, the brothel of the city of Jahilia was staffed by prostitutes with the names as Muhammads wives. He saw, sitting on the bed, a man of about the age as himself, balding, wearing glasses. The Guardian newspaper published on 14 September 2012 a series of recollections of various British people involved in the controversy, Lisa Appagnesi, ex-president of English PEN, observed Intransigence is never so great as when it feels it has a god on its side. Before the publication of The Satanic Verses, the publisher received warnings from the publishers editorial consultant that the book might be controversial, later, Rushdie would reflect upon the time that the book was about to be published
19.
Ayatollah
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Ayatollah is a high-ranking title given to Usuli Twelver Shī‘ah clerics. Those who carry the title are experts in Islamic studies such as jurisprudence, quran reading, the next lower clerical rank is Hujjat al-Islam. The name ayatollah originates from a passage in the Quran which the Shia, unlike the Sunni, passage 51, 20–21 of the Quran states, On the earth are signs for those of assured Faith, As also in your own selves, Will ye not then see. The term was not commonly used a title until the twentieth century. The title of Ayatollah became popularized with the creation of Qom Seminary in 1922 and this was a political response on behalf of the Ayatollah against the monopoly on the tobacco industry. The title is granted to top Shia mujtahid, after completing sath. By then the mujtahid would be able to issue his own edicts from the sources of Islamic religious laws, the Quran, the Sunnah, ijmāʻ, most of the time this is attested by an issued certificate from his teachers. The ayatollah can then teach in hawzas according to his speciality, can act as a reference for their religious questions, there are a few women who are equal in ranking to the ayatollahs, and are known as Lady Mujtahideh. The most outstanding in recent history was Nosrat Amin, also known as Banu Isfahani, current examples of the Lady Mujtahidehs are Zohreh Sefati and Lady Ayatollah Aatieh Hassani, also known as Imamah Al-Hassani, daughter of Grand Ayatollah Gholamreza Hassani. Historically, there have been several Mujtahidehs in Shiism, most famously the women in the family of Allama Hilli, only a few of the most important ayatollahs are accorded the rank of Grand Ayatollah. The book is called Resalah, which is usually a reinvention of the book Al-Urwatu l-Wuthqah, according to their knowledge of the most authentic Islamic sources, there are 64 living Maraji worldwide as of 2014, mainly based in Najaf and Qom. List of Ayatollahs List of Grand Ayatollahs Allamah Clericalism in Iran Hojatoleslam Mullah Al-Shia Towards an Understanding of the Shiite Authoritative Sources
20.
Ruhollah Khomeini
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Sayyid Ruhollah Mūsavi Khomeini, known in the Western world as Ayatollah Khomeini, was an Iranian Shia Muslim religious leader, philosopher, revolutionary and politician. He was the founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran and the leader of the 1979 Iranian Revolution that saw the overthrow of the Pahlavi monarchy and Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and he was succeeded by Ali Khamenei on 4 June,1989. Khomeini was a marja in Twelver Shia Islam, a Mujtahid or faqih and author of more than 40 books and he spent more than 15 years in exile for his opposition to the last Shah. In his writings and preachings he expanded the theory of velayat-e faqih and this principle, was appended to the new Iranian constitution after being put to a referendum. According to New York Times, Khomeini called democracy the equivalent of prostitution, whether Khomeinis ideas are compatible with democracy and whether he intended the Islamic Republic to be democratic is disputed. He was named Man of the Year in 1979 by American news magazine TIME for his international influence, in 1982, Khomeini survived one military coup attempt. Khomeini held the title of Grand Ayatollah and is known as Imam Khomeini inside Iran. He is generally referred to as Ayatollah Khomeini by others, in Iran, his gold-domed tomb in Tehrāns Behesht-e Zahrāʾ cemetery has become a shrine for his supporters, and he is legally considered inviolable, with Iranians regularly punished for insulting him. During their rule they extensively invited, and received, a stream of Persian scholars, poets, jurists, architects. The family eventually settled in the town of Kintoor, just outside Lucknow. Ayatollah Khomeinis paternal grandfather, Seyyed Ahmad Musavi Hindi, was born in Kintoor and he left Lucknow in 1830, on a pilgrimage to the tomb of Imam Ali in Najaf, Ottoman Iraq and never returned. According to Moin, this migration was to escape from the spread of British power in India, in 1834 Seyyed Ahmad Musavi Hindi visited Persia, and in 1839 he settled in Khomein. Although he stayed and settled in Iran, he continued to be known as Hindi, indicating his stay in India, there are also claims that Seyyed Ahmad Musavi Hindi departed from Kashmir, instead of Lucknow. Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini, whose name means spirit of God, was born on 22 or 24 September 1902 in Khomeyn, Markazi Province. He was raised by his mother, Hajieh Agha Khanum, and his aunt, Sahebeth, following the murder of his father, Seyed Mostafa Hindi, Ruhollah began to study the Quran and elementary Persian at the age of six. The following year, he began to attend a school, where he learned religion, noheh khani. Throughout his childhood, he continued his religious education with the assistance of his relatives, including his mothers cousin, Jafar, after World War I arrangements were made for him to study at the Islamic seminary in Esfahan, but he was attracted instead to the seminary in Arak. He was placed under the leadership of Ayatollah Abdul Karim Haeri Yazdi, in 1920, Khomeini moved to Arak and commenced his studies
21.
Supreme Leader of Iran
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The armed forces, judicial system, state television, and other key governmental organizations are under the control of the Supreme Leader of Iran. Khamenei also makes the decisions on the amount of transparency in elections in Iran. This post was established by the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran in accordance with the concept of the Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist. The title Supreme Leader is often used as a sign of respect, however, this terminology is not found in the Constitution, which simply referred to the Leader. The Supreme Leader is more powerful than the President of Iran and appoints the heads of many posts in the military, the civil government. Originally Irans constitution stated that the Supreme Leader must be a Marja-e taqlid, however, in 1989, the constitution was amended to require simply Islamic scholarship of the leader, i. e. the leader could be a lower ranking cleric. In theory, the Supreme Leader is appointed and supervised by the Assembly of Experts, all candidates to the Assembly of Experts, the President and the Majlis, are selected by the Guardian Council, whose members are selected by the Supreme Leader of Iran. As such, the Assembly has never questioned the Supreme Leader, there have been instances when the current Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei has publicly criticized members of the Assembly of Experts, resulting in their arrest and dismissal. For example, Khamenei publicly called then-member of the Assembly of Experts Ahmad Azari Qomi a traitor, resulting in Ahmad Azari Qomis arrest, there has also been instances where the Guardian Council reversed its ban for particular people after being ordered to do so by Khamenei. The Supreme Leader is the commander-in-chief of the forces and the provisional Head of the three branches of the state. He appoints and oversees the offices, the President and may also together with a two third majority of the Parliament impeach him. The Chief Justice for a term of 8 years, the members of the Expediency Discernment Council for a term of 5 years,6 of the 12 Members of the Guardian Council from among the members of the Council of Experts the other 6 are chosen by the Parliament. In March 1979, shortly after Ruhollah Khomeini’s return from exile and the overthrow of Irans monarchy, although some groups objected to the wording and choice and boycotted the referendum, 98% of those voting voted yes. The new constitution has been called a hybrid of theocratic and democratic elements with much of it based on the ideas Khomeini presented in his work Islamic Government, Governance of the Jurist. In it Khomeini argued that government must be run in accordance with traditional Islamic sharia, and for this to happen a leading Islamic jurist must provide political guardianship over the people. The leading jurist were known as Marja. ” and the importance of the Supreme Leader. ”Article 107 in the constitution mentions Imam Khomeini by name and praises him as the most learned and talented leader for emulation. The responsibilities of the Supreme Leader are vaguely stated in the constitution, as the rest of the clergy governed affairs on a daily basis, the Supreme Leader is capable of mandating a new decision as per the concept of Vilayat-e Faqih. Shortly before Imam Khomeinis death a change was made in the constitution allowing a lower ranking Shia cleric to become Supreme Leader, montazeri was demoted as a marja and Khomeini chose a new successor, a relatively low-ranking member of the clergy, Ali Khamenei
22.
