1.
George W. Bush
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George Walker Bush is an American politician who served as the 43rd President of the United States from 2001 to 2009. He was also the 46th Governor of Texas from 1995 to 2000 and he is the eldest son of Barbara and George H. W. Bush. After graduating from Yale University in 1968 and Harvard Business School in 1975, Bush married Laura Welch in 1977 and ran unsuccessfully for the House of Representatives shortly thereafter. He later co-owned the Texas Rangers baseball team before defeating Ann Richards in the 1994 Texas gubernatorial election and he is the second president to assume the nations highest office after his father, following the lead of John Quincy Adams. He is also a brother of Jeb Bush, a former Governor of Florida who was a candidate for the Republican presidential nomination in the 2016 presidential election, the September 11 terrorist attacks occurred eight months into Bushs first term as president. Bush responded with what became known as the Bush Doctrine, launching a War on Terror, a military campaign that included the war in Afghanistan in 2001. He also promoted policies on the economy, health care, education, Social Security reform and his tenure included national debates on immigration, Social Security, electronic surveillance, and torture. In the 2004 Presidential race, Bush defeated Democratic Senator John Kerry in another close election. After his re-election, Bush received increasingly heated criticism from across the spectrum for his handling of the Iraq War, Hurricane Katrina. Amid this criticism, the Democratic Party regained control of Congress in the 2006 elections, Bush left office in 2009, returning to Texas where he purchased a home in Crawford. He wrote a memoir, Decision Points and his presidential library was opened in 2013. His presidency has been ranked among the worst in historians polls published in the late 2000s and 2010s. George Walker Bush was born on July 6,1946, at Grace-New Haven Hospital in New Haven, Connecticut, as the first child of George Herbert Walker Bush and his wife, the former Barbara Pierce. He was raised in Midland and Houston, Texas, with four siblings, Jeb, Neil, Marvin, another younger sister, Robin, died from leukemia at the age of three in 1953. His grandfather, Prescott Bush, was a U. S and his father, George H. W. Bush, was Ronald Reagans Vice President from 1981 to 1989 and the 41st U. S. President from 1989 to 1993. Bush has English and some German ancestry, along with more distant Dutch, Welsh, Irish, French, Bush attended public schools in Midland, Texas, until the family moved to Houston after he had completed seventh grade. He then spent two years at The Kinkaid School, a school in Houston. Bush attended high school at Phillips Academy, a school in Andover, Massachusetts
2.
Sandra Day O'Connor
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Sandra Day OConnor is a retired associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, serving from her appointment in 1981 by Ronald Reagan until her retirement in 2006. She was the first woman to serve as a Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Prior to OConnors tenures on the Court, she was an elected official, on July 1,2005, she announced her intention to retire effective upon the confirmation of a successor. Samuel Alito was nominated to take her seat in October 2005, considered a federalist and a moderate Republican, OConnor tended to approach each case narrowly without arguing for sweeping precedents. She most frequently sided with the conservative bloc, although in the latter years of her tenure. OConnor was Chancellor of The College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia and she also served on the Board of Trustees for Colonial Williamsburg. Several publications have named OConnor among the most powerful women in the world, on August 12,2009, she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian honor of the United States, by President Barack Obama. She was born in El Paso, Texas, the daughter of Harry Alfred Day, a rancher and her sister was Ann Day, who served in the Arizona Legislature. She grew up on a ranch near Duncan, Arizona where she had to change automobile flat tires herself in dangerous environments. She later wrote a book with her brother, H. Alan Day, Lazy B, Growing up on a Cattle Ranch in the American West, about her childhood experiences on the ranch. For most of her schooling, OConnor lived in El Paso with her maternal grandmother, and attended school at the Radford School for Girls. She graduated sixth in her class at Austin High School in El Paso in 1946 and she attended Stanford University, where she received her B. A. in economics in 1950. She continued at the Stanford Law School for her LL. B and she has stated that she graduated third in her law school class, although Stanfords official position is that the law school did not rank students in 1952. On December 20,1952, six months after graduating law school. Her husband suffered from Alzheimers disease for twenty years until his death in 2009. After graduation from law school, at least forty law firms refused to interview her for a position as an attorney because she was a woman. She eventually found employment as a deputy county attorney in San Mateo, California, after she offered to work for no salary and without an office, sharing space with a secretary. When her husband was drafted, she decided to pick up and they remained there for three years before returning to the states, where they settled in Maricopa County, Ariz. to begin their family
3.
George H. W. Bush
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George Herbert Walker Bush is an American politician who was the 41st President of the United States from 1989 to 1993 and the 43rd Vice President of the United States from 1981 to 1989. Republican Party, he was previously a congressman, ambassador, and he is the oldest living former President and Vice President. Prior to his sons presidency, he was referred to as George Bush or President Bush. Bush was born in Milton, Massachusetts, to Prescott Bush and Dorothy Walker Bush. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, Bush postponed his university studies, enlisted in the U. S. Navy on his 18th birthday and he served until the end of the war, then attended Yale University. Graduating in 1948, he moved his family to West Texas and entered the oil business, Bush became involved in politics soon after founding his own oil company, serving as a member of the House of Representatives and Director of Central Intelligence, among other positions. He failed to win the Republican nomination for President in 1980, but was chosen as a mate by party nominee Ronald Reagan. During his tenure, Bush headed administration task forces on deregulation, in 1988, Bush ran a successful campaign to succeed Reagan as President, defeating Democratic opponent Michael Dukakis. Foreign policy drove the Bush presidency, military operations were conducted in Panama and the Persian Gulf, the Berlin Wall fell in 1989, and the Soviet Union dissolved two years later. Domestically, Bush reneged on a 1988 campaign promise and, after a struggle with Congress and his presidential library was dedicated in 1997, and he has been active—often alongside Bill Clinton—in various humanitarian activities. Besides being the 43rd president, his son George also served as the 46th Governor of Texas and is one of only two other being John Quincy Adams—to be the son of a former president. His second son, Jeb Bush, served as the 43rd Governor of Florida, George Herbert Walker Bush was born at 173 Adams Street in Milton, Massachusetts, on June 12,1924, to Prescott Sheldon Bush and Dorothy Bush. The Bush family moved from Milton to Greenwich, Connecticut, shortly after his birth, growing up, his nickname was Poppy. Bush began his education at the Greenwich Country Day School in Greenwich. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, Bush decided to join the US, Navy, so after graduating from Phillips Academy in 1942, he became a naval aviator at the age of 18. He was assigned to Torpedo Squadron as the officer in September 1943. The following year, his squadron was based on USS San Jacinto as a member of Air Group 51, during this time, the task force was victorious in one of the largest air battles of World War II, the Battle of the Philippine Sea. After Bushs promotion to Lieutenant on August 1,1944, San Jacinto commenced operations against the Japanese in the Bonin Islands, Bush piloted one of four Grumman TBM Avenger aircraft from VT-51 that attacked the Japanese installations on Chichijima
4.
Joseph A. Greenaway Jr.
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On February 9,2010, he was confirmed to his seat on the Third Circuit, filling the vacancy created by Justice Samuel Alitos elevation to the United States Supreme Court. Judge Greenaway has been mentioned as a candidate for the Supreme Court. Greenaway was born of West Indian parents in London, England and his father is a carpenter and his mother is a nurse. Greenaway was on the varsity team at the Bronx High School of Science. Greenaway earned a B. A. from Columbia University in 1978, from 1982 until 1983, he worked as a law clerk for Judge Vincent Lyons Broderick of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York. Greenaway worked in practice in New York City from 1981 until 1985. He became an assistant U. S. attorney at the U. S. Attorneys Office for the District of New Jersey from 1985 until 1989, from 1990 until 1996, Greenaway worked as in-house counsel for Johnson & Johnson in New Brunswick, New Jersey. On November 27,1995, President Bill Clinton nominated Greenaway to be a judge on the United States District Court for the District of New Jersey. The U. S. Senate confirmed Greenaway in a vote on July 16,1996. On June 19,2009, President Barack Obama announced his intention to nominate Greenaway to a seat on the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit, the full United States Senate confirmed Greenaway to the Third Circuit on February 9,2010, in an 84-0 vote. This ended a four-year vacancy created by then-Judge Samuel A. Alitos elevation to the United States Supreme Court, from 2002 to 2006, Greenaway was an adjunct professor at Rutgers School of Law in Newark, NJ. Yancey Award from the Garden State Bar Association, in 2006, Greenaway delivered the commencement address at the Cardozo School of Law. In 1998, Greenaway delivered the Class Day address at Columbia College’s commencement and he also presented Rutgers Law School’s Weintraub Lecture in 1998. In November 1996, he received the New Jersey Corporate Counsel Association’s Distinguished Service Award, Barack Obama Supreme Court candidates Joseph A. Greenaway Jr. at the Biographical Directory of Federal Judges, a public domain publication of the Federal Judicial Center
5.
