1.
Chile
–
Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a South American country occupying a long, narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández, Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas, and Easter Island in Oceania. Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres of Antarctica, the arid Atacama Desert in northern Chile contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes, the southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. Spain conquered and colonized Chile in the century, replacing Inca rule in northern and central Chile. After declaring its independence from Spain in 1818, Chile emerged in the 1830s as a relatively stable authoritarian republic, in the 1960s and 1970s the country experienced severe left-right political polarization and turmoil. The regime, headed by Augusto Pinochet, ended in 1990 after it lost a referendum in 1988 and was succeeded by a coalition which ruled through four presidencies until 2010. Chile is today one of South Americas most stable and prosperous nations and it leads Latin American nations in rankings of human development, competitiveness, income per capita, globalization, state of peace, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption. It also ranks high regionally in sustainability of the state, Chile is a founding member of the United Nations, the Union of South American Nations and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile, another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili. Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a locally known as trile. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile, after naming the Mapocho valley as such. The older spelling Chili was in use in English until at least 1900 before switching over to Chile, stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in fertile valleys, settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Craters lava tube. They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army, the result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, the Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarros lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chiles central valley
2.
Antofagasta
–
Antofagasta is a port city in northern Chile, about 1,100 kilometres north of Santiago. It is the capital of Antofagasta Province and Antofagasta Region, according to the 2012 census, the city has a population of 345,420. The city of Antofagasta is closely linked to mining activity, being a mining area of the country. The last decade has been a growth in the areas of construction, retail, hotel accommodations, population growth. Antofagasta has the highest GDP per capita of Chile,37,000 USD, currently there are several theories to explain the origin of the name Antofagasta. A clear consensus regarding the origin of the word has not yet been determined. It is probably a word that comes from the southern Cacan anto, faya and gasta. However, it says the name Antofagasta is due to a decision by Manuel Mariano Melgarejo, in Chile, Antofagasta is known as La Perla del Norte, for its historical and economic importance. On 18 September 1866, José Santos Ossa and Francisco Puelma achieved the award of the concession of nitrate lands, the exploring of the Chilean miners found rich deposits of saltpeter in the field of Salar del Carmen, to the east of the present Antofagasta. Agreed to form the Sociedad Exploradora del Desierto de Atacama, after the formation of the company, began to fill with what was called La Chimba. On 19 March 1868, the Melbourne Clark Company was established, after the integration of Chilean, after the earthquake in Iquique and Oprah Jiffy of 13 August 1868, it was necessary to give legal recognition to the Chimba as a mining town. On 22 October 1868, the population was established and the port under the name La Chimba. Later the city was renamed Antofagasta, the first official map of the population and the port of Antofagasta was designed by Jose Santos Prada on 14 September 1869. This document set out the grounds of the Melbourne Clark Company, plus 17 blocks, on 8 May 1872, Antofagasta was appointed by the Bolivian Government as Puerto Mayor, open trade worldwide. On 27 November 1873, the Compañía de Salitres y Ferrocarril de Antofagasta signed a contract with the government of Bolivia and this contract was not ratified by the Congress of Bolivia, which was then analyzed negotiations with Chile. In 1873 Bolivia signed a treaty of defensive alliance with Peru. This would be used as an argument 5 years later in Chile, the secret alliance, forbade Bolivia from signing a border treaty with Chile, without consulting with Peru. However, in 1874 Chile and Bolivia signed a border treaty, one of its points was not to impose new taxes on individuals, industries and Chilean capital for 25 years
3.
