1.
Spanish naming customs
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Spanish naming customs are historical traditions for naming children practised in Spain. According to these customs, a persons name consists of a name followed by two family names. The first surname is usually the fathers first surname, and the second the mothers first surname, in recent years, the order of the surnames can be reversed at birth if it is so decided by the parents. Currently in Spain, people bear a single or composite given name, a composite given name comprises two single names, for example Juan Pablo is considered not to be a first and a second forename, but a single composite forename. The two surnames refer to each of the parental families, traditionally, a persons first surname is the fathers first surname, and the second one is the mothers first surname. From 2013, if the parents of a child are unable to agree on order of surnames, the law also grants a person the option, upon reaching adulthood, of reversing the order of their surnames. Each surname can also be composite, the parts usually linked by the y or e. For example, a name might be Juan Pablo Fernández de Calderón García-Iglesias, consisting of a forename, a paternal surname. There are times when it is impossible, by inspection of a name, for example, the writer Sebastià Juan Arbó was alphabetised by the Library of Congress for many years under Arbó, assuming that Sebastiá and Juan were both given names. However, Juan was actually his first surname, to resolve questions like this, which typically involve very common names, one must consult the person involved, or legal documents. A man named José Antonio Gómez Iglesias would normally be addressed as either señor Gómez or señor Gómez Iglesias instead of señor Iglesias, because Gómez is his first surname. Furthermore, Mr. Gómez might be addressed as José Antonio, José, Pepe, Antonio, or Toño Jose, Joselito, Josito, Joselillo, Josico or Joselín, Antoñito, Tonín or Nono. Very formally, he could be addressed with an honorific as don José Antonio or don José, colombian writer Gabriel García Márquez is sometimes incorrectly referred to in English media as Mr. Márquez, when it should be Mr. García Márquez or, simply, Mr. García. It is not unusual, when the first surname is very common, for example, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero is often called simply Zapatero, the name he inherited from his mothers family, since Rodríguez is a common surname and may be ambiguous. The same occurs with another former Spanish Socialist leader, Alfredo Pérez Rubalcaba, with the poet and dramatist Federico García Lorca, as these peoples paternal names are very common, they are often called with their maternal names. It would nonetheless be a mistake to index José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero under Z as Zapatero, a practical option to spare an explanation is using a single surname composed of two separate words. Parents choose their childs name, which must be recorded in the Registro Civil to establish his or her legal identity. With few restrictions, parents can now choose any name, common sources of names are the parents taste, honouring a relative, the General Roman Calendar nomina, legislation in Spain under Franco legally limited cultural naming customs to only Christian and typical Spanish names
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Navarre
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The first documented use of a name resembling Navarra, Nafarroa, or Naparroa is a reference to navarros, in Eginhards early 9th Century chronicle of the feats of the Holy Roman Emperor Charlemagne. Other Royal Frankish Annals feature nabarros, there are two proposed etymologies for the name. Basque nabar, brownish, multicolor (i. e. in contrast to the mountainous lands north of the original County of Navarre. Basque naba, valley, plain + Basque herri, the linguist Joan Coromines considers naba to be linguistically part of a wider Vasconic or Aquitanian language substrate, rather than Basque per se. During the Roman Empire, the Vascones, a tribe who populated the southern slopes of the Pyrenees. In the mountainous north, the Vascones escaped large-scale Roman settlement, not so the flatter areas to the south, which were amenable to large-scale Roman farming—vineyards, olives, and wheat crops. Neither the Visigoths nor the Franks ever completely subjugated the area, the Vascones included neighbouring tribes as of the 7th century. In AD778, the Basques defeated a Frankish army at the Battle of Roncevaux Pass and that kingdom reached its zenith during the reign of King Sancho III, comprising most of the Christian realms to the south of the Pyrenees, and even a short overlordship of Gascony. When Sancho III died in 1035, the Kingdom of Navarre was divided between his sons and it never fully recovered its political power, while its commercial importance increased as traders and pilgrims poured into the kingdom throughout the Way of Saint James. In 1200, Navarre lost the key western Basque districts to Alphonse VIII of Castile, Navarre then contributed with a small but symbolic force of 200 knights to the decisive Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212 against the Almohads. The native line of kings came to an end in 1234, however, the Navarrese kept most of their strong laws and institutions. To the south of the Pyrenees, Navarre was annexed to the Crown of Castile, but keeping a separate status. A Chartered Government was established, and the managed to keep home rule. After the 1839 Convention of Bergara, a version of home rule was passed in 1839. The relocation of customs from the Ebro river to the Pyrenees in 1841 prompted the collapse of Navarre’s customary cross-Pyrenean trade, amid instability in Spain, Carlists took over in Navarre and the rest of the Basque provinces. The end of the Third Carlist War saw a wave of Spanish centralization directly affecting Navarre. In 1893-1894 the Gamazada popular uprising took place centred in Pamplona against Madrids governmental decisions breaching the 1841 chartered provisions. Except for a faction, all parties in Navarre agreed on the need for a new political framework based on home rule within the Laurak Bat
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Madrid
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Madrid is the capital city of the Kingdom of Spain and the largest municipality in both the Community of Madrid and Spain as a whole. The city has a population of almost 3.2 million with an area population of approximately 6.5 million. It is the third-largest city in the European Union after London and Berlin, the municipality itself covers an area of 604.3 km2. Madrid lies on the River Manzanares in the centre of both the country and the Community of Madrid, this community is bordered by the communities of Castile and León. As the capital city of Spain, seat of government, and residence of the Spanish monarch, Madrid is also the political, economic, the current mayor is Manuela Carmena from Ahora Madrid. Madrid is home to two football clubs, Real Madrid and Atlético de Madrid. Madrid is the 17th most liveable city in the according to Monocle magazine. Madrid organises fairs such as FITUR, ARCO, SIMO TCI, while Madrid possesses modern infrastructure, it has preserved the look and feel of many of its historic neighbourhoods and streets. Cibeles Palace and Fountain have become one of the monument symbols of the city, the first documented reference of the city originates in Andalusan times as the Arabic مجريط Majrīṭ, which was retained in Medieval Spanish as Magerit. A wider number of theories have been formulated on possible earlier origins, according to legend, Madrid was founded by Ocno Bianor and was named Metragirta or Mantua Carpetana. The most ancient recorded name of the city Magerit comes from the name of a built on the Manzanares River in the 9th century AD. Nevertheless, it is speculated that the origin of the current name of the city comes from the 2nd century BC. The Roman Empire established a settlement on the banks of the Manzanares river, the name of this first village was Matrice. In the 8th century, the Islamic conquest of the Iberian Peninsula saw the changed to Mayrit, from the Arabic term ميرا Mayra. The modern Madrid evolved from the Mozarabic Matrit, which is still in the Madrilenian gentilic, after the disintegration of the Caliphate of Córdoba, Madrid was integrated in the Taifa of Toledo. With the surrender of Toledo to Alfonso VI of León and Castile, the city was conquered by Christians in 1085, Christians replaced Muslims in the occupation of the centre of the city, while Muslims and Jews settled in the suburbs. The city was thriving and was given the title of Villa, since 1188, Madrid won the right to be a city with representation in the courts of Castile. In 1202, King Alfonso VIII of Castile gave Madrid its first charter to regulate the municipal council, which was expanded in 1222 by Ferdinand III of Castile
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Neuroscience
