1.
Bolton
–
Bolton is a town in Greater Manchester in North West England. A former mill town, Bolton has been a centre for textiles since Flemish weavers settled in the area in the 14th century, introducing a wool. The urbanisation and development of the town coincided with the introduction of textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution. The British cotton industry declined sharply after the First World War, close to the West Pennine Moors, Bolton is 10 miles northwest of Manchester. It is surrounded by smaller towns and villages that together form the Metropolitan Borough of Bolton. The town of Bolton has a population of 139,403, historically part of Lancashire, Bolton originated as a small settlement in the moorland known as Bolton le Moors. In the English Civil War, the town was a Parliamentarian outpost in a staunchly Royalist region, in what became known as the Bolton Massacre,1,600 residents were killed and 700 were taken prisoner. Football club Bolton Wanderers play home games at the Macron Stadium, Cultural interests include the Octagon Theatre and the Bolton Museum and Art Gallery, as well as one of the earliest public libraries established after the Public Libraries Act 1850. Bolton is a common Northern English name derived from the Old English bothl-tun, the first recorded use of the name, in the form Boelton, dates from 1185 to describe Bolton le Moors, though this may not be in relation to a dwelling. It was recorded as Bothelton in 1212, Botelton in 1257, Boulton in 1288, later forms of Botheltun were Bodeltown, Botheltun-le-Moors, Bowelton, Boltune, Bolton-super-Moras, Bolton-in-ye-Moors, Bolton-le-Moors. The towns motto of Supera Moras means overcome difficulties, and is a pun on the Bolton-super-Moras version of the meaning literally. A Bronze Age mound was excavated in Victorian times outside Haulgh Hall, the Romans built roads from Manchester to Ribchester to the east and a road along what is now the A6 to the west. It is claimed that Agricola built a fort at Blackrod by clearing land above the forest, evidence of a Saxon settlement exists in the form of religious objects found when the Victorian parish church was built. In 1067 Great Bolton was the property of Roger de Poitou and after 1100 and it became the property of the Pilkingtons who forfeited it in the Civil War and after that the Stanleys who became Earls of Derby. Great Bolton and Little Bolton were part of the Marsey fee, in 1212 Little Bolton was held by Roger de Bolton as plough-land, a charter to hold a market in Churchgate was granted on 14 December 1251 by King Henry III of England. Bolton became a town and borough by a charter from the Earl of Derby, William de Ferrers, on 14 January 1253. Burgage plots were laid out on Churchgate and Deansgate in the centre of the town close to where Ye Olde Man & Scythe public house. In 1337 Flemish weavers settled and introduced the manufacture of woollen cloth, more Flemish weavers, fleeing the Huguenot persecutions, settled here in the 17th century
2.
Lancashire
–
Lancashire is a non-metropolitan ceremonial county in north west England. The county town is Lancaster although the administrative centre is Preston. The county has a population of 1,449,300, people from Lancashire are known as Lancastrians. The history of Lancashire begins with its founding in the 12th century, in the Domesday Book of 1086, some of its lands were treated as part of Yorkshire. The land that lay between the Ribble and Mersey, Inter Ripam et Mersam, was included in the returns for Cheshire, when its boundaries were established, it bordered Cumberland, Westmorland, Yorkshire, and Cheshire. Lancashire emerged as a commercial and industrial region during the Industrial Revolution. Liverpool and Manchester grew into its largest cities, dominating global trade, the county contained several mill towns and the collieries of the Lancashire Coalfield. By the 1830s, approximately 85% of all cotton manufactured worldwide was processed in Lancashire, Accrington, Blackburn, Bolton, Burnley, Bury, Chorley, Colne, Darwen, Manchester, Nelson, Oldham, Preston, Rochdale and Wigan were major cotton mill towns during this time. Blackpool was a centre for tourism for the inhabitants of Lancashires mill towns, the detached northern part of Lancashire in the Lake District, including the Furness Peninsula and Cartmel, was merged with Cumberland and Westmorland to form Cumbria. Lancashire lost 709 square miles of land to other counties, about two fifths of its area, although it did gain some land from the West Riding of Yorkshire. Today the county borders Cumbria to the north, Greater Manchester and Merseyside to the south and North and West Yorkshire to the east, with a coastline on the Irish Sea to the west. The county palatine boundaries remain the same with the Duke of Lancaster exercising sovereignty rights, including the appointment of lords lieutenant in Greater Manchester, the county was established in 1182, later than many other counties. During Roman times the area was part of the Brigantes tribal area in the zone of Roman Britain. The towns of Manchester, Lancaster, Ribchester, Burrow, Elslack, in the centuries after the Roman withdrawal in 410AD the northern parts of the county probably formed part of the Brythonic kingdom of Rheged, a successor entity to the Brigantes tribe. During the mid-8th century, the area was incorporated into the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Northumbria, in the Domesday Book, land between the Ribble and Mersey were known as Inter Ripam et Mersam and included in the returns for Cheshire. Although some historians consider this to mean south Lancashire was then part of Cheshire and it is also claimed that the territory to the north formed part of the West Riding of Yorkshire. It bordered on Cumberland, Westmorland, Yorkshire, and Cheshire, the county was divided into hundreds, Amounderness, Blackburn, Leyland, Lonsdale, Salford and West Derby. Lonsdale was further partitioned into Lonsdale North, the part north of the sands of Morecambe Bay including Furness and Cartmel
3.