Chuquicamata
–
Flotation and smelting facilities were installed in 1952, and expansion of the refining facilities in 1968 made 500,000 ton annual copper production possible in the late 1970s. The mine is owned and operated by Codelco, a Chilean state enterprise, since the Chilean nationalization of copper in the late 1960s and its depth of 850 metres makes it the second deepest open-pit mine in the world. There are several versions of the meaning of Chuquicamata, the most widely known seems to be that it means the limit of the land of the Chucos. Another says that it means metal tipped wooden spear, a third says that it means the distance that a spear was thrown by an Atacameño to determine the size of the copper orebody that a god intended to give him as a reward. Yet another theory is that it means Pico de Oro or Peak of Gold, the name Chuquicamata is a word from the Aymara language and refers to the chuco or chuqui Native American Indian group. They worked the copper deposits here in times to make their weapons. Besides the Incas and Spanish explorers, Chilean and English companies mined the brochantite veins from 1879 to 1912, the opencast was the biggest pit in the world during the nineties. It is also said that Pedro de Valdivia obtained copper horseshoes from the natives when he passed through in the early 16th Century. Mining activity was small scale until the War of the Pacific when Chile annexed large areas of both Peru and Bolivia north of its old border, which included Chuquicamata. There was then an influx of miners into the area drawn in by Red Gold Fever and soon Chuquicamata was covered with mines and mining claims. It was a wild and disorganised camp, as late as 1918 the army had to be sent in to keep order. The towns were eventually buried under the waste dumps to the east of the mine and these early operations mined veins such as the Zaragoza and Balmaceda, which were high grade with values up to 10-15% copper, and disregarded the low grade disseminated ore. One attempt was made to process the low grade ore in 1899-1900 by Norman Walker, a partner in La Compañia de Cobres de Antofagasta, but it failed leaving the company deeply in debt. However, mining never really developed satisfactorily in the early days because of the lack of water, the modern era started when the American engineer Bradley finally developed a method of working low grade oxidised copper ores. In 1910 he approached the lawyer and industrialist Albert C Burrage who sent engineers to examine Chuquicamata and it was the start of copper mining by the Chile Exploration Company of the Guggenheim Group. Their reports were good and in April 1911 he started to buy up mines and claims, mainly from the mining companies. Since Burrage did not have the capital to develop a mine and they examined his claims and estimated reserves at 690 million tonnes grading 2. 58% copper. E. A. Cappelen Smith, consulting metallurgist for M. Chilex then went ahead with the development, the 10,000 tons per day leaching plant was planned to produce 50,000 tons of electrolytic copper annually
4.
Licancabur
–
Licancabur is a stratovolcano on the border between Bolivia and Chile, south of the Sairecabur volcano and west of Juriques. Part of the Andean Central Volcanic Zone, it has a prominent,5, a 400-metre summit crater containing Licancabur Lake, a crater lake which is among the highest lakes in the world, caps the volcano. Three stages of lava flow emanate from the volcano, which formed on Pleistocene ignimbrites, Licancabur has been active during the Holocene, after the ice ages. Although no historic eruptions of the volcano are known, lava flows extending into Laguna Verde have been dated to 13,240 ±100 BP, the volcano has primarily erupted andesite, with small amounts of dacite and basaltic andesite. Its climate is cold, dry and very sunny, with levels of ultraviolet radiation. Licancabur is not covered by glaciers, and vegetation such as cushion plants, chinchillas were formerly hunted on the volcano. Licancabur is considered a mountain by the Atacameno people, related to the Cerro Quimal hill in northern Chile. Archeological sites have found on its slopes and in the summit crater. Licancabur derives from the Kunza words used by the Atacameño people to refer to the volcano, lican and cábur, thus, the Andean Volcanic Belt consists of three main volcanic zones, the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Central Volcanic Zone and the Southern Volcanic Zone. Active volcanism occurs where the Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South American Plate, the plates are separated by shallower subduction zones, with no present-day volcanism. These shallower zones have been attributed to the speed of the plate collision, the young age of the subducting oceanic lithosphere. The most plausible theory is that variations in buoyancy of a subducting plate creates a flat subduction zone, the Cocos, Juan Fernandez and Nazca Ridges are associated with such volcanic gaps where they collide with the oceanic trench. The subduction of spreading ridges can also diminish volcanism, as observed in the Chile Rise further south, the buoyancy of these crustal structures may hinder subduction, reducing water supply to the mantle and inducing the formation of melts. One hundred ninety-eight South American volcanoes are on the Global Volcanism Programs Holocene volcano list, Licancabur is part of the Central Volcanic Zone at the western edge of the Altiplano. Among the regions active volcanoes are Putana, Llullaillaco and Lascar, other stratovolcanoes are Tacora, Nevados de Payachata, Isluga, Tata Sabaya, Ollague, Tocorpuri, Sairecabur and Socompa. The Central Volcanic Zone has more than 1,100 volcanic centres—many older than the Pleistocene, during the Miocene, the area around Licancabur became the site of major ignimbrite-forming eruptions. Llano de Chajnantor is the site of several observatories, including the Llano de Chajnantor Observatory, the volcano is just south of Sairecabur, a group of volcanoes which rises to 5,800 metres and is an apparent source of recent volcanic activity. East of Licancabur is its companion volcano, Juriques and this 5, 710-metre -high volcano has a large—1.5 kilometres —deep crater and is considered a parasitic cone
5.
