1.
National Gallery
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The National Gallery is an art museum in Trafalgar Square in the City of Westminster, in Central London. Founded in 1824, it houses a collection of over 2,300 paintings dating from the century to 1900. The Gallery is a charity, and a non-departmental public body of the Department for Culture, Media. Its collection belongs to the public of the United Kingdom and entry to the collection is free of charge. It is among the most visited art museums in the world, after the Musée du Louvre, the British Museum, unlike comparable museums in continental Europe, the National Gallery was not formed by nationalising an existing royal or princely art collection. It came into being when the British government bought 38 paintings from the heirs of John Julius Angerstein, after that initial purchase the Gallery was shaped mainly by its early directors, notably Sir Charles Lock Eastlake, and by private donations, which comprise two-thirds of the collection. It used to be claimed that this was one of the few national galleries that had all its works on permanent exhibition, the present building, the third to house the National Gallery, was designed by William Wilkins from 1832 to 1838. Only the façade onto Trafalgar Square remains essentially unchanged from this time, wilkinss building was often criticised for the perceived weaknesses of its design and for its lack of space, the latter problem led to the establishment of the Tate Gallery for British art in 1897. The Sainsbury Wing, an extension to the west by Robert Venturi, the current Director of the National Gallery is Gabriele Finaldi. The late 18th century saw the nationalisation of royal or princely art collections across mainland Europe, great Britain, however, did not emulate the continental model, and the British Royal Collection remains in the sovereigns possession today. In 1777 the British government had the opportunity to buy an art collection of international stature, the MP John Wilkes argued for the government to buy this invaluable treasure and suggested that it be housed in a noble gallery. The twenty-five paintings from that now in the Gallery, including NG1, have arrived by a variety of routes. This offer was declined and Bourgeois bequeathed the collection to his old school, Dulwich College, the collection opened in Britains first purpose-built public gallery, the Dulwich Picture Gallery, in 1814. The British Institution, founded in 1805 by a group of aristocratic connoisseurs, the members lent works to exhibitions that changed annually, while an art school was held in the summer months. However, as the paintings that were lent were often mediocre, some resented the Institution. One of the Institutions founding members, Sir George Beaumont, Bt, in 1823 another major art collection came on the market, which had been assembled by the recently deceased John Julius Angerstein. Angerstein was a Russian-born émigré banker based in London, his collection numbered 38 paintings, including works by Raphael, on 1 July 1823 George Agar Ellis, a Whig politician, proposed to the House of Commons that it purchase the collection. The appeal was given added impetus by Beaumonts offer, which came with two conditions, that the government buy Angersteins collection, and that a building was to be found
2.
Kingdom of Naples
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It continued to be officially known as the Kingdom of Sicily, although it no longer included the island of Sicily. For much of its existence, the realm was contested between French and Spanish dynasties, in 1816, it was reunified with the island kingdom of Sicily once again to form the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Following the rebellion in 1282, King Charles I of Sicily was forced to leave the island of Sicily by Peter III of Aragons troops, Charles, however, maintained his possessions on the mainland, customarily known as the Kingdom of Naples, after its capital city. Charles and his Angevin successors maintained a claim to Sicily, warring against the Aragonese until 1373, joans reign was contested by Louis the Great, the Angevin King of Hungary, who captured the kingdom several times. Queen Joan I also played a part in the demise of the first Kingdom of Naples. This led to Joan Is murder at the hands of the Prince of Durazzo in 1382, the two competing Angevin lines contested each other for the possession of the Kingdom of Naples over the following decades. René of Anjou temporarily united the claims of junior and senior Angevin lines, in 1442, however, Alfonso V conquered the Kingdom of Naples and unified Sicily and Naples once again as dependencies of Aragon. At his death in 1458, the kingdom was again separated and Naples was inherited by Ferrante, Alfonsos illegitimate son. Charles VIII expelled Alfonso II of Naples from Naples in 1495, Ferrantino was restored to the throne, but died in 1496, and was succeeded by his uncle, Frederick IV. Charles VIIIs successor, Louis XII reiterated the French claim, in 1501, he occupied Naples and partitioned the kingdom with Ferdinand of Aragon, who abandoned his cousin King Frederick. The deal soon fell through, however, and Aragon and France resumed their war over the kingdom, the Spanish troops occupying Calabria and Apulia, led by Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordova did not respect the new agreement, and expelled all Frenchmen from the area. The peace treaties that continued were never definitive, but they established at least that the title of King of Naples was reserved for Ferdinands grandson, the future Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. Ferdinand nevertheless continued in possession of the kingdom, being considered as the heir of his uncle Alfonso I of Naples. The French finally abandoned their claims to Naples by the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559, in the Treaty of London, five cities on coast of Tuscany were designated the Stato dei Presidi, and part of the Kingdom of Naples. After the War of the Spanish Succession in the early 18th century, under the terms of the Treaty of Rastatt in 1714, Naples was given to Charles VI, the Holy Roman Emperor. He also gained control of Sicily in 1720, but Austrian rule did not last long, when Charles inherited the Spanish throne from his older half-brother in 1759, he left Naples and Sicily to his younger son, Ferdinand IV. Despite the two Kingdoms being in a union under the Habsburg and Bourbon dynasts, they remained constitutionally separate. Being a member of the House of Bourbon, Ferdinand IV was an opponent of the French Revolution and Napoleon
3.
Rome
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Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
4.
Painting
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Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, Painting is a mode of creative expression, and the forms are numerous. Drawing, gesture, composition, narration, or abstraction, among other aesthetic modes, may serve to manifest the expressive, Paintings can be naturalistic and representational, photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic, emotive, or political in nature. A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by motifs and ideas. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action, the term painting is also used outside of art as a common trade among craftsmen and builders. What enables painting is the perception and representation of intensity, every point in space has different intensity, which can be represented in painting by black and white and all the gray shades between. In practice, painters can articulate shapes by juxtaposing surfaces of different intensity, thus, the basic means of painting are distinct from ideological means, such as geometrical figures, various points of view and organization, and symbols. In technical drawing, thickness of line is ideal, demarcating ideal outlines of an object within a perceptual frame different from the one used by painters. Color and tone are the essence of painting as pitch and rhythm are the essence of music, color is highly subjective, but has observable psychological effects, although these can differ from one culture to the next. Black is associated with mourning in the West, but in the East, some painters, theoreticians, writers and scientists, including Goethe, Kandinsky, and Newton, have written their own color theory. Moreover, the use of language is only an abstraction for a color equivalent, the word red, for example, can cover a wide range of variations from the pure red of the visible spectrum of light. There is not a register of different colors in the way that there is agreement on different notes in music. For a painter, color is not simply divided into basic, painters deal practically with pigments, so blue for a painter can be any of the blues, phthalocyanine blue, Prussian blue, indigo, cobalt, ultramarine, and so on. Psychological and symbolical meanings of color are not, strictly speaking, colors only add to the potential, derived context of meanings, and because of this, the perception of a painting is highly subjective. The analogy with music is quite clear—sound in music is analogous to light in painting, shades to dynamics and these elements do not necessarily form a melody of themselves, rather, they can add different contexts to it. Modern artists have extended the practice of painting considerably to include, as one example, collage, some modern painters incorporate different materials such as sand, cement, straw or wood for their texture. Examples of this are the works of Jean Dubuffet and Anselm Kiefer, there is a growing community of artists who use computers to paint color onto a digital canvas using programs such as Adobe Photoshop, Corel Painter, and many others. These images can be printed onto traditional canvas if required, rhythm is important in painting as it is in music
5.
Printmaking
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Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing, normally on paper. Printmaking normally covers only the process of creating prints that have an element of originality, except in the case of monotyping, the process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece, which is called a print. Each print produced is not considered a copy but rather is considered an original, a print may be known as an impression. Printmaking is not chosen only for its ability to multiple impressions. Prints are created by transferring ink from a matrix or through a screen to a sheet of paper or other material. Screens made of silk or synthetic fabrics are used for the screenprinting process, other types of matrix substrates and related processes are discussed below. Multiple impressions printed from the matrix form an edition. Prints may also be printed in book form, such as illustrated books or artists books, Printmaking techniques are generally divided into the following basic categories, Relief, where ink is applied to the original surface of the matrix. Relief techniques include woodcut or woodblock as the Asian forms are known, wood engraving. Intaglio, where ink is applied beneath the surface of the matrix. Intaglio techniques include engraving, etching, mezzotint, aquatint, planographic, where the matrix retains its original surface, but is specially prepared and/or inked to allow for the transfer of the image. Planographic techniques include lithography, monotyping, and digital techniques, stencil, where ink or paint is pressed through a prepared screen, including screenprinting and pochoir. Other types of printmaking techniques outside these groups include collagraphy and viscosity printing, collagraphy is a printmaking technique in which textured material is adhered to the printing matrix. This texture is transferred to the paper during the printing process, Contemporary printmaking may include digital printing, photographic mediums, or a combination of digital, photographic, and traditional processes. Many of these techniques can also be combined, especially within the same family, for example, Rembrandts prints are usually referred to as etchings for convenience, but very often include work in engraving and drypoint as well, and sometimes have no etching at all. Woodcut, a type of print, is the earliest printmaking technique. It was probably first developed as a means of printing patterns on cloth, woodcuts of images on paper developed around 1400 in Japan, and slightly later in Europe. These are the two areas where woodcut has been most extensively used purely as a process for making images without text, the artist draws a design on a plank of wood, or on paper which is transferred to the wood
6.
Poetry
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Poetry has a long history, dating back to the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh. Early poems evolved from folk songs such as the Chinese Shijing, or from a need to retell oral epics, as with the Sanskrit Vedas, Zoroastrian Gathas, and the Homeric epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Ancient attempts to define poetry, such as Aristotles Poetics, focused on the uses of speech in rhetoric, drama, song and comedy. Later attempts concentrated on such as repetition, verse form and rhyme. From the mid-20th century, poetry has sometimes been more generally regarded as a creative act employing language. Poetry uses forms and conventions to suggest differential interpretation to words, devices such as assonance, alliteration, onomatopoeia and rhythm are sometimes used to achieve musical or incantatory effects. The use of ambiguity, symbolism, irony and other elements of poetic diction often leaves a poem open to multiple interpretations. Similarly figures of such as metaphor, simile and metonymy create a resonance between otherwise disparate images—a layering of meanings, forming connections previously not perceived. Kindred forms of resonance may exist, between verses, in their patterns of rhyme or rhythm. Some poetry types are specific to cultures and genres and respond to characteristics of the language in which the poet writes. Much modern poetry reflects a critique of poetic tradition, playing with and testing, among other things, in todays increasingly globalized world, poets often adapt forms, styles and techniques from diverse cultures and languages. Some scholars believe that the art of poetry may predate literacy, others, however, suggest that poetry did not necessarily predate writing. The oldest surviving poem, the Epic of Gilgamesh, comes from the 3rd millennium BCE in Sumer. An example of Egyptian epic poetry is The Story of Sinuhe, other forms of poetry developed directly from folk songs. The earliest entries in the oldest extant collection of Chinese poetry, the efforts of ancient thinkers to determine what makes poetry distinctive as a form, and what distinguishes good poetry from bad, resulted in poetics—the study of the aesthetics of poetry. Some ancient societies, such as Chinas through her Shijing, developed canons of poetic works that had ritual as well as aesthetic importance, Classical thinkers employed classification as a way to define and assess the quality of poetry. Later aestheticians identified three major genres, epic poetry, lyric poetry, and dramatic poetry, treating comedy and tragedy as subgenres of dramatic poetry, Aristotles work was influential throughout the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age, as well as in Europe during the Renaissance. English Romantic poet John Keats termed this escape from logic Negative Capability and this romantic approach views form as a key element of successful poetry because form is abstract and distinct from the underlying notional logic
7.