Spinning mule
–
The spinning mule is a machine used to spin cotton and other fibres in the mills of Lancashire and elsewhere. They were used extensively from the late 18th to the early 20th century, mules were worked in pairs by a minder, with the help of two boys, the little piecer and the big or side piecer. The carriage carried up to 1,320 spindles and could be 150 feet long and it was invented between 1775 and 1779 by Samuel Crompton. The self-acting mule was patented by Richard Roberts in 1825, at its peak there were 50,000,000 mule spindles in Lancashire alone. Modern versions are still in production and are used to spin woollen yarns from noble fibres such as cashmere, ultra-fine merino. The spinning mule spins textile fibres into yarn by an intermittent process, in the draw stroke, the roving is pulled through rollers and twisted, on the return it is wrapped onto the spindle. Its rival, the frame or ring frame uses a continuous process. The mule was the most common spinning machine from 1790 until about 1900 and was used for fine yarns until the early 1980s. In 1890, a cotton mill would have over 60 mules, each with 1,320 spindles. Before the 1770s, textile production was a cottage industry using flax, the children and women would card the fibre, which the women would spin into yarn, the male weaver would use a frame loom to weave this into cloth. This was then tentered in the sun to bleach it and these two wheels became the starting point of technological development. Businessmen such as Richard Arkwright employed inventors to find solutions that would increase the amount of yarn spun, the spinning jenny allowed a group of eight spindles to be operated together. It mirrored the simple wheel, the rovings were clamped and a frame moved forward stretching and thinning the roving, a wheel was rapidly turned as the frame was pushed back, and the spindles rotated, twisted the rovings into yarn and collecting it on the spindles. Eight or sixteen of these were mounted in parallel on a static frame driven usually by a water wheel and it was ideas from these two system that inspired the spinning mule. It was the frame that inspired the ring frame. The increased supply of muslin inspired developments in design such as Edmund Cartwrights power loom. Some spinners and handloom weavers opposed the perceived threat to their livelihood, there were frame-breaking riots and, in 1811–13, the preparatory and associated tasks allowed many children to be employed until this was regulated. The hand-operated mule was a breakthrough in production and the machines were copied by Samuel Slater
4.
Inventor
–
An invention is a unique or novel device, method, composition or process. The invention process is a process within an overall engineering and product development process and it may be an improvement upon a machine or product or a new process for creating an object or a result. An invention that achieves a unique function or result may be a radical breakthrough. Such works are novel and not obvious to others skilled in the same field, an inventor may be taking a big step in success or failure. A patent legally protects the property rights of the inventor. The rules and requirements for patenting an invention vary from country to country, another meaning of invention is cultural invention, which is an innovative set of useful social behaviours adopted by people and passed on to others. The Institute for Social Inventions collected many such ideas in magazines, Invention is also an important component of artistic and design creativity. Inventions often extend the boundaries of knowledge, experience or capability. Brainstorming also can spark new ideas for an invention, collaborative creative processes are frequently used by engineers, designers, architects and scientists. Co-inventors are frequently named on patents, in addition, many inventors keep records of their working process - notebooks, photos, etc. including Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo Galilei, Evangelista Torricelli, Thomas Jefferson and Albert Einstein. In the process of developing an invention, the idea may change. The invention may become simpler, more practical, it may expand, working on one invention can lead to others too. History shows that turning the concept of an invention into a device is not always swift or direct. Inventions may also more useful after time passes and other changes occur. For example, the became more useful once powered flight was a reality. Invention is often a creative process, an open and curious mind allows an inventor to see beyond what is known. Seeing a new possibility, connection, or relationship can spark an invention, inventive thinking frequently involves combining concepts or elements from different realms that would not normally be put together. Sometimes inventors disregard the boundaries between distinctly separate territories or fields, several concepts may be considered when thinking about invention
5.