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Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary, scientific study of the mind and its processes. It examines the nature, the tasks, and the functions of cognition, Cognitive scientists study intelligence and behavior, with a focus on how nervous systems represent, process, and transform information. The typical analysis of cognitive science spans many levels of organization, from learning and decision to logic and planning, the fundamental concept of cognitive science is that thinking can best be understood in terms of representational structures in the mind and computational procedures that operate on those structures. The cognitive sciences began as a movement in the 1950s often referred to as the cognitive revolution. A central tenet of science is that a complete understanding of the mind/brain cannot be attained by studying only a single level. An example would be the problem of remembering a phone number, one approach to understanding this process would be to study behavior through direct observation, or naturalistic observation. A person could be presented with a number and be asked to recall it after some delay of time. Then, the accuracy of the response could be measured, another approach to measure cognitive ability would be to study the firings of individual neurons while a person is trying to remember the phone number. Neither of these experiments on its own would fully explain how the process of remembering a phone number works, thus, an understanding of how these two levels relate to each other is imperative. ”This can be provided by a functional level account of the process. Studying a particular phenomenon from multiple levels creates a better understanding of the processes that occur in the brain to give rise to a particular behavior, Cognitive scientists work collectively in hope of understanding the mind and its interactions with the surrounding world much like other sciences do. Similarly to the field of psychology, there is doubt whether there is a unified cognitive science. Many, but not all, who consider themselves cognitive scientists hold a functionalist view of the view that mental states and processes should be explained by their function - what they do. According to the multiple realizability account of functionalism, even non-human systems such as robots, the term cognitive in cognitive science is used for any kind of mental operation or structure that can be studied in precise terms. The earliest entries for the word cognitive in the OED take it to mean roughly pertaining to the action or process of knowing, the first entry, from 1586, shows the word was at one time used in the context of discussions of Platonic theories of knowledge. Most in cognitive science, however, presumably do not believe their field is the study of anything as certain as the knowledge sought by Plato, Cognitive science is a large field, and covers a wide array of topics on cognition. However, it should be recognized that science has not always been equally concerned with every topic that might bear relevance to the nature. Among philosophers, classical cognitivists have largely de-emphasized or avoided social and cultural factors, emotion, consciousness, animal cognition, however, with the decline of behaviorism, internal states such as affects and emotions, as well as awareness and covert attention became approachable again. For example, situated and embodied cognition theories take into account the current state of the environment as well as the role of the body in cognition
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Pathology
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Pathology is a significant component of the causal study of disease and a major field in modern medicine and diagnosis. Similarly, a condition is one caused by disease, rather than occurring physiologically. A physician practicing pathology is called a pathologist, as a field of general inquiry and research, pathology addresses four components of disease, cause, mechanisms of development, structural alterations of cells, and the consequences of changes. Further divisions in specialty exist on the basis of the involved sample types, organs, the sense of the word pathology as a synonym of disease or pathosis is very common in health care. The persistence of this usage despite attempted proscription is discussed elsewhere, the study of pathology, including the detailed examination of the body, including dissection and inquiry into specific maladies, dates back to antiquity. Notably, many advances were made in the era of Islam, during which numerous texts of complex pathologies were developed. By the 17th century, the study of microscopy was underway and examination of tissues had led British Royal Society member Robert Hooke to coin the word cell, setting the stage for later germ theory. However, pathology as an area of specialty was not fully developed until the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This realization led to the understanding that diseases are able to replicate themselves. To determine causes of diseases, medical experts used the most common and widely accepted assumptions or symptoms of their times, by the late 1920s to early 1930s pathology was deemed a medical specialty. The modern practice of pathology is divided into a number of subdisciplines within the discrete but deeply interconnected aims of biological research, anatomical pathology is itself divided into subfields, the main divisions being surgical pathology, cytopathology, and forensic pathology. Sometimes, pathologists practice both anatomical and clinical pathology, a known as general pathology. Cytopathology is a branch of pathology that studies and diagnoses diseases on the cellular level, however, cytology samples may be prepared in other ways, including cytocentrifugation. Dermatopathology is a subspecialty of pathology that focuses on the skin. It is unique, in there are two paths a physician can take to obtain the specialization. The completion of this allows one to take a subspecialty board examination. Dermatologists are able to recognize most skin diseases based on their appearances, anatomic distributions, sometimes, however, those criteria do not lead to a conclusive diagnosis, and a skin biopsy is taken to be examined under the microscope using usual histological tests. One of the greatest challenges of dermatopathology is its scope, more than 1500 different disorders of the skin exist, including cutaneous eruptions and neoplasms
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Neuroanatomy
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Neuroanatomy is the study of the anatomy and stereotyped organization of nervous systems. In contrast to animals with radial symmetry, whose nervous system consists of a network of cells, animals with bilateral symmetry have segregated, defined nervous systems. Their neuroanatomy is therefore better understood, in vertebrates, the nervous system is segregated into the internal structure of the brain and spinal cord and the routes of the nerves that connect to the rest of the body. The delineation of distinct structures and regions of the system has been critical in investigating how it works. For example, much of what neuroscientists have learned comes from observing how damage or lesions to specific brain areas affects behavior or other neural functions, for information about the composition of animal nervous systems, see nervous system. For information about the structure of the human nervous system. This article discusses information pertinent to the study of neuroanatomy, the first known written record of a study of the anatomy of the human brain is the ancient Egyptian document the Edwin Smith Papyrus. The next major development in neuroanatomy came from the Greek Alcmaeon, who determined that the brain and not the heart ruled the body, herophilus and Erasistratus of Alexandria were perhaps the most influential Greek neuroscientists with their studies involving dissecting the brains. For several hundred years afterward, with the taboo of dissection. However, Pope Sixtus IV effectively revitalized the study of neuroanatomy by altering the papal policy and this resulted in a boom of research in neuroanatomy by artists and scientists of the Renaissance. In 1664, Thomas Willis, a physician and professor at Oxford University, the subsequent three hundred and fifty some years has produced a great deal of documentation and study of the neural systems. At the tissue level, the system is composed of neurons, glial cells. Both neurons and glial cells come in many types, glial cells maintain homeostasis, produce myelin, and provide support and protection for the brains neurons. Some glial cells can even propagate intercellular calcium waves over distances in response to stimulation. The extracellular matrix also provides support on the level for the brains cells. At the organ level, the system is composed of brain regions. These regions are often modular and serve a role within the general pathways of the nervous system. For example, the hippocampus is critical for forming memories, the nervous system also contains nerves, which are bundles of fibers that originate from the brain and spinal cord, and branch repeatedly to innervate every part of the body
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Histology
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Histology is the study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues of plants and animals. It is commonly performed by examining cells and tissues under a microscope or electron microscope, the specimen having been sectioned, stained. Histological studies may be conducted using tissue culture, where human or animal cells are isolated and maintained in an artificial environment for various research projects. The ability to visualize or differentially identify microscopic structures is frequently enhanced through the use of histological stains, histology is an essential tool of biology and medicine. Trained physicians, frequently licensed pathologists, are the personnel who perform histopathological examination and their field of study is called histotechnology. In the 17th century, Italian Marcello Malpighi invented one of the first microscopes for studying tiny biological entities, Malpighi analysed several parts of the organs of bats, frogs and other animals under the microscope. Malpighi, while studying the structure of the lung, noticed its membranous alveoli and his discovery established how the oxygen we breathe enters the blood stream and serves the body. In the 19th century, histology was a discipline in its own right. The French anatomist Bichat introduced the concept of tissue in anatomy in 1801, the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to histologists Camillo Golgi and Santiago Ramon y Cajal. They had dueling interpretations of the structure of the brain based in differing interpretations of the same images. Cajal won the prize for his theory and Golgi for the staining technique he invented to make it possible. There are four types of animal tissues, muscle tissue, nervous tissue, connective tissue. All tissue types are subtypes of these four basic tissue types and their structure is very different from animal tissues. The most common fixative for light microscopy is 10% neutral buffered formalin, for electron microscopy, the most commonly used fixative is glutaraldehyde, usually as a 2. 5% solution in phosphate buffered saline. These fixatives preserve tissues or cells mainly by irreversibly cross-linking proteins and this can be detrimental to certain histological techniques. Further fixatives are often used for electron microscopy such as osmium tetroxide or uranyl acetate Formalin fixation leads to degradation of mRNA, miRNA and DNA in tissues, however, extraction, amplification and analysis of these nucleic acids from formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissues is possible using appropriate protocols. Frozen section procedure is a way to fix and mount histology sections using a refrigeration device called a cryostat. It is often used after surgical removal of tumors to allow determination of margin
8.