Baroque
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The style began around 1600 in Rome and Italy, and spread to most of Europe. The aristocracy viewed the dramatic style of Baroque art and architecture as a means of impressing visitors by projecting triumph, power, Baroque palaces are built around an entrance of courts, grand staircases, and reception rooms of sequentially increasing opulence. However, baroque has a resonance and application that extend beyond a reduction to either a style or period. It is also yields the Italian barocco and modern Spanish barroco, German Barock, Dutch Barok, others derive it from the mnemonic term Baroco, a supposedly laboured form of syllogism in logical Scholastica. The Latin root can be found in bis-roca, in informal usage, the word baroque can simply mean that something is elaborate, with many details, without reference to the Baroque styles of the 17th and 18th centuries. The word Baroque, like most periodic or stylistic designations, was invented by later critics rather than practitioners of the arts in the 17th, the term Baroque was initially used in a derogatory sense, to underline the excesses of its emphasis. In particular, the term was used to describe its eccentric redundancy and noisy abundance of details, although it was long thought that the word as a critical term was first applied to architecture, in fact it appears earlier in reference to music. Another hypothesis says that the word comes from precursors of the style, Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola and he did not make the distinctions between Mannerism and Baroque that modern writers do, and he ignored the later phase, the academic Baroque that lasted into the 18th century. Long despised, Baroque art and architecture became fashionable between the two World Wars, and has remained in critical favour. In painting the gradual rise in popular esteem of Caravaggio has been the best barometer of modern taste, William Watson describes a late phase of Shang-dynasty Chinese ritual bronzes of the 11th century BC as baroque. The term Baroque may still be used, usually pejoratively, describing works of art, craft, the appeal of Baroque style turned consciously from the witty, intellectual qualities of 16th-century Mannerist art to a visceral appeal aimed at the senses. It employed an iconography that was direct, simple, obvious, germinal ideas of the Baroque can also be found in the work of Michelangelo. Even more generalised parallels perceived by some experts in philosophy, prose style, see the Neapolitan palace of Caserta, a Baroque palace whose construction began in 1752. In paintings Baroque gestures are broader than Mannerist gestures, less ambiguous, less arcane and mysterious, more like the stage gestures of opera, Baroque poses depend on contrapposto, the tension within the figures that move the planes of shoulders and hips in counterdirections. Baroque is a style of unity imposed upon rich, heavy detail, Baroque style featured exaggerated lighting, intense emotions, release from restraint, and even a kind of artistic sensationalism. There were highly diverse strands of Italian baroque painting, from Caravaggio to Cortona, the most prominent Spanish painter of the Baroque was Diego Velázquez. The later Baroque style gradually gave way to a more decorative Rococo, while the Baroque nature of Rembrandts art is clear, the label is less often used for Vermeer and many other Dutch artists. Flemish Baroque painting shared a part in this trend, while continuing to produce the traditional categories
8.
Romanticism
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Romanticism was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of all the past and nature, preferring the medieval rather than the classical. It was embodied most strongly in the arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography, education. It elevated folk art and ancient custom to something noble, Romanticism assigned a high value to the achievements of heroic individualists and artists, whose examples, it maintained, would raise the quality of society. It also promoted the individual imagination as a critical authority allowed of freedom from classical notions of form in art, there was a strong recourse to historical and natural inevitability, a Zeitgeist, in the representation of its ideas. In the second half of the 19th century, Realism was offered as a polar opposite to Romanticism, the decline of Romanticism during this time was associated with multiple processes, including social and political changes and the spread of nationalism. Defining the nature of Romanticism may be approached from the point of the primary importance of the free expression of the feelings of the artist. The importance the Romantics placed on emotion is summed up in the remark of the German painter Caspar David Friedrich that the feeling is his law. Samuel Taylor Coleridge and others believed there were laws that the imagination—at least of a good creative artist—would unconsciously follow through artistic inspiration if left alone. As well as rules, the influence of models from other works was considered to impede the creators own imagination, so that originality was essential. The concept of the genius, or artist who was able to produce his own work through this process of creation from nothingness, is key to Romanticism. This idea is called romantic originality. Not essential to Romanticism, but so widespread as to be normative, was a strong belief, however, this is particularly in the effect of nature upon the artist when he is surrounded by it, preferably alone. Romantic art addressed its audiences with what was intended to be felt as the voice of the artist. So, in literature, much of romantic poetry invited the reader to identify the protagonists with the poets themselves. In both French and German the closeness of the adjective to roman, meaning the new literary form of the novel, had some effect on the sense of the word in those languages. It is only from the 1820s that Romanticism certainly knew itself by its name, the period typically called Romantic varies greatly between different countries and different artistic media or areas of thought. Margaret Drabble described it in literature as taking place roughly between 1770 and 1848, and few dates much earlier than 1770 will be found. In English literature, M. H. Abrams placed it between 1789, or 1798, this latter a very typical view, and about 1830, however, in most fields the Romantic Period is said to be over by about 1850, or earlier
9.
Naples
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Naples is the capital of the Italian region Campania and the third-largest municipality in Italy, after Rome and Milan. In 2015, around 975,260 people lived within the administrative limits. The Metropolitan City of Naples had a population of 3,115,320, Naples is the 9th-most populous urban area in the European Union with a population of between 3 million and 3.7 million. About 4.4 million people live in the Naples metropolitan area, Naples is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. Bronze Age Greek settlements were established in the Naples area in the second millennium BC, a larger colony – initially known as Parthenope, Παρθενόπη – developed on the Island of Megaride around the ninth century BC, at the end of the Greek Dark Ages. Naples remained influential after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, thereafter, in union with Sicily, it became the capital of the Two Sicilies until the unification of Italy in 1861. Naples was the most-bombed Italian city during World War II, much of the citys 20th-century periphery was constructed under Benito Mussolinis fascist government, and during reconstruction efforts after World War II. The city has experienced significant economic growth in recent decades, and unemployment levels in the city, however, Naples still suffers from political and economic corruption, and unemployment levels remain high. Naples has the fourth-largest urban economy in Italy, after Milan, Rome and it is the worlds 103rd-richest city by purchasing power, with an estimated 2011 GDP of US$83.6 billion. The port of Naples is one of the most important in Europe, numerous major Italian companies, such as MSC Cruises Italy S. p. A, are headquartered in Naples. The city also hosts NATOs Allied Joint Force Command Naples, the SRM Institution for Economic Research, Naples is a full member of the Eurocities network of European cities. The city was selected to become the headquarters of the European institution ACP/UE and was named a City of Literature by UNESCOs Creative Cities Network, the Villa Rosebery, one of the three official residences of the President of Italy, is located in the citys Posillipo district. Naples historic city centre is the largest in Europe, covering 1,700 hectares and enclosing 27 centuries of history, Naples has long been a major cultural centre with a global sphere of influence, particularly during the Renaissance and Enlightenment eras. In the immediate vicinity of Naples are numerous culturally and historically significant sites, including the Palace of Caserta, culinarily, Naples is synonymous with pizza, which originated in the city. Neapolitan music has furthermore been highly influential, credited with the invention of the romantic guitar, according to CNN, the metro stop Toledo is the most beautiful in Europe and it won also the LEAF Award 2013 as Public building of the year. Naples is the Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, Naples sports scene is dominated by football and Serie A club S. S. C. Napoli, two-time Italian champions and winner of European trophies, who play at the San Paolo Stadium in the south-west of the city, the Phlegraean Fields around Naples has been inhabited since the Neolithic period. The earliest Greek settlements were established in the Naples area in the second millennium BC, sailors from the Greek island of Rhodes established a small commercial port called Parthenope on the island of Megaride in the ninth century BC
10.
Somaschi Fathers
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The Somascan Fathers are a charitable religious congregation of priests and brothers, founded in Italy in the 16th century by Saint Jerome Emiliani and named after the motherhouse at Somasca. They are often called Somascans for short and their formal name is Ordo Clericorum Regularium a Somascha, abbreviated as C. R. S. after members names. There are currently about 500 Somascans serving around the world and they provide staff for boys homes, serve in 95 parishes, and engage in other ministries. In 1532, the priests Alessandro Besuzio and Agostino Bariso joined the charitable labors of St. Jerome Emiliani, St. Jerome founded the religious order called the Company of the Servants of the Poor in 1534, calling together his collaborators and companions for a general assembly. This handful of laymen and priests adopted a structure for the movement of religious. Jerome placed the motherhouse at Somascha, a hamlet between Milan and Bergamo. It was recognized by the nuncio to the Republic of Venice in 1535. Jerome Emiliani died at dawn on 8 February 1537, after the death of Jerome the community was about to disband, but was kept together by Angelo Marco Gambarana, who had been chosen superior. It was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540, and confirmed by Pius IV in 1563, in 1568 the Company was constituted a religious order, according to the Rule of St. Augustine, with solemn vows, by Pius V with the name of Somascan Regular Clerics. At this time the first Constitutions were issued to define a common lifestyle for all its members, in 1547 the Somascans were briefly united with the Theatines, but as the care of orphans was different from the purpose of the latter community, they separated in 1554. In 1569 the first six members made their profession, and Gambarana was made first superior general, later the education of youth was put into the programme of the order, and the colleges at Rome and Pavia became renowned. It spread into Austria and Switzerland, and before the great Revolution it had 119 houses in its four provinces, Rome, Lombardy, Venice, and France. In the rule, Jerome puts down as the work of the community the care of orphans, poor, and sick. The Order extended its charitable ministries beyond the care of orphans by supporting and staffing seminaries, by educating and forming youth and its expansion, however, was abruptly stopped by laws obstructing religious life issued by Napoleon in 1810 and by the Italian government in 1861. It followed a painful dark period characterized by persecution, injustice, suffering and its expansion resumed, reaching new continents and new countries. Nowadays, the Somascans number about 500 religious, the Somascan Fathers and Brothers continue St. They work in homes, treatment and rehabilitation centers, retreat houses, schools, youth centers. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles
11.