James Hargreaves
–
James Hargreaves was a weaver, carpenter and inventor in Lancashire, England. He was one of three responsible for mechanizing spinning. Hargreaves is credited with inventing the spinning jenny in 1764, Richard Arkwright patented the water frame in 1769, James Hargreaves was born at Stanhill, Oswaldtwistle in Lancashire. He was described as stout, broadest man of about five-foot ten and he was illiterate and worked as a hand loom weaver during most of his life. He married and baptismal records show he has 13 children, of whom the author Baines in 1835 was aware of 6 or 7 and he was survived by eight children. The idea for the spinning jenny is said to have come from the inventor seeing a one-thread wheel overturned upon the floor and he realized that if a number of spindles were placed upright and side by side, several threads might be spun at once. The spinning jenny was confined to producing cotton weft, it was unable to produce yarn of sufficient quality for the warp, high quality warp was later supplied by Arkwrights spinning frame. Hargreaves produced the Jenny for himself but sold a few to neighbors, the jenny was initially welcomed by the hand spinners, but when the price of yarn fell the mood changed. Opposition to the machine caused Hargreaves to leave for Nottingham, where the cotton industry benefited from the increased provision of suitable yarn. Arkwright also ended up in the town, and was more successful. Hargreaves made jennies for a man called Shipley, and on 12 June 1770, he was granted a patent, with a partner Thomas James, Hargreaves ran a small mill in Hockley and lived in an adjacent house. The business was carried on until his death in 1778 when his received a payment of £400. When Samuel Crompton invented the mule in c.1779 he stated he had learned to spin in 1769 on a jenny that Hargreaves had constructed. As early as 1825, the distinguished author Edward Baines reports that there were many claims being made about Hargreaves. There had been a legal battle to get Arkwrights two most important patents annulled. Thomas Highs of Leigh had claimed that he was the inventor of both these devices and the spinning jenny as well. In his testimony, Arkwright had over-emphasised the humble nature of himself and Hargreaves – some of which was not based on fact. He wrongly attributed the date of invention as 1767, Richard Guest opposed Arkwright, and the Edinburgh Review, No
6.
Richard Arkwright
–
Sir Richard Arkwright was an English inventor and a leading entrepreneur during the early Industrial Revolution. Although his patents were overturned, he is credited with inventing the spinning frame. He also patented a rotary carding engine that transformed raw cotton into cotton lap, Arkwrights achievement was to combine power, machinery, semi-skilled labour and the new raw material of cotton to create mass-produced yarn. Later in his life Arkwright was known as the father of the industrial factory system. Richard Arkwright, the youngest of seven surviving children, was born in Preston, Lancashire and his father, Thomas, was a tailor and a Preston Guild burgess. The family is recorded in the Preston Guild Rolls now held by Lancashire Record Office, Richards parents, Sarah and Thomas, could not afford to send him to school and instead arranged for him to be taught to read and write by his cousin Ellen. Richard was apprenticed to a Mr Nicholson, a barber at nearby Kirkham and it was here that he invented a waterproof dye for use on the fashionable periwigs of the time, the income from which later funded his prototype cotton machinery. Arkwright married his first wife, Patience Holt, in 1755 and they had a son, Richard Arkwright Junior, who was born the same year. In 1756, Patience died of unspecified causes, Arkwright later married Margaret Biggins in 1761 at the age of 29 years. They had three children, of whom only Susanna survived to adulthood and it was only after the death of his first wife that he became an entrepreneur. He became interested in spinning and carding machinery that turned raw cotton into thread, in 1768, he and John Kay, a clockmaker, briefly returned to Preston renting rooms in a house on Stoneygate, now known as Arkwright House, where they worked on a spinning machine. In 1769 Arkwright patented the spinning frame, which known as the water-frame. Lewis Paul had invented a machine for carding in 1748, Arkwright and John Smalley set up a small horse-driven factory at Nottingham. Needing more capital to expand, Arkwright partnered with Jedediah Strutt and Samuel Need, wealthy hosiery manufacturers, in 1771, the partners built the worlds first water-powered mill at Cromford, employing 200 people mainly women and children. Arkwright spent £12,000 perfecting his machine, which contained the crank and he had mechanised all the preparatory and spinning processes, and he began to set up water-powered cotton mills as far away as Scotland. His success encouraged others to copy him, so he had great difficulty in enforcing the patent he was granted in 1775. Samuel Crompton was later to combine the two to form the spinning mule, in 1776 Arkwright built a second, larger mill at Cromford and, soon after, mills at Bakewell and Wirksworth. He was invited to Scotland where he helped David Dale establish the cotton mills at New Lanark, a large new mill at Birkacre, Lancashire, was destroyed, however, in the anti-machinery riots in 1779
7.
Hall i' th' Wood
–
Hall i th Wood is an early 16th-century manor house in Bolton, Greater Manchester. It is a Grade I listed building and is used as a museum by Bolton Metropolitan Borough Council. It was the house for the moiety of the Tonge with Haulgh township held by the Brownlows in the 16th century. The original building is framed and has a stone flagged roof, there were later additions to the house, built from stone. The name represents Hall in the Wood spoken in the local regional English dialect and is pronounced /ˈɔːlɪθˌwʊd/, the house was not used as a gentry house but rather given over to multiple occupation by families engaged in industry. Four separate dwellings can be identified, each with its own entrance, one part was let to Samuel Crompton during the 18th century, where he designed and built the first spinning mule. Hall i th Wood was bought by William Lever in 1899 and was restored by Jonathan Simpson, Lever gave the house to the Corporation of Bolton in 1900. An episode of the television programme Most Haunted was filmed in the hall in 2008. org Extract from A Short History of Hall i th Wood Compiled and Edited by Derek R. Mills
8.