Ronald Reagan
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Ronald Wilson Reagan was an American politician and actor who was the 40th President of the United States, from 1981 to 1989. Before his presidency, he was the 33rd Governor of California, from 1967 to 1975, after a career as a Hollywood actor and union leader. Raised in a family in small towns of northern Illinois, Reagan graduated from Eureka College in 1932. After moving to Hollywood in 1937, he became an actor, Reagan was twice elected President of the Screen Actors Guild, the labor union for actors, where he worked to root out Communist influence. In the 1950s, he moved into television and was a speaker at General Electric factories. Having been a lifelong Democrat, his views changed and he became a conservative and in 1962 switched to the Republican Party. In 1964, Reagans speech, A Time for Choosing, in support of Barry Goldwaters foundering presidential campaign, Building a network of supporters, he was elected Governor of California in 1966. Entering the presidency in 1981, Reagan implemented sweeping new political, in his first term he survived an assassination attempt, spurred the War on Drugs, and fought public sector labor. During his re-election bid, Reagan campaigned on the notion that it was Morning in America, foreign affairs dominated his second term, including ending of the Cold War, the bombing of Libya, and the Iran–Contra affair. Publicly describing the Soviet Union as an empire, and during his famous speech at the Brandenburg Gate. Jack, a salesman and storyteller, was the grandson of Irish Catholic immigrants from County Tipperary, Reagan had one older brother, John Neil Reagan, who became an advertising executive. As a boy, Reagans father nicknamed his son Dutch, due to his fat little Dutchman-like appearance and Dutchboy haircut, Reagans family briefly lived in several towns and cities in Illinois, including Monmouth, Galesburg, and Chicago. In 1919, they returned to Tampico and lived above the H. C, Pitney Variety Store until finally settling in Dixon. After his election as president, residing in the upstairs White House private quarters, for the time, Reagan was unusual in his opposition to racial discrimination, and recalled a time in Dixon when the local inn would not allow black people to stay there. Reagan brought them back to his house, where his mother invited them to stay the night and have breakfast the next morning, after the closure of the Pitney Store in late 1920 and the familys move to Dixon, the midwestern small universe had a lasting impression on Reagan. Reagan attended Dixon High School, where he developed interests in acting, sports and his first job was as a lifeguard at the Rock River in Lowell Park in 1927. Over a six-year period, Reagan reportedly performed 77 rescues as a lifeguard and he attended Eureka College, a Disciples-oriented liberal arts school, where he became a member of the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity, a cheerleader, and studied economics and sociology. While involved, the Miller Center of Public Affairs described him as an indifferent student and he majored in economics and sociology, and graduated with a C grade
6.
Michael Chertoff
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Michael Chertoff is an American attorney who was the second United States Secretary of Homeland Security under President George W. Bush. He was the co-author of the USA PATRIOT Act and he previously served as a judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit, as a federal prosecutor, and as Assistant U. S. Attorney General. He succeeded Tom Ridge as U. S. Secretary of Homeland Security on February 15,2005, since leaving government service, Chertoff has worked as senior of counsel at the Washington, D. C. law firm of Covington & Burling. He also co-founded the Chertoff Group, a risk-management and security consulting company, Chertoff was also elected as Chairman of BAE Systems for a three-year term, beginning May 1,2012. Chertoff co-chairs the Bipartisan Policy Centers Immigration Task Force, Michael Chertoff was born on November 28,1953 in Elizabeth, New Jersey. His father was Rabbi Gershon Baruch Chertoff, a Talmud scholar and his mother is Livia Chertoff, an Israeli citizen and the first flight attendant for El Al. His paternal grandparents are Rabbi Paul Chertoff and Esther Barish Chertoff, Chertoff went to the Jewish Educational Center in Elizabeth as well as the Pingry School. He later attended Harvard College, graduating in 1975 and he studied during his sophomore year at the London School of Economics and Political Science in the United Kingdom. He attended Harvard Law School, and worked as an assistant for John Hart Ely on his book Democracy. After graduating magna cum laude in 1978, Chertoff clerked for appellate judge Murray Gurfein for a year, next he clerked for United States Supreme Court Justice William J. Brennan, Jr. from 1979 to 1980. He worked in practice with Latham & Watkins from 1980 to 1983 before being hired as a prosecutor by Rudolph Giuliani. Chertoff worked on Mafia and political corruption–related cases, in the mid-1990s, Chertoff returned to Latham & Watkins for a brief period, founding the firms office in Newark, New Jersey. Chertoff has been a resident of Westfield, New Jersey, in September 1986, together with U. S. Attorney for the Southern District of New York Rudolph Giuliani, Chertoff was instrumental in the crackdown on organized crime in the Mafia Commission Trial. In 1990, Chertoff was appointed by President George H. W. Bush as United States Attorney for the District of New Jersey. Among his most important cases, in 1992 Chertoff achieved conviction of second-term Jersey City mayor Gerald McCann on charges of defrauding money from a savings, McCann served two years in federal prison. Chertoff was asked to stay in his position when the Clinton administration took office in 1993 and he was the only U. S. Attorney who was not replaced due to the change in administrations. He continued to work with the U. S. Attorneys office until 1994, no charges were brought against the Clintons. In 2000, Chertoff worked as counsel to the New Jersey Senate Judiciary Committee
7.
Trenton, New Jersey
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Trenton is the capital city of the U. S. state of New Jersey and the county seat of Mercer County. It was briefly the capital of the United States, as of the 2010 United States Census, Trenton had a population of 84,913, making it the states 10th-largest municipality. The Census Bureau estimated that the population was 84,034 in 2014. Trenton dates back at least to June 3,1719, when mention was made of a constable being appointed for Trenton, while the area was still part of Hunterdon County. Boundaries were recorded for Trenton Township as of March 2,1720, a courthouse and jail were constructed in Trenton around 1720, Trenton became New Jerseys capital as of November 25,1790, and the City of Trenton was formed within Trenton Township on November 13,1792. Trenton Township was incorporated as one of New Jerseys initial group of 104 townships by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on February 21,1798, on February 22,1834, portions of Trenton Township were taken to form Ewing Township. The remaining portion of Trenton Township was absorbed by the City of Trenton on April 10,1837, portions of Ewing Township and Hamilton Township were annexed to Trenton on March 23,1900. The first settlement which would become Trenton was established by Quakers in 1679, in the then called the Falls of the Delaware, led by Mahlon Stacy from Handsworth, Sheffield. Quakers were being persecuted in England at this time and North America provided an opportunity to exercise their religious freedom, by 1719, the town adopted the name Trent-towne, after William Trent, one of its leading landholders who purchased much of the surrounding land from Stacys family. This name later was shortened to Trenton, during the American Revolutionary War, the city was the site of the Battle of Trenton, George Washingtons first military victory. On December 26,1776, Washington and his army, after crossing the icy Delaware River to Trenton, after the war, the Confederation Congress briefly met in Trenton in November and December 1784. Trenton became the capital in 1790, but prior to that year the New Jersey Legislature often met here. The city was incorporated in 1792, during the War of 1812, the United States Armys primary hospital was at a site on Broad Street. Throughout the 19th century, Trenton grew steadily, as European immigrants came to work in its pottery, in 1837, with the population now too large for government by council, a new mayoral government was adopted, with by-laws that remain in operation to this day. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city had an area of 8.155 square miles. Trenton is located near the geographic center of the state. However, Mercer County constitutes its own metropolitan area, formally known as the Trenton-Ewing MSA. Locals consider Trenton to be a part of an area called Central Jersey
8.
New Jersey
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New Jersey is a state in the Northeastern and mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by New York, on the southeast and south by the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by Pennsylvania, New Jersey is the fourth-smallest state but the 11th-most populous and the most densely populated of the 50 United States. New Jersey lies entirely within the statistical areas of New York City. New Jersey was inhabited by Native Americans for more than 2,800 years, in the early 17th century, the Dutch and the Swedes made the first European settlements. New Jersey was the site of decisive battles during the American Revolutionary War in the 18th century. In the 19th century, factories in cities such as Camden, Paterson, Newark, Trenton, around 180 million years ago, during the Jurassic Period, New Jersey bordered North Africa. The pressure of the collision between North America and Africa gave rise to the Appalachian Mountains, around 18,000 years ago, the Ice Age resulted in glaciers that reached New Jersey. As the glaciers retreated, they left behind Lake Passaic, as well as rivers, swamps. New Jersey was originally settled by Native Americans, with the Lenni-Lenape being dominant at the time of contact, scheyichbi is the Lenape name for the land that is now New Jersey. The Lenape society was divided into clans that were based upon common female ancestors. These clans were organized into three distinct phratries identified by their animal sign, Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf and they first encountered the Dutch in the early 17th century, and their primary relationship with the Europeans was through fur trade. The Dutch became the first Europeans to lay claim to lands in New Jersey, the Dutch colony of New Netherland consisted of parts of modern Middle Atlantic states. Although the European principle of ownership was not recognized by the Lenape. The first to do so was Michiel Pauw who established a patronship called Pavonia in 1630 along the North River which eventually became the Bergen, peter Minuits purchase of lands along the Delaware River established the colony of New Sweden. During the English Civil War, the Channel Island of Jersey remained loyal to the British Crown and it was from the Royal Square in St. Helier that Charles II of England was proclaimed King in 1649, following the execution of his father, Charles I. The North American lands were divided by Charles II, who gave his brother, the Duke of York, the region between New England and Maryland as a proprietary colony. James then granted the land between the Hudson River and the Delaware River to two friends who had remained loyal through the English Civil War, Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton, the area was named the Province of New Jersey. Since the states inception, New Jersey has been characterized by ethnic, New England Congregationalists settled alongside Scots Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed migrants
9.