Royal Society of Literature
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The Royal Society of Literature is a learned society. It was founded in 1820 by King George IV to reward literary merit, the societys first president was Thomas Burgess, Bishop of St Davids. Past fellows include Samuel Taylor Coleridge, J. R. R. Tolkien, yeats, Rudyard Kipling, Thomas Hardy, George Bernard Shaw, Arthur Koestler, Chinua Achebe, Robert Ardrey, and P. J. Kavanagh. Present Fellows include Margaret Atwood, David Hare, Kazuo Ishiguro, Hilary Mantel, Paul Muldoon, Zadie Smith, Nadeem Aslam, Sarah Waters and J. K. Rowling. A newly created fellow inscribes his or her name on the official roll using either Byrons pen or T. S. Eliots fountain pen. S. Pritchett Memorial Prize for short stories, from time to time it confers the honour and title of Companion of Literature to writers of particular note. Additionally the RSL can bestow its award of the Benson Medal for lifetime service in the field of literature, the RSL runs a membership scheme and offers a varied programme of events to members and the general public. The RSL also runs an outreach programme in collaboration with the literacy charity First Story. The society is a tenant at Londons Somerset House. The RSL administers two annual prizes, two awards, and two honours, through its prize programmes, the RSL supports new and established contemporary writers. The RSL Brookleaze Grants – a total of £5,000 is awarded annually to novelists, playwrights, poets or short story writers who need time away from their lives to write. The RSL Encore Awards - £10,000 for best second novel of the year, the RSL took over the administration of this award in 2016. The RSL Jerwood Awards for Non-Fiction – three annual awards, one of £10,000 and two of £5,000, to authors engaged on their first commissioned works of non-fiction. The RSL Ondaatje Prize – an annual award of £10,000 for a work of fiction, non-fiction or poetry. Pritchett Memorial Prize – an annual prize of £1,000 for the best unpublished short story of the year, the Benson Medal – awarded to those who have done sustained and outstanding service to literature. Companion of Literature – the highest honour that the Society can bestow upon a writer, the Council of the Royal Society of Literature is central to the election of new fellows, and directs the RSLs activities through its monthly meetings. They include most of the best novelists, short-story writers, poets, playwrights, biographers, historians, travel writers, literary critics, new fellows of the Royal Society of Literature are elected by its current fellows. To be nominated for fellowship, a writer must have published two works of merit, and nominations must be seconded by an RSL fellow
23.
Ordre des Arts et des Lettres
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Its purpose is the recognition of significant contributions to the arts, literature, or the propagation of these fields. Its origin is attributed to the Order of Saint-Michel as acknowledged by French government sources, membership is not, however, limited to French nationals, recipients include numerous foreign luminaries. Foreign recipients are admitted into the Order, without condition of age, the Order has three grades, Commandeur — medallion worn on necklet, up to twenty recipients a year. Officier — medallion worn on ribbon with rosette on left breast, chevalier — medallion worn on ribbon on left breast, up to 200 recipients a year. The reverse central disc features the head of Marianne on a golden background, the Commanders badge is topped by a gilt twisted ring. The ribbon of the Order is green with four white stripes, however, in the statutes there is a clause saying Les Officiers et les Commandeurs de la Légion dhonneur peuvent être directement promus à un grade équivalent dans lOrdre des Arts et des Lettres. Ribbons of the French military and civil awards Ordre des arts et des lettres du Québec, a Quebec order based in part on the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres Nominations dans lOrdre des Arts et Lettres
24.
Elizabeth II
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Elizabeth II has been Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand since 6 February 1952. Elizabeth was born in London as the eldest child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth and her father acceded to the throne on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII in 1936, from which time she was the heir presumptive. She began to undertake duties during the Second World War. Elizabeths many historic visits and meetings include a visit to the Republic of Ireland. She has seen major changes, such as devolution in the United Kingdom, Canadian patriation. She has reigned through various wars and conflicts involving many of her realms and she is the worlds oldest reigning monarch as well as Britains longest-lived. In October 2016, she became the longest currently reigning monarch, in 2017 she became the first British monarch to commemorate a Sapphire Jubilee. Elizabeth has occasionally faced republican sentiments and press criticism of the family, however, support for the monarchy remains high. Elizabeth was born at 02,40 on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather and her father, Prince Albert, Duke of York, was the second son of the King. Her mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York, was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and she was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfathers London house,17 Bruton Street, Mayfair. Elizabeths only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930, the two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford, who was casually known as Crawfie. Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music, Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margarets childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family. The book describes Elizabeths love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, others echoed such observations, Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant and her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved. During her grandfathers reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, many people believed that he would marry and have children of his own. When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis. Consequently, Elizabeths father became king, and she became heir presumptive, if her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession
25.