Yarn
–
Yarn is a long continuous length of interlocked fibres, suitable for use in the production of textiles, sewing, crocheting, knitting, weaving, embroidery, and ropemaking. Thread is a type of yarn intended for sewing by hand or machine, modern manufactured sewing threads may be finished with wax or other lubricants to withstand the stresses involved in sewing. Embroidery threads are yarns specifically designed for hand or machine embroidery, the word yarn comes from Middle English, from the Old English gearn, akin to Old High Germans garn yarn, Greeks chordē string, and Sanskrits hira band. Yarn can be made from a number of natural or synthetic fibers, many types of yarn are made differently though. There are two types of yarn, spun and filament. The most common plant fiber is cotton, which is spun into fine yarn for mechanical weaving or knitting into cloth. Cotton and polyester are the most commonly spun fibers in the world, cotton is grown throughout the world, harvested, ginned, and prepared for yarn spinning. Polyester is extruded from polymers derived from gas and oil. Synthetic fibers are generally extruded in continuous strands of gel-state materials and these strands are drawn, annealed, and cured to obtain properties desirable for later processing. Synthetic fibers come in three forms, staple, tow, and filament. Staple is cut fibers, generally sold in lengths up to 120mm, tow is a continuous rope of fibers consisting of many filaments loosely joined side-to-side. Filament is a continuous strand consisting of anything from 1 filament to many, synthetic fiber is most often measured in a weight per linear measurement basis, along with cut length. Denier and Dtex are the most common weight to length measures, cut-length only applies to staple fiber. Filament extrusion is sometimes referred to as spinning but most people equate spinning with spun yarn production, the most commonly spun animal fiber is wool harvested from sheep. For hand knitting and hobby knitting, thick, wool and acrylic yarns are frequently used, other animal fibers used include alpaca, angora, mohair, llama, cashmere, and silk. More rarely, yarn may be spun from camel, yak, possum, musk ox, cat, dog, wolf, rabbit, or buffalo hair, and even turkey or ostrich feathers. Natural fibers such as these have the advantage of being slightly elastic and very breathable, while trapping a great deal of air, other natural fibers that can be used for yarn include linen and cotton. These tend to be much less elastic, and retain less warmth than the animal-hair yarns, the finished product will also look rather different from the woollen yarns
9.
Spinning jenny
–
The spinning jenny is a multi-spindle spinning frame, and was one of the key developments in the industrialization of weaving during the early Industrial Revolution. It was invented in 1764 by James Hargreaves in Stanhill, Oswaldtwistle, the device reduced the amount of work needed to produce cloth, with a worker able to work eight or more spools at once. This grew to 120 as technology advanced, the yarn produced by the Jenny was not very strong until Richard Arkwright invented the water-powered Water Frame, which produced yarn harder and stronger than that of the initial Spinning Jenny. It ushered in the factory system, the spinning jenny was invented by James Hargreaves. He was born in Oswaldtwistle, near Blackburn, around 1720, Blackburn was a town with a population of about 5,000, known for the production of Blackburn greys, cloths of linen warp and cotton weft initially imported from India. They were usually sent to London to be printed, at the time, cotton production could not keep up with demand of the textile industry, and Hargreaves spent some time considering how to improve the process. The flying shuttle had increased demand by the weavers by doubling their productivity. The idea was developed by Hargreaves as a frame with eight wooden spindles at one end. A set of eight rovings was attached to a beam on that frame, the rovings when extended passed through two horizontal bars of wood that could be clasped together. These bars could be drawn along the top of the frame by the left hand thus extending the thread. The spinner used his hand to rapidly turn a wheel which caused all the spindles to revolve. When the bars were returned, the wound onto the spindle. A pressing wire was used to guide the threads onto the place on the spindle. In the 17th century, England was famous for its woollen and that industry was centred in the east and south in towns such as Norwich which jealously protected their product. Cotton processing was tiny, in 1701 only 1,985,868 pounds of cotton-wool was imported into England and this was due to commercial legislation to protect the woollen industry. Cheap calico prints, imported by the East India Company from Hindustan, in 1700 an Act of Parliament was passed to prevent the importation of dyed or printed calicoes from India, China or Persia. This caused grey cloth to be imported instead, and these were printed in southern England with popular patterns, Lancashire businessmen produced grey cloth with linen warp and cotton weft, which they sent to London to be finished. Cotton-wool imports recovered and by 1720 were almost back to 1701 levels, again the woollen manufacturers, in true protectionist style, claimed this was taking jobs from workers in Coventry
10.