Princeton University
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Princeton University is a private Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The institution moved to Newark in 1747, then to the current site nine years later, Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering. The university has ties with the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton has the largest endowment per student in the United States. The university has graduated many notable alumni, two U. S. Presidents,12 U. S. Supreme Court Justices, and numerous living billionaires and foreign heads of state are all counted among Princetons alumni body. New Light Presbyterians founded the College of New Jersey in 1746 in order to train ministers, the college was the educational and religious capital of Scots-Irish America. In 1754, trustees of the College of New Jersey suggested that, in recognition of Governors interest, gov. Jonathan Belcher replied, What a name that would be. In 1756, the moved to Princeton, New Jersey. Its home in Princeton was Nassau Hall, named for the royal House of Orange-Nassau of William III of England, following the untimely deaths of Princetons first five presidents, John Witherspoon became president in 1768 and remained in that office until his death in 1794. During his presidency, Witherspoon shifted the focus from training ministers to preparing a new generation for leadership in the new American nation. To this end, he tightened academic standards and solicited investment in the college, in 1812, the eighth president the College of New Jersey, Ashbel Green, helped establish the Princeton Theological Seminary next door. The plan to extend the theological curriculum met with approval on the part of the authorities at the College of New Jersey. Today, Princeton University and Princeton Theological Seminary maintain separate institutions with ties that include such as cross-registration. Before the construction of Stanhope Hall in 1803, Nassau Hall was the sole building. The cornerstone of the building was laid on September 17,1754, during the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall, making Princeton the countrys capital for four months. The class of 1879 donated twin lion sculptures that flanked the entrance until 1911, Nassau Halls bell rang after the halls construction, however, the fire of 1802 melted it. The bell was then recast and melted again in the fire of 1855, James McCosh took office as the colleges president in 1868 and lifted the institution out of a low period that had been brought about by the American Civil War. McCosh Hall is named in his honor, in 1879, the first thesis for a Doctor of Philosophy Ph. D. was submitted by James F. Williamson, Class of 1877. In 1896, the officially changed its name from the College of New Jersey to Princeton University to honor the town in which it resides
10.
Bachelor of Arts
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A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confused with baccalaureatus, degree diplomas generally are printed on high-quality paper or parchment, individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. In Pakistan, the Bachelor of Arts degree can also be attained within two years as an external degree, in colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Unlike in other countries, students do not receive a grade for their Bachelor of Arts degree with varying levels of honours. Qualified students may be admitted, after they have achieved their Bachelors program with an overall grade point average. Thus, to achieve a Bachelor Honours degree, a postgraduate year. A student who holds a Honours degree is eligible for entry to either a Doctorate or a very high research Master´s degree program. Education in Canada is controlled by the Provinces and can be different depending on the province in Canada. Canadian universities typically offer a 3-year Bachelor of Arts degrees, in many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as Bachelors of Arts or as honours Bachelor of Arts degree. The honours degrees are designated with the abbreviation in brackets of. It should not be confused with the consecutive Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, Latin Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore, BA hon. de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a degree, which is considered to be the equivalent of a corresponding maîtrise degree under the French influenced system. Going back in history, a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree was called a pass degree or general degree. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy program without the requirement to first complete a masters degree, over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master´s degrees. In general, in all four countries, the B. A. degree is the standard required for entry into a masters programme, in science, a BA hons degree is generally a prerequisite for entrance to a Ph. D program or a very-high-research-activity master´s programme
11.
Yale University
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Yale University is an American private Ivy League research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Founded in 1701 in Saybrook Colony to train Congregationalist ministers, it is the third-oldest institution of education in the United States. The Collegiate School moved to New Haven in 1716, and shortly after was renamed Yale College in recognition of a gift from British East India Company governor Elihu Yale. Originally restricted to theology and sacred languages, the curriculum began to incorporate humanities and sciences by the time of the American Revolution. In the 19th century the school introduced graduate and professional instruction, awarding the first Ph. D. in the United States in 1861 and organizing as a university in 1887. Yale is organized into fourteen constituent schools, the undergraduate college, the Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. While the university is governed by the Yale Corporation, each schools faculty oversees its curriculum, the universitys assets include an endowment valued at $25.4 billion as of June 2016, the second largest of any U. S. educational institution. The Yale University Library, serving all constituent schools, holds more than 15 million volumes and is the third-largest academic library in the United States, Yale College undergraduates follow a liberal arts curriculum with departmental majors and are organized into a social system of residential colleges. Almost all faculty teach courses, more than 2,000 of which are offered annually. Students compete intercollegiately as the Yale Bulldogs in the NCAA Division I – Ivy League, Yale has graduated many notable alumni, including five U. S. Presidents,19 U. S. Supreme Court Justices,20 living billionaires, and many heads of state. In addition, Yale has graduated hundreds of members of Congress,57 Nobel laureates,5 Fields Medalists,247 Rhodes Scholars, and 119 Marshall Scholars have been affiliated with the University. Yale traces its beginnings to An Act for Liberty to Erect a Collegiate School, passed by the General Court of the Colony of Connecticut on October 9,1701, the Act was an effort to create an institution to train ministers and lay leadership for Connecticut. Soon thereafter, a group of ten Congregationalist ministers, Samuel Andrew, Thomas Buckingham, Israel Chauncy, Samuel Mather, the group, led by James Pierpont, is now known as The Founders. Originally known as the Collegiate School, the institution opened in the home of its first rector, Abraham Pierson, the school moved to Saybrook, and then Wethersfield. In 1716 the college moved to New Haven, Connecticut, the feud caused the Mathers to champion the success of the Collegiate School in the hope that it would maintain the Puritan religious orthodoxy in a way that Harvard had not. Cotton Mather suggested that the school change its name to Yale College, meanwhile, a Harvard graduate working in England convinced some 180 prominent intellectuals that they should donate books to Yale. The 1714 shipment of 500 books represented the best of modern English literature, science, philosophy and it had a profound effect on intellectuals at Yale. Undergraduate Jonathan Edwards discovered John Lockes works and developed his original theology known as the new divinity
12.