Pre-Columbian era
–
For this reason the alternative terms of Precontact Americas, Pre-Colonial Americas or Prehistoric Americas are also in use. In areas of Latin America the term used is Pre-Hispanic. Other civilizations were contemporary with the period and were described in European historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Maya civilization, had their own written records, because many Christian Europeans of the time viewed such texts as heretical, men like Diego de Landa destroyed many texts in pyres, even while seeking to preserve native histories. Only a few documents have survived in their original languages, while others were transcribed or dictated into Spanish, giving modern historians glimpses of ancient culture. Indigenous American cultures continue to evolve after the pre-Columbian era, many of these peoples and their descendants continue traditional practices, while evolving and adapting new cultural practices and technologies into their lives. Now, the study of pre-Columbian cultures is most often based on scientific. Asian nomads are thought to have entered the Americas via the Bering Land Bridge, now the Bering Strait, genetic evidence found in Amerindians maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA supports the theory of multiple genetic populations migrating from Asia. Over the course of millennia, Paleo-Indians spread throughout North and South America, exactly when the first group of people migrated into the Americas is the subject of much debate. One of the earliest identifiable cultures was the Clovis culture, with sites dating from some 13,000 years ago, however, older sites dating back to 20,000 years ago have been claimed. Some genetic studies estimate the colonization of the Americas dates from between 40,000 and 13,000 years ago, the chronology of migration models is currently divided into two general approaches. The first is the short chronology theory with the first movement beyond Alaska into the New World occurring no earlier than 14, 000–17,000 years ago, followed by successive waves of immigrants. The second belief is the long chronology theory, which proposes that the first group of people entered the hemisphere at an earlier date, possibly 50. In that case, the Eskimo peoples would have arrived separately and at a later date, probably no more than 2,000 years ago. The North American climate was unstable as the ice age receded and it finally stabilized by about 10,000 years ago, climatic conditions were then very similar to todays. Within this timeframe, roughly pertaining to the Archaic Period, numerous archaeological cultures have been identified, the unstable climate led to widespread migration, with early Paleo-Indians soon spreading throughout the Americas, diversifying into many hundreds of culturally distinct tribes. The paleo-indians were hunter-gatherers, likely characterized by small, mobile bands consisting of approximately 20 to 50 members of an extended family and these groups moved from place to place as preferred resources were depleted and new supplies were sought. During much of the Paleo-Indian period, bands are thought to have subsisted primarily through hunting now-extinct giant land animals such as mastodon, Paleo-Indian groups carried a variety of tools
6.
Oasis
–
In geography, an oasis is an isolated area of vegetation in a desert, typically surrounding a spring or similar water source, such as a pond or small lake. Oases also provide habitat for animals and even if the area is big enough. The location of oases has been of importance for trade and transportation routes in desert areas, caravans must travel via oases so that supplies of water. Thus, political or military control of an oasis has in many cases meant control of trade on a particular route. For example, the oases of Awjila, Ghadames, and Kufra, oases are formed from underground rivers or aquifers such as an artesian aquifer, where water can reach the surface naturally by pressure or by man-made wells. Occasional brief thunderstorms provide subterranean water to sustain natural oases, such as the Tuat, substrata of impermeable rock and stone can trap water and retain it in pockets, or on long faulting subsurface ridges or volcanic dikes water can collect and percolate to the surface. Any incidence of water is used by migrating birds, which also pass seeds with their droppings which will grow at the waters edge forming an oasis. It can also be used to plant crops, the word oasis came into English via Latin, oasis from Ancient Greek, ὄασις óasis, which in turn is a direct borrowing from Demotic Egyptian. The word for oasis in the later attested Coptic language is wahe or ouahe which means a dwelling place, people who live in an oasis must manage land and water use carefully, fields must be irrigated to grow plants like apricots, dates, figs, and olives. The most important plant in an oasis is the date palm and these palm trees provide shade for smaller trees like peach trees, which form the middle layer. By growing plants in different layers, the farmers make best use of the soil, many vegetables are also grown and some cereals, such as barley, millet, and wheat, are grown where there is more moisture. Great Man-Made River – the worlds largest irrigation project, developed in Libya to connect cities with fossil water. Guelta Mirage Oasification Qanat Wadi Water supply référence, Jardins au désert |Battesti, Jardins au désert, Evolution des pratiques et savoirs oasiens, Jérid tunisien, Paris, Éditions IRD, coll. À travers champs,2005,440 p. ISBN 2-7099-1564-2 Open Archives, book in free access / in French The dictionary definition of oasis at Wiktionary
7.