Violin
–
The violin is a wooden string instrument in the violin family. It is the smallest and highest-pitched instrument in the family in regular use, smaller violin-type instruments are known, including the violino piccolo and the kit violin, but these are virtually unused in the 2010s. The violin typically has four strings tuned in fifths, and is most commonly played by drawing a bow across its strings. Violins are important instruments in a variety of musical genres. They are most prominent in the Western classical tradition and in varieties of folk music. They are also used in genres of folk including country music and bluegrass music. Electric violins are used in forms of rock music, further. The violin is sometimes called a fiddle, particularly in Irish traditional music and bluegrass. The violin was first known in 16th-century Italy, with further modifications occurring in the 18th and 19th centuries. In Europe it served as the basis for stringed instruments used in classical music, the viola. According to their reputation, the quality of their sound has defied attempts to explain or equal it, many of these trade instruments were formerly sold by Sears, Roebuck and Co. and other mass merchandisers. A person who makes or repairs violins is called a luthier or violinmaker, the parts of a violin are usually made from different types of wood and on the use of a pickup and an amplifier and speaker). Violins can be strung with gut, Perlon or other synthetic, the earliest stringed instruments were mostly plucked. Similar and variant types were probably disseminated along East-West trading routes from Asia into the Middle East, the first makers of violins probably borrowed from various developments of the Byzantine lira. These included the rebec, the Arabic rebab, the vielle, the earliest pictures of violins, albeit with three strings, are seen in northern Italy around 1530, at around the same time as the words violino and vyollon are seen in Italian and French documents. One of the earliest explicit descriptions of the instrument, including its tuning, is from the Epitome musical by Jambe de Fer, by this time, the violin had already begun to spread throughout Europe. The violin proved very popular, both among street musicians and the nobility, the French king Charles IX ordered Andrea Amati to construct 24 violins for him in 1560, one of these noble instruments, the Charles IX, is the oldest surviving violin. The Messiah or Le Messie made by Antonio Stradivari in 1716 remains pristine and it is now located in the Ashmolean Museum of Oxford
11.
Muslin
–
Muslin is a cotton fabric of plain weave. It is made in a range of weights from delicate sheers to coarse sheeting. It gets its name from the city of Mosul, Iraq, early muslin was handwoven of uncommonly delicate handspun yarn, especially in the region around Dhaka, Bengal. It was imported into Europe for much of the 17th and early 18th centuries, fine linen muslin was formerly known as sindon. In 2013, the art of weaving Jamdani muslin in Bangladesh was included in the list of Masterpieces of the Oral. Muslin from French mousseline, from Italian mussolina, from Mussolo ‘Mosul’, although this view has the fabric named after the city where Europeans first encountered it, the fabric is believed to have originated in Dhakeshwari, now Dhaka the capital of Bangladesh. In the 9th century, an Arab merchant named Sulaiman made note of the origin in Bengal. Bengali muslin was traded throughout the Muslim world, from the Middle East to Southeast Asia, in many Islamic regions, such as in Central Asia, the cloth was named Daka, after the city of Dhaka. Some believe Crusaders of the First Crusade found the cloth in the Middle East, subsequently, the word Muslin found its place in various European languages as French mousseline, Italian mussolina etc. In 1298, Marco Polo described the cloth in his book The Travels and he said it was made in Mosul, Iraq. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Mughal Bengal emerged as the foremost muslin exporter in the world, during the Roman period Khadi muslin was introduced in Europe and a vast amounts of fabrics were traded to Europe for many centuries. It became highly popular in 18th-century France and eventually spread across much of the Western world, brutality to muslin weavers was intense, William Bolts noting in 1772 that instances have been known of their cutting off their thumbs to prevent their being forced to wind silk. As a result, the quality of muslin suffered greatly and its finesse was nearly lost for two centuries, there have been various attempts at reviving the muslin industry in modern Bangladesh. At the end of the 16th century the English traveler Ralph Fitch greatly admired the muslin of Sonargaon, the Portuguese traveler Duarte Barbosa described the muslin of Bengal in the early 16th century. He mentioned a few types of fabrics, such as estrabante, mamona, fugoza, choutara, in present day, many different types of muslins are produced in many different places, including Dhaka. The word muslin is used colloquially. Under British rule, the British East India company could not compete with the local Muslin with their own export of cloth to India, Muslin production was repressed and the knowledge eradicated. Local weavers were systematically rounded up and their hands mutilated with removal of their thumbs, when sewing clothing, a dressmaker may test the fit of a garment, using an inexpensive muslin fabric before cutting pieces from expensive fabric, thereby avoiding potential costly mistakes
12.
Patent
–
A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a sovereign state to an inventor or assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for detailed public disclosure of an invention. An invention is a solution to a technological problem and is a product or a process. Patents are a form of intellectual property, the procedure for granting patents, requirements placed on the patentee, and the extent of the exclusive rights vary widely between countries according to national laws and international agreements. Typically, however, a patent application must include one or more claims that define the invention. A patent may include many claims, each of which defines a specific property right and these claims must meet relevant patentability requirements, such as novelty, usefulness, and non-obviousness. Nevertheless, there are variations on what is patentable subject matter from country to country, the word patent originates from the Latin patere, which means to lay open. More directly, it is a version of the term letters patent. Similar grants included land patents, which were land grants by early state governments in the USA, and printing patents, a precursor of modern copyright. In modern usage, the term patent usually refers to the granted to anyone who invents any new, useful. The additional qualification utility patent is used to distinguish the primary meaning from these other types of patents. Particular species of patents for inventions include biological patents, business method patents, chemical patents, the period of protection was 10 years. These were mostly in the field of glass making, as Venetians emigrated, they sought similar patent protection in their new homes. This led to the diffusion of patent systems to other countries, by the 16th century, the English Crown would habitually abuse the granting of letters patent for monopolies. After public outcry, King James I of England was forced to revoke all existing monopolies, the Statute became the foundation for later developments in patent law in England and elsewhere. Important developments in patent law emerged during the 18th century through a process of judicial interpretation of the law. During the reign of Queen Anne, patent applications were required to supply a complete specification of the principles of operation of the invention for public access. Influenced by the philosophy of John Locke, the granting of patents began to be viewed as a form of property right. The English legal system became the foundation for patent law in countries with a common law heritage, including the United States, New Zealand, in the Thirteen Colonies, inventors could obtain patents through petition to a given colonys legislature
13.