Juris Doctor
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The Juris Doctor degree, also known as the Doctor of Jurisprudence degree, is a graduate-entry professional degree in law and one of several Doctor of Law degrees. It is earned by completing law school in Australia, Canada and the United States and it has the academic standing of a second-entry, professional baccalaureate degree in Canada, a masters degree in Australia and a professional doctorate in the United States. The degree was first awarded in the United States in the early 20th century and was created as a version of the old European doctor of law degree. Originating from the 19th century Harvard movement for the study of law. It involves a program in most jurisdictions. To be authorized to practice law in the courts of a state in the United States. Lawyers must, however, be admitted to the bar of the court before they are authorized to practice in that court. Admission to the bar of a district court includes admission to the bar of the related bankruptcy court. In the United States, the doctorate in law may be conferred in Latin or in English, as Juris Doctor and at some law schools Doctor of Law. Juris Doctor literally means Teacher of Law, while the Latin for Doctor of Jurisprudence—Jurisprudentiae Doctor—literally means Teacher of Legal Knowledge, the J. D. is not to be confused with Doctor of Laws or Legum Doctor. In institutions where the latter can be earned, e. g. D, the LL. D. is invariably an honorary degree in the United States. The first university in Europe, the University of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 11th century who were students of the school in that city. This served as the model for law schools of the Middle Ages. While Bologna granted only doctorates, preparatory degrees were introduced in Paris, the nature of the J. D. can be better understood by a review of the context of the history of legal education in England. The teaching of law at Cambridge and Oxford Universities was mainly for philosophical or scholarly purposes, the universities taught only civil and canon law but not the common law that applied in most jurisdictions. The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court-like practice and lecture, by the fifteenth century, the Inns functioned like a university akin to the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge, though very specialized in purpose. With the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of the role grew tremendously. The apprenticeship program for solicitors thus emerged, structured and governed by the rules as the apprenticeship programs for the trades
13.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
14.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
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United States Army Reserve
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The United States Army Reserve is the federal reserve force of the United States Army. Together, the Army Reserve and the Army National Guard constitute the Army element of the Reserve components of the United States Armed Forces. On 30 June 2016, Lieutenant General Charles D. Luckey became the 33rd Chief of Army Reserve, on 23 April 1908 Congress created the Medical Reserve Corps, the official predecessor of the Army Reserve. This organization provided a pool of trained Reserve officers and enlisted men for use in war. The Organized Reserve included the Officers Reserve Corps, Enlisted Reserve Corps, the Organized Reserves were redesignated 25 March 1948 as the Organized Reserve Corps. Recognizing the importance of the Organized Reserve to the World War II effort, Congress authorized retirement, a tentative troop basis for the Organized Reserve Corps, prepared in March 1946, outlined 25 divisions, three armored, five airborne, and 17 infantry. These divisions and all other Organized Reserve Corps units were to be maintained in one of three categories, labeled Class A, Class B, and Class C. The troop basis listed nine divisions as Class A, nine as Class B, eventually the War Department agreed and made the appropriate changes. Although the dispute over Class A units lasted several months, the War Department proceeded with the reorganization of the Organized Reserve Corps divisions during the summer of 1946. That all divisions were to begin as Class C units, progressing to the categories as men and equipment became available. Also, the War Department wanted to take advantage of the pool of trained reserve officers, by that time Army Ground Forces had been reorganized as an army group headquarters that commanded six geographic armies. The armies replaced the nine areas of the prewar era. The First United States Army declined to support a division. After the change, the Organized Reserve Corps had four airborne, the Second Army insisted upon the number 80 for its airborne unit because the division was to be raised in the prewar 80th Divisions area, not that of the 99th. Finally, the 103rd Infantry Division, organized in 1921 in New Mexico, Colorado, and Arizona, was moved to Iowa, Minnesota, South Dakota, a major problem in forming divisions and other units in the Organized Reserve Corps was adequate housing. While many National Guard units owned their own armories, some dating back to the nineteenth century, although the War Department requested funds for needed facilities, Congress moved slowly in response. During the summer and fall of 1951 the six army commanders in the United States, staff agencies, the army commanders urged that all divisions in the Organized Reserve Corps be infantry divisions because they believed that the reserves could not adequately support armored and airborne training. They thought thirteen, rather than twelve, reserve divisions should be maintained to provide a geographic distribution of the units
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Signal Corps (United States Army)
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The United States Army Signal Corps develops, tests, provides, and manages communications and information systems support for the command and control of combined arms forces. It was established in 1860, the brainchild of United States Army Major Albert J. Myer, support for the command and control of combined arms forces. Signal support includes Network Operations and management of the electromagnetic spectrum, while serving as a medical officer in Texas in 1856, Albert James Myer proposed that the Army use his visual communications system, called aerial telegraphy. When the Army adopted his system on 21 June 1860, the Signal Corps was born with Myer as the first, Major Myer first used his visual signaling system on active service in New Mexico during the early 1860s Navajo expedition. For nearly three years, Myer was forced to rely on detailed personnel, although he envisioned a separate, myers vision came true on 3 March 1863, when Congress authorized a regular Signal Corps for the duration of the war. Some 2,900 officers and enlisted men served, although not at any single time, even in the Civil War, the wigwag system, restricted to line-of-sight communications, was waning in the face of the electric telegraph. Initially, Myer used his office downtown in Washington, D. C. to house the Signal Corps School, when it was found to need additional space, he sought out other locations. First came Fort Greble, one of the Defenses of Washington during the Civil War, the size and location were outstanding. The school remained there for over 20 years and ultimately was renamed Fort Myer, Signal Corps detachments participated in campaigns fighting Native Americans in the west, such as the Powder River Expedition of 1865. The electric telegraph, in addition to signaling, became a Signal Corps responsibility in 1867. Within 12 years, the Corps had constructed, and was maintaining and operating, in 1870, the Signal Corps established a congressionally mandated national weather service. Within a decade, with the assistance of Lieutenant Adolphus Greely, Myer died in 1880, having attained the rank of brigadier general and the title of Chief Signal Officer. The weather bureau became part of the U. S. Department of Agriculture in 1891, the Signal Corps role in the Spanish–American War of 1898 and the subsequent Philippine Insurrection was on a grander scale than it had been in the Civil War. In 1908, on Fort Myer, Virginia, the Wright brothers made test flights of the Armys first airplane built to Signal Corps specifications, reflecting the need for an official pilot rating, War Department Bulletin No. 2, released on 24 February 1911, established a Military Aviator rating, Army aviation remained within the Signal Corps until 1918, when it became the Army Air Service. The Signal Corps lost no time in meeting the challenges of World War I, Chief Signal Officer George Owen Squier worked closely with private industry to perfect radio tubes while creating a major signal laboratory at Camp Alfred Vail. Early radiotelephones developed by the Signal Corps were introduced into the European theater in 1918, while the new American voice radios were superior to the radiotelegraph sets, telephone and telegraph remained the major technology of World War I. A pioneer in radar, Colonel William Blair, director of the Signal Corps laboratories at Fort Monmouth, even before the United States entered World War II, mass production of two radar sets, the SCR-268 and the SCR-270, had begun
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Supreme Court of the United States
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The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
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Hamilton Township, Mercer County, New Jersey
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Hamilton Township is a township in Mercer County, New Jersey, United States. The township was the states 9th-largest municipality, after having been ranked 10th in 2000, the township is located immediately east of the city of Trenton, the states capital. Hamilton was incorporated as a township by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on April 11,1842, portions of the township were taken to form Chambersburg borough and Wilbur borough. Hamilton Township derives its name from the village of Hamilton Square, in 2006, Hamilton Township was ranked by Morgan Quitno as the eighteenth-safest city in the United States, out of 369 cities nationwide. In the companys 2005 survey, the Township was ranked 15th safest of 354 cities surveyed nationwide. According to the United States Census Bureau, the township had an area of 40.387 square miles. Although Hamilton is one of the largest townships in New Jersey it doesnt have a true downtown, groveville, Hamilton Square, Mercerville, White Horse and Yardville are all census-designated places and unincorporated communities located within the township. Van Nest Wildlife Refuge is a 98-acre wildlife management area operated by the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protections Division of Fish, as of late 2005, much of the new residential development in Hamilton has been geared to accommodating the aging baby boomer generation. New retirement communities and assisted-living facilities outpace that of new residential communities. Such construction has been spurred by several factors, the first being that the public is skeptical of growing school budgets due to its already large size. Hamilton voters have often rejected increases in school budgets in their elections to keep already high taxes from growing higher. As a result, the board has been reluctant to authorize construction of housing that will increase the student population. Another reason is a series of improvements to Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital, the hospital is now a highly respected source of care in the state. It is situated next to where most of the land in the township used to be. As of October 2016, significant construction has been done to build up the Hamilton Township area. Multiple new retirement communities have been constructed, as well as new restaurants, banks, gas stations. Hamilton Township continues to expand rapidly to accommodate the increase in citizens residing in the community, as of the census of 2010, there were 88,464 people,34,534 households, and 23,759 families residing in the township. The population density was 2,240.2 per square mile, there were 36,170 housing units at an average density of 915.9 per square mile
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Yale Law School
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Yale Law School is the law school of Yale University, located in New Haven, Connecticut, United States. The schools small size and prestige make its admissions process the most selective of any law school in the United States, Yale has the lowest acceptance rate among all law schools. Roughly 8 in 10 admits ultimately matriculate, which marks the best yield rate among the top U. S. law schools, established in 1824, Yale Law offers the J. D. LL. M. M. S. L. and Ph. D. degrees in law, Yale Law has been ranked the number one law school in the country by U. S. News and World Report every year since the magazine began publishing law school rankings, through 2017. Yale Law School is widely considered to be the preeminent law school in the nation and is one of the most prestigious law schools in the world, Yale Law has produced a significant number of luminaries in law and politics, including United States presidents Gerald Ford and Bill Clinton. Former president William Howard Taft was a professor of law at Yale Law School from 1913 until he resigned to become chief justice of the United States in 1921. Each class in Yale Laws three-year J. D. program enrolls approximately 200 students, Yales flagship law review is the Yale Law Journal. Another feature of Yale Laws culture since the 1930s, among both faculty and student graduates, has been an emphasis on the importance of spending at least a few years in government service, a similar emphasis has long been placed on service as a judicial law clerk upon graduation. Its 7.6,1 student-to-faculty ratio is the third lowest among U. S. law schools, Yale Law does not have a traditional grading system, a consequence of student unrest in the late 1960s. Instead, it grades first-semester first-year students on a simple Credit/No Credit system, for their remaining two-and-a-half years, students are graded on an Honors/Pass/Low Pass/Fail system. Similarly, the school does not rank its students and it is also notable for having only a single semester of required classes, instead of the full year most U. S. schools require. Students publish nine law journals that, unlike those at most other schools, although the Journal identifies a target maximum number of members to accept each year, it is not a firm number. Other leading student-edited publications include the Yale Law and Policy Review, the Yale Journal on Regulation, the Yale Journal of Law and Technology, and the Yale Journal of International Law. In November 2013, it was announced that a $25 million donation would bring student dormitory living back onto campus, with renovations to begin in 2018. Yale Law has been ranked the number one law school in the country by U. S. News and it is currently ranked as the second best law school in U. S and fourth in the world by the 2016 QS Rankings. Additionally, a 2010 survey of scholarly impact, measured by per capita citations to faculty scholarship, the School began in the New Haven law office of Seth P. Staples in the 1800s, who began training lawyers, by 1810 he was operating a law school. He took on a student, Samuel J. Hitchcock as a law partner