Knighthood of Salman Rushdie
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In mid-June 2007 Salman Rushdie, the British Indian novelist and author of the controversial novel The Satanic Verses, was created a Knight Bachelor by Queen Elizabeth II. This action brought much controversy around the world in countries with Muslim majority populations. Soon after the news of the knighthood was released protests against the honour were held in Malaysia, on 19 June 2007, governments in both Pakistan and Iran summoned their British ambassadors to officially protest against the award. While many groups and individuals have renewed the call to execute Rushdie and it is understood he is anxious not to inflame the situation. When asked by the Associated Press if his silence was at the request of the British government, I have simply chosen to remain out of this storm for the moment. And nobody is turning anything down, the media noted in July 2007 that Rushdie has not been seen in public since the 16 June announcement of his knighthood. However, he was photographed receiving his knighthood formally the next year at a ceremony which, breaking with tradition, Rushdie was awarded a knighthood for services to literature in the Queens Birthday Honours on 16 June 2007. He remarked, I am thrilled and humbled to receive this great honour and his knighthood was part of the UKs twice a year honours ritual designed to recognise outstanding achievement – is part of an ancient and complex honours system. Rushdies award was concurrent with 946 honours which included 21 knighthoods, the knighthood list was determined by independent committees that vet nominations from the government and the public. The Queen and the Prime Minister only had a role in approving them. The arts and media committee proposed Rushdies honour to the committee who then forwarded it with others to the prime minister. The arts and media committee was chaired by investment banker and former chairman of the trustees of the National Gallery, Lord Rothschild. Smith told reporters that the question of political outrage was not one they were authorised to examine, Very properly, all other aspects were for the main committee to examine. The British Foreign Office which has a permanent secretary on the committee announced that there had been no requests to gauge possible Muslim reaction to the knighthood. PEN International had been a constant supporter of Rushdie being honoured and it seems a shame that a few lines in his fourth novel should have turned him into this hate figure. He has become a Guy Fawkes figure to be thrown on a bonfire whenever it suits a government to divert attention from what is happening in their own countries, thats our way and thats what we stand by. Speaking about the reaction to The Satanic Verses Reid insisted that such works was not a plot targeting Islam. Others had been offended by Mel Gibsons 2004 film, The Passion of the Christ, have a right to express opinions and a tolerance of other peoples point of view, and we dont apologise for that
26.
The Times
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The Times is a British daily national newspaper based in London, England. It began in 1785 under the title The Daily Universal Register, the Times and its sister paper The Sunday Times are published by Times Newspapers, since 1981 a subsidiary of News UK, itself wholly owned by News Corp. The Times and The Sunday Times do not share editorial staff, were founded independently and have only had common ownership since 1967 and its news and its editorial comment have in general been carefully coordinated, and have at most times been handled with an earnest sense of responsibility. While the paper has admitted some trivia to its columns, its emphasis has been on important public affairs treated with an eye to the best interests of Britain. To guide this treatment, the editors have for long periods been in touch with 10 Downing Street. In these countries, the newspaper is often referred to as The London Times or The Times of London, although the newspaper is of national scope, in November 2006 The Times began printing headlines in a new font, Times Modern. The Times was printed in broadsheet format for 219 years, the Sunday Times remains a broadsheet. The Times had a daily circulation of 446,164 in December 2016, in the same period. An American edition of The Times has been published since 6 June 2006 and it has been heavily used by scholars and researchers because of its widespread availability in libraries and its detailed index. A complete historical file of the paper, up to 2010, is online from Gale Cengage Learning. The Times was founded by publisher John Walter on 1 January 1785 as The Daily Universal Register, Walter had lost his job by the end of 1784 after the insurance company where he was working went bankrupt because of the complaints of a Jamaican hurricane. Being unemployed, Walter decided to set a new business up and it was in that time when Henry Johnson invented the logography, a new typography that was faster and more precise. Walter bought the patent and to use it, he decided to open a printing house. The first publication of the newspaper The Daily Universal Register in Great Britain was 1 January 1785, unhappy because people always omitted the word Universal, Ellias changed the title after 940 editions on 1 January 1788 to The Times. In 1803, Walter handed ownership and editorship to his son of the same name, the Times used contributions from significant figures in the fields of politics, science, literature, and the arts to build its reputation. For much of its life, the profits of The Times were very large. Beginning in 1814, the paper was printed on the new steam-driven cylinder press developed by Friedrich Koenig, in 1815, The Times had a circulation of 5,000. Thomas Barnes was appointed editor in 1817
27.
New York University
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New York University is a private nonprofit research university based in New York City. Founded in 1831, NYU is considered one of the worlds most influential research universities, University rankings compiled by Times Higher Education, U. S. News & World Report, and the Academic Ranking of World Universities all rank NYU amongst the top 32 universities in the world. NYU is a part of the creativity, energy and vibrancy that is Manhattan, located with its core in Greenwich Village. Among its faculty and alumni are 37 Nobel Laureates, over 30 Pulitzer Prize winners, over 30 Academy Award winners, alumni include heads of state, royalty, eminent mathematicians, inventors, media figures, Olympic medalists, CEOs of Fortune 500 companies, and astronauts. NYU alumni are among the wealthiest in the world, according to The Princeton Review, NYU is consistently considered by students and parents as a Top Dream College. Albert Gallatin, Secretary of Treasury under Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, declared his intention to establish in this immense, a system of rational and practical education fitting and graciously opened to all. A three-day-long literary and scientific convention held in City Hall in 1830 and these New Yorkers believed the city needed a university designed for young men who would be admitted based upon merit rather than birthright or social class. On April 18,1831, an institution was established, with the support of a group of prominent New York City residents from the merchants, bankers. Albert Gallatin was elected as the institutions first president, the university has been popularly known as New York University since its inception and was officially renamed New York University in 1896. In 1832, NYU held its first classes in rented rooms of four-story Clinton Hall, in 1835, the School of Law, NYUs first professional school, was established. American Chemical Society was founded in 1876 at NYU and it became one of the nations largest universities, with an enrollment of 9,300 in 1917. NYU had its Washington Square campus since its founding, the university purchased a campus at University Heights in the Bronx because of overcrowding on the old campus. NYU also had a desire to follow New York Citys development further uptown, NYUs move to the Bronx occurred in 1894, spearheaded by the efforts of Chancellor Henry Mitchell MacCracken. The University Heights campus was far more spacious than its predecessor was, as a result, most of the universitys operations along with the undergraduate College of Arts and Science and School of Engineering were housed there. NYUs administrative operations were moved to the new campus, but the schools of the university remained at Washington Square. In 1914, Washington Square College was founded as the undergraduate college of NYU. In 1935, NYU opened the Nassau College-Hofstra Memorial of New York University at Hempstead and this extension would later become a fully independent Hofstra University. In 1950, NYU was elected to the Association of American Universities, in the late 1960s and early 1970s, financial crisis gripped the New York City government and the troubles spread to the citys institutions, including NYU
28.
Emory University
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Emory University is a private research university in metropolitan Atlanta, located in the Druid Hills section of DeKalb County, Georgia, United States. The university was founded as Emory College in 1836 in Oxford, in 1915, the college relocated to metropolitan Atlanta and was rechartered as Emory University. The university is the second-oldest private institution of education in Georgia. Emory University, the Georgia Institute of Technology, and Peking University in Beijing, the university operates the Confucius Institute in Atlanta in partnership with Nanjing University. Emory has a faculty research partnership with the Korea Advanced Institute of Science. Emory University students come from all 50 states,6 territories of the United States, the university operates the Winship Cancer Institute, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, and many disease and vaccine research centers. Emory University is the coordinator of both the NIAIDs Malaria Host-Pathogen Interaction Center and the U. S. Health Departments National Ebola Training and Education Center, the university is one of four institutions involved in the NIAIDs Tuberculosis Research Units Program. The university is partnered with the Carter Center, the National Science Foundation ranked the university 36th among academic institutions in the United States for research and development expenditures. Emory University research is funded primarily by government agencies, namely the National Institutes of Health. In 1995 Emory University was elected to the Association of American Universities, Emory College was founded in 1836 in Oxford, Georgia by the Methodist Episcopal Church. The college was named in honor of the departed Methodist bishop John Emory, ignatius Alphonso Few was the colleges first president. In 1854, the Atlanta Medical College, a forerunner of Emory University School of Medicine, was founded, on April 12,1861, the American Civil War began. Emory College was closed in November 1861 and all of its students enlisted on the Confederate side, in late 1863 the war came to Georgia and the college was used as hospital and later a headquarters for the Union Army. The university produced many officers who served in the war, including General George Thomas Anderson who fought in every major battle in the eastern theater. Thirty five Emory students lost their lives and much of the campus was destroyed during the war, Emory College, as with the entire Southeastern United States, struggled to overcome financial devastation during the Reconstruction Era. In 1880, Atticus Greene Haygood, Emory College President, delivered a speech expressing gratitude for the end of slavery in the United States, which captured the attention of George I. Seney gave Emory College $5,000 to repay its debts, $50,000 for construction, in the 1880s, the technology department was launched by Isaac Stiles Hopkins, a polymath professor at Emory College
29.
American Academy of Arts and Letters
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The American Academy of Arts and Letters is a 250-member honor society, its goal is to foster, assist, and sustain excellence in American literature, music, and art. The Academys galleries are open to the public on a published schedule, opened in 2014, a permanent exhibit is the recreated studio of composer Charles Ives. The auditorium is sought out by musicians wishing to live because the acoustics are considered among the worlds finest. The Academy was created in 1904 by the membership of the National Institute of Arts, the first seven academicians were elected from ballots cast by the entire membership. In 1908 poet Julia Ward Howe was elected, and thus became the first female academician, in 1976 the two groups combined under the name American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters. In 1992 members adopted the current organizational title, the oldest organization associated with the group was founded in 1865 at Boston. The American Social Science Association produced the National Institute of Arts, the qualification for membership in this body was to have made notable achievements in art, music, or literature. The membership was at first limited to 150, in 1904 the membership was increased by the Institutes introducing a two-tiered structure,50 elite members and 200 regular members. The people in the group were gradually elected over the next several years. The larger group was called the Institute, while the group was called the Academy. The strict two-tiered system persisted for 72 years, in 1976 members created an organization called the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters. The combined Academy/Institute structure had a maximum of 250 living United States citizens as members, plus up to 75 foreign composers, artists and it also established the annual Witter Bynner Poetry Prize in 1980 to support the work of a young poet. The two-tiered system persisted until 1993, when it was completely abandoned, the Academy holds a Congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code, which means that it is one of the comparatively rare Title 36 corporations in the United States. The 1916 statute of incorporation established this institution amongst a number of other patriotic. The federal incorporation was originally construed primarily as an honor, the special recognition neither implies nor accords Congress any special control over the Academy, which remains free to function independently. Active sponsors of Congressional action were Senator Henry Cabot Lodge of Massachusetts, the process which led to the creation of this federal charter was accompanied by controversy, and the first attempt to gain the charter in 1910 failed. Sen. Lodge re-introduced legislation which passed the Senate in 1913, the Academy was incorporated under the laws of the State of New York in 1914, which factors in decision-making which resulted in Congressional approval in 1916. The Academy occupies three buildings on the west end of the Audubon Terrace complex created by Archer M. Huntington, the heir to the Southern Pacific Railroad fortune and a noted philanthropist
30.
Joseph Anton: A Memoir
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Joseph Anton, A Memoir is an autobiographical book by the British Indian writer, Salman Rushdie. It was published in September 2012 by Random House and he chose the name to honor the writers Joseph Conrad and Anton Chekhov. Rushdie was annoyed when police officers called him by the casual nickname. The memoir is an account of his life under the ongoing fatwa, the memoir is unusual in the sense that Rushdie writes about his life as Joseph Anton in the third person rather than the first person. The book was announced as one of the 14 titles in the longlist for the 2012 Samuel Johnson Prize on 18 September 2012
31.
Muslim
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A Muslim is someone who follows or practices Islam, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion. Muslims consider the Quran, their book, to be the verbatim word of God as revealed to the Islamic prophet. They also follow the teachings and practices of Muhammad as recorded in traditional accounts, Muslim is an Arabic word meaning one who submits. Most Muslims will accept anyone who has publicly pronounced Shahadah as a Muslim, the shahadah states, There is no god but the God and Muhammad is the last messenger of the God. The testimony authorized by God in the Quran that can found in Surah 3,18 states, There is no god except God, which in Arabic, is the exact testimony which God Himself utters, as well as the angels and those who possess knowledge utter. The word muslim is the active participle of the verb of which islām is a verbal noun, based on the triliteral S-L-M to be whole. A female adherent is a muslima, the plural form in Arabic is muslimūn or muslimīn, and its feminine equivalent is muslimāt. The Arabic form muslimun is the stem IV participle of the triliteral S-L-M, the ordinary word in English is Muslim. It is sometimes transliterated as Moslem, which is an older spelling, the word Mosalman is a common equivalent for Muslim used in Central Asia. Until at least the mid-1960s, many English-language writers used the term Mohammedans or Mahometans, although such terms were not necessarily intended to be pejorative, Muslims argue that the terms are offensive because they allegedly imply that Muslims worship Muhammad rather than God. Other obsolete terms include Muslimite and Muslimist, musulmán/Mosalmán is a synonym for Muslim and is modified from Arabic. In English it was sometimes spelled Mussulman and has become archaic in usage, the Muslim philosopher Ibn Arabi said, A Muslim is a person who has dedicated his worship exclusively to God. Islam means making ones religion and faith Gods alone. The Quran states that men were Muslims because they submitted to God, preached His message and upheld His values. Thus, in Surah 3,52 of the Quran, Jesus disciples tell him, We believe in God, and you be our witness that we are Muslims. In Muslim belief, before the Quran, God had given the Tawrat to Moses, the Zabur to David and the Injil to Jesus, who are all considered important Muslim prophets. The most populous Muslim-majority country is Indonesia, home to 12. 7% of the worlds Muslims, followed by Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Egypt. About 20% of the worlds Muslims lives in the Middle East and North Africa, Sizable minorities are found in India, China, Russia, Ethiopia. The country with the highest proportion of self-described Muslims as a proportion of its population is Morocco
32.
Kashmiris
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The Kashmiris are an ethnic group native to the Kashmir Valley, in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir, who speak Kashmiri, an Indo-Aryan Dardic language. The bulk of Kashmiri people predominantly live in the Kashmir Valley–which is the actual Kashmir and does not include the territories of the former princely state of Jammu. Other ethnic groups living in the Jammu and Kashmir state include Gujjars, Dogras, although some residents of Azad Kashmir call themselves Kashmiri, most residents of Azad Kashmir are not actually ethnic Kashmiris. Whilst Kashmiris are native to the Kashmir Valley, smaller populations of Kashmiris also live in the districts of Jammu. Ethnic Kashmiris can be found in the Chenab regions Doda, Ramban, there are also ethnic Kashmiri populations inhabiting the Neelam Valley and Leepa Valley of northern Azad Kashmir. Since 1947, many ethnic Kashmiris and their descendants are found in Pakistan. Many ethnic Kashmiris from the Kashmir Valley also migrated to the Punjab region during Dogra, Most Kashmiris today are Sunni Muslim but a sizable Hindu community also exists. Pure ethnic Kashmiri Muslims are descended from Kashmiri Hindus and are known as Sheikhs. Common surnames among these people include Butt, Dar, Lone etc, Islam arrived in Kashmir starting with the conversion in 1323 of Kashmirs Buddhist ruler, Rinchan, at the hands of the saint, Sayyid Bilal Shah. After conversion to Islam he called himself Malik Sadur-ud-Din and was the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir, Islam grew in the 14th century under the Shah Mir reign and numerous Muslim ulama from Central Asia came to preach in Kashmir. Sayyid Ali Hamadani made immense contributions towards the spread of Islam in Kashmir and he and hundreds of his followers converted thousands of Kashmiris to Islam. His son Sayyid Muḥammad Hamadani also propagated Islam and influenced Kashmirs Muslim ruler Sikander to enforce Islamic law, by the late 1400s the majority of the population had embraced Islam. Since the arrival of invaders and the start of religious conflicts, before the Partition of India, many Kashmir Hindus, in 1557 the Shah Miri dynasty was overthrown by the Chaks who were foreigners to Kashmir and originated from Baltistan. Since they were from outside Kashmir they were not interested in the Kashmiri populations welfare, the Chak rulers, who were Shia, persecuted their Sunni subjects and this caused Sunni scholars to flee to safer environs. Some disenchanted Sunnis, such as notable Sunni scholar, Sheikh Yaqub Sarfi, went to the court of Akbar and invited the Mughals to conquer Kashmir and these conditions included a guarantee of Kashmiri rights such as freedom of religion for all of Kashmirs population. Shaikh Yaqub Sarfi also forbade Sunnis from carrying out any reprisal against Shias and he devoted his life to restoring peace, Kashmiri historians see Mughal rule as the beginning of the end of Kashmiri independence. The Mughal Emperor Akbar succeeded in invading the Kashmir Valley, despite tough Kashmiri resistance, the anti-Shia policies of Mirza Haidar Dughlat and the anti-Sunni policies of the Chaks had broken Kashmiri unity, thus paving the way for the Mughal occupation of Kashmir. Akbars victory brought an end to indigenous Kashmiri Muslim rule, Christopher Snedden states that the Mughals began a process of psychological warfare against Kashmiris to strip them of their martial capabilities
33.
University of Cambridge
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The University of Cambridge is a collegiate public research university in Cambridge, England, often regarded as one of the most prestigious universities in the world. Founded in 1209 and given royal status by King Henry III in 1231, Cambridge is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world. The university grew out of an association of scholars who left the University of Oxford after a dispute with the townspeople, the two ancient universities share many common features and are often referred to jointly as Oxbridge. Cambridge is formed from a variety of institutions which include 31 constituent colleges, Cambridge University Press, a department of the university, is the worlds oldest publishing house and the second-largest university press in the world. The university also operates eight cultural and scientific museums, including the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridges libraries hold a total of around 15 million books, eight million of which are in Cambridge University Library, a legal deposit library. In the year ended 31 July 2015, the university had an income of £1.64 billion. The central university and colleges have an endowment of around £5.89 billion. The university is linked with the development of the high-tech business cluster known as Silicon Fen. It is a member of associations and forms part of the golden triangle of leading English universities and Cambridge University Health Partners. As of 2017, Cambridge is ranked the fourth best university by three ranking tables and no other institution in the world ranks in the top 10 for as many subjects. Cambridge is consistently ranked as the top university in the United Kingdom, the university has educated many notable alumni, including eminent mathematicians, scientists, politicians, lawyers, philosophers, writers, actors, and foreign Heads of State. Ninety-five Nobel laureates, fifteen British prime ministers and ten Fields medalists have been affiliated with Cambridge as students, faculty, by the late 12th century, the Cambridge region already had a scholarly and ecclesiastical reputation, due to monks from the nearby bishopric church of Ely. The University of Oxford went into suspension in protest, and most scholars moved to such as Paris, Reading. After the University of Oxford reformed several years later, enough remained in Cambridge to form the nucleus of the new university. A bull in 1233 from Pope Gregory IX gave graduates from Cambridge the right to teach everywhere in Christendom, the colleges at the University of Cambridge were originally an incidental feature of the system. No college is as old as the university itself, the colleges were endowed fellowships of scholars. There were also institutions without endowments, called hostels, the hostels were gradually absorbed by the colleges over the centuries, but they have left some indicators of their time, such as the name of Garret Hostel Lane. Hugh Balsham, Bishop of Ely, founded Peterhouse, Cambridges first college, the most recently established college is Robinson, built in the late 1970s
34.
Averroes
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Ibn Rushd, full name, often Latinized as Averroes, was a medieval Andalusian polymath. Ibn Rushd was born in Córdoba, Al Andalus, and died at Marrakesh in present-day Morocco and his body was interred in his family tomb at Córdoba. The 13th-century philosophical movement in Latin Christian and Jewish tradition based on Ibn Rushds work is called Averroism, Ibn Rushd was a defender of Aristotelian philosophy against Ashari theologians led by Al-Ghazali. Although highly regarded as a scholar of the Maliki school of Islamic law. Whereas al-Ghazali believed that any act of a natural phenomenon occurred only because God willed it to happen. Ibn Rushd had a impact on Christian Europe, being known by the sobriquet the Commentator for his detailed emendations to Aristotle. Latin translations of Ibn Rushds work led the way to the popularization of Aristotle, Averroes is the Medieval Latin form of the Hebrew translation Aben Rois or Rosh of the Arabic Ibn Rushd. It is also seen as Averroës, Averrhoës, or Averroès to mark that the o and e are separate vowels, Ibn Rushd was born in Córdoba to a family with a long and well-respected tradition of legal and public service. His grandfather Abu Al-Walid Muhammad was chief judge of Córdoba under the Almoravids and his father, Abu Al-Qasim Ahmad, held the same position until the Almoravids were replaced by the Almohads in 1146. Ibn Rushds education followed a path, beginning with studies in Hadith, linguistics, jurisprudence. Throughout his life he wrote extensively on philosophy and religion, attributes of God, origin of the universe, metaphysics and it is generally believed that he was once tutored by Ibn Bajjah. His medical education was directed under Abu Jafar ibn Harun of Trujillo in Seville, Ibn Rushd began his career with the help of Ibn Tufail, the author of Hayy ibn Yaqdhan and philosophic vizier of Almohad king Abu Yaqub Yusuf who was an amateur of philosophy and science. It was Ibn Tufail who introduced him to the court and to Ibn Zuhr, the great Muslim physician, who became Ibn Rushds teacher and friend. He said that if someone took on these books who could summarize them and clarify their aims after first thoroughly understanding them himself, if you have the energy, Ibn Tufayl told me, you do it. Im confident you can, because I know what a good mind and devoted character you have and you understand that only my great age, the cares of my office — and my commitment to another task that I think even more vital — keep me from doing it myself. Ibn Rushd also studied the works and philosophy of Ibn Bajjah, however, while the thought of his mentors Ibn Tufail and Ibn Bajjah were mystic to an extent, the thought of Ibn Rushd was purely rationalist. Together, the three men are considered the greatest Andalusian philosophers, Ibn Rushd devoted the next 30 years to his philosophical writings. In 1160, Ibn Rushd was made Qadi of Seville and he served in many court appointments in Seville, Cordoba, sometime during the reign of Yaqub al-Mansur, Averroess political career was abruptly ended and he faced severe criticism from the Fuqaha of the time
35.
Cathedral and John Connon School
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The Cathedral & John Connon School is a co-educational, private school founded in 1860 and located in Fort, Mumbai, Maharashtra. A Hindustan Times report of 2013 named it as the top school offering ICSE and it now offers the IBDP programme, as well. One of the most prestigious, elusive and exclusive schools in India, its alumni boasts the whos who of Indias elite, students belong to the wealthiest families in the country and admission is preferred and mostly given to children of ex-students. The school is selective and its alumni network is the largest for any school in India with ex-students scattered across the globe. It has also ranked in the lists of best day schools in Asia. It is one of the oldest British founded schools in India and it has a variety of options in terms of extracurricular activities for students. The 156-year-old school is ranked in the lists of best day schools in India. The school also controls the 298 year old St. Thomas Cathedral, therefore, this makes Cathedral the oldest school & church combination in India. A Choir School, established with the objective of providing choristers for the St. Thomas Cathedral, Mumbai, meanwhile, the Bombay Scottish Education Society was founded in 1866. The society put up a building on the Esplanade, and named it for John Connon, in 1878 a high school in Byculla, set up by the Bombay Diocesan Society, was merged with the Choir School to form the Cathedral High School. The present Senior School building, a blend of Indian and Gothic architecture, was erected in 1896, a girls school had been started in 1880. The schools were re-organized into the Cathedral Boys School, the Cathedral Girls School, today the old boys school is the Senior School, the old girls school is the Middle School, and the John Connon School is the Junior School. The Infant School, located at Malabar Hill, was set up in 1965, the Senior School also serves as the main administrative office for all the sections of the school. The IB arm of the school, set up in 2015, the building is located in the same vicinty as the school, right next to Sterling Theatre. The Cathedral & John Connon School is affiliated with the Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations, english is the medium of instruction. Hindi is taught as a language and Marathi or Sanskrit are taught as third languages. The schools students have performed well at the ICSE and ISC examinations, College Boards Advanced Placement program has been conducted in the school since June,2004. The school is the only AP Examination Center in Western India, for the ISC course the school divided its student body into three streams, Commerce, Science, and the Humanities
36.
Rugby School
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Rugby School is a day and boarding co-educational independent school in Rugby, Warwickshire, England. It is one of the oldest independent schools in Britain and its re-establishment by Thomas Arnold during his time as Headmaster, from 1828 to 1841, was seen as the forerunner of the Victorian Public School. It is one of the original seven English Public Schools defined by the Public Schools Act 1868, total enrolment of day pupils from forms 4 to 12 numbers around 800. Rugby School was the birthplace of Rugby football, in 1845, three Rugby School pupils produced the first written rules of the Rugby style of game. Rugby School was founded in 1567 as a provision in the will of Lawrence Sheriff, since Lawrence Sheriff lived in Rugby and the neighbouring Brownsover, the school was intended to be a free grammar school for the boys of those towns. Up to 1667, the school remained in comparative obscurity, a final decision was handed down in 1667, confirming the findings of a commission in favour of the trust, and henceforth the school maintained a steady growth. Floreat Rugbeia is the school song. Pupils beginning Rugby in the F Block study various subjects and this is continued through to D block. The school then provides standard A-levels in 29 subjects, students at this stage have the choice of taking 3 or four subjects and are also offered the opportunity to take an extended project. The Governing Body provides financial benefits with school fees to families unable to afford them, parents of pupils who are given a Scholarship are capable of obtaining a 10% fee deduction, although more than one scholarship can be awarded to one student. Rugby School claim they aim to give more than education with their new tagline being The Whole Person. The school has three magazines, The Meteor, The Boomer and Quod, the core of the school was completed in 1815 and is built around the Old Quad, with its Georgian architecture. Especially notable rooms are the Upper Bench, the Old Hall of School House, Thomas Hughes once carved his name onto the hands of the school clock, situated on a tower above the Old Quad. By the twentieth century Rugby expanded and new buildings were inspired by this Edwardian Era. The Temple Speech Room, named after former headmaster and Archbishop of Canterbury Frederick Temple and now used for assemblies, speech days, concerts, musicals –. Oak-panelled walls boast the portraits of alumni, including Neville Chamberlain holding his piece of paper. Between the wars, the Memorial Chapel, the Music Schools and she wrote to John Vickers, the OFT director-general, saying, They are not a group of businessmen meeting behind closed doors to fix the price of their products to the disadvantage of the consumer. They are schools that have quite openly continued to follow a long-established practice because they were unaware that the law had changed, rugbys most famous headmaster was Thomas Arnold, appointed in 1828, he executed many reforms to the school curriculum and administration
37.
Warwickshire
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Warwickshire is a landlocked county in the West Midlands of England. The county town is Warwick, although the largest town is Nuneaton, the county is famous for being the birthplace of William Shakespeare. Commonly used abbreviations for the county are Warks or Warwicks, the county is divided into five districts of North Warwickshire, Nuneaton and Bedworth, Rugby, Warwick and Stratford-on-Avon. The current county boundaries were set in 1974 by the Local Government Act 1972, the historic county boundaries also included Coventry and Solihull, as well as much of Birmingham. The northern tip of the county is only 3 miles from the Derbyshire border, an average-sized English county covering an area of almost 2,000 km2, it runs some 60 miles north to south. Equivalently it extends as far north as Shrewsbury in Shropshire and as far south as Banbury in north Oxfordshire, the majority of Warwickshires population live in the north and centre of the county. The market towns of northern and eastern Warwickshire were industrialised in the 19th century, and include Atherstone, Bedworth, Nuneaton, of these, Atherstone has retained most of its original character. Major industries included coal mining, textiles, engineering and cement production, of the northern and eastern towns, only Nuneaton and Rugby are well-known outside of Warwickshire. The south of the county is rural and sparsely populated. The only town in the south of Warwickshire is Shipston-on-Stour, the highest point in the county, at 261 m, is Ebrington Hill, again on the border with Gloucestershire, grid reference SP187426 at the countys southwest extremity. There are no cities in Warwickshire since both Coventry and Birmingham were incorporated into the West Midlands county in 1974 and are now metropolitan authorities in themselves, the largest towns in Warwickshire in 2011 were, Nuneaton, Rugby, Leamington Spa, Bedworth, Warwick, Stratford and Kenilworth. Much of western Warwickshire, including that area now forming part of Coventry, Solihull, thus the names of a number of places in the central-western part of Warwickshire end with the phrase -in-Arden, such as Henley-in-Arden, Hampton-in-Arden and Tanworth-in-Arden. The remaining area, not part of the forest, was called the Felden – from fielden, areas historically part of Warwickshire include Coventry, Solihull, Sutton Coldfield, Erdington, and some of Birmingham including Aston and Edgbaston. These became part of the county of West Midlands following local government re-organisation in 1974. Some organisations, such as Warwickshire County Cricket Club, which is based in Edgbaston, in Birmingham, Coventry is effectively in the centre of the Warwickshire area, and still has strong ties with the county. Coventry and Warwickshire are sometimes treated as an area and share a single Chamber of Commerce. Coventry has been a part of Warwickshire for only some of its history, in 1451 Coventry was separated from Warwickshire and made a county corporate in its own right, called the County of the City of Coventry. In 1842 the county of Coventry was abolished and Coventry was remerged with Warwickshire, in recent times, there have been calls to formally re-introduce Coventry into Warwickshire, although nothing has yet come of this
38.
Ogilvy & Mather
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Ogilvy & Mather is a New York City-based advertising, marketing and public relations agency. It is part of the WPP Group, one of the largest marketing and communications companies in the world, the agency is known for its work with Dove, American Express, and IBM. After Edmunds death in 1886, his son, Harley Lawrence Mather, partnered with Herbert Oakes Crowther, the agency pioneered newspaper advertising, which was in its infancy due to a loosening of tax restrictions. Mather & Crowther educated manufacturers about the efficacy of advertising and also produced how-to manuals for the nascent advertising industry, the company grew in prominence in the 1920s after creating leading non-branded advertising campaigns such as an apple a day keeps the doctor away and Drinka Pinta Milka Day. In 1921, Mather & Crowther hired Francis Ogilvy as a copywriter, Ogilvy eventually became the first non-family member to chair the agency. When the agency launched the Aga cooker, a Swedish cook stove, Francis composed letters in Greek to appeal to British public schools, Francis also helped his younger brother, David Ogilvy, secure a position as an Aga salesman. The younger Ogilvy was so successful at selling the cooker, he wrote a manual for the company in 1935 called The Theory. It was later called probably the best sales manual ever written by Fortune magazine, David Ogilvy sent the manual to Francis who was persuaded to hire him as a trainee. Ogilvy began studying advertising, particularly campaigns from America, which he viewed as the gold standard, in 1938, David Ogilvy convinced Francis to send him to the United States on sabbatical to study American advertising. After a year, Ogilvy presented 32 basic rules of good advertising to Mather & Crowther, in 1948, David Ogilvy proposed that Mather & Crowther and another U. K. agency, S. H. Benson, partner to create an American advertising agency in New York City to support British advertising clients, the agencies each invested US$40,000 in the venture, but insisted Ogilvy find a more experienced American to run it. David Ogilvy recruited Anderson Hewitt from J. Walter Thompson to serve as president, Ogilvy would serve as secretary, treasurer, and research director. Along with their British sponsors, which held controlling interest, Hewitt mortgaged his house and invested $14,000 in the agency, on September 23,1948, David Ogilvy opened his United States shop as Hewitt, Ogilvy, Benson, & Mather on Madison Avenue in Manhattan. Initially, Mather & Crowther and S. H, Benson gave the agency four clients that were relatively unknown in the United States and had small budgets, including Wedgwood China, British South African Airways, Guinness, and Bovril. The agencys first account was securing magazine advertising space for Wedgwood and it had its first successful ad with Ogilvys concept The Guinness Guide to Oysters, which was followed by several other similar food and Guinness pairing guides. Hewitt, Ogilvy, Benson, & Mathers first large client was Sunoco, helena Rubinstein cosmetics was the first client won by Ogilvy. A breakthrough came after the agency was approached by Maine-based shirt manufacturer C. F. Hathaway Company, the company only had a small budget, but its president promised to never change a word of copy. In 1951, Hewitt, Ogilvy, Benson, & Mather introduced the The man in the Hathaway shirt campaign, the advertisement featured an aristocratic man in an eyepatch that Ogilvy purchased on the way to the ads photo shoot
39.
Aero (chocolate)
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Aero is a chocolate product manufactured by Nestlé. It was originally introduced to the North of England as the new chocolate by Rowntrees in 1935, by the end of the year, it had proved so popular with consumers that sales were extended throughout the UK. By 1936, sales of the chocolate had spread to New York City, Aero has been manufactured by Nestlé since 1988 after they absorbed Rowntrees. Known for its unique bubbly texture that collapses as the bar melts, it is available in different forms including Aero Bars and Aero Biscuits. The process of manufacture was patented in 1935 by Rowntrees in York, in 1935, Rowntrees launched Aero Mint into the UK, followed by the milk chocolate variation in the 1970s. The wrapping was green and displayed the Rowntrees script logo and the large word AERO, the words Aerated Mint Chocolate were seen multiple times in the word AERO. In the 1970s, an advertisement was aired in which kids flying a kite thought the kite was an Aero bar, there are several flavours of Aero. These include the Original Aero, Mint Aero, Caramel Aero, Dark Chocolate Aero, White Chocolate Aero, Latte flavour Aero, Orange Aeros were sold for a while as well, and larger 100 g sized bars are currently available in some stores. In the 1970s there were also Strawberry flavour bars, in the UK, and recently Canada, Aero Bubbles are also available. These are small, round chocolates with a centre, available in Milk Chocolate, Mint and Orange flavours. In May 2012, Aero Orange and Aero Bubbles Orange were both introduced in Canada and in the UK as a limited edition. In January 2014, customers in Canada reported on two new flavours of Aero Bubble Bars that arrived in shops, a Strawberry flavour and a new variation of a Caramel Aero. While bars were produced with chocolate and a caramel, the new Caramel Bubble Bar consists of a Caramel flavoured white chocolate centre with a milk chocolate coating. Japan has produced a number of unique Aero flavours, among them Vanilla Milkshake, Hot Milk, Green Tea and they usually consist of a flavoured, coloured chocolate centre and outer milk chocolate layer. Aero Cocoa is also sold in Japan, released in 2006, the Aero Vanilla Yogourt flavour was released only in Canada. As with all other Aero bars manufactured by Nestlé in Canada and Nicaragua, in Australia there is also an Aero Temptations bar, which has the bubbly chocolate, but with a caramel topping. In Ireland there was an Irish Cream flavour Aero, in 2010 in the UK and 2011 in Ireland, Nestlé modified the ingredients and colouring of the Mint Aero Bubbles product. This resulted in the product retaining its mint flavour, but losing its green coloured bubble interior and this has been explained by Nestlé as being a response to corporate policy to remove artificial food colourings from the product
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American Express
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The American Express Company, also known as Amex, is an American multinational financial services corporation headquartered in Manhattans Three World Financial Center in New York City, United States. Founded in 1850, it is one of the 30 components of the Dow Jones Industrial Average, the company is best known for its credit card, charge card, and travelers cheque businesses. Amex cards account for approximately 24% of the dollar volume of credit card transactions in the US. BusinessWeek and Interbrand ranked American Express as the 22nd most valuable brand in the world, Fortune listed Amex as one of the top 20 Most Admired Companies in the World. The companys logo, adopted in 1958, is a Centurion whose image appears on the travelers cheques, charge cards. In 1850, American Express was started as an express business in Buffalo. It was founded as a joint stock corporation by the merger of the companies owned by Henry Wells, William G. Fargo. Wells and Fargo also started Wells Fargo & Co. in 1852 when Butterfield, American Express initially established its headquarters in a building at the intersection of Jay Street and Hudson Street in what was later called the Tribeca section of Manhattan. For years it enjoyed a monopoly on the movement of express shipments throughout New York State. In 1874, American Express moved its headquarters to 65 Broadway in what was becoming the Financial District of Manhattan, in 1854, the American Express Co. purchased a lot on Vesey Street in New York City as the site for its stables. A stable was constructed in 1867, five blocks north at 4–8 Hubert Street, in 1880, American Express built a new warehouse behind the Broadway Building at 46 Trinity Place. The designer is unknown, but it has a façade of brick arches that are reminiscent of pre-skyscraper New York, American Express has long been out of this building, but it still bears a terracotta seal with the American Express Eagle. In 1890–91 the company constructed a new building by Edward H. Kendall on the site of its former headquarters on Hudson Street. By 1903, the company had assets of some $28 million, to reflect this, the company purchased the Broadway buildings and site. The old buildings, dubbed by the New York Times as among the ancient landmarks of lower Broadway, were inadequate for such a rapidly expanding concern, after some delays due to the war in Europe, the 21-story neo-classical American Express Co. Building was constructed in 1916–17 to the design of James L. Aspinwall, of the firm of Renwick, Aspinwall & Tucker, the building consolidated the two lots of the former buildings with a single address,65 Broadway. This building was part of the Express Row section of lower Broadway at the time, kenny, and Standard & Poors, who has renamed the building for itself. American Express extended its reach nationwide by arranging affiliations with other companies, railroads
41.
George Chandler
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George Chandler was an American actor best known for playing the character of Uncle Petrie Martin on the CBS television series Lassie. He was born in Waukegan, Illinois on June 30,1898, during his infancy, his family moved to Hinsdale, Illinois. Early in his career, he had an act, billed as George Chandler, the Musical Nut. Chandler served in the United States Army during World War I and he guest starred on the Reed Hadley CBS legal drama The Public Defender. He appeared as the character Ames in the two-part episode King of the Dakotas in the 1955 NBC western anthology series Frontier, in 1954-1955, he was cast in two episodes of the NBC sitcom Its a Great Life. He appeared in the 1956 episode Joey and the Stranger of the NBC childrens western series and he was cast as Clay Hunnicutt in the 1957 episode The Giveaway of Jackie Coopers NBC sitcom, The Peoples Choice. In 1958, Chandler appeared as Cleveland McMasters opposite Marjorie Main as the frontierswoman Cassie Tanner in the episode The Cassie Tanner Story on NBCs Wagon Train, in the 1960-1961 television season, Chandler guest starred on an episode of Frank Aletters one-season CBS sitcom, Bringing Up Buddy. In the 1961-1962 television season, Chandler co-starred with Robert Sterling, Reta Shaw, Jimmy Hawkins, Burt Mustin, Chandler debuted in film in 1929. In 1960, Chandler was elected president of the Screen Actors Guild, Chandler died in Panorama City, California of cancer, on June 10,1985, at the age of eighty-six. George Chandler at the Internet Movie Database George Chandler at Find a Grave
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Grimus
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Grimus is a 1975 fantasy and science fiction novel by Salman Rushdie. The story loosely follows Flapping Eagle, a young Indian who receives the gift of immortality after drinking a magic fluid, published in 1975, Grimus was Salman Rushdies first published novel. Amongst other influences Rushdie incorporates Sufi, Hindu, Christian and Norse mythologies alongside pre- and post-modernist literature into his construction of character and narrative form. Like much of Rushdies work, Grimus undermines the concept of a culture by demonstrating the impossibility of any culture. In light of this, we can see Rushdie as having produced what Linda Hutcheon terms a histiographic novel and that is, novels that explore and undermine concepts of stable cultural origins of identity. For example, Grimus’s epilogue includes a quotation from one of its own characters, thus, the text revolves around the ‘symptoms of blindness which mark its conceptual limits’ rather than the direct expression of didactic insights. An allegorical poem that argues ‘God’ to be the totality of life. Both narratives build towards the revelation of the truth which waits atop of the Mountain Qâf. ’ The Dante Comedia provides the structure for Grimuss exploration of inner dimensions. I. e. a journey through concentric circles and a crossing of a river to arrive at the most terrifying, whilst the basing of Calf Island on a merger of Eastern and Western references is emblematic of Rushdies locating of post-colonial identity in an eclectic coalescence of cultures. Kathryn Hume argues that one of Rushdies most effective techniques for emphasising problematic dualistic thinking is the pairing of characters, Grimus representing the godhead of Islam/Sufism whilst Flapping Eagle represents Hinduisms Shiva. Reviews of the book when first it was published emphasised its science fiction elements, the science fiction author Brian Aldiss has claimed that he, Kingsley Amis and Arthur C