Queen Victoria
–
Victoria was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she adopted the title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, both the Duke of Kent and King George III died in 1820, and Victoria was raised under close supervision by her German-born mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. She inherited the throne aged 18, after her fathers three brothers had all died, leaving no surviving legitimate children. The United Kingdom was already a constitutional monarchy, in which the sovereign held relatively little direct political power. Privately, Victoria attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments, publicly, Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, tying them together, after Alberts death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, republicanism temporarily gained strength and her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration. Her reign of 63 years and seven months is known as the Victorian era and it was a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover and her son and successor, Edward VII, belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the line of his father. Victorias father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, until 1817, Edwards niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was the only legitimate grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent. In 1818 he married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl and Feodora —by her first marriage to the Prince of Leiningen and her brother Leopold was Princess Charlottes widower. The Duke and Duchess of Kents only child, Victoria, was born at 4.15 a. m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London. Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace and she was baptised Alexandrina, after one of her godparents, Emperor Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina, Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of the Dukes eldest brother, George, the Duke of Clarence and the Duke of Kent married on the same day in 1818, but both of Clarences daughters died as infants. Victorias father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old, a week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son, George IV. The Duke of York died in 1827, when George IV died in 1830, he was succeeded by his next surviving brother, William IV, and Victoria became heir presumptive
14.
Royalties
–
A royalty is a payment made by one party, the licensee or franchisee to another that owns a particular asset, the licensor or franchisor for the right to ongoing use of that asset. A royalty interest is the right to collect a stream of future royalty payments, license agreements can be regulated, particularly where a government is the resource owner, or they can be private contracts that follow a general structure. However, certain types of agreements have comparable provisions. When a government owns the resource in question, the transaction is subject to legal. In the United States, fee simple ownership of the mineral is possible by a private individual, local taxing authorities may impose a severance tax on the unrenewable natural resources extracted from within their authority. The Federal Government receives royalties on production on federal lands, managed by the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement, an example from Canadas north is the federal Frontier Lands petroleum royalty regime. In this manner risks and profits are shared between the government of Canada and the petroleum developer and this attractive royalty rate is intended to encourage oil and gas exploration in the remote Canadian frontier lands where costs and risks are higher than other locations. In many jurisdictions oil and gas royalty interests are considered property under the NAICS classification code. As a standard example, for every $100 bbl of oil sold on a U. S. federal well with a 25% royalty, the U. S. government does not pay and will only collect revenues. All risk and liability lie upon the operator of the well, Royalties in the forestry industry are called stumpage. An intangible asset such as a patent gives the owner an exclusive right to prevent others from practicing the patented technology in the country issuing the patent for the term of the patent. The right may be enforced in a lawsuit for monetary damages and/or imprisonment for violation on the patent, patent rights may be divided and licensed out in various ways, on an exclusive or non-exclusive basis. The license may be subject to limitations as to time or territory, a license may encompass an entire technology or it may involve a mere component or improvement on a technology. In the United States, reasonable royalties may be imposed, both after-the-fact and prospectively, by a court as a remedy for infringement. 0%, however, the range extended from 0% to 50%. All of these agreements may not have been at arms length, in license negotiation, firms might derive royalties for the use of a patented technology from the retail price of the downstream licensed product. In the Arab countries, it may be found, that a royalty as a percentage of sales may be difficult to transact, a flat fee may be preferred as percentages may be interpreted as percentage of profit. Trade marks are words, logos, slogans, sounds, or other expressions that distinguish the source, origin. Trade marks offer the public a means of identifying and assuring themselves of the quality of the good or service and they may bring consumers a sense of security, integrity, belonging, and a variety of intangible appeals
15.