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Italian Americans
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Italian Americans are an ethnic group comprising Americans who have full or partial ancestry from Italy, especially those who identify with that ancestry, along with their cultural characteristics. Italian Americans are the fourth largest European ethnic group in the United States, about 5.5 million Italians immigrated to the United States from 1820 to 2004. Immigration began in earnest during the 1870s, when more than twice as many Italians immigrated than during the five previous decades altogether. The 1870s were followed by the greatest surge of immigration, which occurred in the period between 1880 and 1914 and brought more than 4 million Italians to America. This period of large scale immigration ended abruptly with the onset of the First World War in 1914 and, except for one year, further immigration would be greatly limited by a number of restrictive laws passed by Congress in the 1920s. Approximately 84% of the Italian immigrants came from Southern Italy and Sicily, after unification, the Italian government initially encouraged emigration to relieve economic pressures in the South. After the American Civil War, which resulted in over a million killed or wounded, immigrant workers were recruited from Italy. In the United States, most Italians began their new lives as manual laborers in Eastern cities, mining camps, Italian Americans gradually moved from the lower rungs of the economic scale in the first generation to a level comparable to the national average by 1970. By 1990, more than 65% of Italian Americans were managerial, professional, the Italian-American communities have often been characterized by strong ties with family, the Catholic Church, fraternal organizations and political parties. Today, over 17 million Americans claim Italian ancestry, third only to Brazil with 31 million, and Argentina, Italians and their descendants in America have helped to shape the country and, in turn, have adapted to it. They have gained prominence in politics, sports, the media, the arts, the culinary arts. Italian navigators and explorers played a key role in the discovery, exploration, christopher Columbus, the explorer who first reached the Americas in 1492–1504, was Italian. Another notable Italian explorer, Amerigo Vespucci, who explored the east coast of South America between 1499 and 1502, is the source of the name America. Englands claims in North America were based on the voyages of the Italian explorer John Cabot, in 1524 the Italian explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano was the first European to map the Atlantic coast of todays United States, and to enter New York Bay. In 1539, Marco da Nizza, explored the territory later became the states of Arizona. In the 17th century, Henri de Tonti, together with the French explorer LaSalle, De Tonti founded the first European settlement in Illinois in 1679, and in Arkansas in 1683. With LaSalle, he co-founded New Orleans, and was governor of the Louisiana Territory for the next 20 years and his brother Alphonse de Tonty, with French explorer Antoine Cadillac, was the co-founder of Detroit in 1701, and was its acting colonial governor for 12 years. Spain and France were Catholic countries and sent many missionaries to convert the native population, included among these missionaries were numerous Italians
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Conservatism in the United States
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Historians argue that the conservative tradition has played a major role in American politics and culture since the 1790s. However they have stressed that a conservative movement has played a key role in politics only since the 1950s. The recent movement is based in the Republican Party, though some Democrats were also important figures early in the movements history, the history of American conservatism has been marked by tensions and competing ideologies. Fiscal conservatives and libertarians favor small government, low taxes, limited regulation, Social conservatives see traditional social values as threatened by secularism, they tend to support voluntary school prayer and oppose abortion and same sex marriage. Some also want the teaching of intelligent design or creationism allowed, the 21st century has seen an increasingly fervent conservative support for Second Amendment rights of private citizens to own firearms. Neoconservatives want to expand American ideals throughout the world, paleoconservatives advocate restrictions on immigration, non-interventionist foreign policy, and stand in opposition to multiculturalism. Nationwide most factions, except some libertarians, support a unilateral foreign policy, the conservative movement of the 1950s attempted to bring together these divergent strands, stressing the need for unity to prevent the spread of godless communism. All other activities of government tend to diminish freedom and hamper progress, the growth of government must be fought relentlessly. In this great social conflict of the era, we are, without reservations and we believe that truth is neither arrived at nor illuminated by monitoring election results, binding though these are for other purposes, but by other means, including a study of human experience. On this point we are, without reservations, on the conservative side, President Ronald Reagan set the conservative standard in the 1980s, in the 2010s the Republican leaders typically claim fealty to it. For example, most of the Republican candidates in 2012 claimed to be standardbearers of Reagans ideological legacy, the 1980s and beyond became known as the Reagan Era. Typically, conservative politicians and spokesmen in the 21st century proclaim their devotion to Reagans ideals and policies on most social, economic and they support a strong policy of law and order to control crime, including long jail terms for repeat offenders. Most conservatives support the death penalty for particularly egregious crimes, the law and order issue was a major factor weakening liberalism in the 1960s. From 2001 to 2008, Republican President George W. Bush stressed cutting taxes and minimizing regulation of industry and banking, Conservatives generally advocate the use of American military power to fight terrorists and promote democracy in the Middle East. According to a 2014 poll, 38% of American voters identify as conservative or very conservative, 34% as moderate, although the study does show some distinction between the concentration of moderates and conservatives or liberals between the Republican and Democratic parties. Among Democrats, 44% are self-identified liberals, 19% as conservatives, for Republicans 70% self-identified as conservative, 24% as moderate, and 5% as liberal. Conservatism appears to be growing stronger at the state level, the trend is most pronounced among the least well-off, least educated, most blue collar, most economically hard-hit states. Conservatives generally believe that government action is not the solution to problems as poverty and inequality
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Originalist
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The term originated in the 1980s. Originalism is based on formalist theory, and when applied to meaning, is related to textualism. However, some liberals, such as late Justice Hugo Black, Originalism is an umbrella term for interpretative methods that hold to the fixation thesis—the notion that an utterances semantic content is fixed at the time it is uttered. This is currently a minority view among originalists and it is this view with which most originalists, such as Justice Scalia, are associated. It is often asserted that originalism is synonymous with strict constructionism, both theories are associated with textualist and formalist schools of thought, however there are pronounced differences between them. Justice Scalia differentiated the two by pointing out that, unlike an originalist, a strict constructionist would not acknowledge that he uses a cane means he walks with a cane, Originalism is a theory of interpretation, not construction. However, this distinction between interpretation and construction is controversial and is rejected by many nonoriginalists as artificial. In many cases, the meaning might be so specific that no discretion is permissible, a judge could, therefore, be both an originalist and a strict constructionist—but he is not one by virtue of being the other. To put the more explicitly, both schools take the plain meaning of the text as their starting point, but have different approaches that can best be illustrated with a fictitious example. Suppose that the Constitution contained a provision that a person may not be subjected to the punishments of hanging by the neck, beheading, stoning, pressing, or execution by firing squad. A strict constructionist might interpret that clause to mean that the specific punishments mentioned above were unconstitutional, for a strict constructionist, the specific, strict reading of the text is the beginning and end of the inquiry. For an originalist, however, the text is the beginning of the inquiry, an originalist might therefore conclude that capital punishment in general, including those methods for it invented since ratification, such as the electric chair, are not constitutional. Another originalist may look at the text and see that the created a list. He would assume that the authors intended this to be an exhaustive list of objectionable executions, otherwise, they would have banned capital punishment as a whole, instead of listing specific means of punishment. He would rule that other forms of execution are constitutional, note that originalists would agree that, if the original meaning of the text could be ascertained, that meaning governs. Where they disagree, as in example, is about exactly how to find that meaning. If that canon is appropriate in the example here, all originalist interpreters would likely reach the same result, Originalism is actually a family of related views. Originalism as a movement got off to a start in 1971, with Robert Borks Neutral Principles
23.
McDonald v. Chicago
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The decision cleared up the uncertainty left in the wake of District of Columbia v. Heller as to the scope of gun rights in regard to the states. Cruikshank, Presser v. Illinois, and Miller v. Texas, the petition for certiorari was filed by Alan Gura, the attorney who had successfully argued Heller, and Chicago-area attorney David G. Sigale. The Second Amendment Foundation and the Illinois State Rifle Association sponsored the litigation on behalf of several Chicago residents, the oral arguments took place on March 2,2010. It then remanded the case back to Seventh Circuit to resolve conflicts between certain Chicago gun restrictions and the Second Amendment. In McDonald v. City of Chicago, Chicago resident Otis McDonald, McDonald decried the decline of his neighborhood, describing it as being taken over by gangs and drug dealers. An experienced hunter, McDonald legally owned shotguns, but believed them too unwieldy in the event of a robbery, as a result, in 2008, he joined three other Chicago residents in filing a lawsuit which became McDonald v. Chicago. Despite being consolidated at the U. S, the Second Amendment Foundation brought the McDonald case to the Supreme Court with its lead attorney Alan Gura. The cases were appealed separately to the U. S. Supreme Court, slaughter-House determined that the 14th Amendments Privileges or Immunities Clause did not apply the Bill of Rights to the actions of states. If it had been overturned, the Selective Incorporation process may have become unnecessary, since the entire Bill of Rights, including the 2nd Amendment, thirty-three amici curiae briefs for this case were filed with the Clerk of the Supreme Court. The brief was signed by 58 senators and 251 representatives, more members of Congress than any amicus curiae brief in history, moreover, thirty-two states under the aegis of Texas also filed amici curiae. Writing for the majority, Justice Alito held that the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment incorporates the Second Amendment right recognized in Heller. Writing a concurring opinion, Justice Thomas reached the conclusion regarding the incorporation issue on different grounds. The majority decision also reaffirmed that certain firearms restrictions mentioned in District of Columbia v. Heller are assumed permissible, such restrictions include those to prohibit. Justice Stevens wrote a dissenting opinion. Among his disagreements with the majority was the statement that incorporation was not at issue in this case, citing Cruikshank, Stevens wrote, The so-called incorporation question was squarely and, in my view, correctly resolved in the late 19th century. In addition, he argues against incorporation, taking issue with the methodology of the majority opinions, Justice Breyer wrote, In sum, the Framers did not write the Second Amendment in order to protect a private right of armed self defense. There has been, and is, no consensus that the right is, or was, the initial reactions of the Courts ruling were favorable from both the National Rifle Association and the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence. Both issued statements to the public that they feel they were vindicated by the Courts holding, however, the court did not include a clarification of the standard for review as requested by the Brady group in their amicus brief
24.
Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc.
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Burwell v. Hobby Lobby,573 U. S. It is the first time that the court has recognized a for-profit corporations claim of religious belief, the decision does not address whether such corporations are protected by the free-exercise of religion clause of the First Amendment of the Constitution. The ruling is considered to be part of the controversy regarding Obamacare. The United States Supreme Court ruled in Employment Division v. Smith that a person may not defy neutral laws of general applicability even as an expression of religious belief. He wrote that generally applicable laws do not have to meet the standard of strict scrutiny, strict scrutiny would require a law to be the least restrictive means of furthering a compelling government interest. The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the RFRA as applied to federal statutes in Gonzales v. O Centro Espirita in 2006, most Americans are covered by employer-sponsored health insurance. HHS exempted religious employers, non-profit organizations that object to any required contraception, employers providing grandfathered plans, the HRSA decided that all twenty contraceptives approved by the U. S. Food and Drug Administration should be covered. Companies that refuse are fined $100 per individual per day, or they can replace their health coverage with higher wages, Hobby Lobby is an arts and crafts company founded by self-made billionaire David Green and owned by the Evangelical Christian Green family with about 21,000 employees. It provided health insurance covering the contraceptives Plan-B and Ella until it dropped its coverage in 2012, the Hobby Lobby case also involved Mardel Christian and Educational Supply, which is owned by Mart Green, one of Davids sons. On November 19,2012, U. S. District Judge Joe L. Heaton denied Hobby Lobbys request for a preliminary injunction, on December 26,2012, Justice Sonya Sotomayor issued an in-chambers opinion denying an injunction pending appeal. In March 2013, the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit granted a hearing of the case, in June, the appeals court ruled that Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc. is a person who has religious freedom. Circuit Judge Timothy Tymkovich wrote for the en banc majority. Neil Gorsuch voted with the majority and also wrote an opinion on the case, the court ordered the government to stop enforcement of the contraception rule on Hobby Lobby and sent the case back to the district court, which granted preliminary injunction in July. In September, the government appealed to the U. S. Supreme Court, two other federal appeals courts ruled against the contraception coverage rule, while another two upheld it. The case was previously titled Sebelius v. Hobby Lobby, on November 26, the Supreme Court accepted and consolidated the case with Conestoga Wood Specialties v. Sebelius. Two dozen amicus briefs support the government, and five dozen support the companies, American Freedom Law Centers brief argues that birth control harms women because men will only want them for the satisfaction of own desires. Another brief argues that the contraception rule leads to the maximization of sexual activity, two of the briefs oppose each other on the constitutionality of the RFRA. Two briefs that do not formally take sides oppose each other on whether the right to religion applies to corporations, one of those briefs argues that if shareholders are separated by the corporate veil from corporate liabilities, then their religious values are also separate from the corporation
25.
Steinert High School
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The other high schools in the district are Nottingham High School and Hamilton High School. The school mascot is the Spartan, as of the 2014-15 school year, the school had an enrollment of 1,317 students and 99.9 classroom teachers, for a student–teacher ratio of 13.2,1. There were 133 students eligible for free lunch and 38 eligible for reduced-cost lunch, the school had been ranked 204th in the state of 328 schools in 2012, after being ranked 189th in 2010 out of 322 schools listed. The magazine ranked the school 199th in 2008 out of 316 schools, the Steinert High School Spartans compete in the Colonial Valley Conference, which operates under the supervision of the New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association. The school maintains sports rivalries with fellow Hamilton schools, the Hamilton West Hornets, School colors are dark green and white. Sports offered include baseball, basketball, cross country, field hockey, football, golf, ice hockey, lacrosse, soccer, softball, swimming, tennis, track, the 1992 baseball team defeated Hoboken High School, 5-4, to win the NJSIAA Group III state championship. The squad finished with a 31-1 record, the most wins ever recorded in a season by a Mercer County baseball school, the team was inducted into the Steinert Athletic Hall of Fame in 2008. Softball The girls softball team won the 2004 NJSIAA Group IV state championship, the team won the 2016 Group III state title with a 6-2 win against Middletown High School South in the tournaments final round. Field hockey The field hockey won the North II Group IV state sectional championship in 2000. In 2007, the hockey team won the Central Jersey. Wayne DeAngelo, represents the 14th Legislative District in the New Jersey General Assembly since 2008, dan Donigan, retired United States soccer forward, former head coach of Saint Louis University Mens Soccer team and current head coach of Rutgers University Mens Soccer team. In 1999, he was named by The Star-Ledger as one of the top ten New Jersey high school players of the 1980s. Eddie Gaven, midfielder for the Columbus Crew, dahntay Jones, G/F for the NBAs Atlanta Hawks. Chris Pittaro, former MLB second baseman and current Oakland Athletics National Field Coordinator, bobby Smith, North American Soccer League All Star defender and National Soccer Hall of Fame inductee who won three league championships, one in Philadelphia and two with the New York Cosmos. Duane Robinson, was the first overall pick of the Illinois Thunder in the 1990 National Professional Soccer League Draft
26.
Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act
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The Act created the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court to oversee requests for surveillance warrants by federal law enforcement and intelligence agencies. It has been amended since the September 11 attacks. The Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act was introduced on May 18,1977, by Senator Ted Kennedy and was signed into law by President Carter in 1978. The bill was cosponsored by nine Senators, Birch Bayh, James O. Eastland, Jake Garn, Walter Huddleston, Daniel Inouye, Charles Mathias, John L. McClellan, Gaylord Nelson, and Strom Thurmond. The FISA resulted from extensive investigations by Senate Committees into the legality of domestic intelligence activities and these investigations were led separately by Sam Ervin and Frank Church in 1978 as a response to President Richard Nixon’s usage of federal resources to spy on political and activist groups. The code defines foreign intelligence information to mean information necessary to protect the United States against actual or potential grave attack, sabotage or international terrorism. Foreign powers means a government, any faction of a foreign nation not substantially composed of U. S. persons. The definition also includes groups engaged in terrorism and foreign political organizations. The sections of FISA authorizing electronic surveillance and physical searches without a court order specifically exclude their application to groups engaged in international terrorism, a U. S. person includes citizens, lawfully admitted permanent resident aliens, and corporations incorporated in the United States. The communications can be retained without court order if there is evidence of a crime, since 50 U. S. C. §1802 of this Act specifically limits warrantless surveillance to foreign powers as defined by 50 U. S. C. §1801, and omits the definitions contained in 50 U. S. C, under the FISA act, anyone who engages in electronic surveillance except as authorized by statute is subject to both criminal penalties and civil liabilities. §1811, the President may also authorize warrantless surveillance at the beginning of a war, specifically, he may authorize such surveillance for a period not to exceed fifteen calendar days following a declaration of war by the Congress. Alternatively, the government may seek an order permitting the surveillance using the FISA court. In addition, the court must find that the proposed surveillance meet certain requirements for information pertaining to U. S. persons. Depending on the type of surveillance, approved orders or extensions of orders may be active for 90 days,120 days, the court is located within the E. Barrett Prettyman United States Courthouse in Washington, D. C. The court is staffed by judges appointed by the Chief Justice of the United States to serve seven-year terms. Proceedings before the FISA court are ex parte and non-adversarial, the court hears evidence presented solely by the Department of Justice. There is no provision for a release of information regarding such hearings, denials of FISA applications by the FISC may be appealed to the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review
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Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court
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The United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court is a U. S. Such requests are made most often by the National Security Agency, Congress created FISA and its court as a result of the recommendations by the U. S. Senates Church Committee. Its powers have evolved to the point that it has been called almost a parallel Supreme Court, since 2009, the court has been relocated to the E. Barrett Prettyman United States Courthouse in Washington, D. C. For roughly thirty years of its history, it was housed on the floor of the Robert F. Kennedy Department of Justice Building. Each application for one of these surveillance warrants is made before a judge of the court. The court may allow third parties to submit briefs as amici curiae, such appeals are rare, the first appeal from the FISC to the Court of Review was made in 2002,24 years after the founding of the court. Also rare is for FISA warrant requests to be turned down, during the 25 years from 1979 to 2004,18,742 warrants were granted, while only 4 were rejected. Fewer than 200 requests had to be modified before being accepted, the four rejected requests were all from 2003, and all four were partially granted after being submitted for reconsideration by the government. Of the requests that had to be modified, few were before the year 2000, during the next eight years, from 2004 to 2012, there were over 15,100 additional warrants granted, and another 7 being rejected. Over the entire 33-year period, the FISA court granted 33,942 warrants and this does not include the number of warrants that were modified by the FISA court. This can cause a phenomenon called confirmation bias which, due to such an approval rate of warrants. Whether this rejection was related to the starting to require modification of significantly more requests in 2003 is unknown. On December 16,2005, The New York Times reported that the Bush administration had been conducting surveillance against U. S. citizens without the knowledge of the court since 2002. The governments apparent circumvention of the court started prior to the increase in court-ordered modifications to warrant requests, the searches take place under a surveillance program Congress authorized in 2008 under Section 702 of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act. Under that law, the target must be a foreigner reasonably believed to be outside the United States, but a warrant for each target would thus no longer be required. Both measures were done without public debate or any authority from Congress. Because of the nature of its business, the court is a secret court – its hearings are closed to the public. While records of the proceedings are kept, they also are unavailable to the public, due to the classified nature of its proceedings, usually only attorneys licensed to practice in front of the US government are permitted to appear before the court
28.