Jusepe de Ribera
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Jusepe de Ribera was a Spanish Tenebrist painter and printmaker, also known as José de Ribera and Josep de Ribera. He also was called Lo Spagnoletto by his contemporaries and early writers, Ribera was a leading painter of the Spanish school, although his mature work was all done in Italy. Ribera was born at Xàtiva, near Valencia, Spain and he was baptized on February 17,1591. His father was a shoemaker, perhaps on a large scale, longing to study art in Italy, he made his way to Rome via Parma, where he is recorded in 1611. According to one source, a cardinal noticed him drawing from the frescoes on a Roman palace facade, Roman artists gave him the nickname Lo Spagnoletto. His early biographers generally rank him among the followers of Caravaggio, very little documentation survives from his early years, with scholars speculating as to the precise time and route by which he came to Italy. Ribera was living in Rome no later than 1612, and is documented as having joined the Academy of Saint Luke by 1613, in 1616, Ribera moved to Naples, in order to avoid his creditors. The Kingdom of Naples was then part of the Spanish Empire, Ribera moved to Naples permanently in the middle of 1616. Ribera began to sign his work as Jusepe de Ribera, español, the period after Osuna was recalled in 1620 seems to have been difficult. Few paintings survive from 1620 to 1626, but this was the period in which most of his best prints were produced and these were at least partly an attempt to attract attention from a wider audience than Naples. His career picked up in the late 1620s, and he was accepted as the painter in Naples thereafter. His influence can be seen in Velázquez, Murillo, and most other Spanish painters of the period, all of them were invited to work in Naples, but found the place inhospitable. The cabal ended at the time of Domenichinos death in 1641, according to the RKD he is listed as a pupil of Ribalta and in turn his own pupils were Enrico Fiammingo, Francesco Fracanzano, Luca Giordano, and Bartolomeo Passante. He was followed by Giuseppe Marullo and he influenced the painters Agostino Beltrano, Hendrick van Someren, Paolo Domenico Finoglio, Giovanni Ricca, about 1644, his daughter married a Spanish nobleman in the administration, who died soon after. From 1644, Ribera seems to have suffered serious ill-health, which reduced his ability to work. In 1647–1648, during the Masaniello rising against Spanish rule, he felt forced for some months to take his family with him into refuge in the palace of the Viceroy. In 1651 he sold the house he had owned for many years. In his earlier style, founded sometimes on Caravaggio and sometimes on the wholly diverse method of Correggio, along with his massive and predominating shadows, he retained from first to last a great strength in local coloring
12.
Aniello Falcone
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Aniello Falcone was an Italian Baroque painter, active in Naples and noted for his painted depictions of battle scenes. Some sources refer to him as Ancillo Falcone, born in Naples the son of a tradesman, he showed his artistic tendency at an early age. He first received instruction from a relative, before becoming one of the most prominent pupils of José de Ribera. The attribution of his battle scenes is complicated by the similarity of those of his pupil Andrea di Leone, Salvator Rosa, Carlo Coppola, among others, and he formed an armed band called the Compagnia della Morte. Ultimately Jean-Baptiste Colbert obtained permission for the painter to return to Naples, two of his battle-pieces are in the Louvre and in the Naples museum, he painted a portrait of Masaniello, and engraved a few plates. His pupils included Salvator Rosa and Carlo Coppola, Domenico Gargiulo, Paolo Porpora, painting in Naples, From Carravaggio to Giordano. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Falcone. Jusepe de Ribera, 1591-1652, a full text exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which includes material on Aniello Falcone
13.
Domenico Gargiulo
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Domenico Gargiulo called Micco Spadaro was an Italian painter of the Baroque period, mainly active in Naples and known for his landscapes, genre scenes and history paintings. Domenico Gargiulo was the son of a sword maker and this earned Domenico the nickname Micco Spadaro. He was trained in the workshop of the battle-painter Aniello Falcone and he also worked with Viviano Codazzi, to whose architectural paintings he added the figures. His early works were influenced by Paul Bril whose works he must have known from Brils 1602 landscape frescoes in the atrium of S Maria Regina Coeli in Naples and he was also influenced by Filippo Napoletano. Among his pupils were Pietro Pesce and Ignazio Oliva and he was patronized by collectors such as Gaspar Roomer. He also worked in the Certosa di San Martino, where he painted in the Coro dei Conversi and he painted a representation of the insurrection by Masaniello and of the plague of 1656. Ralph Nicholson Wornum, ed. Biographical catalogue of the principal Italian painters, woodfall & Kinder, Angel Court, Skinner Street, London, Digitized by Googlebooks from Oxford University copy on Jun 27,2006. Media related to Domenico Gargiulo at Wikimedia Commons
14.
Allegory of Fortune
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Bearing initials, but undated, it measures 200.7 by 133 centimetres. Rosa was known for his paintings, but also worked in the sphere of mythology, witchcraft, portraits. Since 1978 it has been in the J. Paul Getty Museum in Malibu, the painting was made at much the same time as Rosa penned Babilonia, a satirical condemnation of the papal court. According to art critic Brian Sewell, the target of the painting could not be misinterpreted. Rosas friends warned him after viewing it privately, that the painting should not be displayed openly as it was an attack on Pope Alexander VIIs patronage. In 1659 the painting was exhibited at the Pantheon, Rome, only the intervention of the popes brother, Don Marco Chigi, saved him from this humiliation. An earlier painting of Fortune was undertaken by Rosa during the 1640s, the overall dimensions of the undated oil on canvas are 200.7 by 133 centimetres wide, the initials SR inscribed on the book at the lower left represent the signature of the artist. The painting, sometimes referred to as La Fortuna, depicts Fortuna, gemstones, coronets, a sceptre, gold coins, pearls, roses, together with grapes, cereal, and berries flow from the cornucopia onto the animals below. In turn the animals are stamping on the symbols of education, the arts, and knowledge. The donkey, the symbol of the pope, wearing a red and gold coat as a drapery, is suppressing and casting a shadow on an owl. A pig stepping on a rose also symbolizes the same thing, after being displayed in 1659, the painting was acquired by Carlo de Rossi and on his death in around 1683 became the property of Antonio Vallori. It moved from Italy to England after Vallori sold it to Henry Scudamore, the duke was completing a Grand Tour and purchased two Rosa paintings, the other one entitled, Nursing of Jupiter. Passed down by inheritance, the Fortune painting remained in the possession of the various Dukes of Beaufort until sold by the duke in 1957. It was acquired by J. Paul Getty from the gallery in 1971
15.
Louvre
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The Louvre or the Louvre Museum is the worlds largest museum and a historic monument in Paris, France. A central landmark of the city, it is located on the Right Bank of the Seine in the citys 1st arrondissement, approximately 38,000 objects from prehistory to the 21st century are exhibited over an area of 72,735 square metres. The Louvre is the second most visited museum after the Palace Museum in China. The museum is housed in the Louvre Palace, originally built as a fortress in the late 12th century under Philip II, remnants of the fortress are visible in the basement of the museum. Due to the expansion of the city, the fortress eventually lost its defensive function and. The building was extended many times to form the present Louvre Palace, in 1692, the building was occupied by the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres and the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture, which in 1699 held the first of a series of salons. The Académie remained at the Louvre for 100 years, during the French Revolution, the National Assembly decreed that the Louvre should be used as a museum to display the nations masterpieces. The museum opened on 10 August 1793 with an exhibition of 537 paintings, because of structural problems with the building, the museum was closed in 1796 until 1801. The collection was increased under Napoleon and the museum renamed Musée Napoléon, the collection was further increased during the reigns of Louis XVIII and Charles X, and during the Second French Empire the museum gained 20,000 pieces. Holdings have grown steadily through donations and bequests since the Third Republic, whether this was the first building on that spot is not known, it is possible that Philip modified an existing tower. According to the authoritative Grand Larousse encyclopédique, the name derives from an association with wolf hunting den, in the 7th century, St. Fare, an abbess in Meaux, left part of her Villa called Luvra situated in the region of Paris to a monastery. This territory probably did not correspond exactly to the modern site, the Louvre Palace was altered frequently throughout the Middle Ages. In the 14th century, Charles V converted the building into a residence and in 1546, Francis acquired what would become the nucleus of the Louvres holdings, his acquisitions including Leonardo da Vincis Mona Lisa. After Louis XIV chose Versailles as his residence in 1682, constructions slowed, however, on 14 October 1750, Louis XV agreed and sanctioned a display of 96 pieces from the royal collection, mounted in the Galerie royale de peinture of the Luxembourg Palace. Under Louis XVI, the museum idea became policy. The comte dAngiviller broadened the collection and in 1776 proposed conversion of the Grande Galerie of the Louvre – which contained maps – into the French Museum, many proposals were offered for the Louvres renovation into a museum, however, none was agreed on. Hence the museum remained incomplete until the French Revolution, during the French Revolution the Louvre was transformed into a public museum. In May 1791, the Assembly declared that the Louvre would be a place for bringing together monuments of all the sciences, on 10 August 1792, Louis XVI was imprisoned and the royal collection in the Louvre became national property
16.
Giovanni Lanfranco
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Giovanni Lanfranco was an Italian painter of the Baroque period. Giovanni Gaspare Lanfranco was born in Parma, the son of Stefano and Cornelia Lanfranchi. Lanfranco is considered to have contributed to the panel of Polyphemus and Galatea, afterwards, while still technically a member of the Carracci studio of Carracci, Lanfranco, along with Guido Reni and Francesco Albani, frescoed the Herrera Chapel in San Giacomo degli Spagnoli. He also participated in the decoration of San Gregorio Magno. The camerino had been constructed by Cardinal Odoardo Farnese, next to his palace and gardens, of the canvases and frescoes by Domenichino, Girolamo Pulzone, Paul Bril, and Lanfranco, some are conserved in the new church. Among other works, Lanfranco contributed to series, the eccentric Translation of the Magdalen. After the death of Annibale Carracci in 1609, and with the Emilian school of painting out of favor. There, he met Bartolomeo Schedoni and painted the altarpiece for the Ognissanti church, Lanfranco also produced paintings and altarpieces in Orvieto, Vallerano, Leonessa and Fermo. After his return to Rome by 1612, Lanfranco and competed with other Carracci students and assistants—including Reni, Albani, Reni, however, was soon to depart for Naples and then Bologna. During the following decades in Rome, through the 1620s, Lanfranco, unlike Domenichino, Lanfranco was fairly eclectic in terms of style but preferred a visionary, theatrical approach suitable for the ceiling paintings gaining currency in the early 17th century. His Annunciation in San Carlo ai Catinari in regarded as one of his best works, soon, Lanfranco became the pre-eminent painter of circle of Pope Paul V. He painted frescoes for the Palazzo Costaguti and a ceiling fresco in quadratura at the Villa Borghese. In the following year, Lanfranco together with Agostino Tassi and Carlo Saraceni decorated the Sala de Corazzieri and his formal Presentation at the Temple has the sunlit Carraci-like style. In 1622, he painted the Ectasy of Saint Margaret of Cortona as an altarpiece for Santa Maria Nuova in Cortona, the painting could well have inspired the pose in Berninis famous St Theresa in ecstasy. In 1623-1624, he decorated the Sacchetti Chapel in San Giovanni dei Fiorentini in Rome, while Paul Vs successor, Gregory XV, preferred works by Guercino and Domenichino, Lanfranco won commissions for the Crucifix Chapel in Santa Maria in Vallicella. Lanfrancos crowning masterpiece, however, and one of the major church fresco decoration of the late 1620s, was his Assumption of the Virgin frescoed on the dome of SantAndrea della Valle. Completed in 1627 in sotto in su perspective, the array of figures is a landmark in Baroque painting with bright golden coloration. Lanfranco was influenced by Correggios pioneering decoration of the Duomo di Parma, urban VIII commissioned him a large fresco portraying St. Peter Walking on Waters, for which Lanfranco gained the title of Knight of the Order of Christ
17.