Edmund Cartwright
–
Edmund Cartwright FSA was an English inventor. He graduated from Oxford University very early and went on to invent the power loom, married to local Elizabeth McMac at 19, he was the brother of Major John Cartwright, a political reformer and radical, and George Cartwright, explorer of Labrador. He was the son of the Reverend Edmund Cartwright FRS of Goadby Marwood. He became a clergyman of the Church of England, Cartwright began his career as a clergyman, becoming, in 1779, rector of Goadby Marwood, Leicestershire. In 1783, he was elected a prebendary at Lincoln Cathedral, Edmund Cartwright designed his first power loom in 1784 and patented it in 1785, but it proved to be valueless. In 1789, he patented another loom which served as the model for later inventors to work upon, an old man named Zach Dijkhoff assisted him in his work with creating this contraption. Cartwright added parts to his loom, namely a positive let-off motion, warp and weft stop motions and he commenced to manufacture fabrics in Doncaster using these looms, and discovered many of their shortcomings. His mill was repossessed by creditors in 1793, in 1792, Dr Cartwright obtained his last patent for weaving machinery, this provided his loom with multiple shuttle boxes for weaving checks and cross stripes. But all his efforts were unavailing, it became apparent that no mechanism, however perfect and his plans for sizing them while a loom was in operation, and before being placed in a loom, failed. These were resolved in 1803, by William Radcliffe, and his assistant Thomas Johnson, by their inventions of the beam warper, the prospect of success was not sufficiently promising to induce its re-erection. In 1809, Cartwright obtained a grant of £10,000 from parliament for his invention, in May 1821, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. Cartwright also patented a wool combing machine in 1789 and a cordelier in 1792 and he also designed a steam engine that used alcohol instead of water. Edmund Cartwright died in Sussex, after an illness and was buried at Battle. His daughter Elizabeth married the Reverend John Penrose and wrote books under the pseudonym of Mrs Markham, timeline of clothing and textiles technology Cartwright, Edmund. Armine and Elvira, A Legendary Tale, a Memoir of the Life, Writings, and Inventions, of Edmund Cartwright, D. D. FRS, Inventor of the Power Loom, Etc. Etc. London, Saunders and Otley
16.
Power loom
–
A power loom is a mechanised loom powered by a line shaft, and was one of the key developments in the industrialization of weaving during the early Industrial Revolution. The first power loom was designed in 1784 by Edmund Cartwright and it was refined over the next 47 years until a design by Kenworthy and Bullough made the operation completely automatic. By 1850 there were 260,000 in operation in England, fifty years later came the Northrop Loom that would replenish the shuttle when it was empty and this replaced the Lancashire loom. The huge components of the loom are the beam, heddles, harnesses, shuttle, reed. In the loom, yarn processing includes shedding, picking, battening, shedding is the raising of the warp yarns to form a loop through which the filling yarn, carried by the shuttle, can be inserted. The shed is the space between the raised and unraised warp yarns. On the modern loom, simple and intricate shedding operations are performed automatically by the heddle or heald frame and this is a rectangular frame to which a series of wires, called heddles or healds, are attached. The yarns are passed through the eye holes of the heddles, the weave pattern determines which harness controls which warp yarns, and the number of harnesses used depends on the complexity of the weave. Two common methods of controlling the heddles are dobbies and a Jacquard Head, as the harnesses raise the heddles or healds, which raise the warp yarns, the shed is created. The filling yarn is inserted through the shed by a carrier device called a shuttle. The shuttle is normally pointed at each end to allow passage through the shed, in a traditional shuttle loom, the filling yarn is wound onto a quill, which in turn is mounted in the shuttle. The filling yarn emerges through a hole in the shuttle as it moves across the loom, a single crossing of the shuttle from one side of the loom to the other is known as a pick. As the shuttle back and forth across the shed, it weaves an edge, or selvage. As the shuttle moves across the loom laying down the fill yarn, with each picking operation, the reed presses or battens each filling yarn against the portion of the fabric that has already been formed. The point where the fabric is formed is called the fell, conventional shuttle looms can operate at speeds of about 150 to 160 picks per minute. With each weaving operation, the newly constructed fabric must be wound on a cloth beam and this process is called taking up. At the same time, the yarns must be let off or released from the warp beams. To become fully automatic, a loom needs a filling stop motion which will brake the loom, operation of weaving in a textile mill is undertaken by a specially trained operator known as a weaver
17.
Benjamin Hick
–
He was born at Huddersfield, and christened in the Independent chapel at Highfield, his parents moving shortly afterwards to Leeds where he was educated. Hicks aptitude for mechanics and passion for drawing led to an apprentiship in 1804 as a draughtsman with Fenton, Murray and Wood at the Round Foundry in Holbeck. The company made steam engines, textile and other machinery, here he was entrusted with the installation of large steam engines. The offer was declined and Hick moved instead to Bolton in 1810 to work for Smalley, Thwaites and his brother John also trained as an engineer and worked at the Bowling Iron Works near Bradford. Hick joined the Institute of Civil Engineers in the year, proposed by Joshua Field, Joseph Farey. Also with Rothwell and the Dobsons, Hick was a prominent member of the Black Horse Club, Robert Stephenson was driver of the engine he designed and built with chief engineer George Stephenson, who was a passenger with the other guests. Following the occasion that gathered crowds of 40-50 thousand people, in October 1828, Hick and Rothwell received Robert Peel, then home secretary, as a guest at their foundry. In 1837 Hick was, among other figures including Thomas Ridgway, Edward Bolling, John Hargreaves elder and Jr. By 1841 Hick was Deputy chairman and a Director with chairman John Hargreaves, chief engineer was John Urpeth Rastrick and resident engineer Alexander James Adie, son of Alexander Adie inventor of the sympiesometer. The line opened 22 June 1843 after Hicks death, following problems in its construction. Hicks executorial trustee, solicitor and banker Thomas Lever Rushton, by then a director of the railway, was part of the committee for the merger. Hicks engines should probably be considered best practice for the time c.1841, by 1821 Hick was managing partner of the Union Foundry, that later became Rothwell, Hick and Rothwell. After Peter Rothwells death on 2 August 1824, the company continued with Peter Rothwell Jr as Rothwell and they made stationary steam engines, as well as general engineering products including cast iron dockyard cranes. In 1824 when the prodigious and forward looking Swiss engineer Johann Georg Bodmer developed his patterns and textile machinery near Bolton he made use of the Rothwell, Hick and Rothwell workshops. Here in the late 1820s with the co-operation of an Italian merchant, Philip Novelli, by the 1830s Hick had become a highly valued friend of Bodmer, on one occasion arbitrating a patent dispute. Hick also formed a friendship with engineer and artist James Nasmyth. Whose judgment in all connected with engineering and mechanical construction was held in the very highest regard. One of the most powerful hydraulic presses in existence, Hick was the inventor of the self tightening collar, used universally in hydraulic pressess
18.