Sodomy
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Sodomy is generally anal or oral sex between people or sexual activity between a person and a non-human animal, but it may also mean any non-procreative sexual activity. Originally, the sodomy, which is derived from the story of Sodom. Sodomy laws in many countries criminalized these behaviors, and other disfavored sexual activities as well, in the Western world, many of these laws have been overturned or are not routinely enforced. The term is derived from the Ecclesiastical Latin peccatum Sodomiticum or sin of Sodom, Genesis tells how God wished to destroy the sinful cities of Sodom and Gomorrah. Two angels are invited by Lot to take refuge with his family for the night, the men of Sodom surround Lots house and demand that he bring the messengers out so that they may know them. Lot protests that the messengers are his guests and offers the Sodomites his virgin daughters instead, then the angels strike the Sodomites blind, so that they wearied themselves to find the door. In current usage, the term is used in law. Laws prohibiting sodomy were seen frequently in past Jewish, Christian, and Islamic civilizations, but the term has little modern usage outside Africa, Islamic countries, and these laws in the United States have been challenged and have sometimes been found unconstitutional or been replaced with different legislation. Many cognates in other languages, such as French sodomie, Spanish sodomía, in modern German, the word Sodomie has no connotation of anal or oral sex and specifically refers to bestiality. The same goes for the Polish sodomia, the Norwegian word sodomi carries both senses. In Danish, sodomi is rendered as unnatural carnal knowledge with someone of the sex or with animals. In Arabic and Persian, the word for sodomy, لواط, is derived from the source as in Western culture. Its direct reference is to Lot and a literal interpretation of the word is the practice of Lot. The word sod, a noun or verb used as an insult, is derived from sodomite and it is a general-purpose insult term for anyone the speaker dislikes without specific reference to their sexual behaviour. Sod is used as slang in the United Kingdom and Commonwealth and is mildly offensive. However, in New Zealand and Australia it is not considered offensive at all, but only coarse, because it is assumed, even if incorrect. While religion and the law have had a role in the historical definition and punishment of sodomy, sodomitical texts present considerable opportunities for ambiguity. Sodomy is both a real occurrence and an imagined category, in the course of the eighteenth century, what is identifiable as sodomy often becomes identified with effeminacy, for example, or in opposition to a discourse of manliness
29.
Eating clubs at Princeton University
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The eating clubs at Princeton University are private institutions resembling both dining halls and social houses, where the majority of Princeton upperclassmen eat their meals. This area is known to students colloquially as The Street, princetons eating clubs are the primary setting in F. Scott Fitzgeralds 1920 debut novel, This Side of Paradise, and the clubs appeared prominently in the 2004 novel The Rule of Four. Princeton undergraduates have their choice of eleven eating clubs, Four clubs—Cloister Inn, Colonial Club, Quadrangle Club, and Terrace Club—are non-selective sign-in clubs, with members chosen through a lottery process. Charter Club used to be sign-in, but changed to a system where new members are chosen through a system of points accumulated through participating in club activities. While many upperclassmen at Princeton take their meals at the eating clubs, the primary function of the eating clubs is to serve as dining halls for the majority of third- and fourth-year students. Unlike fraternities and sororities, to which the clubs are sometimes compared, the eating clubs also provide many services for their members. Each club, in general, has a room, library, computer cluster, billiard room. Members frequently use club facilities for studying and socializing, on most Thursday and Saturday nights, the Street is the primary social venue for Princeton students, and each club will have music and parties. Some parties are open to all university students, these are colloquially called PUID, other parties are only open to members or students with special passes, which must be obtained from members. Friday nights are much more low-key at Princeton, and clubs that are open are usually only to members. The notable exception is Charter Club, which is open to all university students, each club also has semiformal events and formal dinners and dances. Special events are held annually or biannually at every club, other events are common to all clubs. Eating clubs arose from dining societies, in which Princeton students gathered to take meals at a common table and these groups, often whimsically named, rarely lasted longer than a few years, disappearing when their founders graduated. Towards the end of the 19th century the eating clubs began to recruit new members as old ones left, Ivy Club was the first of the permanent eating clubs. It was followed shortly after by University Cottage Club and this process was greatly aided by Moses Taylor Pyne. He provided financial assistance to most of the eating clubs, an early member of Ivy Club, Pyne was heavily involved in the early development of Cap and Gown Club, Campus Club, Elm Club, Cloister Inn, and many others. The new clubs gradually eroded the central role that debate societies Whig, the decline in popularity and energy of the societies led to their merger into the American Whig-Cliosophic Society, which still exists today. Twenty eating clubs have existed since Ivy Club opened in 1879, at various points, many of the eating clubs fell on hard times and closed their doors or merged with others
30.
Selective Service
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The Selective Service System is an independent agency of the United States government that maintains information on those potentially subject to military conscription. A2010 GAO report estimated the rate at 92% with the names and addresses of over 16.2 million men on file. The Selective Service System provides the names of all registrants to the Joint Advertising Marketing Research & Studies program for inclusion in the JAMRS Consolidated Recruitment Database, the names are distributed to the Services for recruiting purposes on a quarterly basis. Regulations are codified at 32 C. F. R, owing to very slow enlistment following the U. S. The Act gave the President the power to men for military service. All men aged 21 to 30 were required to register for service for a service period of 12 months. As of mid-November 1917, all registrants were placed in one of five new classifications, Men in Class I were the first to be drafted, and men in lower classifications were deferred. Dependency deferments for registrants who were fathers or husbands were especially widespread, the age limit was later raised in August 1918 to a maximum age of 45. The military draft was discontinued in 1920, the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 was passed by the 76th United States Congress on September 16,1940, establishing the first peacetime conscription in United States history. It required all men between the ages of 18 to 64 to register with Selective Service and it originally conscripted all men aged 21 to 35 for a service period of 12 months. In 1941 the military service period was extended to 18 months, the Selective Service System created by the 1940 Act was terminated by the Act of March 31,1947. The Selective Service Act of 1948, enacted in June of that year, created a new and separate system, all men 18 years and older had to register with Selective Service. All men between the ages of 19 to 26 were eligible to be drafted for a requirement of 21 months. Conscripts could volunteer for service in the Regular Army for a term of four years or the Organized Reserves for a term of six years. Due to deep postwar budget cuts, only 100,000 conscripts were chosen in 1948, in 1950, the number of conscripts was greatly increased to meet the demands of the Korean War. The outbreak of the Korean War fostered the creation of the Universal Military Training and this lowered the draft age from 19 to 18 1⁄2, increased active-duty service time from 21 to 24 months, and set the statutory term of military service at a minimum of eight years. Students attending a college or training program full-time could request an exemption, a Universal Military Training clause was inserted that would have made all men obligated to perform 12 months of military service and training if the Act was amended by later legislation. Despite successive attempts over the several years, however, such legislation was never passed
31.
Reserve Officers' Training Corps
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The Reserve Officers Training Corps are a group of college-based officer training programs for training commissioned officers of the United States Armed Forces. ROTC officers serve in all branches of the U. S. armed forces, under ROTC, a student may receive a competitive, merit-based scholarship, covering all or part of college tuition, in return for an obligation of active military service after graduation. The U. S. Coast Guard offers a program to ROTC under a different name. The students participate in regular drills during the year. Some of the training that is offered to cadets in the Army ROTC program are, Airborne, Air Assault, Mountain Warfare, WHINSEC. Army ROTC units are organized as brigades, battalions, and companies, Air Force ROTC units are detachments with the students organized into wings, groups, squadrons, and flights. Army and Air Force ROTC students are referred to as cadets, Navy ROTC units are organized as battalions, and also include NROTC students under Marine Option who will eventually be commissioned as officers in the Marine Corps. Marine NROTC students may be formed in a company when the program includes sufficient numbers. All Navy ROTC students are referred to as midshipmen, the term of obligatory service varies based on the type of commission the cadet or midshipman receives, as well as any scholarship contract signed. They can serve as duty or in a reserve status. Additionally, a cadet on active duty can receive either a regular appointment or a reserve appointment and this affects the required years, as well as how many must be completed on active duty, in an active reserve capacity, or in the Individual Ready Reserve. Under federal law, graduates of an ROTC scholarship program incur an active duty service obligation. Recipients incur an eight-year MSO if they accept a commission and serve in a reserve component, finally, recipients incur at least a six-year MSO and up to an eight-year ADSO if they accept a commission and serve in a reserve component with at least two years of active duty. Army ROTC students who receive an Army ROTC scholarship or enter the Army ROTC Advanced Course must agree to complete a period of service. This can include three active duty, with the balance in the IRR. The service obligation for a Navy ROTC student is five years in the Navy, the active-duty service obligation for an Air Force ROTC student is four years, or eight years for Combat Systems Officers, or six years Air Battle Management officers, or ten years for pilots. The concept of ROTC in the United States began with the Morrill Act of 1862 which established the land-grant colleges, part of the federal governments requirement for these schools was that they include military tactics as part of their curriculum, forming what became known as ROTC. The college from which ROTC originated is Norwich University in Northfield, Norwich was founded in 1819 at Norwich, Vermont, as the American Literary, Scientific and Military Academy
32.
Fort Knox
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Fort Knox is a United States Army post in Kentucky south of Louisville and north of Elizabethtown. The 109,000 acre base covers parts of Bullitt, Hardin and it currently holds the Army Human Resources Center of Excellence to include the Army Human Resources Command, United States Army Cadet Command and the United States Army Accessions Command. For 60 years, Fort Knox was the home of the U. S. Army Armor Center and the U. S. Army Armor School, and was used by both the Army and the Marine Corps to train crews on the M1 Abrams main battle tank. The history of the U. S. Armys Cavalry and Armored forces, the fort is best known as the site of the United States Bullion Depository, which is used to house a large portion of the United States official gold reserves. The United States Department of the Treasury has maintained the Bullion Depository on the post since 1937 and this facility is operated solely by the Treasury Department. Parts of the base in Hardin and Meade counties form a census-designated place, the George S. Patton Museum and Center of Leadership at Fort Knox includes an exhibit highlighting leadership issues that arose from the attacks of September 11,2001, which includes two firetrucks. One of them, designated Foam 161, was partially charred and melted in the attack upon the Pentagon. S. military to die in the attacks of September 11,2001. In 2012, the U. S. Army Armor School was relocated to The Maneuver Center of Excellence at FT Benning, fortifications were constructed near the site in 1861, during the Civil War when Fort Duffield was constructed. Fort Duffield was located on what was known as Muldraugh Hill on a point overlooking the confluence of the Salt and Ohio Rivers. The area was contested by both Union and Confederate forces, bands of organized guerrillas frequently raided the area during the war. John Hunt Morgan the 2nd Kentucky Cavalry for the Confederate Army raided the area before staging his famous raid on Indiana, after the war, the area now occupied by the Army was home to various small communities. In October 1903, military maneuvers for the Regular Army and the National Guards of several states were held at West Point, Kentucky, in April 1918, field artillery units from Camp Zachary Taylor arrived at West Point for training. 20,000 acres near the village of Stithton were leased to the government, the new camp was named after Henry Knox, the Continental Armys chief of artillery during the Revolutionary War and the countrys first Secretary of War. The camp was extended by the purchase of a further 40,000 acres in June 1918, the building program was reduced following the end of the war and reduced further following cuts to the army in 1921 after the National Defense Act of 1920. The camp was greatly reduced and became a semi-permanent training center for the 5th Corps Area for Reserve Officer training, the National Guard, for a short while, from 1925 to 1928, the area was designated as Camp Henry Knox National Forest. It was used by the Kentucky Air National Guard for several years after the war until they relocated to Standiford Field in Louisville, the airfield is still in use by the United States Army Aviation Branch. Hatfield ordered its release after the D-Day Landings on September 19,1944, in 1931 a small force of the mechanized cavalry was assigned to Camp Knox to use it as a training site. The camp was turned into a permanent garrison in January 1932, the 1st Cavalry Regiment arrived later in the month to become the 1st Cavalry Regiment
33.
Kentucky
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Kentucky, officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a state located in the east south-central region of the United States. Kentucky is one of four U. S. states constituted as a commonwealth, originally a part of Virginia, in 1792 Kentucky became the 15th state to join the Union. Kentucky is the 37th most extensive and the 26th most populous of the 50 United States, Kentucky is known as the Bluegrass State, a nickname based on the bluegrass found in many of its pastures due to the fertile soil. One of the regions in Kentucky is the Bluegrass Region in central Kentucky. In 1776, the counties of Virginia beyond the Appalachian Mountains became known as Kentucky County, the precise etymology of the name is uncertain, but likely based on an Iroquoian name meaning the meadow or the prairie. Kentucky is situated in the Upland South, a significant portion of eastern Kentucky is part of Appalachia. Kentucky borders seven states, from the Midwest and the Southeast, West Virginia lies to the east, Virginia to the southeast, Tennessee to the south, Missouri to the west, Illinois and Indiana to the northwest, and Ohio to the north and northeast. Only Missouri and Tennessee, both of which border eight states, touch more, Kentuckys northern border is formed by the Ohio River and its western border by the Mississippi River. The official state borders are based on the courses of the rivers as they existed when Kentucky became a state in 1792, for instance, northbound travelers on U. S.41 from Henderson, after crossing the Ohio River, will be in Kentucky for about two miles. Ellis Park, a racetrack, is located in this small piece of Kentucky. Waterworks Road is part of the land border between Indiana and Kentucky. Kentucky has a part known as Kentucky Bend, at the far west corner of the state. It exists as an exclave surrounded completely by Missouri and Tennessee, Road access to this small part of Kentucky on the Mississippi River requires a trip through Tennessee. The epicenter of the powerful 1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes was near this area, much of the outer Bluegrass is in the Eden Shale Hills area, made up of short, steep, and very narrow hills. The Jackson Purchase and western Pennyrile are home to several bald cypress/tupelo swamps, located within the southeastern interior portion of North America, Kentucky has a climate that can best be described as a humid subtropical climate. Temperatures in Kentucky usually range from daytime summer highs of 87 °F to the low of 23 °F. The average precipitation is 46 inches a year, Kentucky experiences four distinct seasons, with substantial variations in the severity of summer and winter. The highest recorded temperature was 114 °F at Greensburg on July 28,1930 while the lowest recorded temperature was −37 °F at Shelbyville on January 19,1994, due to its location, Kentucky has a moderate humid subtropical climate, with abundant rainfall
34.
John Marshall Harlan II
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John Marshall Harlan was an American jurist who served as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court from 1955 to 1971. His namesake was his grandfather John Marshall Harlan, another justice who served from 1877 to 1911. Harlan was a student at Upper Canada College and Appleby College, awarded a Rhodes Scholarship, he studied law at Balliol College, Oxford. Upon his return to the U. S. in 1923 Harlan worked in the law firm of Root, Clark, later he served as Assistant U. S. Attorney for the Southern District of New York and as Special Assistant Attorney General of New York. Harlan is often characterized as a member of the wing of the Warren Court. He advocated a role for the judiciary, remarking that the Supreme Court should not be considered a general haven for reform movements. In general, Harlan adhered more closely to precedent, and was reluctant to overturn legislation. He strongly disagreed with the doctrine of incorporation, which held that the provisions of the federal Bill of Rights applied to the state governments, not merely the Federal. Harlan is sometimes called the great dissenter of the Warren Court, Justice Harlan was gravely ill when he retired from the Supreme Court on September 23,1971. He died from cancer three months later, on December 29,1971. After Harlans retirement, President Nixon appointed William Rehnquist to replace him, John Marshall Harlan was born on May 20,1899 in Chicago, Illinois. He was the son of John Maynard Harlan, a Chicago lawyer and politician, historically, Harlans family had been politically active. Harlan, was general of Puerto Rico and then chairman of the Interstate Commerce Commission. In his younger years, Harlan attended The Latin School of Chicago and he later attended two boarding high schools in the Toronto Area, Canada, Upper Canada College and Appleby College. Upon graduation from Appleby, Harlan returned to the U. S. there, he was a member of the Ivy Club, served as an editor of The Daily Princetonian, and was class president during his junior and senior years. After graduating from the university in 1920, he received a Rhodes Scholarship and he studied jurisprudence at Oxford for three years, returning from England in 1923. Upon his return to the United States, he work with the law firm of Root, Clark, Buckner & Howland, one of the leading law firms in the country. He received his LL. B. degree in 1924 and earned admission to the bar in 1925, between 1925 and 1927, Harlan served as Assistant U. S. Attorney for the Southern District of New York, heading the districts Prohibition unit
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