Puna de Atacama
–
The Puna de Atacama or Atacama Plateau is an arid high plateau, in the Andes of northern Chile and Argentina. Geomorphologist Walther Penck based his Grossfalt landform association on Puna de Atacama, the plateaus elevation averages 4,500 metres above sea level, and it spans an area of 180,000 square kilometres. In Argentina, Punas territory is extended in the provinces of Salta, Jujuy, in Chile, it is included in the regions of Antofagasta and north-eastern Atacama. Before the War of the Pacific, the region belonged to Bolivia, in 1898 it was ceded to Argentina in exchange for recognition of Tarija as part of Bolivia. Chile, which had annexed the Litoral Province from Bolivia, declared the exchange illegal, the border was defined in 1899 after the Puna de Atacama dispute. Of the 75,000 km2 in dispute 64,000 were awarded to Argentina and 11,000 to Chile, Puna de Atacama dispute Atacama Desert Altiplano Altiplano–Puna volcanic complex Salar de Atacama Salar de Arizaro Puna grassland Tren a las Nubes Salta–Antofagasta railway
8.
Bolivia
–
Bolivia, officially known as the Plurinational State of Bolivia, is a landlocked country located in western-central South America. It is bordered to the north and east by Brazil, to the southeast by Paraguay, to the south by Argentina, to the southwest by Chile, and to the northwest by Peru. One-third of the country is the Andean mountain range, with one of its largest cities and principal economic centers, El Alto, Bolivia is one of two landlocked countries that lie outside Afro-Eurasia. Bolivia is geographically the largest landlocked country in the Americas, but remains a small country in economic. Before Spanish colonization, the Andean region of Bolivia was part of the Inca Empire, Spanish conquistadors arriving from Cuzco and Asunción took control of the region in the 16th century. During the Spanish colonial period Bolivia was administered by the Royal Audiencia of Charcas, spain built its empire in great part upon the silver that was extracted from Bolivias mines. After the first call for independence in 1809,16 years of war followed before the establishment of the Republic, named for Simón Bolívar, on 6 August 1825. Since independence, Bolivia has endured periods of political and economic instability, including the loss of peripheral territories to its neighbors, such as Acre. The countrys population, estimated at 11 million, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Mestizos, the racial and social segregation that arose from Spanish colonialism has continued to the modern era. Spanish is the official and predominant language, although 36 indigenous languages also have official status, of which the most commonly spoken are Guarani, Aymara, modern Bolivia is constitutionally a unitary state, divided into nine departments. Its geography varies from the peaks of the Andes in the West, to the Eastern Lowlands and it is a developing country, with a medium ranking in the Human Development Index and a poverty level of 53 percent. Its main economic activities include agriculture, forestry, fishing, mining, and manufacturing such as textiles, clothing, refined metals. Bolivia is very wealthy in minerals, especially tin, Bolivia is named after Simón Bolívar, a leader in the Spanish American wars of independence. Sucre opted to create a new nation and, with local support. The original name was Republic of Bolívar, some days later, congressman Manuel Martín Cruz proposed, If from Romulus comes Rome, then from Bolívar comes Bolivia. The name was approved by the Republic on 3 October 1825, the region now known as Bolivia had been occupied for over 2,500 years when the Aymara arrived. However, present-day Aymara associate themselves with the ancient civilization of the Tiwanaku culture which had its capital at Tiwanaku, the capital city of Tiwanaku dates from as early as 1500 BC when it was a small, agriculturally based village. The community grew to urban proportions between AD600 and AD800, becoming an important regional power in the southern Andes
9.
War of the Pacific
–
The War of the Pacific, took place from 1879 to 1883, with Bolivia and Peru on one side and Chile on the other. The war ended with the victory of Chile, which gained a significant amount of land from Peru, battles were fought in the Pacific Ocean, the Atacama Desert, Perus deserts, and mountainous regions in the Andes. For the first five months the war played out in a naval campaign, Chile protested and solicited to submit it to mediation, but Bolivia refused and considered it a subject of Bolivias courts. Chile insisted and informed the Bolivian government that Chile would no longer consider itself bound to the 1874 Boundary Treaty if Bolivia did not suspend enforcing the law. On February 14,1879 when Bolivian authorities attempted to auction the property of CSFA. On April 5, after Peru refused this, Chile declared war on both nations, the following day, Peru responded by acknowledging the casus foederis. On the other, there was the competition for economic and political hegemony in the region. Afterwards, Chiles land campaign bested the Bolivian and Peruvian armies, Bolivia withdrew after the Battle of Tacna on May 26,1880. Chilean forces occupied Lima in January 1881, Peruvian army remnants and irregulars waged a guerrilla war that did not change the wars outcome. Chile and Peru signed the Treaty of Ancón on October 20,1883, Bolivia signed a truce with Chile in 1884. Chile acquired the Peruvian territory of Tarapacá, the disputed Bolivian department of Litoral, as well as control over the Peruvian provinces of Tacna. In 1904, Chile and Bolivia signed the Treaty of Peace, the 1929 Tacna–Arica compromise gave Arica to Chile and Tacna to Peru. It is also known as the Saltpetre War, as the The Ten Cents War in reference to the controversial ten-centavo tax imposed by the Bolivian government, or as the The Second Pacific War. Not to be confused with the Saltpeter War, a pre-Columbian war nor the Guano War as the Chincha Islands War is sometimes named, wanu is a Quechua word for fertilizer. Potassium nitrate and sodium nitrate are nitrogen-containing compounds collectively referred to as salpeter, saltpetre, salitre, caliche and they are used as fertilizer with also other important uses. Hence the words oficina, or oficina salitrera for saltpeter works, the word Atacama had two meanings. It was and is a Chilean region, then province, South of the Atacama desert, the Atacama desert mostly coincides with the disputed Antofagasta province, also named Litoral in Bolivia. The dry climate of the Peruvian and Bolivian coasts had permitted the accumulation and preservation of vast amounts of high-quality guano deposits, in the 1840s, Europeans knew the guano and nitrates value as fertilizer and saltpeters role in explosives
10.
Senate of Chile
–
The Senate of the Republic of Chile is the upper house of Chiles bicameral National Congress, as established in the current Constitution of Chile. According to the present Constitution of Chile, the Senate is composed of thirty-eight directly elected senators and these serve eight-year terms, with half of them being replaced every fourth year. They must be eligible to vote, have completed school, or its equivalent. The Senate sessions at the new National Congress located in the city of Valparaíso that replaced the old National Congress located in downtown Santiago. Previously, according to the Constitution of 1980, designated or institutional senators were appointed to the chamber, two former heads of state, Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle and Augusto Pinochet, were installed as senators for life. Pinochet later resigned from position and Frei lost his seat in the 2005 reform. However, Frei remained in the Senate by winning an elective seat, the Senate of Chile was created in 1812 to support the formulations of policies of the Government Junta. Since then it has undergone several constitutional reorganizations that have altered the scope of its powers, its composition. Created by Article 7 of the Provisional Constitutional Manual of 1812 and it was composed of seven titular members and three alternate members and was supposed to serve as a counterbalance to the executive power of the Government Junta. The senators were nominated by the provinces in agreement with the central government. It functioned from November,1812 to January,1814, when it was reorganized to better respond to the problems caused by the military defeats at the hands of the advancing Spanish Army. Created by Article 13 of the Provisional Government Manual of 1814, as its predecessor, it was composed of seven titular members nominated by the provinces in lists of three from which they were selected by the Supreme Director. It functioned from March to July,1814, when the Spanish Army captured Santiago, created by Title III of the Constitution of 1818. It was composed of five members and five alternate members selected directly by the Supreme Director. Key to Senate classes by regions, Class 1 consists of, Class 2 consists of, -the 20 current senators whose seats expire in March 2022
Chile
Antofagasta
.jpg)