Rothwell, Hick and Rothwell
–
Rothwell, Hick and Rothwell was an engineering company in Bolton, England. Set up in 1822, the partners interested in the production of steam locomotives after the Rainhill Trials. In 1832, Benjamin Hick left to set up his own business, Hick and Sons, to be replaced by Benjamin Cubitt, from Fenton, Murray and Jackson. The firm then became Rothwell and Company, a further order for America was fulfilled in 1833, then for a couple of years the firm was occupied with pumps and stationary engines. From 1836 steam locomotives became their main business, up to 1840 they produced 56,28 of which went abroad. Of note is a 4-2-0 for the South Carolina Railroad to the design of Horatio Allen and this had 4-foot-6-inch drivers, with a swivelling front bogie, and reputed to have worked for 35 years. A deal of work came from Edward Bury and Company. From 1841, the company began a batch of engines for the broad gauge Great Western Railway, the largest order came in 1847 for 28 2-2-2 engines for the London and South Western Railway. Possibly the most remarkable were some 4-2-4 T engines for the Bristol and Exeter Railway built in 1853/4 with 9-foot-diameter unflanged driving wheels and they weighed 42 tons and achieved speeds of 82 mph, the fastest engines of the time. The quality of the products brought in repeat orders. Many of the engines were still in service twenty years later, from 1857 the engines were to Alexander Allans design and were similar to the Old Crewe type. These were sold to the Lancaster and Carlisle Railway and the Eastern Counties Railway, the last to be built were four broad gauge engines for the Bristol and Exeter Railway and two saddle tanks for the Carmarthen and Cardigan Railway. In the face of reduced business and increasing competition, the closed in 1864. Part of the works was taken over by the Bolton Iron and Steel Company, british Steam Locomotive Builders, Guild Publishing Marshall, John. John and William Hargreaves, Benjamin and John Hick, a Biographical Dictionary of Railway Engineers. Internet Archive Rothwell, Hick and Rothwell Low Pressure engine, p. 741-743
19.
St Peter's Church, Bolton
–
St Peters Church, Bolton-le-Moors, commonly known as Bolton Parish Church, is a Church of England parish church in Bolton, Greater Manchester, England. The parish church, dedicated to St Peter, is an example of the Gothic Revival style, the church is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a Grade II* listed building, having been designated in 1974. St Peters is a parish church in the Diocese of Manchester and is part of the Bolton deanery. The church, on a hill overlooking the River Croal, is the fourth to be built on the site, until the 1840s the ancient ecclesiastical parish of Bolton-le-Moors covered a large area and was divided into townships, some of which had chapels of ease. The modern parish covers the centre and its immediate surroundings. Demolition of the 15th-century church in 1866 revealed several pre-Norman stones under the tower and its east window had seven lights. The Chetham and Bradford Chapels occupied the east end of the aisles on either side of the chancel, galleries were added in the 18th century and the aisle walls were raised and windows inserted to light them. Fragments of stone and other artefacts from the first three buildings are displayed in the corner of the present church. The present church, built between 1867 and 1871, was designed by the Lancaster architect E. G. Paley and it cost £45,000, and was paid for by Peter Ormrod, a local cotton spinner and banker, of Halliwell Hall. The church is 67 feet wide,156 feet long, and 83 feet high and its tower is 180 feet high, and is the highest church tower in the historic county of Lancashire. The church, built in sandstone with slate roofs, has a nave with clerestory and north and south aisles, transepts. On the south side of the aisle is a gabled porch with a wrought-iron screen. The vestry, which was added later at its north east corner, is reminiscent of the houses of pre-Reformation abbeys. The four-stage tower projects from the west end of the aisle and has clasping buttresses at each corner which terminate in crocketted finials. There are two-light decorated, lancet windows in the second and third stages and its west door is in a moulded archway with polished granite shafts. The door, designed by Hubert Austin, retains its original ornate hammered ironwork door furniture, the church has a five-bay nave, divided by buttresses with lean-to aisles and a clerestory above. In each bay is a decorated window with tracery. The clerestory has paired windows with ball flower decorations and gargoyles, there are traceried pinnacles at the east end of chancel
20.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
21.
Integrated Authority File
–
The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
22.
Virtual International Authority File
–
The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Crompton, Samuel". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "