1.
Budget
–
A budget is a quantitative expression of a financial plan for a defined period of time. It may include planned sales volumes and revenues, resource quantities, costs and expenses, assets, liabilities and it expresses strategic plans of business units, organizations, activities or events in measurable terms. A budget is the sum of money allocated for a particular purpose, a budget is a quantified financial plan for a forthcoming accounting period. A budget is an important concept in microeconomics, which uses a line to illustrate the trade-offs between two or more goods. In other terms, a budget is an organizational plan stated in monetary terms and it also helps to co-ordinate the activities of the organization by compelling managers to examine relationships between their own operation and those of other departments. Other essentials of budget include, To control resources To communicate plans to various responsibility center managers, to motivate managers to strive to achieve budget goals. Tools enable the actual operation of the business to be measured against the forecast. Lastly, tools establish the cost constraint for a project, program, on the other hand, if the figures diverge wildly from the budget, this sends an out of control signal, and the share price could suffer. Campaign planners incur two types of cost in any campaign, the first is the cost of human resource necessary to plan, the second type of expense that campaign planners incur is the hard cost of the campaign itself. A budget is a tool for an event director to predict with a reasonable accuracy whether the event will result in a profit. A budget can also be used as a pricing tool, there are two basic approaches or philosophies, when it comes to budgeting. One approach is telling you on mathematical models, and the other on people, the first school of thought believes that financial models, if properly constructed, can be used to predict the future. The focus is on variables, inputs and outputs, drivers, investments of time and money are devoted to perfecting these models, which are typically held in some type of financial spreadsheet application. The other school of thought holds that it’s not about models, no matter how sophisticated models can get, the best information comes from the people in the business. The focus is therefore in engaging the managers in the more fully in the budget process. The companies that adhere to this approach have their managers develop their own budgets, while many companies would say that they do both, in reality the investment of time and money falls squarely in one approach or the other. The budget of a government is a summary or plan of the revenues and expenditures of that government. There are three types of government budget, the operating or current budget, the capital or investment budget, the budget is prepared by the Treasury team led by the Chancellor of the Exchequer and is presented to Parliament by the Chancellor of the Exchequer on Budget Day
Budget
–
Brooklyn Museum - Comme Sisyphe - Honoré Daumier
2.
United States dollar
–
The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
United States dollar
–
Series of 1917
$1 United States bill
United States dollar
–
Federal Reserve Notes
United States dollar
–
Spanish silver real or
peso of 1768
United States dollar
–
Obverse of rare 1934 $500 Federal Reserve Note, featuring a portrait of President
William McKinley.
3.
Director (business)
–
A director is a person from a group of managers who leads or supervises a particular area of a company, program, or project. Companies that use this term often have many directors spread throughout different business functions or roles, the director usually reports directly to a vice president or to the CEO directly in order to let them know the progress of the organization. Large organizations also sometimes have assistant directors or deputy directors, Director commonly refers to the lowest level of executive in an organization, but many large companies use the title of associate director more frequently. Some companies also have regional directors and area directors, regional directors are present in companies that are organized by location and have their departments under that. They are responsible for the operations for their particular country, though directors are the first stage in the executive team, area directors are seen as higher up, based on their area of control. Corporate titles are given to individuals within a business depending on the role they have. The larger the business, the titles that are present, such as CEO, COO. There are many titles within a company such as director, managing director, company director. The corporate structure consists of four key areas, Board of directors- Each director oversees a department, C-level executives- C-level is used to define the high ranking titles within a business/company. Management- The management area is next to the C-level executives in the corporate jobs hierarchy and they oversee daily tasks of the business or the company. Employees- This role is ranked at the bottom of the structure, employees work on daily tasks and objectives either in a group or individually aiming for that common goal. US law requires every company to create specific positions such as treasurer, president, american businesses are usually controlled by a chief executive officer. In the UK, a director is usually linked to the role of a CEO. The roles are similar and to some extent the same, the difference being the corporate title. Depending upon the size of an organization or a company, the number of directors can vary, start-up companies can have a single director, which is the minimum for a private limited company according to the law. However, as organizations and businesses expand, the number of directors can increase because more tasks, a board of directors ensures that a clearly outlined structure is in place which will help the business to work much more efficiently. Managing Director - A managing director is employed by the business, other roles include running the business and producing salaries. The managing director manages the board of directors and oversees the performance of the business, Executive Directors - A group of executive directors who each play a significant role within the company
Director (business)
–
Intel Board of Directors
4.
Employment
–
Employees in some fields or sectors may receive gratuities, bonus payment or stock options. In some types of employment, employees may receive benefits in addition to payment, benefits can include health insurance, housing, disability insurance or use of a gym. Employment is typically governed by employment laws or regulations or legal contracts, employers must balance interests such as decreasing wage constraints with a maximization of labor productivity in order to achieve a profitable and productive employment relationship. The main ways for employers to workers and for people to find employers are via jobs listings in newspapers and online. Employers and job seekers also find each other via professional recruitment consultants which receive a commission from the employer to find, screen. However, a study has shown that such consultants may not be reliable when they fail to use established principles in selecting employees, a more traditional approach is with a Help Wanted sign in the establishment. Evaluating different employees can be quite laborious but setting up different techniques to analyze their skill to measure their talents within the field can be best through assessments, employer and potential employee commonly take the additional step of getting to know each other through the process of job interview. Training and development refers to the effort to equip a newly hired employee with necessary skills to perform at the job. An appropriate level of training and development helps to improve job satisfaction. There are many ways that employees are paid, including by hourly wages, by piecework, by yearly salary, in sales jobs and real estate positions, the employee may be paid a commission, a percentage of the value of the goods or services that they have sold. In some fields and professions, employees may be eligible for a bonus if they meet certain targets, employee benefits are various non-wage compensation provided to employee in addition to their wages or salaries. In some cases, such as with workers employed in remote or isolated regions, employee benefits can improve the relationship between employee and employer and lowers staff turnover. Organizational justice is a perception and judgement of employers treatment in the context of fairness or justice. The resulting actions to influence the relationship is also a part of organizational justice. Employees can organize into trade or labor unions, which represent the force to collectively bargain with the management of organizations about working. Usually, either an employee or employer may end the relationship at any time and this is referred to as at-will employment. The contract between the two parties specifies the responsibilities of each when ending the relationship and may include such as notice periods, severance pay. In some professions, notably teaching, civil servants, university professors, and some jobs, some employees may have tenure
Employment
–
Worker assembling
rebar for a water treatment plant in
Mazatlan,
Sinaloa,
Mexico.
Employment
Employment
–
Worker, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
5.
Student
–
A student or pupil is a learner or someone who attends an educational institution. In Britain those attending university are termed students, in the United States, and more recently also in Britain, the term student is applied to both categories. In its widest use, student is used for anyone who is learning, including mid-career adults who are taking vocational education or returning to university. When speaking about learning outside an institution, student is used to refer to someone who is learning a topic or who is a student of a certain topic or person. In Nigeria, education is classified into four system known as 6-3-3-4 system of education and it implies six years in primary school, three years in junior secondary, three years in senior secondary and four years in the university. However, the number of years to be spent in university is determined by the course of study. Some courses have longer study length than others and those in primary school are often referred to as pupils. Those in university as well as those in school are being referred to as students. Six years of school education in Singapore is compulsory. International Schools are subject to overseas curriculums, such as the British, Primary education is compulsory in Bangladesh. Its a near crime to not to children to primary school when they are of age. But it is not a punishable crime, because of the socio-economic state of Bangladesh, child labour is sometimes legal. But the guardian must ensure the primary education, everyone who is learning in any institute or even online may be called student in Bangladesh. Sometimes students taking undergraduate education is called undergraduates and students taking post-graduate education may be called post-graduates, Education System Of Bangladesh, Education is free in Brunei. Darussalam not limited to government educational institutions but also private educational institutions, there are mainly two types of educational institutions, government or public, and private institutions. Several stages have to be undergone by the prospective students leading to higher qualifications, Primary School Secondary School High School Colleges University Level It takes six and five years to complete the primary and secondary levels respectively. Upon completing these two stages, students/pupils have freedom to progress to sixth-form centers, colleges or probably straight to employment. Students are permitted to progress towards university level programs in both government and private university colleges, Education in Cambodia is free for all the students who study in Primary School, Secondary School or High School
Student
–
Over one thousand pupils in uniform during an assembly at a
secondary school,
Nan Hua High School in
Singapore
Student
–
An Iranian Student going to her classmate house for study together at evening, in
Nishapur
Student
–
Students of Stony Creek State School,
Queensland, 1939
Student
–
Students in a
lecture on
linear algebra at the
Helsinki University of Technology
6.
Albuquerque, New Mexico
–
Albuquerque is the most populous city in the U. S. state of New Mexico. The high-altitude city serves as the county seat of Bernalillo County, the city population is 557,169 as of the July 1,2014 population estimate from the United States Census Bureau, and ranks as the 32nd-largest city in the U. S. The Albuquerque metropolitan statistical area has a population of 907,301 according to the United States Census Bureaus most recently available estimate for 2015, Albuquerque is the 60th-largest United States metropolitan area. The Sandia Mountains run along the side of Albuquerque. Albuquerque is also the home of the International Balloon Fiesta, the worlds largest such gathering of hot-air balloons from around the globe, the event takes place during the first week of October. Albuquerque was named in honor of Francisco, Duke of Alburquerque, the growing village soon to become Albuquerque was named by provincial governor Francisco Cuervo y Valdés. Franciscos title referred to the Spanish town of Alburquerque, in the Spanish province of Badajoz, the name has two theories of origin which denote either Latin or Arabic roots. The first of which derived from the Latin albus quercus meaning white oak and this name was probably in reference to the prevalence of cork oaks in the region, which have a white wood when the bark is removed. Alburquerque is still a center of the Spanish cork industry, another theory suggests that it may come from the Arabic Abu al-Qurq, which means father of the cork. The change was also in due to the fact that citizens found the original name difficult to pronounce. Western folklore offers a different explanation, tracing the name Albuquerque to the Galician word albaricoque, the apricot was brought to New Mexico by Spanish settlers, possibly as early as 1743. As the story goes, the settlement was established near an apricot tree, as frontiersmen were unable to correctly pronounce the Galician word, it became corrupted to Albuquerque. The Tanoan and Keres peoples had lived along the Rio Grande for centuries before European settlers arrived in what is now Albuquerque, Albuquerque was founded in 1706 as the Spanish colonial outpost of Villa de Alburquerque. Present-day Albuquerque retains much of its historical Spanish cultural heritage, Albuquerque was a farming community and strategically located military outpost along the Camino Real. The town was also the center of the West. Spain established a presidio in Albuquerque in 1706, after 1821, Mexico also had a military garrison there. The town of Alburquerque was built in the traditional Spanish village pattern, a plaza surrounded by government buildings, homes. This central plaza area has preserved and is open to the public as a museum, cultural area
Albuquerque, New Mexico
–
Francisco, Duke of Alburquerque
Albuquerque, New Mexico
–
Balloon Fiesta,
Downtown Albuquerque Alvarado Center,
Sandia Peak Tramway San Felipe de Neri Church,
Rio Grande Wetlands.
Albuquerque, New Mexico
–
Old Town Albuquerque Plaza
Albuquerque, New Mexico
–
Downtown Albuquerque in 1880
7.
Livermore, California
–
Livermore is a city in Alameda County, California, in the United States. With an estimated 2014 population of 86,870, Livermore is the most populous city in the Tri-Valley, Livermore is located on the eastern edge of Californias San Francisco Bay Area. The incumbent Mayor of Livermore is John Marchand, a registered Democrat, Livermore was founded by William Mendenhall and named after Robert Livermore, his friend and a local rancher who settled in the area in the 1840s. Livermore is the home of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, for which the chemical element livermorium is named, Livermore is also the California site of Sandia National Laboratories, which is headquartered in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Its south side is home to local vineyards, the city has redeveloped its downtown district and is considered part of the Tri-Valley area, comprising Amador, Livermore and San Ramon valleys. Before its incorporation in 1796 under the Franciscan Mission San Jose, located in what is now the part of Fremont. Each mission had two to three friars and a contingent of up to five soldiers to keep order in the mission. Other tribes were coerced into other adjacent missions, the Mission Indians were restricted to the mission grounds where they lived in sexually segregated barracks that they built themselves with padre instruction. The Livermore-Amador Valley after 1800 to about 1837 was primarily used as grazing land for some of the Mission San Joses growing herds of cattle, sheep. The herds grew wild with no fences and were culled about once a year for cow hides, the dead animals were left to rot or feed the California grizzly bears which then roamed the region. Some Indians joined or re-joined some of the few surviving tribes, the about 48, 000-acre Rancho Las Positas grant, which includes most of Livermore, was made to ranchers Robert Livermore and Jose Noriega in 1839. Most land grants were given little or no cost to the recipients. Robert Livermore was a British citizen who had jumped from a British merchant sailing ship stopping in Monterey, California and he became a naturalized Mexican citizen who had converted to Catholicism in 1823 as was required for citizenship and legal residence. Typical of most early rancho dwellings, the first building on his ranch was an adobe on Las Positas Creek near the end of todays Las Positas Road. The non-Indian population exploded, and cattle were suddenly worth much more than the $1. 00-$3.00 their hides could bring and it is believed to be the first wooden building in the Livermore Tri-Valley. Most horse traffic went by way of Altamont Pass just east of Livermore, Robert Livermore was a very accommodating host and welcomed nearly all that stopped by with lodging and meals. Robert Livermore died in 1858 and was buried at Mission San Jose before the establishment of the town bears his name. His ranch included much of the present-day city, the city of Livermore, named in honor of Robert Livermore, was established in 1869 by William Mendenhall, who had first met Livermore while marching through the valley with John C
Livermore, California
–
City of Livermore
Livermore, California
–
Typical Livermore area landscape (
Morgan Territory Regional Preserve near Livermore)
Livermore, California
–
Wind turbines, part of the
Altamont Pass Wind Farm near Livermore.
Livermore, California
–
Old fire station in downtown Livermore
8.
Campus
–
A campus is traditionally the land on which a college or university and related institutional buildings are situated. Usually a college campus includes libraries, lecture halls, residence halls, student centers or dining halls, a modern campus is a collection of buildings and grounds that belong to a given institution, either academic or non-academic. Examples include the Googleplex and the Apple Campus, the word derives from a Latin word for field and was first used to describe the large field adjacent Nassau Hall of the College of New Jersey in 1774. The field separated Princeton from the nearby town. Some other American colleges later adopted the word to describe individual fields at their own institutions, a school might have one space called a campus, one called a field, and another called a yard. The tradition of a campus began with the medieval European universities where the students, the notion of the importance of the setting to academic life later migrated to America, and early colonial educational institutions were based on the Scottish and English collegiate system. The campus evolved from the model in Europe to a diverse set of independent styles in the United States. The meaning expanded to include the whole institutional property during the 20th century, sometimes the lands on which company office buildings sit, along with the buildings, are called campuses. The Microsoft Campus in Redmond, Washington is a good example, hospitals, and even airports sometimes use the term to describe the territory of their facilities
Campus
–
Joseph Jacques Ramée 's original plan for
Union College in
Schenectady,
New York, the first comprehensively planned campus in the
United States
9.
Honeywell International
–
The company operates three business units, known as Strategic Business Units – Honeywell Aerospace, Honeywell Automation and Control Solutions, and Honeywell Performance Materials and Technologies. Honeywell is a Fortune 100 company, in 2016, Honeywell ranked 75th in the Fortune 500. Honeywell has a workforce of approximately 130,000, of whom approximately 58,000 are employed in the United States. The company is headquartered in Morris Plains, New Jersey and its current chief executive officer is Darius Adamczyk. The company and its predecessors were part of the Dow Jones Industrial Average Index from December 7,1925 until February 9,2008. The companys current name, Honeywell International Inc. is the product of a merger in which Honeywell Inc. was acquired by the much larger AlliedSignal in 1999. The company headquarters were consolidated with AlliedSignals headquarters in Morristown, New Jersey, in 2015, the headquarters were moved to Morris Plains. Honeywell has many brands that commercial and retail consumers may recognize, including its line of home thermostats, the following year he founded the Butz Thermo-Electric Regulator Company. As the years passed, CTCC struggled with growing debts, in 1906, Mark Honeywell founded the Honeywell Heating Specialty Company in Wabash, Indiana to manufacture and market his invention, the mercury seal generator. As Honeywell’s company grew it began to clash with the renamed Minneapolis Heat Regulator Company and this led to the merging of the two companies into the publicly held Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Company in 1927. Honeywell named its first president, W. R. Sweatt as its first chairman, W. R. Sweatt and his son Harold provided 75 years of uninterrupted leadership for the company. W. R. Sweatt survived rough spots and turned an innovative idea – thermostatic heating control – into a thriving business. Harold, who took over in 1934, led Honeywell through a period of growth, the merger into the Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Company proved to be a saving grace for the corporation. This expansion into international markets continued in 1936, with their first distributorship in London, by 1937, ten years after the merger, Minneapolis-Honeywell had over 3,000 employees, with $16 million in annual revenue. Having survived the Depression, Minneapolis-Honeywell was approached by the US military for engineering and manufacturing projects, in 1941, Minneapolis-Honeywell developed a superior tank periscope and camera stabilizers, as well as the C-1 autopilot. The C-1 revolutionized precision bombing in the war effort, and was used on the two B-29 bombers that dropped atomic bombs on Japan in 1945, Honeywell also helped develop and manufacture the RUR-5 ASROC for the US Navy. Technologically, this effort had parallels to contemporary efforts in missile guidance, Honeywell also developed the Wagtail missile with the USAF. From the 1950s until the mid-1970s, Honeywell was the United States importer of Pentax cameras, through most of the 1960s, Honeywell was one of the Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs of computing
Honeywell International
–
Honeywell's iconic "The Round" model T-86 thermostat. There is one in the
Smithsonian Institution.
Honeywell International
–
Honeywell International, Inc.
Honeywell International
–
Honeywell thermostat
Honeywell International
–
A 1990 Honeywell-
Bull Entry Level Mainframe DPS 7
mainframe
10.
National Nuclear Security Administration
–
The National Nuclear Security Administration is the U. S. agency responsible for enhancing national security through the military application of nuclear science. Established by the United States Congress in 2000, NNSA is an agency within the United States Department of Energy. S. The first NNSA administrator appointed was Air Force General John A. Gordon, NNSA has four missions with regard to national security, To manage the U. S. nuclear weapon stockpile. To reduce global danger from weapons of destruction and to promote international nuclear safety. To provide the United States Navy with safe, militarily effective nuclear propulsion plants and to ensure the safe, to support United States leadership in science and technology. One of NNSAs primary missions is to maintain the safety, security, after the Cold War, the U. S. stopped production of new nuclear warheads and voluntarily ended underground nuclear testing. NNSA also uses multiple supercomputers to run simulations and validate experimental data, the organization provides safe and secure transportation of nuclear weapons and components and special nuclear materials, and conducts other missions supporting national security. It has responsibility to develop, operate, and manage a system for the safe, shipments are transported in specially designed equipment and are escorted by armed federal agents. Among its goals are to prevent proliferation, ensure peaceful nuclear uses, NNSAs Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program is responsible for providing militarily effective nuclear propulsion plants. It provides the design, development and operational support required to power the U. S. Navys aircraft carriers, NNSA is responsible for responding to radiological and nuclear emergencies and working with law enforcement agencies to prevent nuclear or radiological terrorism. Experts at its national laboratories maintain a level of readiness to deploy resources capable of responding to nuclear or radiological incidents worldwide. Key capabilities looking for and identifying radiological material, rendering safe nuclear devices, NNSA provides expertise, practical tools and technically informed policy recommendations to advance U. S. nuclear counterterrorism and counterproliferation objectives. It is responsible for understanding nuclear threat devices and foreign nuclear weapons that cause proliferation concerns. S, in June 2006, The New York Times reported that sensitive information on nuclear weapons workers had been stolen from the NNSA. In 2008, the NNSA, in cooperation with Russia and other agencies and this operation was conducted by American and Russian officials to ensure the safe disposal of the radioactive uranium that is highly enriched and weapons-grade. The Hungarian reactor is now being converted to use low-enriched uranium that cannot be used in a weapon and will not be a potential terrorist target. S. S
National Nuclear Security Administration
–
National Nuclear Security Administration
11.
Nuclear weapon
–
A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from small amounts of matter. The first test of a bomb released the same amount of energy as approximately 20,000 tons of TNT. The first thermonuclear bomb test released the same amount of energy as approximately 10 million tons of TNT, a thermonuclear weapon weighing little more than 2,400 pounds can produce an explosive force comparable to the detonation of more than 1.2 million tons of TNT. A nuclear device no larger than traditional bombs can devastate a city by blast, fire. Nuclear weapons are considered weapons of destruction, and their use. Nuclear weapons have been used twice in nuclear warfare, both times by the United States against Japan near the end of World War II, the bombings resulted in the deaths of approximately 200,000 civilians and military personnel from acute injuries sustained from the explosions. The ethics of the bombings and their role in Japans surrender remain the subject of scholarly, since the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, nuclear weapons have been detonated on over two thousand occasions for the purposes of testing and demonstration. Only a few nations possess such weapons or are suspected of seeking them, israel is also believed to possess nuclear weapons, though in a policy of deliberate ambiguity, it does not acknowledge having them. Germany, Italy, Turkey, Belgium and the Netherlands are nuclear weapons sharing states, south Africa is the only country to have independently developed and then renounced and dismantled its nuclear weapons. Modernisation of weapons continues to occur, all existing nuclear weapons derive some of their explosive energy from nuclear fission reactions. Weapons whose explosive output is exclusively from fission reactions are commonly referred to as bombs or atom bombs. This has long noted as something of a misnomer, as their energy comes from the nucleus of the atom. The latter approach is considered more sophisticated than the former and only the approach can be used if the fissile material is plutonium. A major challenge in all nuclear weapon designs is to ensure that a significant fraction of the fuel is consumed before the weapon destroys itself. The amount of energy released by fission bombs can range from the equivalent of just under a ton to upwards of 500,000 tons of TNT, all fission reactions necessarily generate fission products, the radioactive remains of the atomic nuclei split by the fission reactions. Many fission products are highly radioactive or moderately radioactive. Fission products are the radioactive component of nuclear fallout
Nuclear weapon
–
The
mushroom cloud of the
atomic bombing of the Japanese city of Nagasaki on August 9, 1945 rose some 11 miles (18 km) above the bomb's
hypocenter.
Nuclear weapon
–
Nuclear weapons
Nuclear weapon
–
Edward Teller, often referred to as the "father of the hydrogen bomb"
Nuclear weapon
–
A demilitarized and
commercial launch of the Russian
Strategic Rocket Forces R-36
ICBM; also known by the NATO reporting name:
SS-18 Satan. Upon its first fielding in the late 1960s, the SS-18 remains the single highest
throw weight missile delivery system ever built.
12.
Kirtland Air Force Base
–
Kirtland Air Force Base is a United States Air Force base located in the southeast quadrant of the Albuquerque, New Mexico urban area, adjacent to the Albuquerque International Sunport. The base was named for the early Army aviator Col. Roy C, the military and the international airport share the same runways, making ABQ a joint civil-military airport. Kirtland AFB is the third largest installation in Air Force Global Strike Command, the base occupies 51,558 acres and employs over 23,000 people, including more than 4,200 active duty and 1,000 Guard, plus 3,200 part-time Reserve personnel. Kirtland AFB’s economic impact for 2000 on the City of Albuquerque was over $2.7 billion, Kirtland is the home of the Air Force Materiel Commands Nuclear Weapons Center. Kirtland is home to the 58th Special Operations Wing, an Air Education, the 58 SOW operates the HC-130J, MC-130J, UH-1N Huey, HH-60G Pave Hawk and CV-22 Osprey aircraft. Headquarters, Air Force Operational Test and Evaluation Center is also located at Kirtland AFB, the 150th Special Operations Wing of the New Mexico Air National Guard, an Air Combat Command -gained unit, is also home-based at Kirtland. Kirtland Air Force Base was named for Colonel Roy C, Colonel Kirtland learned to fly in 1911 in one of the first Wright airplanes at Dayton, Ohio. During World War I he organized and commanded a regiment of mechanics, recalled from retirement in 1941 at the age of 65, the oldest military pilot in the Air Corps, he died of a heart attack on 2 May 1941 at Moffett Field, California. Kirtland Air Force Base has changed a great deal since its establishment as a U. S. Army airfield in 1941 and it has evolved from a hastily constructed training and testing facility necessitated by the onset of World War II to a significant USAF center for R&D. What began as a 2, 000-acre air base has grown into a 51, Kirtland Air Force Base’s beginnings stem from three private airfields of 1928-1939 and are similar to that of other installations choosing to adapt existing runways and hangars for military use. In 1928, Frank G. Speakman and William L. Franklin, working with the town of Albuquerque, they graded two runways on East Mesa with one approximately 5,300 feet long and the other just under 4,000 feet. Albuquerque Airport was wholly a private venture, irrespective of the town’s involvement, immediately following construction of the airport, other individuals and promoters became interested in Albuquerque as a crossroads location for southwestern air traffic. James G. Oxnard, a New York entrepreneur, bought Franklin’s interest in Albuquerque Airport, the airfield soon drew business from private flyers, as well as Transcontinental Air Transport and Western Air Express, commercial airlines that set up operations at the new airport. The city’s viability as a crossroads of air traffic in the Southwest was confirmed by early success. As the 1920s closed, two airlines initiated competitive passenger, mail and cargo service between the Midwest and California, positioning Albuquerque as an important transcontinental airfield. WAE soon moved to the West Mesa Airport and was joined by TAT as the two merged to become Trans World Airlines. This new facility, also private, became known as Albuquerque Airport, and the first, which was renamed Oxnard Field, also continued to service general aviation needs. ”With the help of President Roosevelt’s Works Progress Administration funds, a new airport was begun four miles west of Oxnard Field and completed in 1939, on the cusp of World War II. In January 1939, Major General Henry “Hap” Arnold, who became chief of the U. S. Army Air Corps and it soon became a national priority to secure airfields and bombing and gunnery ranges
Kirtland Air Force Base
–
E-4 advanced airborne command post
Kirtland Air Force Base
–
58th Special Operations Wing CV-22 Osprey
Kirtland Air Force Base
–
Roy Kirtland (at right), flying a Wright 1911 Model B Flyer
Kirtland Air Force Base
–
Albuquerque Army Air Base, September 1941
13.
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
–
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory is an American federal research facility in Livermore, California, United States, founded by the University of California in 1952. A Federally Funded Research and Development Center, it is funded by the U. S. In 2012, the laboratory had the synthetic chemical element livermorium named after it, LLNL is self-described as a premier research and development institution for science and technology applied to national security. Its principal responsibility is ensuring the safety, security and reliability of the nuclear weapons through the application of advanced science, engineering. The Laboratory is located on a site at the eastern edge of Livermore. It also operates a 7,000 acres remote experimental test site, called Site 300, LLNL has an annual budget of about $1.5 billion and a staff of roughly 5,800 employees. LLNL was established in 1952 as the University of California Radiation Laboratory at Livermore and it was intended to spur innovation and provide competition to the nuclear weapon design laboratory at Los Alamos in New Mexico, home of the Manhattan Project that developed the first atomic weapons. Edward Teller and Ernest Lawrence, director of the Radiation Laboratory at Berkeley, are regarded as the co-founders of the Livermore facility, the new laboratory was sited at a former naval air station of World War II. About half an hour southeast of Berkeley, the Livermore site provided much greater security for classified projects than a university campus. Lawrence tapped 32-year-old Herbert York, a graduate student of his. Under York, the Lab had four programs, Project Sherwood, Project Whitney, diagnostic weapon experiments. Lawrence died in August 1958 and shortly after, the board of regents named both laboratories for him, as the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory. Historically, the Berkeley and Livermore laboratories have had close relationships on research projects, business operations. The Livermore Lab was established initially as a branch of the Berkeley Laboratory, the Livermore Lab was not officially severed administratively from the Berkeley Lab until 1971. The laboratory was renamed Lawrence Livermore Laboratory in 1971, on October 1,2007 LLNS assumed management of LLNL from the University of California, which had exclusively managed and operated the Laboratory since its inception 55 years before. The laboratory was honored in 2012 by having the chemical element livermorium named after it. The LLNS takeover of the Laboratory has been controversial, in May 2013, an Alameda County jury awarded over $2.7 million to five former Laboratory employees who were among 430 employees LLNS laid off during 2008. The jury found that LLNS breached an obligation to terminate the employees only for “reasonable cause. ”The five plaintiffs also have pending age discrimination claims against LLNS
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
–
Aerial view of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
14.
Nonproliferation
–
Four countries besides the five recognized Nuclear Weapons States have acquired, or are presumed to have acquired, nuclear weapons, India, Pakistan, North Korea, and Israel. None of these four is a party to the NPT, although North Korea acceded to the NPT in 1985, then withdrew in 2003, Research into the development of nuclear weapons was undertaken during World War II by the United States, Germany, Japan, and the USSR. The United States was the first and is the country to have used a nuclear weapon in war. With their loss during the war, Germany and Japan ceased to be involved in any nuclear weapon research, in August 1949, the USSR tested a nuclear weapon. The United Kingdom tested a nuclear weapon in October 1952, France developed a nuclear weapon in 1960. The Peoples Republic of China detonated a weapon in 1964. India exploded a device in 1974, and Pakistan conducted a series of nuclear weapon tests in May 1998. In 2006, North Korea conducted its first nuclear test, none of these efforts were explicitly public, because the weapon developments themselves were kept secret until the bombing of Hiroshima. The Baruch Plan, which drew heavily from the Acheson–Lilienthal Report of 1946, proposed the verifiable dismantlement, Security Council could veto, and which would proportionately punish states attempting to acquire the capability to make nuclear weapons or fissile material. Baruchs plea for the destruction of nuclear weapons invoked basic moral, in one part of his address to the UN, Baruch said, Behind the black portent of the new atomic age lies a hope which, seized upon with faith, can work out our salvation. If we fail, then we have damned every man to be the slave of Fear and we must elect World Peace or World Destruction. We must answer the worlds longing for peace and security, with this remark, Baruch helped launch the field of nuclear ethics, to which many policy experts and scholars have contributed. Although the Baruch Plan enjoyed wide support, it failed to emerge from the UNAEC because the Soviet Union planned to veto it in the Security Council. Still, it remained official American policy until 1953, when President Eisenhower made his Atoms for Peace proposal before the U. N. General Assembly, eisenhowers proposal led eventually to the creation of the International Atomic Energy Agency in 1957. Efforts to conclude an agreement to limit the spread of nuclear weapons did not begin until the early 1960s. Although these efforts stalled in the early 1960s, they renewed once again in 1964, in 1968, governments represented at the Eighteen Nation Disarmament Committee finished negotiations on the text of the NPT. In June 1968, the U. N. General Assembly endorsed the NPT with General Assembly Resolution 2373, and in July 1968, the NPT entered into force in March 1970. The main materials whose generation and distribution is controlled are highly enriched uranium and plutonium, dual-use technology refers to the possibility of military use of civilian nuclear power technology
Nonproliferation
–
Nuclear weapons
Nonproliferation
–
Five "nuclear weapons states" from the NPT
Nonproliferation
–
In 2003,
Libya admitted that the nuclear weapons-related material including these
centrifuges, known as Pak-1, were acquired from Pakistan
15.
Hazardous waste
–
Hazardous waste is waste that poses substantial or potential threats to public health or the environment. In the United States, the treatment, storage, and disposal of waste are regulated under the Resource Conservation. Hazardous wastes are defined under RCRA in 40 CFR261 where they are divided into two categories, characteristic wastes and listed wastes. The requirements of RCRA apply to all the companies that generate hazardous waste as well as companies that store or dispose hazardous waste in the United States. Many types of businesses generate hazardous waste, dry cleaners, automobile repair shops, hospitals, exterminators, and photo processing centers may all generate hazardous waste. Some hazardous waste generators are larger companies such as manufacturers, electroplating companies. These wastes may be found in different physical states such as gaseous, liquids, a hazardous waste is a special type of waste because it cannot be disposed of by common means like other by-products of our everyday lives. Depending on the state of the waste, treatment and solidification processes might be required. Worldwide, the United Nations Environmental Programme estimated that more than 400 million tons of wastes are produced universally each year. About 1 percent of this is shipped across international boundaries, with the majority of the transfers occurring between countries in the Organization for the Economic Cooperation and Development. One of the reasons for industrialized countries to ship the waste to industrializing countries for disposal is the rising cost of disposing hazardous waste in the home country. Hazardous wastes are wastes with properties that make them dangerous or potentially harmful to health or the environment. Hazardous wastes can be liquids, solids, contained gases, or sludges and they can be by-products of manufacturing processes or simply discarded commercial products, like cleaning fluids or pesticides. Hazardous wastes are regulated under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Subtitle C, by definition, EPA determined that some specific wastes are hazardous. These wastes are incorporated into lists published by the Agency, rCRAs record keeping system helps to track the life cycle of hazardous waste and reduces the amount of hazardous waste illegally disposed. The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, was enacted in 1980, the primary contribution of CERCLA was to create a Superfund and provide for the clean-up and remediation of closed and abandoned hazardous waste sites. CERCLA addresses historic releases of hazardous materials, but does not specifically manage hazardous wastes, a U. S. facility that treats, stores, or disposes of hazardous waste must obtain a permit for doing so under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. Generators and transporters of hazardous waste must meet requirements for handling, managing
Hazardous waste
–
Grand Coulee Dam
Hazardous waste
–
Major types
16.
Computational biology
–
Computational Biology, sometimes referred to as bioinformatics, is the science of using biological data to develop algorithms and relations among various biological systems. Prior to the advent of computational biology, biologists did not have access to large amounts of data, researchers were able to develop analytical methods for interpreting biological information, but were unable to share them quickly among colleagues. Bioinformatics began to develop in the early 1970s and it was considered the science of analyzing informatics processes of various biological systems. At this time, research in intelligence was using network models of the human brain in order to generate new algorithms. This use of data to develop other fields pushed biological researchers to revisit the idea of using computers to evaluate. By 1982, information was being shared amongst researchers through the use of punch cards, the amount of data being shared began to grow exponentially by the end of the 1980s. This required the development of new methods in order to quickly analyze. Since the late 1990s, computational biology has become an important part of developing emerging technologies for the field of biology, the terms computational biology and evolutionary computation have a similar name, but are not to be confused. Unlike computational biology, evolutionary computation is not concerned with modeling and analyzing biological data and it instead creates algorithms based on the ideas of evolution across species. Sometimes referred to as genetic algorithms, the research of this field can be applied to computational biology, while evolutionary computation is not inherently a part of computational biology, Computational evolutionary biology is a subfield of it. Computational biology has been used to sequence the human genome, create accurate models of the human brain. Computational anatomy is a discipline focusing on the study of anatomical shape and it involves the development and application of computational, mathematical and data-analytical methods for modeling and simulation of biological structures. It focuses on the structures being imaged, rather than the medical imaging devices. It is similar in spirit to the history of Computational linguistics, at Computational anatomys heart is the comparison of shape by recognizing in one shape the other. This connects it to DArcy Wentworth Thompsons developments On Growth and Form which has led to scientific explanations of morphogenesis, the original formulation of Computational anatomy is as a generative model of shape and form from exemplars acted upon via transformations. It is a branch of the analysis and pattern theory school at Brown University pioneered by Ulf Grenander. The models of metric pattern theory, in group action on the orbit of shapes. Computational biomodeling is a field concerned with building computer models of biological systems, Computational biomodeling aims to develop and use visual simulations in order to assess the complexity of biological systems
Computational biology
–
A partially sequenced genome.
17.
Mathematics
–
Mathematics is the study of topics such as quantity, structure, space, and change. There is a range of views among mathematicians and philosophers as to the exact scope, Mathematicians seek out patterns and use them to formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proof, when mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena, then mathematical reasoning can provide insight or predictions about nature. Through the use of abstraction and logic, mathematics developed from counting, calculation, measurement, practical mathematics has been a human activity from as far back as written records exist. The research required to solve mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry, rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclids Elements. Galileo Galilei said, The universe cannot be read until we have learned the language and it is written in mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word. Without these, one is wandering about in a dark labyrinth, carl Friedrich Gauss referred to mathematics as the Queen of the Sciences. Benjamin Peirce called mathematics the science that draws necessary conclusions, David Hilbert said of mathematics, We are not speaking here of arbitrariness in any sense. Mathematics is not like a game whose tasks are determined by arbitrarily stipulated rules, rather, it is a conceptual system possessing internal necessity that can only be so and by no means otherwise. Albert Einstein stated that as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain, Mathematics is essential in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine, finance and the social sciences. Applied mathematics has led to entirely new mathematical disciplines, such as statistics, Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in mind. There is no clear line separating pure and applied mathematics, the history of mathematics can be seen as an ever-increasing series of abstractions. The earliest uses of mathematics were in trading, land measurement, painting and weaving patterns, in Babylonian mathematics elementary arithmetic first appears in the archaeological record. Numeracy pre-dated writing and numeral systems have many and diverse. Between 600 and 300 BC the Ancient Greeks began a study of mathematics in its own right with Greek mathematics. Mathematics has since been extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today, the overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theorems and their proofs. The word máthēma is derived from μανθάνω, while the modern Greek equivalent is μαθαίνω, in Greece, the word for mathematics came to have the narrower and more technical meaning mathematical study even in Classical times
Mathematics
–
Euclid (holding
calipers), Greek mathematician, 3rd century BC, as imagined by
Raphael in this detail from
The School of Athens.
Mathematics
–
Greek mathematician
Pythagoras (c. 570 – c. 495 BC), commonly credited with discovering the
Pythagorean theorem
Mathematics
–
Leonardo Fibonacci, the
Italian mathematician who established the Hindu–Arabic numeral system to the Western World
Mathematics
–
Carl Friedrich Gauss, known as the prince of mathematicians
18.
Materials science
–
The interdisciplinary field of materials science, also commonly termed materials science and engineering, involves the discovery and design of new materials, with an emphasis on solids. Materials science still incorporates elements of physics, chemistry, and engineering, as such, the field was long considered by academic institutions as a sub-field of these related fields. Materials science is a syncretic discipline hybridizing metallurgy, ceramics, solid-state physics and it is the first example of a new academic discipline emerging by fusion rather than fission. Many of the most pressing scientific problems humans currently face are due to the limits of the materials that are available, thus, breakthroughs in materials science are likely to affect the future of technology significantly. Materials scientists emphasize understanding how the history of a material influences its structure, the understanding of processing-structure-properties relationships is called the § materials paradigm. This paradigm is used to advance understanding in a variety of areas, including nanotechnology, biomaterials. Such investigations are key to understanding, for example, the causes of various accidents and incidents. The material of choice of a given era is often a defining point, phrases such as Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age, and Steel Age are great examples. Originally deriving from the manufacture of ceramics and its putative derivative metallurgy, materials science is one of the oldest forms of engineering, modern materials science evolved directly from metallurgy, which itself evolved from mining and ceramics and the use of fire. Materials science has driven, and been driven by, the development of technologies such as rubbers, plastics, semiconductors. Before the 1960s, many materials science departments were named metallurgy departments, reflecting the 19th, a material is defined as a substance that is intended to be used for certain applications. There are a myriad of materials around us—they can be found in anything from buildings to spacecraft, Materials can generally be divided into two classes, crystalline and non-crystalline. The traditional examples of materials are metals, semiconductors, ceramics, New and advanced materials that are being developed include nanomaterials and biomaterials, etc. The basis of science involves studying the structure of materials. Once a materials scientist knows about this structure-property correlation, they can go on to study the relative performance of a material in a given application. The major determinants of the structure of a material and thus of its properties are its constituent chemical elements and these characteristics, taken together and related through the laws of thermodynamics and kinetics, govern a materials microstructure, and thus its properties. As mentioned above, structure is one of the most important components of the field of materials science, Materials science examines the structure of materials from the atomic scale, all the way up to the macro scale. Characterization is the way materials scientists examine the structure of a material, structure is studied at various levels, as detailed below
Materials science
–
A
diamond cuboctahedron showing a number of
crystallographic planes, imaged with
scanning electron microscopy.
Materials science
–
A late
Bronze Age sword or dagger blade.
Materials science
–
Microstructure of pearlite.
Materials science
–
Crystal structure of a perovskite with a chemical formula ABX 3.
19.
Alternative energy
–
Alternative energy is any energy source that is an alternative to fossil fuel. These alternatives are intended to address concerns about such fossil fuels, such as its carbon dioxide emissions. Marine energy, hydroelectric, wind, geothermal and solar power are all sources of energy. The nature of what constitutes an alternative energy source has changed considerably over time, because of the variety of energy choices and differing goals of their advocates, defining some energy types as alternative is considered very controversial. Historians of economies have examined the key transitions to alternative energies, prior to the shift to an alternative energy, supplies of the dominant energy type became erratic, accompanied by rapid increases in energy prices. In the late period, coal was the new alternative fuel to save the society from overuse of the dominant fuel. The deforestation had resulted in shortage of wood, at that time soft coal appeared as a savior, historian Norman F. Cantor describes how, Europeans had lived in the midst of vast forests throughout the earlier medieval centuries. After 1250 they became so skilled at deforestation that by 1500 AD they were running short of wood for heating and cooking. By 1500 Europe was on the edge of a fuel and nutritional disaster, which it was saved in the century only by the burning of soft coal. In 1917, Alexander Graham Bell advocated ethanol from corn, wheat and other foods as an alternative to coal and oil, for Bell, the problem requiring an alternative was lack of renewability of orthodox energy sources. Since the 1970s, Brazil has had an ethanol fuel program which has allowed the country to become the second largest producer of ethanol. Brazil’s ethanol fuel program uses modern equipment and cheap sugar cane as feedstock, there are no longer light vehicles in Brazil running on pure gasoline. By the end of 2008 there were 35,000 filling stations throughout Brazil with at least one ethanol pump, cellulosic ethanol can be produced from a diverse array of feedstocks, and involves the use of the whole crop. As of 2008, there are nine commercial cellulosic ethanol plants which are operating, or under construction. Second-generation biofuels technologies are able to manufacture biofuels from inedible biomass, as of July 2010, there is one commercial second-generation ethanol plant Inbicon Biomass Refinery, which is operating in Denmark. In the 1970s, President Jimmy Carters administration advocated coal gasification as an alternative to imported oil. The program, including the Synthetic Fuels Corporation was scrapped when petroleum prices plummeted in the 1980s, the carbon footprint and environmental impact of coal gasification are both very high. Hydro electricity captures energy from falling water, nuclear energy uses nuclear fission to release energy stored in the atomic bonds of heavy elements
Alternative energy
–
Offshore wind turbines near
Copenhagen
Alternative energy
–
Early thorium-based (
MSR) nuclear reactor at
Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the 1960s
Alternative energy
–
Sugarcane plantation to produce
ethanol in Brazil
Alternative energy
–
A
CHP power station using wood to supplies 30,000 households in France
20.
Psychology
–
Psychology is the science of behavior and mind, embracing all aspects of conscious and unconscious experience as well as thought. It is a discipline and a social science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social, behavioral, Psychologists explore behavior and mental processes, including perception, cognition, attention, emotion, intelligence, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, and personality. This extends to interaction between people, such as relationships, including psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas. Psychologists of diverse orientations also consider the unconscious mind, Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. Psychology has been described as a hub science, with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the sciences, natural sciences, medicine, humanities. By many accounts psychology ultimately aims to benefit society, the majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research on a range of topics related to mental processes and behavior. The word psychology derives from Greek roots meaning study of the psyche, the Latin word psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century. In 1890, William James defined psychology as the science of mental life and this definition enjoyed widespread currency for decades. Also since James defined it, the more strongly connotes techniques of scientific experimentation. Folk psychology refers to the understanding of people, as contrasted with that of psychology professionals. The ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, historians note that Greek philosophers, including Thales, Plato, and Aristotle, addressed the workings of the mind. As early as the 4th century BC, Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders had physical rather than supernatural causes, in China, psychological understanding grew from the philosophical works of Laozi and Confucius, and later from the doctrines of Buddhism. This body of knowledge involves insights drawn from introspection and observation and it frames the universe as a division of, and interaction between, physical reality and mental reality, with an emphasis on purifying the mind in order to increase virtue and power. Chinese scholarship focused on the advanced in the Qing Dynasty with the work of Western-educated Fang Yizhi, Liu Zhi. Distinctions in types of awareness appear in the ancient thought of India, a central idea of the Upanishads is the distinction between a persons transient mundane self and their eternal unchanging soul. Divergent Hindu doctrines, and Buddhism, have challenged this hierarchy of selves, yoga is a range of techniques used in pursuit of this goal
Psychology
–
Wilhelm Wundt (seated) with colleagues in his psychological laboratory, the first of its kind.
Psychology
–
MRI depicting the human brain. The arrow indicates the position of the
hypothalamus.
Psychology
–
Skinner's
teaching machine, a mechanical invention to automate the task of
programmed instruction
Psychology
–
Social psychology studies the nature and causes of social behavior.
21.
Microelectromechanical systems
–
Microelectromechanical systems is the technology of microscopic devices, particularly those with moving parts. It merges at the nano-scale into nanoelectromechanical systems and nanotechnology, MEMS are also referred to as micromachines in Japan, or micro systems technology in Europe. They usually consist of a unit that processes data and several components that interact with the surroundings such as microsensors. MEMS technology is distinguished from molecular nanotechnology or molecular electronics in that the latter must also consider surface chemistry, the potential of very small machines was appreciated before the technology existed that could make them. MEMS became practical once they could be fabricated using modified semiconductor device fabrication technologies and these include molding and plating, wet etching and dry etching, electro discharge machining, and other technologies capable of manufacturing small devices. An early example of a MEMS device is the resonistor – an electromechanical monolithic resonator, silicon is the material used to create most integrated circuits used in consumer electronics in the modern industry. The economies of scale, ready availability of inexpensive high-quality materials, silicon also has significant advantages engendered through its material properties. In single crystal form, silicon is an almost perfect Hookean material, meaning that when it is flexed there is virtually no hysteresis and hence almost no energy dissipation. Even though the industry provides an economy of scale for the silicon industry, crystalline silicon is still a complex. Polymers on the hand can be produced in huge volumes. Metals can also be used to create MEMS elements, while metals do not have some of the advantages displayed by silicon in terms of mechanical properties, when used within their limitations, metals can exhibit very high degrees of reliability. Metals can be deposited by electroplating, evaporation, and sputtering processes, commonly used metals include gold, nickel, aluminium, copper, chromium, titanium, tungsten, platinum, and silver. The nitrides of silicon, aluminium and titanium as well as silicon carbide, alN crystallizes in the wurtzite structure and thus shows pyroelectric and piezoelectric properties enabling sensors, for instance, with sensitivity to normal and shear forces. TiN, on the hand, exhibits a high electrical conductivity. Moreover, the resistance of TiN against biocorrosion qualifies the material for applications in biogenic environments. One of the building blocks in MEMS processing is the ability to deposit thin films of material with a thickness anywhere between a few nanometres to about 100 micrometres. There are two types of processes, as follows. Physical vapor deposition consists of a process in which a material is removed from a target, chemical deposition techniques include chemical vapor deposition, in which a stream of source gas reacts on the substrate to grow the material desired
Microelectromechanical systems
–
Proposal submitted to
DARPA in 1986 first introducing the term "microelectromechanical systems"
Microelectromechanical systems
–
Microelectromechanical systems chip, sometimes called "lab on a chip"
Microelectromechanical systems
–
A
Texas Instruments DMD chip for cinema projection
22.
Cognitive science
–
Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary, scientific study of the mind and its processes. It examines the nature, the tasks, and the functions of cognition, Cognitive scientists study intelligence and behavior, with a focus on how nervous systems represent, process, and transform information. The typical analysis of cognitive science spans many levels of organization, from learning and decision to logic and planning, the fundamental concept of cognitive science is that thinking can best be understood in terms of representational structures in the mind and computational procedures that operate on those structures. The cognitive sciences began as a movement in the 1950s often referred to as the cognitive revolution. A central tenet of science is that a complete understanding of the mind/brain cannot be attained by studying only a single level. An example would be the problem of remembering a phone number, one approach to understanding this process would be to study behavior through direct observation, or naturalistic observation. A person could be presented with a number and be asked to recall it after some delay of time. Then, the accuracy of the response could be measured, another approach to measure cognitive ability would be to study the firings of individual neurons while a person is trying to remember the phone number. Neither of these experiments on its own would fully explain how the process of remembering a phone number works, thus, an understanding of how these two levels relate to each other is imperative. ”This can be provided by a functional level account of the process. Studying a particular phenomenon from multiple levels creates a better understanding of the processes that occur in the brain to give rise to a particular behavior, Cognitive scientists work collectively in hope of understanding the mind and its interactions with the surrounding world much like other sciences do. Similarly to the field of psychology, there is doubt whether there is a unified cognitive science. Many, but not all, who consider themselves cognitive scientists hold a functionalist view of the view that mental states and processes should be explained by their function - what they do. According to the multiple realizability account of functionalism, even non-human systems such as robots, the term cognitive in cognitive science is used for any kind of mental operation or structure that can be studied in precise terms. The earliest entries for the word cognitive in the OED take it to mean roughly pertaining to the action or process of knowing, the first entry, from 1586, shows the word was at one time used in the context of discussions of Platonic theories of knowledge. Most in cognitive science, however, presumably do not believe their field is the study of anything as certain as the knowledge sought by Plato, Cognitive science is a large field, and covers a wide array of topics on cognition. However, it should be recognized that science has not always been equally concerned with every topic that might bear relevance to the nature. Among philosophers, classical cognitivists have largely de-emphasized or avoided social and cultural factors, emotion, consciousness, animal cognition, however, with the decline of behaviorism, internal states such as affects and emotions, as well as awareness and covert attention became approachable again. For example, situated and embodied cognition theories take into account the current state of the environment as well as the role of the body in cognition
Cognitive science
–
Image of the human head with the brain. The arrow indicates the position of the
hypothalamus.
Cognitive science
–
Figure illustrating the fields that contributed to the birth of cognitive science, including
linguistics,
neuroscience,
artificial Intelligence,
philosophy,
anthropology, and
psychology.
23.
Supercomputer
–
A supercomputer is a computer with a high level of computing performance compared to a general-purpose computer. Performance of a supercomputer is measured in floating-point operations per second instead of instructions per second. As of 2015, there are supercomputers which can perform up to quadrillions of FLOPS and it tops the rankings in the TOP500 supercomputer list. Sunway TaihuLights emergence is also notable for its use of indigenous chips, as of June 2016, China, for the first time, had more computers on the TOP500 list than the United States. However, U. S. built computers held ten of the top 20 positions, in November 2016 the U. S. has five of the top 10, throughout their history, they have been essential in the field of cryptanalysis. The use of multi-core processors combined with centralization is an emerging trend, the history of supercomputing goes back to the 1960s, with the Atlas at the University of Manchester and a series of computers at Control Data Corporation, designed by Seymour Cray. These used innovative designs and parallelism to achieve superior computational peak performance, Cray left CDC in 1972 to form his own company, Cray Research. Four years after leaving CDC, Cray delivered the 80 MHz Cray 1 in 1976, the Cray-2 released in 1985 was an 8 processor liquid cooled computer and Fluorinert was pumped through it as it operated. It performed at 1.9 gigaflops and was the second fastest after M-13 supercomputer in Moscow. Fujitsus Numerical Wind Tunnel supercomputer used 166 vector processors to gain the top spot in 1994 with a speed of 1.7 gigaFLOPS per processor. The Hitachi SR2201 obtained a performance of 600 GFLOPS in 1996 by using 2048 processors connected via a fast three-dimensional crossbar network. The Intel Paragon could have 1000 to 4000 Intel i860 processors in various configurations, the Paragon was a MIMD machine which connected processors via a high speed two dimensional mesh, allowing processes to execute on separate nodes, communicating via the Message Passing Interface. Approaches to supercomputer architecture have taken dramatic turns since the earliest systems were introduced in the 1960s, early supercomputer architectures pioneered by Seymour Cray relied on compact innovative designs and local parallelism to achieve superior computational peak performance. However, in time the demand for increased computational power ushered in the age of massively parallel systems, supercomputers of the 21st century can use over 100,000 processors connected by fast connections. The Connection Machine CM-5 supercomputer is a parallel processing computer capable of many billions of arithmetic operations per second. Throughout the decades, the management of heat density has remained a key issue for most centralized supercomputers, the large amount of heat generated by a system may also have other effects, e. g. reducing the lifetime of other system components. There have been diverse approaches to management, from pumping Fluorinert through the system. Systems with a number of processors generally take one of two paths
Supercomputer
–
IBM 's
Blue Gene/P supercomputer at
Argonne National Laboratory runs over 250,000 processors using normal data center air conditioning, grouped in 72 racks/cabinets connected by a high-speed optical network
Supercomputer
–
A
Cray-1 preserved at the
Deutsches Museum
Supercomputer
–
A
Blue Gene /L cabinet showing the stacked
blades, each holding many processors
Supercomputer
–
An
IBM HS20 blade
24.
Red Storm (computing)
–
Red Storm is a supercomputer architecture designed for the US Department of Energy’s National Nuclear Security Administration Advanced Simulation and Computing Program. Cray, Inc developed it based on the contracted architectural specifications provided by Sandia National Laboratories, the architecture was later commercially produced as the Cray XT3. Red Storm is a partitioned, space shared, tightly coupled, the processors are commodity AMD Opteron CPUs with off-the-shelf memory DIMMs. The NIC/router combination, called SeaStar, is the only custom ASIC component in the system, when deployed in 2005, Red Storm’s initial configuration consisted of 10,880 single-core 2.0 GHz Opterons, of which 10,368 were dedicated for scientific calculations. The remaining 512 Opterons were used to service the computations and also provide the interface to the system. This initial installation consisted of 140 cabinets, taking up 280 square metres of floor space, the Red Storm supercomputer was designed to be highly scalable from a single cabinet to hundreds of cabinets and has been scaled-up twice. In 2006 the system was upgraded to 2.4 GHz Dual-Core Opterons, an additional fifth row of computer cabinets were also brought online resulting in over 26,000 processor cores. This resulted in a performance of 124.4 teraflops. A second major upgrade in 2008 introduced Cray XT4 technology, Quad-core Opteron processors and this resulted in a peak theoretical performance of 284 teraflops. Top 500 performance ranking for Red Storm after each upgrade, November 2005, Rank 6 November 2006, Rank 2 November 2008 and that is, a single application can be run on the entire system. This is in contrast to cluster-style capacity computing, in portions of a cluster are assigned to run different applications. The performance of the subsystem, the processor, and the network must be in proper balance to achieve adequate application progress across the entire machine. System software plays a key role as well, the compute processors use a custom lightweight kernel operating system named Catamount, which is based on the operating system of ASCI Red called Cougar. A userspace implementation of the Lustre file system, named liblustre, was ported to the Catamount environment using the library to provide POSIX-like semantics. Red Storm was decommissioned in 2012
Red Storm (computing)
–
Cray Research
25.
Z Pulsed Power Facility
–
Since its refurbishment in October 1996 it has been used primarily as an inertial confinement fusion research facility. Operated by Sandia National Laboratories, it gathers data to aid in computer modeling of nuclear weapons, the Z machine is located at Sandias main site in Albuquerque, New Mexico. The Z machine origins can be traced from the Department of Energy need to replicate in a lab environment the fusion reactions of a thermonuclear bomb, to better understand the physics involved. Since the 1970s the DoE had been looking into ways to generate electricity from fusion reactions, since at the time lasers were far from having the required power, the main approach considered was heavy ion fusion. However major advances such as Q-switching and mode-locking made lasers an option, in 1985, the review of DoEs program by the National Academies stated The energy crisis is dormant for the time being. Heavy ion fusion machines were tasked to help military research improve nuclear bombs, the first research at Sandia dates back from 1971 where Gerold Yonas initiated and directed the particle-beam fusion program. In 1985, the PBFA-II was created, Sandia continued to target heavy ion fusion at a slow pace despite the National Academies report. The November 1978 issue of Scientific American carried Yonas first general-public article, in 1996, the US Army published a report on the decommissioning of the Aurora Pulsed Radiation Simulator. This report is useful in understanding ties between nuclear arms testing and inertial fusion energy research, also in 1996, the PBFA-II machine was once again upgraded into PBFA-Z or simply Z machine, described for the first time to the general public on August 1998 in Scientific American. The Z machine uses the well known principle of Z-pinch where the fast discharge of capacitors in a tube causes its collapse towards its centerline, bennet successfully researched the application of Z-pinches to plasma compression. The Z machine layout is cylindrical, on the outside it houses huge capacitors discharging in Marx generators which discharge in about one microsecond. Yonas then uses a system to divide this time by a factor of 10, using the power of water. But this effort was not successful for Heavy Ion Fusion, by lack of sufficient focalization of the beams, despite the high power used. A Russian scientist, Valentin Smirnov, then had the idea of replacing the tube by an array, to fight the azimuthal flow of the current. The space inside the wire array was filled by polystyrene, which helps homogenise the X-ray flux, any country developing thermonuclear weapons has its own Z machine, but those not using water lines had long rising pulses. In the UK, the Magpie machine was situated at the Imperial College under Malcolm Haines, by removing the polystyrene core Sandia was able to obtain a thin one and a half millimetre plasma cord in which 10 million amperes flowed with 90 megabars of pressure. The key attributes of Sandia’s Z machine are its 18 million amperes, the array of tungsten wires is called a liner. In 1999, Sandia tested the idea of nested wire arrays, in 2001, Sandia introduced the Z-Beamlet laser as a tool to better image the compressing pellet
Z Pulsed Power Facility
26.
X-ray
–
X-radiation is a form of electromagnetic radiation. Most X-rays have a wavelength ranging from 0.01 to 10 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz, X-ray wavelengths are shorter than those of UV rays and typically longer than those of gamma rays. Spelling of X-ray in the English language includes the variants x-ray, xray, X-rays with high photon energies are called hard X-rays, while those with lower energy are called soft X-rays. Due to their ability, hard X-rays are widely used to image the inside of objects, e. g. in medical radiography. The term X-ray is metonymically used to refer to an image produced using this method. Since the wavelengths of hard X-rays are similar to the size of atoms they are useful for determining crystal structures by X-ray crystallography. By contrast, soft X-rays are easily absorbed in air, the length of 600 eV X-rays in water is less than 1 micrometer. There is no consensus for a definition distinguishing between X-rays and gamma rays, one common practice is to distinguish between the two types of radiation based on their source, X-rays are emitted by electrons, while gamma rays are emitted by the atomic nucleus. This definition has problems, other processes also can generate these high-energy photons. One common alternative is to distinguish X- and gamma radiation on the basis of wavelength, with radiation shorter than some arbitrary wavelength, such as 10−11 m and this criterion assigns a photon to an unambiguous category, but is only possible if wavelength is known. Occasionally, one term or the other is used in specific contexts due to precedent, based on measurement technique. Thus, gamma-rays generated for medical and industrial uses, for radiotherapy, in the ranges of 6–20 MeV. X-ray photons carry enough energy to ionize atoms and disrupt molecular bonds and this makes it a type of ionizing radiation, and therefore harmful to living tissue. A very high radiation dose over a period of time causes radiation sickness. In medical imaging this increased risk is generally greatly outweighed by the benefits of the examination. The ionizing capability of X-rays can be utilized in treatment to kill malignant cells using radiation therapy. It is also used for material characterization using X-ray spectroscopy, hard X-rays can traverse relatively thick objects without being much absorbed or scattered. For this reason, X-rays are widely used to image the inside of visually opaque objects, the most often seen applications are in medical radiography and airport security scanners, but similar techniques are also important in industry and research
X-ray
–
Spectrum of the X-rays emitted by an X-ray tube with a
rhodium target, operated at 60
kV. The smooth, continuous curve is due to
bremsstrahlung, and the spikes are
characteristic K lines for rhodium atoms.
X-ray
–
X-rays are part of the
electromagnetic spectrum, with wavelengths shorter than
visible light. Different applications use different parts of the X-ray spectrum.
X-ray
–
A
chest radiograph of a female, demonstrating a
hiatus hernia
X-ray
–
An arm radiograph, demonstrating broken
ulna and
radius with implanted
internal fixation.
27.
Temperature
–
A temperature is an objective comparative measurement of hot or cold. It is measured by a thermometer, several scales and units exist for measuring temperature, the most common being Celsius, Fahrenheit, and, especially in science, Kelvin. Absolute zero is denoted as 0 K on the Kelvin scale, −273.15 °C on the Celsius scale, the kinetic theory offers a valuable but limited account of the behavior of the materials of macroscopic bodies, especially of fluids. Temperature is important in all fields of science including physics, geology, chemistry, atmospheric sciences, medicine. The Celsius scale is used for temperature measurements in most of the world. Because of the 100 degree interval, it is called a centigrade scale.15, the United States commonly uses the Fahrenheit scale, on which water freezes at 32°F and boils at 212°F at sea-level atmospheric pressure. Many scientific measurements use the Kelvin temperature scale, named in honor of the Scottish physicist who first defined it and it is a thermodynamic or absolute temperature scale. Its zero point, 0K, is defined to coincide with the coldest physically-possible temperature and its degrees are defined through thermodynamics. The temperature of zero occurs at 0K = −273. 15°C. For historical reasons, the triple point temperature of water is fixed at 273.16 units of the measurement increment, Temperature is one of the principal quantities in the study of thermodynamics. There is a variety of kinds of temperature scale and it may be convenient to classify them as empirically and theoretically based. Empirical temperature scales are historically older, while theoretically based scales arose in the middle of the nineteenth century, empirically based temperature scales rely directly on measurements of simple physical properties of materials. For example, the length of a column of mercury, confined in a capillary tube, is dependent largely on temperature. Such scales are only within convenient ranges of temperature. For example, above the point of mercury, a mercury-in-glass thermometer is impracticable. A material is of no use as a thermometer near one of its phase-change temperatures, in spite of these restrictions, most generally used practical thermometers are of the empirically based kind. Especially, it was used for calorimetry, which contributed greatly to the discovery of thermodynamics, nevertheless, empirical thermometry has serious drawbacks when judged as a basis for theoretical physics. Theoretically based temperature scales are based directly on theoretical arguments, especially those of thermodynamics, kinetic theory and they rely on theoretical properties of idealized devices and materials
Temperature
–
Annual mean temperature around the world
Temperature
–
Body temperature variation
Temperature
–
A typical Celsius thermometer measures a winter day temperature of -17 °C.
Temperature
–
Plots of pressure vs temperature for three different gas samples extrapolated to absolute zero.
28.
Pressure
–
Pressure is the force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object per unit area over which that force is distributed. Gauge pressure is the relative to the ambient pressure. Various units are used to express pressure, Pressure may also be expressed in terms of standard atmospheric pressure, the atmosphere is equal to this pressure and the torr is defined as 1⁄760 of this. Manometric units such as the centimetre of water, millimetre of mercury, Pressure is the amount of force acting per unit area. The symbol for it is p or P, the IUPAC recommendation for pressure is a lower-case p. However, upper-case P is widely used. The usage of P vs p depends upon the field in one is working, on the nearby presence of other symbols for quantities such as power and momentum. Mathematically, p = F A where, p is the pressure, F is the normal force and it relates the vector surface element with the normal force acting on it. It is incorrect to say the pressure is directed in such or such direction, the pressure, as a scalar, has no direction. The force given by the relationship to the quantity has a direction. If we change the orientation of the element, the direction of the normal force changes accordingly. Pressure is distributed to solid boundaries or across arbitrary sections of normal to these boundaries or sections at every point. It is a parameter in thermodynamics, and it is conjugate to volume. The SI unit for pressure is the pascal, equal to one newton per square metre and this name for the unit was added in 1971, before that, pressure in SI was expressed simply in newtons per square metre. Other units of pressure, such as pounds per square inch, the CGS unit of pressure is the barye, equal to 1 dyn·cm−2 or 0.1 Pa. Pressure is sometimes expressed in grams-force or kilograms-force per square centimetre, but using the names kilogram, gram, kilogram-force, or gram-force as units of force is expressly forbidden in SI. The technical atmosphere is 1 kgf/cm2, since a system under pressure has potential to perform work on its surroundings, pressure is a measure of potential energy stored per unit volume. It is therefore related to density and may be expressed in units such as joules per cubic metre. Similar pressures are given in kilopascals in most other fields, where the prefix is rarely used
Pressure
–
Mercury column
Pressure
–
Pressure as exerted by particle collisions inside a closed container.
Pressure
–
The effects of an external pressure of 700bar on an aluminum cylinder with 5mm wall thickness
Pressure
–
low pressure chamber in
Bundesleistungszentrum Kienbaum, Germany
29.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
30.
Manhattan Project
–
The Manhattan Project was a research and development undertaking during World War II that produced the first nuclear weapons. It was led by the United States with the support of the United Kingdom, from 1942 to 1946, the project was under the direction of Major General Leslie Groves of the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. Nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer was the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory that designed the actual bombs, the Army component of the project was designated the Manhattan District, Manhattan gradually superseded the official codename, Development of Substitute Materials, for the entire project. Along the way, the project absorbed its earlier British counterpart, the Manhattan Project began modestly in 1939, but grew to employ more than 130,000 people and cost nearly US $2 billion. Over 90% of the cost was for building factories and to produce material, with less than 10% for development. Research and production took place at more than 30 sites across the United States, the United Kingdom, two types of atomic bombs were developed concurrently during the war, a relatively simple gun-type fission weapon and a more complex implosion-type nuclear weapon. Chemically identical to the most common isotope, uranium-238, and with almost the same mass, three methods were employed for uranium enrichment, electromagnetic, gaseous and thermal. Most of this work was performed at the Clinton Engineer Works at Oak Ridge, in parallel with the work on uranium was an effort to produce plutonium. The plutonium was then separated from the uranium. The Fat Man implosion-type weapon was developed in a concerted design, the project was also charged with gathering intelligence on the German nuclear weapon project. Through Operation Alsos, Manhattan Project personnel served in Europe, sometimes behind enemy lines, where they gathered nuclear materials and documents, despite the Manhattan Projects tight security, Soviet atomic spies still penetrated the program. The first nuclear device ever detonated was a bomb at the Trinity test, conducted at New Mexicos Alamogordo Bombing. Little Boy and Fat Man bombs were used a later in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It maintained control over American atomic weapons research and production until the formation of the United States Atomic Energy Commission in January 1947, there were fears that a German atomic bomb project would develop one first, especially among scientists who were refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries. In August 1939, Hungarian-born physicists Leó Szilárd and Eugene Wigner drafted the Einstein–Szilárd letter and it urged the United States to take steps to acquire stockpiles of uranium ore and accelerate the research of Enrico Fermi and others into nuclear chain reactions. They had it signed by Albert Einstein and delivered to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Roosevelt called on Lyman Briggs of the National Bureau of Standards to head the Advisory Committee on Uranium to investigate the issues raised by the letter. Briggs held a meeting on 21 October 1939, which was attended by Szilárd, Wigner, the committee reported back to Roosevelt in November that uranium would provide a possible source of bombs with a destructiveness vastly greater than anything now known. The Advisory Committee on Uranium became the National Defense Research Committee Committee on Uranium when that organization was formed on 27 June 1940, Briggs proposed that the spend $167,000 on research into uranium, particularly the uranium-235 isotope, and the recently discovered plutonium
Manhattan Project
–
The Manhattan Project created the first
nuclear bombs. The
Trinity test is shown.
Manhattan Project
–
A 1940 meeting at Berkeley with (from left to right)
Ernest O. Lawrence,
Arthur H. Compton,
Vannevar Bush,
James B. Conant,
Karl T. Compton, and
Alfred L. Loomis
Manhattan Project
–
J. Robert Oppenheimer and
Leslie Groves at remains of the
Trinity test in September 1945. The white overshoes prevent fallout from sticking to the soles of their shoes.
Manhattan Project
–
Groves confers with
James Chadwick, the head of the British Mission