Picturesque
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Picturesque is an aesthetic ideal introduced into English cultural debate in 1782 by William Gilpin in Observations on the River Wye, and Several Parts of South Wales, etc. Picturesque, along with the aesthetic and cultural strands of Gothic, the term “picturesque” needs to be understood in relationship to two other aesthetic ideals, the beautiful and the sublime. By the last third of the 18th century, Enlightenment and rationalist ideas about aesthetics were being challenged by looking at the experiences of beauty and sublimity as being non-rational. Aesthetic experience was not just a rational decision – one did not look at a curved form and decide it was beautiful. Picturesque arose as a mediator between these ideals of beauty and the sublime, showing the possibilities that existed in between these two rationally idealised states. As Thomas Gray wrote in 1765 of the Scottish Highlands, “The mountains are ecstatic, none but those monstrous creatures of God know how to join so much beauty with so much horror. ”See also Gilpin and the picturesque. Gilpin’s Essay on Prints defined picturesque as “a term expressive of that kind of beauty. The pictorial genre called “Picturesque” appeared already in the 17th century, as well as portraying beauty in the classical manner, eighteenth-century artists could overdo it from top to bottom. Their preromantic sensitivity could aspire to the sublime or be pleased with the picturesque and this triple definition by Hussey, although modern, is true to the concept of the epoch, as Uvedale Price explained in 1794. The examples Price gave of these three aesthetic tendencies were Handel as the sublime, a pastorale by Arcangelo Corelli as the beautiful, during the mid 18th century the idea of purely scenic pleasure touring began to take hold among the English leisured class. This new image disregarded the principles of symmetry and perfect proportions while focusing more on accidental irregularity, the irregular, anti-classical, ruins became sought after sights. Gilpin himself asked, “shall we suppose it a pleasure to the sportsman to pursue a trivial animal, than it is to the man of taste to pursue the beauties of nature. ”After 1815 when Europe was available to travel again after the wars. Though seemingly vague and far away, the Far East, China and Japan, sir William Temple was a statesman and essayist who traveled throughout Europe. His essay Upon the Gardens of Epicurus, or Of Gardening, in the Year 1685 described what he called the taste of the “Chineses” for a beauty without order. The Chineses scorn this way of planting, and say, a boy, that can tell an hundred, may plant walks of trees in straight lines, and over-against one another, and to what length and extent he pleases. And whoever observes the work upon the best India gowns, or the painting upon their best screens or purcellans, imaginations of Far Eastern irregularity and sharawadgi returns frequently in the eighteenth and nineteenth century discourse. Multiple authors have attempted to trace the etymology of sharawadgi to various Chinese and Japanese terms for garden design, E. V. Gatenby proposed English sharawadgi derived from Japanese sorowaji not being regular, an older form of sorowazu incomplete, unequal, uneven, irregular. S. Lang and Nikolaus Pevsner dismissed these two unattested Chinese terms, doubted the Japanese sorowaji, and suggested that Temple coined the word sharawadgi himself and these authors placed Temples discovery in the context of upcoming ideas on the picturesque
18.
Roman Catholic Diocese of Viterbo
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The Roman Catholic Diocese of Viterbo is a Catholic ecclesiastical territory in central Italy. It was called historically the Diocese of Viterbo e Tuscania and its name was changed to Diocese of Viterbo, Acquapendente, Bagnoregio, Montefiascone, Tuscania and San Martino al Monte Cimino in 1986, and shortened to Viterbo in 1991. The diocese is exempt, i. e. immediately subject to the Holy See, the name of Viterbo occurs for the first time in the 8th century, under Pope Zachary, when it was a village tributary to Toscanella, in Lombard Tuscany on the Via Cassia. Charlemagne gave the all this Tuscan territory in feudal tenure. The episcopal see of Viterbo was transferred from Toscanella, which venerates the martyrs Secundianus, Verianus and they suffered not far from the city, to which their relics were translated in the seventh century by Bishop Maurus, the first known bishop. Among the successors of Maurus was Homobonus, to whom Pope Leo IV addressed a letter determining the boundaries of the diocese, in 876 Joannes, in the name of Pope John VIII, carried the imperial insignia to Charles the Bald. In 1192 Pope Celestine III made it the diocese of Viterbo, on territory split off from the Tuscanello bishopric, as direct subjects of the popes, many of its bishops were transferred to a richer see and/or even created Cardinals. During the tenth century Toscanella was for some time under the Bishop of Centumcellae, the succession of its bishops recommences with Joannes, another Joannes distinguished himself in the reform of Benedict and brought back the clergy of Tuscania to the common life. Gilbert and Giselbert were also promoters of reform, while Richard adhered to the antipope Clement III, who united with Toscanella Centumcellae, among other bishops were Ranieri, in whose episcopate the Paterini came to Viterbo, still active in 1304. After him Cardinal Raniero Capocci was for a time the administrator. In 1435 the Diocese of Corneto was separated and joined with the recently erected Diocese of Montefiascone. When Cardinal Albornoz came to effect the reconquest of the Papal States, Viterbo submitted, when the Western Schism arose, Vicos tyranny recommenced, he took the side of Pope Clement VII and sustained a siege by Cardinal Orsini. The people rose and killed him, and Viterbo returned to the obedience of Pope Urban VI, but in 1391 Gian Sciarra di Vico reentered the city and took possession of its government. In 1391 Cardinal Pileo, the legate of Clement VII, would have given the city over to Pope Boniface IX, but his plan failed. One of its cardinal legates was Reginald Pole, around whom there grew up at Viterbo a coterie of friends, Vittoria Colonna among them, on 2 May 1936 it gained territory from the suppressed Territorial Abbacy of San Martino al Monte Cimino. On 1936.05.02, it lost its autonomous status, as it was united title with the then diocese of Viterbo. Series episcoporum Ecclesiae catholicae, quotquot innotuerunt a beato Petro apostolo, ratisbon, Typis et Sumptibus Georgii Josephi Manz. Hierarchia catholica medii et recentis aevi V. Patavii, Messagero di S. Antonio, hierarchia catholica medii et recentis aevi VI
19.
Etching
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Etching is traditionally the process of using strong acid or mordant to cut into the unprotected parts of a metal surface to create a design in intaglio in the metal. In modern manufacturing, other chemicals may be used on other types of material, as a method of printmaking, it is, along with engraving, the most important technique for old master prints, and remains in wide use today. In a number of variants such as microfabrication etching and photochemical milling it is a crucial technique in much modern technology. In traditional pure etching, a plate is covered with a waxy ground which is resistant to acid. The artist then scratches off the ground with an etching needle where he or she wants a line to appear in the finished piece. The échoppe, a tool with an oval section, is also used for swelling lines. The plate is dipped in a bath of acid, technically called the mordant or etchant. The acid bites into the metal where it is exposed, leaving behind lines sunk into the plate, the remaining ground is then cleaned off the plate. The plate is inked all over, and then the ink wiped off the surface, the plate is then put through a high-pressure printing press together with a sheet of paper. The paper picks up the ink from the lines, making a print. The process can be repeated many times, typically several hundred impressions could be printed before the shows much sign of wear. The work on the plate can also be added to by repeating the whole process, Etching has often been combined with other intaglio techniques such as engraving or aquatint. The process as applied to printmaking is believed to have been invented by Daniel Hopfer of Augsburg, Hopfer was a craftsman who decorated armour in this way, and applied the method to printmaking, using iron plates. Apart from his prints, there are two examples of his work on armour, a shield from 1536 now in the Real Armeria of Madrid. The switch to copper plates was made in Italy. On the other hand, the handling of the ground and acid need skill and experience, prior to 1100 AD, the New World Hohokam independently utilized the technique of acid etching in marine shell designs. Jacques Callot from Nancy in Lorraine made important technical advances in etching technique and he developed the échoppe, a type of etching-needle with a slanting oval section at the end, which enabled etchers to create a swelling line, as engravers were able to do. Callot also appears to have responsible for an improved, harder, recipe for the etching ground
20.
Pietro Testa
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Pietro Testa was an Italian High Baroque artist, best known, both to his contemporaries and modern appreciation, as a printmaker and draftsman, who was active in Rome. Born in Lucca, thus sometimes called il Lucchesino, Testa moved to Rome early in life. One source states he was ejected from the Cortona studio in 1631, others state Testa trained under Pietro Paolini or under Domenichino, for whom he worked under the patronage of Cassiano dal Pozzo. He was friends with Nicolas Poussin and Francesco Mola and his Sacrifice of Iphigenia appears to have influenced Tiepolos rendition at Villa Valmarana in Vicenza. His early prints, from the 1630s, were religious and were influenced by Federico Barocci. These achieve very delicate effects of light, his later ones became harder and more austere in style, as he attempted a personal version of neo-classicism, many of his later subjects were original classical subjects, the most ambitious reflecting his personal struggles. His prints were successful and frequently copied, sympathetic contemporaries considered these his finest and most important works. Testa was influenced by Leonardo da Vinci to favor direct observation of natural phenomena, accounts of Testas death are confused and contradictory, some suggesting murder or suicide. Yet his earliest biographer, the 17th-century author Filippo Baldinucci, indicates that the death was accidental, garden of Venus & Sacrifice of Iphigenia Sacrifice of Isaac Alcibiades Interrupts Socrates Symposium Return of the Prodigal Son Nymphs and Satyrs in a Landscape Cropper, Elizabeth. The Ideal of Painting, Pietro Testas Düsseldorf Notebook, Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press,1984. Cropper, Elizabeth, ed. Pietro Testa, 1612-1650, Prints, Philadelphia, Philadelphia Museum of Art,1988. Freedberg, Sydney J. Painting in Italy,1500 to 1600, color and Culture, Practice and Meaning From Antiquity to Abstraction. Boston, Little, Brown & Co.1993, time to Every Purpose, The Four Seasons in American Culture. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Press,2004, Art and Architecture in Italy,1600 to 1750. Good selection of etchings from San Francisco Two etchings from the MMA Two etchings at the Art Museum of Estonia
21.
Claude Lorrain
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Claude Lorrain was a French painter, draughtsman and engraver of the Baroque era. He spent most of his life in Italy, and is one of the earliest important artists, apart from his contemporaries in Dutch Golden Age painting, to concentrate on landscape painting. His landscapes are usually turned into the more prestigious genre of paintings by the addition of a few small figures. By the end of the 1630s he was established as the leading landscapist in Italy and these gradually became larger, but with fewer figures, more carefully painted, and produced at a lower rate. He was not generally an innovator in painting, except in introducing the sun into many paintings. His patrons were also mostly Italian, but after his death he became popular with English collectors. He was a creator of drawings in pen and very often monochrome watercolour wash, usually brown. Chalk is sometimes used for under-drawing, and white highlighting in various media may be employed and these fall into three fairly distinct groups. Firstly there are numbers of sketches, mostly of landscapes, and apparently very often done at the scene, these have been greatly admired. Then there are studies for paintings, of various degrees of finish, many clearly done before or during the process of painting and this was certainly the case for the last group, the 195 drawings recording finished paintings collected in his Liber Veritatis. He produced over 40 etchings, often simplified versions of paintings and these served various purposes for him, but are now regarded as much less important than his drawings. He painted frescoes in his career, which played an important part in making his reputation. The earliest biographies of Claude are in Joachim von Sandrarts Teutsche Academie, both Sandrart and Baldinucci knew the painter personally, but at periods some 50 years apart, respectively at the start of his career and shortly before his death. Sandrart knew him well and lived with him for a while, while Baldinucci was probably not intimate with him, and derived much of his information from Claudes nephew, who lived with the artist. Claudes tombstone gives 1600 as his year of birth, but contemporary sources indicate a later date and he was born in the small village of Chamagne, Vosges, then part of the Duchy of Lorraine. He was the third of five sons of Jean Gellée and Anne Padose, according to Baldinucci, Claudes parents both died when he was twelve years old, and he then lived at Freiburg with an elder brother. Jean was an artist in inlay and taught Claude the rudiments of drawing, Claude then travelled to Italy, first working for Goffredo Wals in Naples, then joining the workshop of Agostino Tassi in Rome. Sandrarts account of Claudes early years, however, is quite different, according to Sandrart, Claude did not do well at the village school and was apprenticed to a pastry baker
22.
Trastevere
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Trastevere is the 13th rione of Rome, on the west bank of the Tiber, south of Vatican City, and within Municipio I. Its name comes from the Latin trans Tiberim, meaning literally beyond the Tiber and its logo is a golden head of a lion on a red background, the meaning of which is uncertain. To the north, Trastevere borders the XIV rione, Borgo, in Romes Regal period, the area across the Tiber belonged to the hostile Etruscans, the Romans named it Ripa Etrusca. Rome conquered it to control of and access to the river from both banks, but was not interested in building on that side of the river. In fact, the connection between Trastevere and the rest of the city was a small wooden bridge called the Pons Sublicius. By the time of the Republic c.509 BC, the number of sailors and fishermen making a living from the river had increased, immigrants from the East also settled there, mainly Jews and Syrians. The area began to be considered part of the city under Augustus, since the end of the Roman Republic the quarter was also the center of an important Jewish community, which inhabited there until the end of the Middle Ages. With the wealth of the Imperial Age, several important figures decided to build their villae in Trastevere, including Clodia, and Julius Caesar. The regio included two of the most ancient churches in Rome, the Titulus Callixti, later called the Basilica di Santa Maria in Trastevere, and the Titulus Cecilae, Santa Cecilia in Trastevere. In the Middle Ages Trastevere had narrow, winding, irregular streets, moreover, at the end of the 15th century these mignani were removed. Nevertheless, Trastevere remained a maze of narrow streets, there was a strong contrast between the large, opulent houses of the upper classes and the small, dilapidated houses of the poor. The streets had no pavement until the time of Sixtus IV at the end of the 15th century, at first bricks were used, but these were later replaced by sampietrini, which were more suitable for carriages. In 1744 Benedict XIV modified the borders of the rioni, giving Trastevere its modern limits, nowadays, Trastevere maintains its character thanks to its narrow cobbled streets lined by ancient houses. At night, natives and tourists flock to its many pubs and restaurants. The unique character of this neighborhood has attracted artists, foreign expats, in the sixties and seventies, the American musicians/composers Frederic Rzewski and Richard Teitelbaum, of the group Musica Elettronica Viva, lived in Via della Luce. Sergio Leone, the director of Spaghetti Westerns, grew up in Viale Glorioso, ennio Morricone, the film music composer, went to the same school, and for one year was in the same class as Sergio Leone. Public libraries in Trastevere include Casa della Memoria e della Storia
23.
Gian Lorenzo Bernini
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Gian Lorenzo Bernini was an Italian sculptor and architect. While a major figure in the world of architecture, he was the sculptor of his age. Bernini was also a figure in the emergence of Roman Baroque architecture along with his contemporaries, the architect Francesco Borromini. Early in their careers they had all worked at the time at the Palazzo Barberini, initially under Carlo Maderno and, following his death. Later on, however, they were in competition for commissions, Peters Basilica, completed under Pope Paul V with the addition of Madernos nave and facade and finally re-consecrated by Pope Urban VIII on 18 November 1626, after 150 years of planning and building. Berninis design of the Piazza San Pietro in front of the Basilica is one of his most innovative, during his long career, Bernini received numerous important commissions, many of which were associated with the papacy. At an early age, he came to the attention of the nephew, Cardinal Scipione Borghese. Although he did not fare so well during the reign of Innocent X, under Alexander VII, he again regained pre-eminent artistic domination. Bernini and other artists fell from favor in later neoclassical criticism of the Baroque, the art historian Howard Hibbard concludes that, during the seventeenth century, there were no sculptors or architects comparable to Bernini. Bernini was born in Naples in 1598 to Angelica Galante and Mannerist sculptor Pietro Bernini and he was the sixth of their thirteen children. Gianlorenzo Bernini was the definition of childhood genius and he was “recognized as a prodigy when he was only eight years old, he was consistently encouraged by his father, Pietro. His precocity earned him the admiration and favor of powerful patrons who hailed him as ‘the Michelangelo of his century’” and his father was so impressed by his son’s obvious talent that he took him to Rome to showcase him to the cardinals and Pope. Bernini was presented before Pope Paul V, for whom he did a sketch of Saint Paul, once he was brought to Rome, he never left. “For Bernini there could be only one Rome, ‘You are made for Rome, ’ said Pope Urban VIII to him, ‘and Rome for you’”. It was in world of 17th century Rome and religious power. Under the patronage of the wealthy and most powerful Cardinal Scipione Borghese. By the time he was twenty-two, he was considered talented enough to have given a commission for a papal portrait. Berninis reputation, however, was established by four masterpieces
24.
Giancarlo de' Medici
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Giancarlo de Medici was an Italian cardinal of the House of Medici. He was the son of Grand Duke Cosimo II of Tuscany and his wife, Maria Maddalena of Austria. He was born at Florence, the son and third child of Cosimo II de Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany. He entered the state at a young age. In 1620 he joined the Sovereign Military Order of Malta and was named Grand Prior of Pisa, in 1638 he was named General of the Mediterranean Sea. On 14 November 1644 Pope Innocent X created Giancarlo a cardinal-deacon as a token of his affection toward the Medici, thus forced to give up his military career and with it the title of General of the Spanish Seas, Giancarlo could not reconcile himself to his new religious lifestyle. Cardinal de Medici participated in the conclave,1655 as one of leaders of the Spanish faction. Pope Alexander VII made Giancarlo responsible for welcoming Queen Christina of Sweden, upon discovering of the closeness that had formed between the two, the Pope sent Gian Carlo back to Florence, declaring him too handsome and too young to be spiritual advisor to the Queen. Here, Giancarlo led a life of dissipation, taking many mistresses, nevertheless and he was patron of science, letters and music. He founded the Accademia degli Immobili and contributed to the construction of Teatro della Pergola, in later years, Giancarlo donated his sizeable art collection to form the Pitti Gallery. He died at Florence, of an apoplexy, at the age of 51, and was interred in the Medicean necropolis, four years after the death of Giancarlo, his younger brother Leopoldo was created a cardinal. Acton, Harold, The Last Medici, Macmillan, London,1980, ISBN 0-333-29315-0 Young, the Medici, Volume II, John Murray, London,1920
25.
Lorenzo Lippi
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Lorenzo Lippi was an Italian painter and poet. Born in Florence, he studied painting under Matteo Rosselli, both Baldassare Franceschini and Francesco Furini were also apprenticed with Rosselli. The influence of whose style, and more especially of that of Santi di Tito, is to be traced in Lippis works, which are marked by taste, delicacy and his maxim was to poetize as he spoke, and to paint as he saw. His biography was recounted by Filippo Baldinucci, in Innsbruck, he wrote his humorous poem named Malmantile Racquistato, which was published under the anagrammatic pseudonym of Perlone Zipoli. It is full of graceful or racy Florentine idioms, and is counted by Italians as a testo di lingua, Lippi is remembered more for this poem than by his paintings. It was published posthumously in 1688, Lippi was somewhat self-sufficient and arrogant, and, when visiting Parma, would not look at the famous paintings by Corregio there, saying that they could teach him nothing. He died of pleurisy in 1664, in Florence, among his pupils is Bartolomeo Bimbi. He should not be confused with the Quattrocento-Renaissance, father-son pair of Florentine painters Filippo and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed
26.
Volterra
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Volterra, known to the ancient Etruscans as Velathri or Vlathri and to the Romans as Volaterrae, is a town and comune in the Tuscany region of Italy. The town was a Bronze Age settlement of the Villanovan culture, the site is believed to have been continuously inhabited as a city since at least the end of the 8th century BC. It became a municipium allied to Rome at the end of the 3rd century BC, the city was a bishops residence in the 5th century, and its episcopal power was affirmed during the 12th century. With the decline of the episcopate, Volterra became a place of interest of the Florentines, Florentine rule was not always popular, and opposition occasionally broke into rebellion. These rebellions were put down by Florence, when the Florentine Republic fell in 1530, Volterra came under the control of the Medici family and later followed the history of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. Founded in 1905, the gallery consists mostly of works by Tuscan artists from 14th to 17th centuries, includes a Deposition by Rosso Fiorentino. It was enlarged in the 13th century after an earthquake, in the center of the vault are fragments of an Eternal Father by Niccolò Circignani. Also noteworthy is the Addolorata Chapel, with a terracotta attributed to Andrea della Robbia. In the nearby chapel, dedicated to the Very Holy Name of Jesus, is a table with Christs monogram, the rectangular bell tower is from 1493. Fortezza Medicea, build in the 1470s, now a housing the noted restaurant. Guarnacci Etruscan Museum, with thousands of funeral urns dating back to the Hellenistic and Archaic periods, main attractions are the bronze statuette Ombra della sera, and the sculpted effigy, Urna degli Sposi of an Etruscan couple in terra cotta. The Etruscan City Walls, including the well-preserved Porta allArco, the Medici Villa di Spedaletto, outside the city, in direction of Lajatico There are excavations of Etruscan tombs in the Valle Bona area. Volterra features in Horatius, a poem by Lord Macaulay, linda Prouds A Tabernacle for the Sun, the first volume of The Botticelli Trilogy, begins with the sack of Volterra in 1472. Volterra is the home of the Maffei family and the events of 1472 lead directly to the Pazzi Conspiracy of 1478. The protagonist of the novel is Tommaso de Maffei, half brother of one of the conspirators, Volterra is an important location in Stephenie Meyers Twilight series. In the books, Volterra is home to the Volturi, a coven of rich, regal, powerful ancient vampires and this is the central incident in his book On Love. Volterra is mentioned repeatedly in British author Dudley Popes Captain Nicholas Ramage historical nautical series, gianna, the Marchesa of Volterra and the fictional ruler of the area, features in the first twelve books of the eighteen-book series. Volterra is the site where the novel Chimaira by the Italian author Valerio Massimo Manfredi takes place, Valerio Massimo Manfredis The Ancient Curse is also set in Volterra, where a statue called The Shade of Twilight is stolen from the Volterra museum
27.
Book of Tobit
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Athanasius mentioned that certain other books, including the book of Tobit, while not being part of the Canon, were appointed by the Fathers to be read. Augustine writes in his book On Christian Doctrine that the book of Tobit is a Canonical book, according to the monk Rufinus of Aquileia the book of Tobit and other deuterocanonical books were not called Canonical but Ecclesiastical books. Pope Innocent I sent a letter to the bishop of Toulouse citing the book of Tobit and this list mentions the book of Tobit as part of the Old Testament Canon. Article VI of the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England lists it as a book of the Apocrypha, protestants regard Tobit as apocryphal because it was not included in the Tanakh nor considered canonical by Judaism. Qumran fragments of the text, which were copied between 100 BC to 25 AD, evidence a much earlier origin than previously thought, however, it could be hypothesized that some ancient Jewish rabbinic scholars considered Tobit to be historical. Midrash Bereishit Rabbah, a commentary on the Book of Genesis compiled circa 400–600 AD. Tobit was also considered part of the Septuagint, in more contemporary times, a number of Jews in Israel have sought to reclaim Tobit as part of the canon. This book tells the story of Tobit, a righteous Israelite of the tribe of Naphtali and he is particularly noted for his diligence in attempting to provide proper burials for fallen Israelites whom Sargons successor Sennacherib has slain. For this behavior the king seizes his property and exiles him, after Sennacheribs death, Tobit is allowed to return to Nineveh, where he buries a man who has been murdered on the street. That night, he sleeps in the open and is blinded by bird droppings which fall into his eyes, the blindness caused by this injury strains his marriage and, ultimately, he prays for death. Meanwhile, in faraway Media, a woman named Sarah has prayed for death in despair. The demon of lust, Asmodeus, the worst of demons, abducts and kills every man whom Sarah marries, God sends the angel Raphael, disguised as a human, to heal Tobit and to free Sarah from the demon. The main narrative is dedicated to Tobits son, Tobiah or Tobiyah, Raphael presents himself as Tobits kinsman Azariah and offers to aid and protect Tobias. Under Raphaels guidance, Tobias journeys to Media with his dog, and over the objection of Tobits wife Hannah, along the way, whilst he washes his feet in the river Tigris, a fish tries to swallow his foot. By the angels order, he captures it and removes its heart, liver, upon arriving in Media, Raphael tells Tobias of the beautiful Sarah, whom Tobias has the right to marry because he is her cousin and closest relative. The angel instructs the man to burn the fishs liver. The two marry, and the fumes of the burning organs drive the demon to Upper Egypt, sarahs father has been digging a grave to secretly bury Tobias. Surprised to find his son-in-law alive and well, he orders a double-length wedding feast and has the grave secretly filled, since the feast prevents him from leaving, Tobias sends Raphael to recover his fathers money
28.
Masaniello
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Masaniello was an Italian fisherman, who became leader of the revolt against the rule of Habsburg Spain in Naples in 1647. Until recently it was believed that Masaniello was a native of Amalfi, the source of this misunderstanding is that Amalfi was simply part of his name, but has been traditionally interpreted as a reference to his place of origin. The celebration took place on the day of birth, and in the church where in 1641 Tommaso Aniello would later marry the sixteen-year-old Bernardina Pisa. The historian Giuseppe Galasso suggested that the misunderstanding was fostered and encouraged by an attitude of power. The faithful city was not to be and could not admit the presence of an infidel, on 7 July 1997, at the 350th anniversary of the popular uprising, the City of Naples placed an inscription in honor of Masaniello in Vico Rotto al Mercato. Masaniellos family was humble but not poor and his father, Francesco dAmalfi was a fisherman and shopkeeper. His mother, Antonia Gargano was a housekeeper who became pregnant with Masaniello before her marriage and he had two younger brothers and one sister, John, who was another leader of the rebellion, Francesco, who died in infancy, and Grace. The house where he lived was in the Pendino quarter, where the tax on fish was collected, at the time, Naples had about 250,000 inhabitants, and was one of the most populous metropolises in Europe. Market Square, where Masaniello spent his life, was the nerve center. It housed stalls selling all manner of goods, it was where acrobats performed for the people and. During the 1640s, Habsburg Spain was faced with a series of disastrous conflicts, the revolt of the Netherlands, the Thirty Years War, the Revolt of Catalonia. To support the war effort, the Iberian Crown imposed a tax burden on the Viceroy of Naples in order to restore the coffers of its vast empire. Often, to escape taxation, he brought the fish directly to the homes of nobles and his main activity was, however, smuggling, so much so that in 1646 his reputation as a skilled smuggler was already well established in the Market. He worked mainly for the nobility, including the marchesa di Brienza and don Diomede Carafa, Duke of Maddaloni. His wife Bernardina, arrested for bringing to town a sock full of flour, to obtain her freedom, Masaniello was forced to pay a ransom of one hundred crowns, which brought him into debt. According to tradition, it was this episode that provoked in him a desire to avenge the people from their oppressors, Masaniello also became a pupil of the writer Don Giulio Genoino, an octogenarian priest with a past as a defender of the people. In 1620, however, he had been dismissed by the Consiglio Collaterale, misgovernment and fiscal oppression during the Thirty Years War aroused much discontent throughout the Kingdom of Naples. A revolt broke out at Palermo in May 1647, and the people of Naples followed the example of the Sicilians
29.
Carlo Coppola
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Carlo Coppola was an Italian painter of the Baroque period, active in his natal city of Naples. He was a pupil of the battle-painter Aniello Falcone, and was adept at the same topic and he is said to have enjoyed himself during the day, thus spending his nights painting by candlelight, only within a short time to become blind. Memorie storiche degli scrittori nati nel regno di Napoli, tipografia dellAquila di V. Puzziello, Chiostro di San Tomasso dAquino, Naples, Digitized by Googlebooks April 18,2006. Achille della Ragione - Carlo Coppola opera completa - Napoli 2010
30.
Paolo Porpora
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Paolo Porpora was an Italian painter of the late-Baroque, who was active mainly in Naples and specialized in floral still lifes. He is documented as a pupil of Giacomo Recco, the father of Giuseppe Recco and he joined the Roman Accademia di San Luca from 1656 to 1658. He appears to have influenced in Rome by Netherlandish still-life painters. Among his pupils were Giovan Battista Ruoppolo and the Neapolitan Onofrio Loth
31.
Pietro del Po
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Pietro del Po was an Italian painter of the Baroque. He was born in Palermo, and studied under Domenichino at Naples and he painted for the churches at Palermo, and afterwards visited Rome, where among other works, he painted a picture of St. Leo, for La Madonna di Costantinopoli. He was more distinguished as an engraver than as a painter and his daughter, Teresa del Po, was also an engraver and painter. Pietro was born in Palermo in 1616, the son of Francesco Jacopo and he began to draw at a very early age and later began to paint under the guidance of an unknown master. He married Maria Monforti on 12 July 1637 in the parish of Santa Croce in Palermo, in 1644 he moved to Naples, perhaps inspired by the need for a more stimulating environment. Naples was in fact a lively artistic center, dominated by the presence of artists as Jusepe de Ribera, Domenichino and Giovanni Lanfranco. It was indeed this classicist style that provided an interest for Del Po, the sources indicate that he was a student of Domenichino, but direct contact with the Bolognese artist is now disputed. Rather, it seems probable that he studied with Lanfranco between 1644 and 1646, during those same years he came into contact with artists such as Ribera, Francesco Vaccaro, Massimo Stanzione, and Charles Mellin. This period was of particular importance and was furthermore punctuated by significant events in the artist’s private. His second marriage, to the widow Maffei, Porzia Campagna resulted in the birth of his daughter Teresa in 1646, who was baptized on December 23 in the parish of San Giuseppe. The following year Pietro and his moved to Rome in order to be near Lanfranco. Between 1651 and 1652 Del Po lived on Via Margutta, the artists quarter, in fact, it seems that Poussin assigned to Doughet the task of reproducing his paintings in etchings, and later dedicated them to his most important patrons. De Domenici believed that Pietro del Po knew Poussin personally, in 1652 Pietro became a member of the Academy of St. Luke, where he was a lecturer in anatomy and perspective. After the death of Orfeo Borselli, who was elected president in 1668, in 1652 he was admitted to the Accademia dei Virtuosi, and in the same year or, according to some scholars, in 1654, his son Giacomo was born. Giacomo also became a painter and together with his sister Teresa. These accusations were made by his creditors and damaged his reputation, in March 1683 the painter and his family returned to Naples and remained there until Pietro’s death on 22 July 1692, with the exception of a brief stay in Palermo. The artistic production of Pietro del Po was probably vast, the sources mention numerous works without, however, supplying further information. Perez Sanchez attempted an initial catalogue, which remains the source for the artist
32.
Andrea Vaccaro
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Andrea Vaccaro was an Italian painter of the Baroque period. Vaccaro was in his one of the most successful painters in Naples. Very successful and valued in his lifetime, Vaccaro and his workshop produced many works for local patrons as well as for export to Spanish religious orders. Very little is known for certain about Andrea Vaccaros early life, Andrea Vaccaro was born in Naples as the son of Pietro Baccaro and Gioanna di Glauso. His father practiced a legal profession, Vaccaro first applied himself to the study of literature. Where it was believed that he apprenticed with the late-Mannerist painter Girolamo Imparato, it is now known that Imparato died in 1607. Andrea Vaccaro was at the age of 16 apprenticed to Giovanni Tommaso Passaro, no works from this early phase of his career have been preserved. On 16 February 1628, Angela Geronima, a child of the young artist and this suggests that he had already established a family by this time. No further information about this first marriage is available and his paintings from shortly after 1620 show the influence of Caravaggio and his Neapolitan followers. He reportedly painted a copy of Caravaggios Flagellation, at one time, both the copy and original hung together in San Domenico Maggiore. Not all scholars accept that the copy was in fact painted by Vacarro, after 1630 Vaccaro came into contact with the work of Guido Reni, Anthony van Dyck and Pietro Novelli. He produced copies of the work of artists for Neapolitan collectors and Flemish art dealers in Naples such as Gaspar Roomer. It is believed he was active as an art dealer. Vaccaro contracted his marriage to the 24-year old Anna Criscuolo on 17 April 1639. A year later, on 13 March 1640, their son Tomaso Domenico Nicola was born and he would later be known as the painter Nicola Vaccaro. Vaccaro became very successful and almost every collection in Naples boasted at least one painting by him, Vaccaro also had patrons in other parts of Italy. From 1635 he started exporting religious canvases to Spain for religious orders and he was further patronized by the Spanish Viceroy of Naples, Gaspar de Bracamonte. In 1656 the plague devastated Naples decimating half of the population, including the artists Bernardo Cavallino, Vacarro continued to receive many commissions, including one for frescos in the Theatine church of San Paolo Maggiore in Naples, the sole fresco commission in his career
33.
John of Austria the Younger
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John of Austria or John Joseph of Austria was a Spanish general and political figure. He was the bastard son of Philip IV of Spain to be acknowledged by the King and trained for military command. In 1677 in a coup he took control of the monarchy of his half-brother Charles II of Spain. He remained in power until his death in 1679 and his mother was María Calderón, a popular actress, who was forced into a convent shortly after his birth. He was raised in León by a woman of modest circumstances who likely did not know his parentage, in 1642, the King recognized him officially as his son, and John began his lifes career as a military representative of his fathers interests. Don John was sent in 1647 to Naples, then in the throes of the popular rising first led by Masaniello, with a naval squadron, there he played a waiting game. He was next sent as viceroy to Sicily, whence he was recalled in 1651 to complete the pacification of Catalonia, which had been in revolt since 1640. The high handedness of the French, whom the Catalans had called in to help their revolt, had produced a reaction, in 1656, he was sent to command in Flanders, then in revolt against his own sovereign. During 1661 and 1662, he fought against the Portuguese in Extremadura, the Spanish troops were ill-supplied and irregularly paid and in a rugged, hostile country. Morale was poor and they were untrustworthy but they were superior in numbers, if Don John had not suffered from the indolence which Clarendon considered his chief defect, the Portuguese might have been hard pressed. Don John was removed from command and sent to his command at Consuegra, after the death of Philip IV. in 1665 Don John became the recognized leader of the opposition to the government of Philips widow, the regent. She and her favorite, the German Jesuit Juan Everardo Nithard, seized and put to one of his most trusted servants. Don John, in return, put himself at the head of a rising of Aragon and Catalonia, Don John was, however, forced to content himself with the viceroyalty of Aragon. In 1677, the queen mother aroused universal opposition by her shameless favor for Fernando de Valenzuela, Don John was able to drive her from court, and establish himself as prime minister. Great hopes were entertained for his administration, but it proved disappointing and short, Don John died and his name featured prominently in the Popish Plot fabricated by Titus Oates in 1678. Memoirs of Spain during the Reigns of Philip IV. and Charles II
34.
Abruzzo
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Abruzzo is a region of Italy in Southern Italy, with an area of 10,763 square km and a population of 1.3 million. Its western border lies 80 km east of Rome, the region is divided into the four provinces of LAquila, Teramo, Pescara, and Chieti. Abruzzo borders the region of Marche to the north, Lazio to the west and south-west, Molise to the south-east, and the Adriatic Sea to the east. Geographically, Abruzzo is divided into an area to the west, which includes the Gran Sasso Ditalia. Abruzzo is considered culturally, linguistically, and historically a region of Southern Italy, the Italian Statistical Authority deems it to be part of Southern Italy, partially because of Abruzzos historic association with the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. These ensure the survival of 75% of Europes living species including species, such as the small wading dotterel, golden eagle, the Abruzzo chamois, Apennine wolf. Abruzzo is also home to Calderone, Europes southernmost glacier, visiting nineteenth-century Italian diplomat and journalist Primo Levi said that forte e gentile best describes the beauty of the region and the character of its people. Forte e gentile has since become the motto of the region, Abruzzo is divided into four administrative provinces, Humans have inhabited Abruzzo since Neolithic times. A skeleton from Lama dei Peligni in the province of Chieti has been dated to 6,540 bp. The name Abruzzo appears to derive from the Latin Aprutium, although in Roman times the region was known at times as Picenum, Sabina et Samnium, Flaminia et Picenum. Until 1963 it was part of the Abruzzi region with Molise, Abruzzo Citeriore is present day Chieti province. Abruzzo Ulteriore I comprised the Teramo and Pescara provinces, Abruzzo Ulteriore II is now the Province of LAquila, in this province is found the city of Corfinio, the chief city of the Paeligni,7 m. N. of Sulmona in the valley of the Aternus. The site of the town is occupied by the village of Pentima. It appears also as a fortress of importance in the Civil War and these people were honored by Caesar as citizens of Rome. It is said that the name Italia came from this region because of ancient coins that have found here that date from about the 1st century BC. These coins have the name Italia on them and are proof of this fact. This theory of the origin of the name Italia is debated by scholars, archaeologists and it is also said by the Italian Government that Calabria was once called Italia by the ancient Greeks in honour of its inhabitants who were known as the Itali. This occurred hundreds of years before the coins of Corfinio were apparently minted, the late archaeologist Massimo Pallottino also claimed that the name was derived from the Italic tribes that settled in modern Calabria
35.
Romantic ballet
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The Romantic ballet is defined primarily by an era in ballet in which the ideas of Romanticism in art and literature influenced the creation of ballets. The era occurred during the early to mid 19th century primarily at the Théâtre de lAcadémie Royale de Musique of the Paris Opera Ballet, the Romantic ballet had no immediate end, but rather a slow decline. Arthur Saint-Léons 1870 ballet Coppélia is considered to be the last work of the Romantic Ballet, during this era, the development of pointework, although still at a fairly basic stage, profoundly affected peoples perception of the ballerina. Many lithographs of the show her virtually floating, poised only on the tip of a toe. This idea of weightlessness was capitalised on in such as La Sylphide and Giselle. The invention of gas lighting enabled gradual changes and enhanced the mysteriousness of many ballets with its softer gleam, illusion became more diverse with wires and trap doors being widely used. The Romantic era marked the rise of the ballerina as a part of ballet. Marie Taglioni became the prototypical Romantic ballerina, praised highly for her lyricism, the movement style for Romantic ballerinas was characterized by soft, rounded arms and a forward tilt in the upper body. This gave the woman a flowery, willowy look, leg movements became more elaborate due to the new tutu length and rising standards of technical proficiency. Important Romantic ballerinas included Marie Taglioni, Carlotta Grisi, Lucille Grahn, Fanny Cerrito, and Fanny Elssler. The plots of many ballets were dominated by spirit women—sylphs, wilis, and ghosts, the costume for the Romantic ballerina was the romantic tutu. This was a full, white, multi-layered skirt made of tulle, the ballerina wore a white bodice with the tutu. In the second acts of Romantic ballets, representing the spiritual realm, the dancers wore pointe shoes to give the effect of floating. However, sometimes they decided to throw in extra sharp, sassy movements to portray the concept or intent, often using high kicks. Romantic ballet owed much to the new developments in theatre effects, candles had been previously used to light theatres, but gas lighting allowed for dimming effects and other subtleties. Combined with the effects of the Romantic tutu, ballerinas posing en pointe, and the use of wires to make dancers fly, directors used gas lighting to create supernatural spectacles on stage
36.
Catarina or La Fille du Bandit
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Catarina ou la Fille du bandit is a ballet in three acts and four scenes, with libretto and choreography by Jules Perrot and music by Cesare Pugni. The libretto is based on an incident in the life of the Italian painter Salvator Rosa, the work was first presented by the Ballet of Her Majestys Theatre on 3 March 1846 in London, England, with Lucile Grahn and Jules Perrot. Restaging by Jules Perrot for the Ballet of the Teatro alla Scala, first presented on 8 January 1847 in Milan, Italy, with Fanny Elssler and Jules Perrot. Restaging by Jules Perrot for the Imperial Ballet, with Cesare Pugni revising his original score, first presented at the Imperial Bolshoi Kamenny Theatre on February 4/16,1849 in St. Petersburg, Russia. Principal dancers, Fanny Elssler, Christian Johansson, and Jules Perrot, at a rehearsal for this production, the Emperor Nicholas I of Russia was present. He noticed that Fanny Elssler and the dancers of the corps de ballet were not carrying the guns properly, revival by Antonio-Manuel Abrami for the Ballet of the Teatro alla Scala, with Girolamo Trigambi revising Cesare Pugnis score. First presented on 25 January 1853 in Milan, Italy, with Sofia Fuoco, odessa, touring troupe of Elena Andreianova. Revival by Marius Petipa for the Imperial Ballet, with Yuli Gerber revising and making additions to Cesare Pugnis score, first presented at the Imperial Bolshoi Kamenny Theatre in St. Petersburg, Russia, with Adèle Grantzow and Pavel Gerdt. This revival of Catarina was produced for a performance in honour of the composer Cesare Pugni. All of the opening box office receipts were given to the composers family. Revival by Enrico Cecchetti for the Imperial Ballet, with Riccardo Drigo revising and adding new music to Cesare Pugnis score, first presented at the Imperial Mariinsky Theatre on October 25/November 6,1888 in St. Petersburg, Russia. Principal dancers, Elena Cornalba and Pavel Gerdt, revival by Fredy Franzutti as Catarina, ossia La figlia del bandito for the Balletto del Teatro dellOpera di Roma. First presented at the Teatro dellOpera di Roma on 11 May 2007 in Rome, Italy, with Gaia Straccamore and Alessandro Molin
37.
Jules Perrot
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Jules-Joseph Perrot was a dancer and choreographer who later became Balletmaster of the Imperial Ballet in St. Petersburg, Russia. He created some of the most famous ballets of the 19th century including Pas de Quatre, La Esmeralda, Ondine, the Lyon-born Perrot danced often with Marie Taglioni but their partnership was short-lived. She eventually refused to dance with him fearing that he would outshine her and he left the Opéra in 1835 to tour European dance centers such as London, Milan, Vienna and Naples, where he met and noticed the talent of Carlotta Grisi. He coached her and presented her to the world as the great ballerina in an 1836 performance in London with himself as her partner. Following the success of his contributions to the choreography of Giselle, Perrot went on to choreograph Alma ou La Fille du Feu for Fanny Cerrito, which was hailed as a major choreographic success. For the next six years he choreographed regularly at Her Majestys Theatre in London, including Ondine, La Esmeralda, Le Judgement de Paris, and Pas de Quatre. For this ballet he not only negotiated the difficult task of persuading the four leading ballerinas of the day to appear on stage together at Her Majestys Theatre in London, nearly every ballet Perrot ever created was set to the music of Cesare Pugni. Perrot was engaged as a dancer in St. Petersburg for the Imperial Ballet and he remained with the Imperial Russian Ballet until 1858. While there, he married Capitoline Samovskaya, a pupil at the Imperial Theater School and he returned to Paris to a life of comparative leisure. Perrot died on holiday in Paramé29 August 1892
38.
Cesare Pugni
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Cesare Pugni born in Genoa, was an Italian composer of ballet music, a pianist and a violinist. In his early career he composed operas, symphonies, and various forms of orchestral music. Pugni is most noted for the ballets he composed for Her Majestys Theatre in London, the majority of his ballet music was composed for the works of the ballet master Jules Perrot, who mounted nearly every one of his ballets to scores by Pugni. Cesare Pugni followed Perrot and Grisi to Russia, and remained in the capital even after Grisis departure in 1853. Pugni went on the compose for Perrots successors Arthur Saint-Léon and Marius Petipa, Cesare Pugni is the most prolific composer of ballet music, having composed close to 100 known original scores for the ballet and adapting or supplementing many other works. He composed myriad incidental dances such as divertissements and variations, many of which were added to other works. Of Pugnis original scores for the ballet, he is best known today for Ondine, ou La Naïade, La Esmeralda, Catarina, ou La Fille du Bandit, The Pharaohs Daughter, don Eutichio della Castagna, ossia La Casa disabitata. Choreography by J. Perrot and Fanny Cerrito, myrtelde, ou La Nymphe et le papillon. Zélia, or La Nymphe de Diane, rosida, ou Les Mines de Syracuse. Choreography by A. Saint-Léon and F. Cerrito, Catarina, or La Fille du Bandit. The music for the second and third tableaux contained passages based on Félicien Davids 1844 symphonic ode Le désert, théa, ou Le Fée aux fleurs. Orinthia, ou Le Camp des Amazones, Music composed jointly with Giovanni Bajetti. Fiorita et la Reine des elfrides, Les Plaisirs de lhiver, ou Les Patineurs. Music by Michael Costa, adapted by Pugni, Choreography by A. Saint-Léon, with Pugni adapting his original score. Choreography by A. Saint-Léon, with Pugni adapting Felis and Saint-Léons score, Choreography by Marius Petipa and Lucien Petipa. Pugni utilized a suite of traditional Neapolitan airs called Passatempi Musicali for this score, La Guerre des femmes, ou Les Amazons du neuvième siecle. Choreography by J. Perrot, M. Petipa and J. Petipa, Choreography by J. Perrot and M. Petipa. Music by Pugni and Théodore Labarre, Pugni utilized a suite of traditional Neapolitan airs called Passatempi Musicali for this score, as well as the Chasse aux Hirondelles, all originally written by the composer Maximilien Graziani
39.
Democritus
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Democritus was an influential Ancient Greek pre-Socratic philosopher primarily remembered today for his formulation of an atomic theory of the universe. Democritus was born in Abdera, Thrace, around 460 BC, although and his exact contributions are difficult to disentangle from those of his mentor Leucippus, as they are often mentioned together in texts. Largely ignored in ancient Athens, Democritus is said to have been disliked so much by Plato that the latter wished all of his books burned and he was nevertheless well known to his fellow northern-born philosopher Aristotle. Many consider Democritus to be the father of modern science, none of his writings have survived, only fragments are known from his vast body of work. Democritus was said to be born in the city of Abdera in Thrace and he was born in the 80th Olympiad according to Apollodorus of Athens, and although Thrasyllus placed his birth in 470 BC, the later date is probably more likely. John Burnet has argued that the date of 460 is too early since, according to Diogenes Laërtius ix.41 and it was said that Democrituss father was from a noble family and so wealthy that he received Xerxes on his march through Abdera. Democritus spent the inheritance which his father left him on travels into distant countries and he traveled to Asia, and was even said to have reached India and Ethiopia. It is known that he wrote on Babylon and Meroe, he visited Egypt and he himself declared that among his contemporaries none had made greater journeys, seen more countries, and met more scholars than himself. He particularly mentions the Egyptian mathematicians, whose knowledge he praises, theophrastus, too, spoke of him as a man who had seen many countries. During his travels, according to Diogenes Laërtius, he acquainted with the Chaldean magi. Ostanes, one of the magi accompanying Xerxes, was said to have taught him. After returning to his land he occupied himself with natural philosophy. He traveled throughout Greece to acquire a knowledge of its cultures. He mentions many Greek philosophers in his writings, and his wealth enabled him to purchase their writings, Leucippus, the founder of atomism, was the greatest influence upon him. Diogenes Laertius says that he was friends with Hippocrates and he may have been acquainted with Socrates, but Plato does not mention him and Democritus himself is quoted as saying, I came to Athens and no one knew me. Aristotle placed him among the natural philosophers. The many anecdotes about Democritus, especially in Diogenes Laërtius, attest to his disinterest, modesty, and simplicity, one story has him deliberately blinding himself in order to be less disturbed in his pursuits, it may well be true that he lost his sight in old age. He was cheerful, and was ready to see the comical side of life
40.
Palazzo Pitti
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The Palazzo Pitti, in English sometimes called the Pitti Palace, is a vast, mainly Renaissance, palace in Florence, Italy. It is situated on the side of the River Arno. The core of the present palazzo dates from 1458 and was originally the residence of Luca Pitti. The palace was bought by the Medici family in 1549 and became the residence of the ruling families of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. It grew as a treasure house as later generations amassed paintings, plates, jewelry. In the late 18th century, the palazzo was used as a base by Napoleon. The palace and its contents were donated to the Italian people by King Victor Emmanuel III in 1919, the palazzo is now the largest museum complex in Florence. The principal palazzo block, often in a building of design known as the corps de logis, is 32,000 square metres. It is divided into several principal galleries or museums detailed below, the construction of this severe and forbidding building was commissioned in 1458 by the Florentine banker Luca Pitti, a principal supporter and friend of Cosimo de Medici. The early history of the Palazzo Pitti is a mixture of fact, Pitti is alleged to have instructed that the windows be larger than the entrance of the Palazzo Medici. Besides obvious differences from the architects style, Brunelleschi died 12 years before construction of the palazzo began. The design and fenestration suggest that the architect was more experienced in utilitarian domestic architecture than in the humanist rules defined by Alberti in his book De Re Aedificatoria. Though impressive, the original palazzo would have no rival to the Florentine Medici residences in terms of either size or content. Whoever the architect of the Palazzo Pitti was, he was moving against the flow of fashion. The rusticated stonework gives the palazzo a severe and powerful atmosphere, reinforced by the series of seven arch-headed apertures. The Roman-style architecture appealed to the Florentine love of the new style allantica, work stopped after Pitti suffered financial losses following the death of Cosimo de Medici in 1464. Luca Pitti died in 1472 with the building unfinished, the building was sold in 1549 by Buonaccorso Pitti, a descendant of Luca Pitti, to Eleonora di Toledo. Raised at the court of Naples, Eleonora was the wife of Cosimo I de Medici of Tuscany
41.
Santa Maria degli Angeli e dei Martiri
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The Basilica of St. Mary of the Angels and the Martyrs is a titular basilica church in Rome, Italy built inside the frigidarium of the Baths of Diocletian in the Piazza della Repubblica. The most recent Cardinal priest of the Titulus S. Mariae Angelorum in Thermis is William Henry Keeler, the basilica is dedicated to the Christian martyrs, known and unknown. By a brief dated 27 July 1561, Pius IV ordered the church built, a story that these Martyrs were Christian slave labourers who had been set to constructing the Baths is modern. It was also a monument of Pope Pius IV, whose tomb is in the apsidal tribune that culminates the series of spaces. The thermae of Diocletian dominated the Quirinal Hill with their mass and had successfully resisted Christianization. Michelangelo Buonarroti worked from 1563 to 1564 to adapt a section of the structure of the baths to enclose a church. Some later construction directed by Luigi Vanvitelli in 1749 only superficially distracts from the grand, at Santa Maria degli Angeli, Michelangelo achieved an unexampled sequence of shaped architectural spaces with few precedents or followers. There is no true facade, the entrance is set within one of the coved apses of a main space of the thermae. The plan is developed from a Greek cross, with a transept so dominant, with its chapels at each end. Of the Saint Bruno, Pope Clement XIV said that he would speak, were it not for the vow of silence of the order he founded, raising the floor truncated the red granite Roman columns that articulate the transept and its flanking spaces. Michelangelo made the transept 27 meters wide, thus providing vast cubical spaces at each end of the transept, in 2006, Polish-born sculptor Igor Mitoraj created new bronze doors as well as a statue of John the Baptist for the basilica. In April 2010, a five metre high statue of Galileo Galilei Divine Man was unveiled in a courtyard within the complex. The statue was a donation from CCAST and WFS, Santa Maria degli Angeli was the official state church during the Kingdom of Italy. More recently, national burials have been held in the church, the church hosts the tombs of General Armando Diaz and Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel, who were the commanders responsible for winning World War I on the Italian front. Also today the Basilica is used for ceremonies, included the funeral of soldiers killed abroad. Alan Cook remarked, The disposition, the stability and the precision are much better than those of the famous meridian. in Bologna, bianchinis sundial was built along the meridian that crosses Rome, at longitude 12°30 E. At solar noon, which according to the equation of time from around 10,54 a. m. UTC in late October to 11.24 a. m, UTC in February, the sun shines through a small hole in the wall to cast its light on this line each day
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Paul Bril
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Paul Bril was a Flemish painter and printmaker principally known for his landscapes. He spent most of his career in Rome. His Italianate landscapes had a influence on landscape painting in Italy. Paul Bril is believed to have born in Antwerp although his birth place may have been Breda. He was the son of the painter Matthijs Bril the Elder, Paul and his older brother Matthijs likely started their artistic training with their father in Antwerp. Paul may also have been a student of the Antwerp painter Damiaen Wortelmans who was specialised in the decoration of harpsichords, Matthijs moved to Rome probably around 1575. Here he worked on frescoes in the Vatican Palace. It is believed Paul joined his brother in Rome around or after 1582, when Matthijs died in 1583, his brother likely continued his work, picking up many of Matthijs commissions. Pauls earliest known date from the late 1580s. He established his reputation with commissions from Pope Gregorius XIII in the Collegio Romano and his success was assured after Pope Sixtus V became his principal patron. Another important early commission was the cycle in the Santa Cecilia in Trastevere in Rome of around 1599. Pope Clement VIII also became his patron and gave the artist a commission for a seascape on the Martyrdom of St. Clement. Paul Bril completed this commission in the Vatican Palace’s Sala Clementina in collaboration with the brothers Giovanni, in 1601 Paul received another major commission, to paint a series of large canvases featuring properties of the Mattei family. Paul further painted landscape frescoes in the Casino dellAurora of the Palazzo Pallavicini-Rospigliosi in Rome, in 1621, Paul Bril became director of the Accademia di San Luca, the artists academy in Rome. This was a sign of the high esteem in which he was held by his fellow artists in Rome as he was the first foreigner to hold this position. He had many students including his son Cyriacus Bril, Luigi Carboni, Balthasar Lauwers, Willem van Nieulandt II, Pieter Spierinckx, Agostino Tassi, karel Philips Spierincks may also briefly have been his pupil. Paul Bril died in Rome in 1626, Paul Bril initially painted in the late Mannerist style developed by his brother. These early landscapes are in the Flemish tradition inaugurated by Joachim Patinir, works from this early period were characterised by a picturesque arrangement of landscape elements and violent contrasts between light and dark
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Nicolas Poussin
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Nicolas Poussin was the leading painter of the classical French Baroque style, although he spent most of his working life in Rome. His work is characterized by clarity, logic, and order, until the 20th century he remained a major inspiration for such classically oriented artists as Jacques-Louis David, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres and Paul Cézanne. He worked in Rome for a circle of leading collectors from there and elsewhere, most of his works are history paintings of religious or mythological subjects that very often have a large landscape element. Early sketches attracted the notice of Quentin Varin, a painter, whose pupil Poussin became. There he entered the studios of the Flemish painter Ferdinand Elle and then of Georges Lallemand and he found French art in a stage of transition, the old apprenticeship system was disturbed, and the academic training destined to supplant it was not yet established by Simon Vouet. In Paris, Poussin was impressed by Italian art he viewed in the royal collection and he attempted to travel to Rome, but after reaching Florence he was forced, perhaps by ill health, to return to Paris. In 1622 he met Giambattista Marino, the poet to Marie de Medici. Marino employed him on illustrations for an edition of Ovids Metamorphoses. These Marino drawings preserved at Windsor Castle are among the few identifiable works of Poussin executed before his arrival in Rome. Marino took him into his household, and in 1624 enabled Poussin to rejoin him at Rome, Poussin was thirty when he arrived in Rome in 1624. At first he lodged with Simon Vouet, through Marino, he had been introduced to Marcello Sacchetti who in turn introduced him to another of his early patrons, Cardinal Francesco Barberini. However, their return from Spain in 1626 stabilized Poussin’s position, with renewed patronage by the Barberini and their circle. He fell ill at this time and was taken into the house of his compatriot Jacques Dughet, where he was nursed by Dughet’s daughter, Anna Maria and his two brothers-in-law were artists and Gaspard Dughet later took Poussin’s surname. During the late 1620s and 1630s, he experimented and formulated his own style and he studied the Antique as well as works such as Titian’s Bacchanals at the Casino Ludovisi and the paintings of Domenichino and Guido Reni. Peter’s, and an ingenious architectural imagination was emerging in works by Borromini, at the time the papacy was Rome’s foremost patron of the arts. Poussin’s Martyrdom of St. Erasmus for St and his subsequent career depended on private patronage. Louis XIII conferred on him the title of First Painter in Ordinary, in 1642, disgusted by the intrigues of Simon Vouet, Fouquières and the architect Jacques Lemercier, Poussin withdrew to Rome. There, in 1648, he finished for de Chantelou the second series of the Seven Sacraments and this painting shows the philosopher discarding his last worldly possession, his cup, after watching a man drink water by cupping his hands
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Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Salvatore Rosa". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). 
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Rosa, Salvator". Encyclopædia Britannica. 23 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 720–722.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the 