Camillo Golgi
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Camillo Golgi was an Italian physician, biologist, pathologist, scientist, and Nobel laureate. Several structures and phenomena in anatomy and physiology are named for him, including the Golgi apparatus, the Golgi tendon organ and he is recognized as the greatest neuroscientist and biologist of his time. Camillo Golgi was born in July 1843 in the village of Corteno, in the province of Brescia, the village is now named Corteno Golgi in his honour. His father was a physician and district medical officer, Golgi studied at the University of Pavia, where he worked in the experimental pathology laboratory under Giulio Bizzozero, who elucidated the properties of bone marrow. He spent much of his studying the central nervous system. Tissue staining techniques in the half of the 19th century were inadequate for studying nervous tissue. While working as medical officer in a psychiatric hospital, he experimented with metal impregnation of nervous tissue. He discovered a method of staining nervous tissue that would stain a limited number of cells at random in their entirety and this enabled him to view the paths of nerve cells in the brain for the first time. He called his discovery the black reaction, which received his name. The reason for the staining is still not understood. The black reaction consisted in fixing silver chromate particles to the neurilemma by reacting silver nitrate with potassium dichromate. This resulted in a black deposit on the soma as well as on the axon and all dendrites, providing an exceedingly clear. The ability to visualize separate neurons led to the acceptance of the neuron doctrine. However, Golgi himself was led to a conviction that nervous system is a network, not of separate cells. He supported this theory even in his Nobel lecture. In addition to this discovery, Golgi discovered a tendon sensory organ that bears his name, using his staining technique, Golgi identified the intracellular reticular apparatus in 1898 which bears his name, the Golgi apparatus. In renal physiology Golgi is renowned for being the first to show that the distal tubulus of the returns to its originating glomerulus. Golgi, together with Santiago Ramón y Cajal, received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1906 for his studies of the structure of the nervous system, in 1900 he was named senator by King Umberto I
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Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
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The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, administered by the Nobel Foundation, is awarded once a year for outstanding discoveries in the fields of life sciences and medicine. It is one of five Nobel Prizes established in 1895 by Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel, Nobel was personally interested in experimental physiology and wanted to establish a prize for progress through scientific discoveries in laboratories. The Nobel Prize is presented to the recipient at a ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobels death, along with a diploma. The front side of the medal provides the profile of Alfred Nobel as depicted on the medals for Physics, Chemistry. As of 2015,106 Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine have been awarded to 198 men and 12 women. The first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded in 1901 to the German physiologist Emil von Behring, for his work on serum therapy and this includes one to António Egas Moniz in 1949 for the prefrontal leucotomy, bestowed despite protests from the medical establishment. Other controversies resulted from disagreements over who was included in the award, the 1952 prize to Selman Waksman was litigated in court, and half the patent rights awarded to his co-discoverer Albert Schatz who was not recognized by the prize. The 1962 prize awarded to James D, since the Nobel Prize rules forbid nominations of the deceased, longevity is an asset, one prize being awarded as long as 50 years after the discovery. Alfred Nobel was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden into a family of engineers and he was a chemist, engineer and inventor who amassed a fortune during his lifetime, most of it from his 355 inventions of which dynamite is the most famous. He was interested in experimental physiology and set up his own labs in France, in 1888, Nobel was surprised to read his own obituary, titled The merchant of death is dead, in a French newspaper. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died at the age of 63, because his will was contested, it was not approved by the Storting until 26 April 1897. After Nobels death, the Nobel Foundation was set up to manage the assets of the bequest, in 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by Swedish King Oscar II. According to Nobels will, the Karolinska Institutet in Sweden, a medical school, today, the prize is commonly referred to as the Nobel Prize in Medicine. It was important to Nobel that the prize be awarded for a discovery, per the provisions of the will, only select persons are eligible to nominate individuals for the award. Past Nobel laureates may also nominate, until 1977, all professors of Karolinska Institutet together decided on the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Therefore, the Nobel Assembly was constituted, consisting of 50 professors at Karolinska Institutet. It elects the Nobel Committee with 5 members who evaluate the nominees, the Secretary who is in charge of the organization, in 1968, a provision was added that no more than three persons may share a Nobel prize. True to its mandate, the Committee has selected researchers working in the sciences over those who have made applied contributions
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Authoritarianism
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Authoritarianism is a form of government characterized by strong central power and limited political freedoms. Individual freedoms are subordinate to the state and there is no constitutional accountability under an authoritarian regime, modern dictatorships use an authoritarian concept to form a government. Linz distinguished new forms of authoritarianism from personalistic dictatorships and totalitarian states, several subtypes of authoritarian regimes have been identified by Linz and others. Bureaucratic-military authoritarian regimes are those governed by a coalition of military officers, mark J. Linz also has identified three other subtypes of authoritarian regime, corporatist or organic-statistic, racial and ethnic democracy and post-totalitarian. Examples include the Soviet Eastern bloc states in the mid-1980s, authoritarian regimes are also sometimes subcategorized by whether they are personalistic or populist. Personalistic authoritarian regimes are characterized by arbitrary rule and authority exercised mainly through patronage networks and coercion rather than through institutitions, personalistic authoritarian regimes have been seen in post-colonial Africa. By contrast, populist authoritarian regimes are mobilizational regimes in which a strong, charismatic, examples include Argentina under Perón, Egypt under Nasser, and Venezuela under Chávez and Maduro. Authoritarianism is characterized by highly concentrated and centralized power maintained by political repression and it uses political parties and mass organizations to mobilize people around the goals of the regime. Adam Przeworski has theorized that authoritarian equilibrium rests mainly on lies, fear, authoritarian political systems may be weakened through inadequate performance to demands of the people. Because the legitimacy of the state is dependent on performance, authoritarian states that fail to adapt may collapse, authoritarianism is marked by indefinite political tenure of the ruler or ruling party or other authority. The transition from a system to a more democratic form of government is referred to as democratization. John Duckitt suggests a link between authoritarianism and collectivism, asserting that both stand in opposition to individualism, Duckitt writes that both authoritarianism and collectivism submerge individual rights and goals to group goals, expectations and conformities. Totalitarianism is a version of authoritarianism. Authoritarianism primarily differs from totalitarianism in that social and economic institutions exist that are not under governmental control, building on the work of Yale political scientist Juan Linz, Paul C. Concomitant role conceptions differentiate totalitarians from authoritarians, authoritarians view themselves as individual beings largely content to control, and often maintain, the status quo. The tyrant is less a person than a function to guide. Consequently, the utilisation of power for personal aggrandizement is more evident among authoritarians than totalitarians, lacking the binding appeal of ideology, authoritarians support their rule by a mixture of instilling fear and granting rewards to loyal collaborators, engendering a kleptocracy. Compared to totalitarianism, the state still maintains a certain distinction between state and society
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Ten Years' War
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The Ten Years War, also known as the Great War and the War of 68, was part of Cubas fight for independence from Spain. The uprising was led by Cuban-born planters and other wealthy natives, on October 10,1868 sugar mill owner Carlos Manuel de Céspedes and his followers proclaimed independence, beginning the conflict. This was the first of three wars that Cuba fought against Spain, the other two being the Little War and the Cuban War of Independence. The final three months of the last conflict escalated with United States involvement and has become known also as the Spanish–American War, throughout the 1850s and into the 1860s, Cuban planters and business owners demanded fundamental social and economic reforms from Spain, which ruled the colony. Lax enforcement of the trade ban had resulted in a dramatic increase in imports of Africans. This occurred despite a strong abolitionist movement on the island, new technologies and farming techniques made large numbers of slaves unnecessary and prohibitively expensive. In the economic crisis of 1857 many businesses failed, including many sugar plantations, the abolitionist cause gained strength, favoring a gradual emancipation of slaves with financial compensation from Spain for slaveholders. Additionally, some planters preferred hiring Chinese immigrants as indentured workers, before the 1870s, more than 125,000 were recruited to Cuba. The Spanish Parliament at the time was changing, gaining much influence were reactionary, the power of military tribunals was increased, the colonial government imposed a six percent tax increase on the Cuban planters and businesses. Additionally, all opposition and the press were silenced. Dissatisfaction in Cuba spread on a scale as the mechanisms to express it were restricted. This discontent was particularly felt by the planters and hacienda owners in Eastern Cuba. The failure of the latest efforts by the reformist movements, the demise of the Information Board, the colonial administration continued to make huge profits which were not re-invested in the island for the benefit of its residents. It funded military expenditures, colonial governments expenses, and sent some money to the Spanish colony of Fernando Po, the Spaniards, representing 8% of the islands population, were appropriating over 90% of the island’s wealth. In addition, the Cuban-born population still had no political rights, objections to these conditions sparked the first serious independence movement, especially in the eastern part of the island. In July 1867, the Revolutionary Committee of Bayamo was founded under the leadership of Cuba’s wealthiest plantation owner, the conspiracy rapidly spread to Oriente’s larger towns, most of all Manzanillo, where Carlos Manuel de Céspedes became the main protagonist of the uprising in 1868. Originally from Bayamo, Céspedes owned an estate and sugar known as La Demajagua. The Spanish, aware of Céspedes’ anti-colonial intransigence, tried to force him into submission by imprisoning his son Oscar, Céspedes refused to negotiate and Oscar was executed
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Cuba
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Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, is a country comprising the island of Cuba as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located in the northern Caribbean where the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and it is south of both the U. S. state of Florida and the Bahamas, west of Haiti, and north of Jamaica. Havana is the largest city and capital, other cities include Santiago de Cuba. Cuba is the largest island in the Caribbean, with an area of 109,884 square kilometres, prior to Spanish colonization in the late 15th century, Cuba was inhabited by Amerindian tribes. It remained a colony of Spain until the Spanish–American War of 1898, as a fragile republic, Cuba attempted to strengthen its democratic system, but mounting political radicalization and social strife culminated in the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista in 1952. Further unrest and instability led to Batistas ousting in January 1959 by the July 26 Movement, since 1965, the state has been governed by the Communist Party of Cuba. A point of contention during the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, a nuclear war broke out during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. Culturally, Cuba is considered part of Latin America, Cuba is a Marxist–Leninist one-party republic, where the role of the vanguard Communist Party is enshrined in the Constitution. Independent observers have accused the Cuban government of human rights abuses. It is one of the worlds last planned economies and its economy is dominated by the exports of sugar, tobacco, coffee, according to the Human Development Index, Cuba is described as a country with high human development and is ranked the eighth highest in North America. It also ranks highly in some metrics of national performance, including health care, the name Cuba comes from the Taíno language. The exact meaning of the name is unclear but it may be translated either as where fertile land is abundant, authors who believe that Christopher Columbus was Portuguese state that Cuba was named by Columbus for the town of Cuba in the district of Beja in Portugal. Before the arrival of the Spanish, Cuba was inhabited by three distinct tribes of indigenous peoples of the Americas, the Taíno, the Guanajatabey, and the Ciboney people. The ancestors of the Ciboney migrated from the mainland of South America, the Taíno arrived from Hispanola sometime in the 3rd century A. D. When Columbus arrived they were the dominant culture in Cuba, having a population of 150,000. The name Cuba comes from the native Taíno language and it is derived from either coabana meaning great place, or from cubao meaning where fertile land is abundant. The Taíno were farmers, while the Ciboney were farmers as well as fishers and hunter-gatherers, Columbus claimed the island for the new Kingdom of Spain and named it Isla Juana after Juan, Prince of Asturias. In 1511, the first Spanish settlement was founded by Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar at Baracoa, other towns soon followed, including San Cristobal de la Habana, founded in 1515, which later became the capital
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University of Zaragoza
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The University of Zaragoza, sometimes referred to as Saragossa University is a university located in Zaragoza, in the Aragon region of Spain. Founded in 1542, it is one of the oldest universities in Spain, the university has over 40,000 students in its 22 faculties. The university is the public university in the region. Its activity is spread along the three provinces of Aragon, with teaching campuses and research centres in Huesca, Teruel and Zaragoza, the University of Zaragoza began with what were known as the Ecclesiastical Schools. These schools were consolidated into the School of Zaragoza, led by Bishop Braulio during the 7th century. References from 1335 indicate there was a School of Arts, between 1474 and 1476 the School of Arts earned the category of General School of Arts before officially becoming a university in 1542. Coinciding with the introduction of the press, evidence of an interest in knowledge. Thus the capital of the Kingdom of Aragon could now grant the degree of “Bachiller” in Arts, in 1477, the Rector Pedro de la Cabra and a representative of the town council prepared its first bylaws. It is said that two worlds existed then, the rural and the urban, from a qualitative perspective, neither should the important contribution of Catalonian and Genovese merchants to the area’s economy be overlooked. The members of the city council of Zaragoza, Martin de Alberuela, Juan de Paternoy and Miguel Frances, but greater determination and resources were still needed. It would have to wait to obtain funds from the city government and it provided financing for the chairs of Theology in 1500 and Poetry and Rhetoric in 1503, and also to the School itself, which with money from students hired a part-time professor in 1509. Thus, in the year 1542 the University of Zaragoza was granted the authority to take the giant step to become what we today call University, academic staff at the University of Zaragoza are highly specialised and have a broad research and teaching experience. The University, with a total of about 40.000 students, is composed by a staff of about 3.000 with different positions. It is distributed in campuses located in Zaragoza, Huesca and Teruel, the University of Zaragoza campuses are located in the autonomous Community of Aragon in Spain. The community is made up of three provinces, Zaragoza, Huesca, and Teruel, the original campus resides in Zaragoza, the capital of Aragon, but additional campuses were created in both Huesca and Teruel in 1985. The Zaragoza campus is divided into five different locations throughout the city, Campus Plaza San Francisco is the largest of the five locations and is home to a majority of the university colleges and departments in Zaragoza. The other four locations, Campus Rio Ebro, Escuela Universitaria de Turismo, Plaza de Basilio, the Paraninfo building, located on the San Francisco campus, is one of the most valuable and significant buildings owned by the entire university. Originally inaugurated in 1893, the building was scheduled for restoration in 2006, the project inauguration was attended by the King of Spain, the president of the Government of Aragon and other important figures
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Officer (armed forces)
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An officer is a member of an armed force or uniformed service who holds a position of authority. In this sense, officers are not enlisted, but hold appointments from their government that typically remain in force indefinitely unless resigned, the proportion of officers varies greatly. Officers typically make up between an eighth and a fifth of modern armed forces personnel, in 2013, officers were the senior 17% of the British armed forces, and the senior 13. 7% of the French armed forces. In 2012, officers made up about 18% of the German armed forces, historically, however, armed forces have generally had much lower proportions of officers. During the First World War, fewer than 5% of British soldiers were officers, in the early twentieth century, the Spanish army had the highest proportion of officers of any European army, at 12. 5%. Within a nations armed forces, armies tend to have a proportion of officers. For example,13. 9% of British army personnel and 22. 2% of the RAF personnel were officers in 2013, having officers is one requirement for combatant status under the laws of war, though these officers need not have obtained an official commission or warrant. Commissioned officers are typically the only persons, in an armed forces environment, a superior officer is an officer with a higher rank than another officer, who is a subordinate officer relative to the superior. Non-commissioned officers in positions of authority can be said to have control or charge rather than command per se, many advanced militaries require university degrees as a prerequisite for commissioning, even from the enlisted ranks. In the Israel Defense Forces, a university degree is a requirement for an officer to advance to the rank of lieutenant colonel, the IDF often sponsors the studies for its majors, while aircrew and naval officers obtain academic degrees as a part of their training programmes. In the United Kingdom, there are three routes of entry for British Armed Forces officers, the first, and primary route are those who receive their commission directly into the officer grades following completion at their relevant military academy. The third route is similar to the second, in that they convert from an enlisted to a commission, but these are taken from the highest ranks of SNCOs. LE officers, whilst holding the same Queens Commission, generally work in different roles from the DE officers, in the infantry, a number of Warrant Officer Class 1s are commissioned as LE officers. For Royal Navy and Royal Air Force officer candidates, a 30-week period at Britannia Royal Naval College or a 30-week period at RAF College Cranwell, Royal Marines officers receive their training in the Command Wing of the Commando Training Centre Royal Marines during a grueling 15-month course. The courses consist of not only tactical and combat training, but also leadership, management, etiquette, until the Cardwell Reforms of 1871, commissions in the British Army were purchased by officers. The Royal Navy, however, operated on a more meritocratic, or at least socially mobile, AOCS also also included the embedded Aviation Reserve Officer Candidate and Naval Aviation Cadet programs. NAVCADs were personnel who held associates degrees, but lacked bachelors degrees, nAVCADs would complete the entire AOCS program, but would not be commissioned until completion of flight training and receiving their wings. After their initial tour, they would be assigned to a college or university full-time for no more than two years in order to complete their bachelors degree
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Spanish Army
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The Spanish Army is the terrestrial army of the Spanish Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. It is one of the oldest active armies - dating back to the late 15th century, the Spanish army has existed continuously since the reign of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella. During the 16th century, Habsburg Spain saw a growth in its military power. The Italian Wars resulted in an ultimate Spanish victory and hegemony in northern Italy by expelling the French, during the 16th century this formation evolved into the tercio infantry formation. The new formation and battle tactics were developed because of Spains inability to field sufficient cavalry forces to face the heavy French cavalry, with such numbers involved, Spain had trouble funding the war effort on so many fronts. The non-payment of troops led to many mutinies and events such as the Sack of Antwerp, the Thirty Years War drew in Spain alongside most other European states. Nevertheless, Spanish armies continued to win battles and sieges throughout this period across large swathes of Europe. French entry into the war in 1635 put additional pressure on Spain, by the signing of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, Spain was forced to accept the independence of the Dutch Republic. In the second half of the century, a reduced and increasingly neglected Spanish army became infamous for being poorly equipped. Spain remained an important naval and military power, depending on sea lanes stretching from Spain through the Caribbean and South America, and westwards towards Manila. The Army was reorganised on the French model and in 1704 the old Tercios were transformed into Regiments, the first modern military school was created in Segovia in 1764. Finally, in 1768 King Charles III sanctioned the Royal Ordinances for the Regime, Discipline, Subordination and Service in his Armies, in the late 18th century, Bourbon-ruled Spain had an alliance with Bourbon-ruled France, and therefore did not have to fear a land war. Its only serious enemy was Britain, which had a powerful Royal Navy, when the French Revolution overthrew the Bourbons, a land war with France became a danger which the king tried to avoid. The officer corps was selected primarily on the basis of royal patronage, about a third of the junior officers have been promoted from the ranks, and they did have talent, but they had few opportunities for promotion or leadership. The rank-and-file were poorly trained peasants, elite units included foreign regiments of Irishmen, Italians, Swiss, and Walloons, in addition to elite artillery and engineering units. Equipment was old-fashioned and in disrepair, the army lacked its own horses, oxen and mules for transportation, so these auxiliaries were operated by civilians, who might run away if conditions looked bad. In combat, small units fought well, but their tactics were hardly of use against the Napoleonic forces. When war broke out with France in 1808, the army was deeply unpopular, leading generals were assassinated, and the army proved incompetent to handle command-and-control
16.
Pyrenees
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The Pyrenees is a range of mountains in southwest Europe that forms a natural border between France and Spain. For the most part, the main crest forms a divide between France and Spain, with the microstate of Andorra sandwiched in between. The Crown of Aragon and the Kingdom of Navarre have historically extended on both sides of the range, with smaller northern portions now in France and larger southern parts now in Spain. The demonym for the noun Pyrenees in English is Pyrenean, in Greek mythology, Pyrene is a princess who gave her name to the Pyrenees. The Greek historian Herodotus says Pyrene is the name of a town in Celtic Europe, Hercules, characteristically drunk and lustful, violates the sacred code of hospitality and rapes his hosts daughter. Pyrene gives birth to a serpent and runs away to the woods, alone, she pours out her story to the trees, attracting the attention of wild beasts who tear her to pieces. After his victory over Geryon, Hercules passes through the kingdom of Bebryx again, and all the rock-cliffs and wild-beast haunts echo back Pyrene. … The mountains hold on to the name through the ages. Pliny the Elder connects the story of Hercules and Pyrene to Lusitania, the Spanish Pyrenees are part of the following provinces, from east to west, Girona, Barcelona, Lleida, Huesca, Navarra and Gipuzkoa. The French Pyrenees are part of the following départements, from east to west, Pyrénées-Orientales, Aude, Ariège, Haute-Garonne, Hautes-Pyrénées, the independent principality of Andorra is sandwiched in the eastern portion of the mountain range between the Spanish Pyrenees and French Pyrenees. Physiographically, the Pyrenees may be divided into three sections, the Atlantic, the Central, and the Eastern Pyrenees, together, they form a distinct physiographic province of the larger Alpine System division. In the Western Pyrenees, from the Basque mountains near the Bay of Biscay of the Atlantic Ocean, at the eastern end on the southern side lies a distinct area known as the Sub-Pyrenees. On the French side the slopes of the range descend abruptly. The Pyrenees are older than the Alps, their sediments were first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras, the intense pressure and uplifting of the Earths crust first affected the eastern part and moved progressively to the entire chain, culminating in the Eocene Epoch. The eastern part of the Pyrenees consists largely of granite and gneissose rocks, the massive and unworn character of the chain comes from its abundance of granite, which is particularly resistant to erosion, as well as weak glacial development. Low passes are lacking, and the roads and the railroads between France and Spain run only in the lowlands at the western and eastern ends of the Pyrenees. A notable visual feature of mountain range is La Brèche de Roland, a gap in the ridge line. Coal deposits capable of being profitably worked are situated chiefly on the Spanish slopes, the open pit of Trimoun close to the commune of Luzenac is one of the greatest sources of talc in Europe
17.
Zaragoza
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Zaragoza, also called Saragossa in English, is the capital city of the Zaragoza province and of the autonomous community of Aragon, Spain. It lies by the Ebro river and its tributaries, the Huerva, on 1 September 2010 the population of the city of Zaragoza was 701,090, within its administrative limits on a land area of 1,062.64 square kilometres, ranking fifth in Spain. It is the 32nd most populous municipality in the European Union, the population of the metropolitan area was estimated in 2006 at 783,763 inhabitants. The municipality is home to more than 50 percent of the Aragonese population, the city lies at an elevation of 199 metres above sea level. Zaragoza hosted Expo 2008 in the summer of 2008, a fair on water. It was also a candidate for the European Capital of Culture in 2012, the city is famous for its folklore, local gastronomy, and landmarks such as the Basílica del Pilar, La Seo Cathedral and the Aljafería Palace. Together with La Seo and the Aljafería, several other buildings part of the Mudéjar Architecture of Aragon which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Fiestas del Pilar are among the most celebrated festivals in Spain, the city was called by the ancient Romans Caesaraugusta, from which the present name derives. The Iberian town that predated the Roman city was called Salduie, see also, Caesar Augusta The Sedetani, a tribe of ancient Iberians, populated a village called Salduie. Later on, Augustus founded a city called Caesaraugusta at the location to settle army veterans from the Cantabrian wars. The foundation date of Caesaraugusta has not been set with exact precision, the city did not suffer any decline during the last centuries of the Roman empire and was captured peacefully by the Goths in the fifth century AD. From 1018 to 1118, Zaragoza was one of the taifa kingdoms, during the first three decades of this period, 1018–1038, the city was ruled by the Banu Tujibi. After the death of El Cid his kingdom was overrun by the Almoravids, who, by 1100, had managed to cross the Ebro into Barbastro, the Banu Hud stubbornly resisted the Almoravids and ruled until they were eventually defeated by them in May 1110. On 18 December 1118, the Aragonese led by Alfonso I conquered the city from the Almoravids, after Alfonsos death without heirs in 1134, Zaragoza was swiftly occupied by Alfonso VII of León and Castile. The wedding never happened, as Petronila ended up marrying Ramon Berenguer IV, the marriage union was the origin of the Crown of Aragón. While the reality of the existence of Saint Dominguito del Val is questioned, despite a decline in the outlying rural economy, Zaragoza has continued to grow. The General Military Academy, a training center of the Spanish Army, was re-established on September 27,1940 by Minister of the Army José Enrique Varela Iglesias. During the second half of the 20th century, Zaragozas population boomed as a number of factories opened in the region, in 1979, the Hotel Corona de Aragón fire killed at least 80
18.
University of Valencia
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The University of Valencia is a university located in the Spanish city of Valencia. It is one of the oldest surviving universities in Spain, and the oldest in the Valencian Community, the University was founded in 1499, and currently has around 55,000 students. Most of the courses are given through the medium of Spanish, moreover, in some degrees part of the teaching is in English. One of its campuses is located in the area of Valencia, in the municipalities of Burjassot. There are three campuses, The Burjassot Campus houses the colleges of Biology, Pharmacy, Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics, the University is committed to keeping and establishing links with universities world-wide, either through bilateral agreements or by taking part in international programmes and networks. Thanks to international exchanges, students from different nationalities and cultures live, the Strategic Plan of the University of Valencia 2008-2011 is oriented towards excellence in teaching, research and cultural diffusion to society. The current chancellor is Esteban Morcillo Sánchez, at the request of James I the Conqueror, Pope Innocent IV in 1246, authorized by a Bull the establishment of estudis generals in Valencia. The University Statutes were passed by the magistrates of Valencia on April 30,1499. In 1501, Pope Alexander VI signed the bill of approval and its foundation was due to the zeal of St. Vincent Ferrer and to the donation of a building by Mosen Pedro Vilaragut. Only very meagre accounts have been preserved of the workings of the university. From the time of its foundation the courses included Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, philosophy, mathematics, and physics, theology, Canon law, and medicine. The closing years of the seventeenth, and the whole of the century, witnessed the most prosperous era of the university, Greek, Latin, mathematics. Among the names of students that of Tosca, Evangelista Torricellis friend, noted physicist and author of important mathematical works. Escolano says that it was the university in mathematics, the humanities, philosophy. Large anatomical drawings were made by the students, Valencia was the first university of Spain to found a course for the study of herbs. Many of the Valencian graduates of medicine became famous, Pedro Ximeno discovered the third small bone of the ear. He was professor at Alcalá and had for a pupil the celebrated Vallés, in the seventeenth century the university divided into two factions, the Thomists and the anti-Thomists. The discussions were heated and aroused partisan feelings throughout the entire Kingdom of Valencia, the university possessed a library of 27,000 volumes which was destroyed by the soldiers under the command of General Suchet
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Inflammation
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The classical signs of inflammation are heat, pain, redness, swelling, and loss of function. Inflammation is a response, and therefore it is considered as a mechanism of innate immunity, as compared to adaptive immunity. Too little inflammation could lead to tissue destruction by the harmful stimulus. In contrast, chronic inflammation may lead to a host of diseases, such as hay fever, periodontitis, atherosclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, Inflammation is therefore normally closely regulated by the body. Inflammation can be classified as acute or chronic. Acute inflammation is the response of the body to harmful stimuli and is achieved by the increased movement of plasma. A series of biochemical events propagates and matures the inflammatory response, involving the vascular system, the immune system. Inflammation is not a synonym for infection, Inflammation on the other hand describes purely the bodys immunovascular response, whatever the cause may be. But because of how often the two are correlated, words ending in the suffix -itis are sometimes described as referring to infection. There are also situations where microbial invasion does not result in classic inflammatory response—for example, parasitosis. Acute inflammation is a process, usually appearing within a few minutes or hours. It involves a coordinated and systemic mobilisation response locally of various immune, endocrine, in a normal healthy response, it becomes activated, clears the pathogen and begins a repair process and then ceases. It is characterized by five signs, An acronym that may be used to remember the key symptoms is PRISH, for pain, redness, immobility, swelling. Loss of function has multiple causes, Acute inflammation of the lung does not cause pain unless the inflammation involves the parietal pleura, which does have pain-sensitive nerve endings. PAMPs are compounds that are associated with pathogens, but which are distinguishable from host molecules. DAMPs are compounds that are associated with host-related injury and cell damage, at the onset of an infection, burn, or other injuries, these cells undergo activation and release inflammatory mediators responsible for the clinical signs of inflammation. Vasodilation and its resulting increased blood flow causes the redness and increased heat, increased permeability of the blood vessels results in an exudation of plasma proteins and fluid into the tissue, which manifests itself as swelling. Some of the released mediators such as increase the sensitivity to pain
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Epithelium
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Epithelial is one of the four basic types of animal tissue, along with connective tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue. Epithelial tissues line the cavities and surfaces of blood vessels and organs throughout the body, there are three principal shapes of epithelial cell, squamous, columnar, and cuboidal. All glands are made up of epithelial cells, functions of epithelial cells include secretion, selective absorption, protection, transcellular transport, and sensing. Epithelial layers contain no blood vessels, so they must receive nourishment via diffusion of substances from the connective tissue. Cell junctions are well-employed in epithelial tissues, in general, epithelial tissues are classified by the number of their layers and by the shape and function of the cells. The three principal shapes associated with epithelial cells are—squamous, cuboidal and columnar, squamous epithelium has cells that are wider than their height. Cuboidal epithelium has cells whose height and width are approximately the same, columnar epithelium has cells taller than they are wide. However, when taller simple columnar epithelial cells are viewed in cross section showing several nuclei appearing at different heights and this kind of epithelium is therefore described as pseudostratified columnar epithelium. Transitional epithelium has cells that can change from squamous to cuboidal, Simple epithelium is a single layer of cells with every cell in direct contact with the basement membrane that separates it from the underlying connective tissue. In general, it is found where absorption and filtration occur, the thinness of the epithelial barrier facilitates these processes. In general, simple epithelial tissues are classified by the shape of their cells, the four major classes of simple epithelium are, simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar, pseudostratified. Simple squamous, which is found lining areas where passive diffusion of gases occur, E. g. skin, walls of capillaries, linings of the pericardial, pleural, and peritoneal cavities, as well as the linings of the alveoli of the lungs. Simple cuboidal, these cells may have secretory, absorptive, or excretory functions, examples include small collecting ducts of kidney, pancreas and salivary gland. Simple columnar, cells can be secretory, absorptive, or excretory, Simple columnar epithelium can be ciliated or non-ciliated, ciliated columnar is found in the reproductive tract. Non-ciliated epithelium can also possess microvilli, pseudostratified columnar epithelium, can be ciliated or non-ciliated. The ciliated type is called respiratory epithelium as it is almost exclusively confined to the larger respiratory airways of the nasal cavity, trachea. Stratified epithelium differs from simple epithelium in that it is multilayered and it is therefore found where body linings have to withstand mechanical or chemical insult such that layers can be abraded and lost without exposing subepithelial layers. Cells flatten as the layers become more apical, though in their most basal layers the cells can be squamous, stratified epithelia can have the following specializations, The basic cell types are squamous, cuboidal, and columnar classed by their shape
21.
Barcelona
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Founded as a Roman city, in the Middle Ages Barcelona became the capital of the County of Barcelona. Barcelona has a cultural heritage and is today an important cultural centre. Particularly renowned are the works of Antoni Gaudí and Lluís Domènech i Montaner. The headquarters of the Union for the Mediterranean is located in Barcelona, the city is known for hosting the 1992 Summer Olympics as well as world-class conferences and expositions and also many international sport tournaments. It is a cultural and economic centre in southwestern Europe, 24th in the world. In 2008 it was the fourth most economically powerful city by GDP in the European Union, in 2012 Barcelona had a GDP of $170 billion, it is leading Spain in both employment rate and GDP per capita change. In 2009 the city was ranked Europes third and one of the worlds most successful as a city brand, since 2011 Barcelona has been a leading smart city in Europe. During the Middle Ages, the city was known as Barchinona, Barçalona, Barchelonaa. Internationally, Barcelonas name is abbreviated to Barça. However, this refers only to FC Barcelona, the football club. The common abbreviated form used by locals is Barna, another common abbreviation is BCN, which is also the IATA airport code of the Barcelona-El Prat Airport. The city is referred to as the Ciutat Comtal in Catalan. The origin of the earliest settlement at the site of present-day Barcelona is unclear, the ruins of an early settlement have been excavated in the El Raval neighbourhood, including different tombs and dwellings dating to earlier than 5000 BC. The founding of Barcelona is the subject of two different legends, the first attributes the founding of the city to the mythological Hercules. In about 15 BC, the Romans redrew the town as a castrum centred on the Mons Taber, under the Romans, it was a colony with the surname of Faventia, or, in full, Colonia Faventia Julia Augusta Pia Barcino or Colonia Julia Augusta Faventia Paterna Barcino. It enjoyed immunity from imperial burdens, the city minted its own coins, some from the era of Galba survive. Some remaining fragments of the Roman walls have incorporated into the cathedral. The cathedral, also known as the Basilica La Seu, is said to have founded in 343
22.
Golgi's method
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Golgis method is a silver staining technique that is used to visualize nervous tissue under light microscopy. The method was discovered by Camillo Golgi, an Italian physician and scientist and it was initially named the black reaction by Golgi, but it became better known as the Golgi stain or later, Golgi method. Golgi staining was used by Spanish neuroanatomist Santiago Ramón y Cajal to discover a number of facts about the organization of the nervous system. Ultimately, Ramon y Cajal improved the technique by using a method he termed double impregnation, Ramon y Cajals staining technique, still in use, is called Cajals Stain. The cells in tissue are densely packed and little information on their structures. Furthermore, the thin filamentary extensions of neural cells, including the axon, Golgis method stains a limited number of cells at random in their entirety. The mechanism by which this happens is still largely unknown, Golgis staining is achieved by impregnating fixed nervous tissue with potassium dichromate and silver nitrate. Cells thus stained are filled by microcrystallization of silver chromate, immerse the block into a 2% aqueous solution of silver nitrate for another 2 days. Dehydrate quickly in ethanol, clear and mount and this preserves a greater degree of fine structure with the ultrastructural details marked by small particles of gold. Recuerdos de mi vida, Vol.2, Historia de mi labor científica, photomicrograph of a cortex cell stained with Golgis. Images of the brain of flies, visualization of dendritic spines using Golgi Method. Includes a time-lapse study of Golgi impregnation, berrebi, Albert, Cell Biology of Neurons, Structure and Methods of Study. Stained brain slice images which include the Golgi-stained neurons at the BrainMaps project
23.
Masonic lodge
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A Masonic lodge, often termed a private lodge or constituent lodge, is the basic organisational unit of Freemasonry. It is also commonly, but erroneously, used as a term for a building in such a unit meets. Every new lodge must be warranted or chartered by a Grand Lodge, a Freemason is generally entitled to visit any Lodge in any jurisdiction in amity with his own. In some jurisdictions this privilege is restricted to Master Masons and he is first usually required to check, and certify, the regularity of the relationship of the Lodge – and be able to satisfy that Lodge of his regularity of membership. Freemasons gather together as a Lodge to work the three basic Degrees of Entered Apprentice, Fellowcraft and Master Mason, technically, Freemasons meet as a lodge not in a lodge. In this context, the lodge refers to a local chapter of Freemasons. However, the term is misused to refer to the buildings or rooms that Masons meet in. Masonic premises are also referred to as temples. In many countries Masonic centre or Masonic hall has now replaced these terms to avoid arousing prejudice, several different lodges, or other Masonic organisations, often use the same premises at different times. Blue lodges, craft lodges or ancient craft lodges refer to the lodges that work the first three Masonic degrees, rather than the appendant Masonic orders such as York Rite and Scottish Rite, the term craft lodge is used in Great Britain. The blue lodge is said to refer to the colour of regalia in lodges derived from English or Irish Freemasonry. Although the term was originally frowned upon, it has gained widespread, research lodges have the purpose of furthering Masonic scholarship. Quatuor Coronati Lodge is an example of a lodge, it has a strictly limited membership. Many jurisdictions have well-established research lodges, which usually meet less frequently than blue lodges, in Great Britain, a lodge of instruction may be associated with a Lodge, but is not constituted separately. In Great Britain, the mother lodge is used to identify the particular Lodge where the individual was first made a Mason. Provincial Grand Lodges exercise an intermediate authority, and also appoint Provincial Grand Officers, in any case, Grand Lodges have limited jurisdiction over their member Lodges, and where there is no prescribed ritual Lodges may thus have considerable freedom of practice. Despite these minor differences, fraternal relations exist between Lodges of corresponding degrees under different Grand Lodges. Generally, to be accepted for initiation as a regular Freemason, believe in some kind of Supreme Being
24.
Spanish Royal Academy of Sciences
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The Spanish Royal Academy of Sciences was founded in 1847. It is dedicated to the study and research of mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, engineering, the forerunner of the modern Academy of Sciences, the Academy of Mathematics, was created in Madrid in 1582, during the reign of Philip II. It evolved from the environment of cooperation among the cosmographers, architects and civil engineers that served the monarch, the idea of founding the Academy of Mathematics originated with Juan de Herrera, who was also its first director. The same space is occupied today by the house, the Teatro Real. Later, with the flowering in Europe during the century of academies in the scientific sphere. Soon afterwards the Marquis of Ensenada ordered Jorge Juan to divide it into independent branches and it carried out its first activities in various locations until 1897 when it arrived at its current headquarters in the calle Valverde at numbers 22 and 24. French Academy of Sciences Royal Society Science Spanish Royal Academy of Sciences
25.
Growth cone
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A growth cone is a big actin-supported extension of a developing or regenerating neurite seeking its synaptic target. Their existence was originally proposed by Spanish histologist Santiago Ramón y Cajal based upon stationary images he observed under the microscope and he first described the growth cone based on fixed cells as “a concentration of protoplasm of conical form, endowed with amoeboid movements”. Neuronal growth cones are situated on the tips of nerve cells on structures called axons. The sensory, motor, integrative, and adaptive functions of growing axons, the morphology of the growth cone can be easily described by using the hand as an analogy. The fine extensions of the cone are known as filopodia or microspikes. The filopodia are like the fingers of the cone, they contain bundles of actin filaments that give them shape. Filopodia are the dominant structures in growth cones, and they appear as narrow cylindrical extensions which can extend several micrometres beyond the edge of the growth cone, the filopodia are bound by membrane which contains receptors and cell adhesion molecules that are important for axon growth and guidance. In between filopodia—much like the webbing of the hands—are the lamellipodia and these are flat regions of dense actin meshwork instead of bundled F-actin as in filopodia. They often appear adjacent to the edge of the growth cone and are positioned between two filopodia, giving them a “veil-like” appearance. In growth cones, new filopodia usually emerge from these inter-filopodial veils, the growth cone is described in terms of three regions, the peripheral domain, the transitional domain, and the central domain. The peripheral domain is the region surrounding the outer edge of the growth cone. It is composed primarily of an actin-based cytoskeleton, and contains the lamellipodia and filopodia which are highly dynamic, microtubules, however, are known to transiently enter the peripheral region via a process called dynamic instability. The central domain is located in the center of the growth cone nearest to the axon and this region is composed primarily of a microtubule-based cytoskeleton, is generally thicker, and contains many organelles and vesicles of various sizes. The transitional domain is the located in the thin band between the central and peripheral domains. Some of these components include molecular motors that generate force within the cone and membrane-bound vesicles which are transported in. Some examples of cytoskeletal-associated proteins are Fascin and Filamin, Talin, myosin, the highly dynamic nature of growth cones allows them to respond to the surrounding environment by rapidly changing direction and branching in response to various stimuli. There are three stages of axon outgrowth, which are termed, protrusion, engorgement, and consolidation, during protrusion, there is a rapid extension of filopodia and lamellar extensions along the leading edge of the growth cone. Finally, consolidation occurs when the F-actin at the neck of the growth cone depolymerizes, the membrane then shrinks to form a cylindrical axon shaft around the bundle of microtubules
26.
Heinrich Wilhelm Gottfried von Waldeyer-Hartz
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Heinrich Wilhelm Gottfried von Waldeyer-Hartz was a German anatomist, famous for consolidating the neuron theory of organization of the nervous system and for naming the chromosome. He is also remembered in two structures of the human body which were named after him, Waldeyers tonsillar ring. Waldeyers name is associated in neuroscience with the so-called neuron theory. Waldeyer learned Spanish in order to absorb Cajals extraordinary detailed studies using Golgis method and became his friend, mentor, the theory was published in a series of papers in the main medical journal of Germany, Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift, which became extremely influential. However, as Cajal points out, though Waldeyer supported the theory with the prestige of his authority, he did not contribute a single personal observation. He limited himself to a brilliant exposition of the objective proofs, adduced by His, Kölliker, Retzius, van Gehuchten and myself. He coined in 1888 the term “chromosome” to describe them and he also published the first embryological, anatomical and functional studies about the naso-oro-pharyngeal lymphatic tissue, which received his name. Über Karyokinese und ihre Beziehungen zu den Befruchtungsvorgängen, archiv für mikroskopische Anatomie und Entwicklungsmechanik,1888,32, 1–122. Ueber einige neuere Forschungen im Gebiete der Anatomie des Centralnervensystems, Deutsche medicinische Wochenschrift, Berlin,1891,17, 1213–1218, 1244–1246, 1287–1289, 1331–1332, 1350–1356. His most famous statement and summary of the neuron theory, Bonn,1920, 2nd edition, Bonn,1921, 3rd edition,1922. Short biography and bibliography in the Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science
27.
Neuron doctrine
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The term neuron was itself coined by Waldeyer as a way of identifying the cells in question. The neuron doctrine, as it known, served to position neurons as special cases under the broader cell theory evolved some decades earlier. Theodor Schwann proposed in 1839 that the tissues of all organisms are composed of cells, Schwann was expanding on the proposal of his good friend Matthias Jakob Schleiden the previous year that all plant tissues were composed of cells. The nervous system stood as an exception, technical limitations of microscopy and tissue preparation were largely responsible. Chromatic aberration, spherical aberration and the dependence on natural light all played a role in limiting microscope performance in the early 19th century, tissue was typically lightly mashed in water and pressed between a glass slide and cover slip. There was also a number of dyes and fixatives available prior to the middle of the 19th century. Using this technique nerve cells with their highly branched dendrites and axon could be clearly visualised against a yellow background, unfortunately Golgi described the nervous system as a continuous single network, in support of a notion called reticular theory. It was reasonable at the time because under light microscope the nerve cells are merely a mesh of single thread, santiago Ramón y Cajal started investigating nervous system in 1887 using Golgi stain. In the first issue of the Revista Trimestral de Histología Normal y Patológica Cajal reported that the cells were not continuous in the brain of birds. Cajals discovery was the evidence for the discontinuity of nervous system. Golgi and Cajal were jointly awarded the 1906 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine, neuron theory is an example of consilience where low level theories are absorbed into higher level theories that explain the base data as part of higher order structure. As a result the neuron doctrine has multiple elements, each of which were the subject of low level theories, debate, neural units The brain is made up of individual units that contain specialized features such as dendrites, a cell body, and an axon. Neurons are cells These individual units are cells as understood from other tissues in the body, specialization These units may differ in size, shape, and structure according to their location or functional specialization. Nucleus is key The nucleus is the center for the cell. If the cell is divided only the portion containing the nucleus will survive, Nerve fibers are cell processes Nerve fibers are outgrowths of nerve cells. Cell division Nerve cells are generated by cell division, contact Nerve cells are connected by sites of contact and not cytoplasmic continuity. Waldeyer himself was neutral on this point, and strictly speaking the neuron doctrine does not depend upon this element, the heart is an example of excitable tissue where the cells connect via cytoplasmic continuity and yet is perfectly consistent with cell theory. This is true of other such as connections between horizontal cells of the retina, or the Mauthner cell synapse in goldfish
28.
Reticular theory
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Reticular theory is an obsolete scientific theory in neurobiology that stated that everything in the nervous system, such as brain, is a single continuous network. The concept was postulated by a German anatomist Joseph von Gerlach in 1871 and this neuron doctrine turned out to be the correct description of the nervous system, whereas the reticular theory was discredited. In 1871 Gerlach proposed that the brain is composed of protoplasmic network, according to Gerlach, the nervous system simply consisted of a single continuous network called the reticulum. In 1873 Golgi invented a method for microscopic research based on a specific technique for staining nerve cells. He was able to provide a description of nerve cells in various regions of the cerebro-spinal axis. He drew up a new classification of cells on the basis of the structure of their nervous prolongation, Golgi claimed to observe in the gray matter an extremely dense and intricate network, composed of a web of intertwined branches of axons coming from different cell layers. This was due to his conviction in the reticular theory. In 1877 an English physiologist Edward Schäfer described the absence of connections between the elements in the mantles of the jellyfish. The Norwegian zoologist Fridtjof Nansen also reported in 1887 that he found no connections between the processes of the cells of aquatic animals in his doctoral research. By the late 1880s, serious opposition to the theory began to emerge. In 1891, another German anatomist Wilhelm Waldeyer also supported the theory by stating that the system, as other tissues, was composed of cells. Using the very same Golgis technique, Ramón y Cajal confirmed that discrete neurons did exist, Golgi, however, never accepted these new findings, and a controversy and rivalry between the two scientists lasted even after they were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in 1906. The Nobel award is even dubbed as creating the center of histological controversy. Ramón y Cajal even commented that, What a cruel irony of fate of pair, like Siamese twins united by the shoulders, scientific adversaries of such contrasting character. In the 1950s electron microscopy finally confirmed the existence of individual neurons in the nervous system. The reticular theory was put to rest. SOME HISTORICAL LANDMARKS IN CELL THEORY OF THE BRAIN NEURON DOCTRINE VS. RETICULAR THEORY Who Is Camillo Golgi
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Dendritic spine
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A dendritic spine is a small membranous protrusion from a neurons dendrite that typically receives input from a single axon at the synapse. Dendritic spines serve as a site for synaptic strength and help transmit electrical signals to the neurons cell body. Most spines have a head, and a thin neck that connects the head of the spine to the shaft of the dendrite. The dendrites of a neuron can contain hundreds to thousands of spines. In addition to providing an anatomical substrate for memory storage and synaptic transmission. Dendritic spines were first described at the end of the 19th century by Santiago Ramón y Cajal on cerebellar neurons, Ramón y Cajal then proposed that dendritic spines could serve as contacting sites between neurons. This was demonstrated more than 50 years later thanks to the emergence of electron microscopy, until the development of confocal microscopy on living tissues, it was commonly admitted that spines were formed during embryonic development and then would remain stable after birth. In this paradigm, variations of synaptic weight were considered as sufficient to explain memory processes at the cellular level. But since about a decade ago, new techniques of confocal microscopy demonstrated that dendritic spines are indeed motile and dynamic structures that undergo a constant turnover, Dendritic spines usually receive excitatory input from axons although sometimes both inhibitory and excitatory connections are made onto the same spine head. Dendritic spines occur at a density of up to 5 spines/1 µm stretch of dendrite, Dendritic spines are small with spine head volumes ranging 0.01 µm3 to 0.8 µm3. Spines with strong synaptic contacts typically have a large spine head, the most notable classes of spine shape are thin, stubby, mushroom, and branched. Electron microscopy studies have shown there is a continuum of shapes between these categories. The variable spine shape and volume is thought to be correlated with the strength, Dendritic spines express glutamate receptors on their surface. The TrkB receptor for BDNF is also expressed on the spine surface, the tip of the spine contains an electron-dense region referred to as the postsynaptic density. One-half of the axons and dendritic spines are physically tethered by calcium-dependent cadherin. Glutamate receptors are localized to the density, and are anchored by cytoskeletal elements to the membrane. Signalling from GluRs is mediated by the presence of an abundance of proteins, especially kinases and these include calcium-dependent calmodulin, CaMKII, PKC, PKA, Protein Phosphatase-1, and Fyn tyrosine kinase. Certain signallers, such as CaMKII, are upregulated in response to activity, spines are particularly advantageous to neurons by compartmentalizing biochemical signals
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Cable theory
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Classical cable theory uses mathematical models to calculate the electric current along passive neurites, particularly the dendrites that receive synaptic inputs at different sites and times. Estimates are made by modeling dendrites and axons as cylinders composed of segments with capacitances c m, the capacitance of a neuronal fiber comes about because electrostatic forces are acting through the very thin lipid bilayer. The resistance in series along the fiber r l is due to the significant resistance to movement of electric charge. Cable theory in neuroscience has roots leading back to the 1850s. The models resembled the partial differential equations used by Fourier to describe heat conduction in a wire, the 1870s saw the first attempts by Hermann to model neuronal electrotonic potentials also by focusing on analogies with heat conduction. Further mathematical theories of nerve fiber conduction based on cable theory were developed by Cole and Hodgkin, Offner et al. two key papers from this era are those of Davis and Lorente de Nó and Hodgkin and Rushton. The 1950s saw improvements in techniques for measuring the activity of individual neurons. Thus cable theory became important for analyzing data collected from intracellular microelectrode recordings, scientists like Coombs, Eccles, Fatt, Frank, Fuortes and others now relied heavily on cable theory to obtain functional insights of neurons and for guiding them in the design of new experiments. Note, various conventions of rm exist, here rm and cm, as introduced above, are measured per membrane-length unit. Thus rm is measured in ohm·meters and cm in farads per meter and this is in contrast to Rm and Cm, which represent the specific resistance and capacitance respectively of one unit area of membrane. A current injected into the fiber at position x =0 would move along the inside of the fiber unchanged. The more holes, the faster the water escape from the hose. Similarly, in an axon, some of the current traveling longitudinally through the axoplasm will escape through the membrane, if im is the current escaping through the membrane per length unit, m, then the total current escaping along y units must be y·im. The capacitance will cause a flow of charge towards the membrane on the side of the cytoplasm and this current is usually referred to as displacement current The flow will only take place as long as the membranes storage capacity has not been reached. I c can then be expressed as, where c m is the membranes capacitance, combining equations and gives a first version of a cable equation, which is a second-order partial differential equation. By a simple rearrangement of equation it is possible to make two important terms appear, namely the length constant denoted λ and the time constant denoted τ, the following sections focus on these terms. The length constant, λ, is a parameter that indicates how far a stationary current will influence the voltage along the cable, the larger the value of λ, the farther the charge will flow. The higher the resistance, r l, the smaller the value of λ, the harder it will be for current to travel through the axoplasm
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Smooth muscle tissue
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Smooth muscle is an involuntary non-striated muscle. It is divided into two subgroups, the single-unit and multiunit smooth muscle, within single-unit cells, the whole bundle or sheet contracts as a syncytium. Single unit smooth muscle, however, is most common and lines blood vessels, the tract. Smooth muscle is different from skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle in terms of structure, function, regulation of contraction. Smooth muscle cells known as myocytes, have a shape and, like striated muscle, can tense. However, smooth muscle tissue tends to demonstrate greater elasticity and function within a larger length-tension curve than striated muscle and this ability to stretch and still maintain contractility is important in organs like the intestines and urinary bladder. In the relaxed state, each cell is spindle-shaped, 20-500 micrometers in length, the smooth muscle is the only type of muscle without the ability to be voluntarily controlled in stressful situations. Myosin is primarily class II in smooth muscle, myosin II contains two heavy chains which constitute the head and tail domains. Each of these heavy chains contains the N-terminal head domain, while the C-terminal tails take on a coiled-coil morphology, thus, myosin II has two heads. In smooth muscle, there is a gene that codes for the heavy chains myosin II. Also, smooth muscle may contain MHC that is not involved in contraction, myosin II also contains 4 light chains, resulting in 2 per head, weighing 20 and 17 kDa. These bind the chains in the neck region between the head and tail. The MLC20 is also known as the light chain and actively participates in muscle contraction. Two MLC20 isoforms are found in muscle, and they are encoded by different genes. The MLC17 is also known as the light chain. Its exact function is unclear, but its believed that it contributes to the stability of the myosin head along with MLC20. Two variants of MLC17 exist as a result of alternate splicing at the MLC17 gene, in the uterus, a shift in myosin expression has been hypothesized to avail for changes in the directions of uterine contractions that are seen during the menstrual cycle. The thin filaments that form part of the machinery are predominantly composed of α-
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Gastrointestinal tract
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Gastrointestinal is an adjective meaning of or pertaining to the stomach and intestines. A tract is a collection of related anatomic structures or a series of connected body organs, the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, and intestines are part of the human alimentary canal. All bilaterians have a gastrointestinal tract, also called a gut or an alimentary canal and this is a tube that transfers food to the organs of digestion. In large bilaterians, the gastrointestinal tract generally also has an exit, some small bilaterians have no anus and dispose of solid wastes by other means. The gastrointestinal tract contains thousands of different bacteria in their gut flora, the human gastrointestinal tract consists of the esophagus, stomach, and intestines, and is divided into the upper and lower gastrointestinal tracts. In contrast, the digestive system comprises the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of digestion. The tract may also be divided into foregut, midgut, and hindgut, the whole human GI tract is about nine metres long at autopsy. The GI tract releases hormones from enzymes to help regulate the digestive process, the structure and function can be described both as gross anatomy and as microscopic anatomy or histology. The tract itself is divided into upper and lower tracts, the upper gastrointestinal tract consists of the buccal cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, and duodenum. The exact demarcation between the upper and lower tracts is the muscle of the duodenum. Upon dissection, the duodenum may appear to be an organ, but it is divided into four segments based upon function, location. The four segments of the duodenum are as follows, bulb, descending, horizontal, the suspensory muscle attaches the superior border of the ascending duodenum to the diaphragm. The suspensory muscle is an important anatomical landmark which shows the division between the duodenum and the jejunum, the first and second parts of the small intestine. This is a muscle which is derived from the embryonic mesoderm. The lower gastrointestinal tract includes most of the intestine and all of the large intestine. In humans, the intestine is further subdivided into the duodenum, jejunum and ileum while the large intestine is subdivided into the cecum, colon, rectum. The small intestine begins at the duodenum, which receives food from the stomach and it is a tubular structure, usually between 6 and 7 m long. The area of the human, adult small intestinal mucosa is about 30 m2 and its main function is to absorb the products of digestion into the bloodstream
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Croonian Lecture
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The Croonian Lectures are prestigious lectureships given at the invitation of the Royal Society and the Royal College of Physicians. Among the papers of William Croone at his death in 1684, was a plan to endow one lectureship at both the Royal Society and the Royal College of Physicians. One lecture was to be delivered by a Fellow to the Royal College of Physicians, the Royal Society lecture series began in 1738 and that of the Royal College of Physicians in 1749. Croone became an original Fellow of the Royal Society in May 1663 and he also became one of the original Fellows of the College of Physicians on 29 July 1675. He was appointed lecturer on anatomy at Surgeons hall in 1670 and pursued research in several important subjects of his day, including respiration, muscular motion, and generation. 2007 Peter J. Goadsby, Bench to bedside, headache 20072006 Peter John Ratcliffe, Understanding hypoxia signalling in cells, a new therapeutic opportunity
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Pyramidal cell
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Pyramidal neurons are a type of neuron found in areas of the brain including the cerebral cortex, the hippocampus, and the amygdala. Pyramidal neurons are the primary units of the mammalian prefrontal cortex. Pyramidal neurons were first discovered and studied by Santiago Ramón y Cajal, since then, studies on pyramidal neurons have focused on topics ranging from neuroplasticity to cognition. One of the structural features of the pyramidal neuron is the conic shaped soma, or cell body. Other key structural features of the cell are a single axon, a large apical dendrite, multiple basal dendrites. The apical dendrites arise from the apex of the pyramidal cells soma, the apical dendrite is a single long thick dendrite that branches several times as distance from the soma increases and extends towards the cortical surface. The basal dendrites arise from the base of the pyramidal cells soma, the basal dendritic tree consists of three to five primary dendrites. As distance increases from the soma, the basal dendrites branch profusely, Pyramidal cells are among the largest neurons in the brain. Both in humans and rodents, pyramidal cell bodies average around 20 μm in length, Pyramidal dendrites typically range in diameter from half a micrometer to several micrometers. The length of a dendrite is usually several hundred micrometers. Due to branching, the total length of a pyramidal cell may reach several centimeters. The pyramidal cell’s axon is often longer and extensively branched. Dendritic spines receive most of the impulses that enter a pyramidal cell. Dendritic spines were first noted by Ramón y Cajal in 1888 by using Golgis method, Ramón y Cajal was also the first person to propose a physiological role of dendritic spines, increase the receptive surface area of the neuron. The greater the pyramidal cells surface area, the greater the ability to process. Dendritic spines are absent on the soma, and the number of spines increases away from it, the typical apical dendrite in a rat has at least 3000 dendritic spines. The average human apical dendrite is approximately twice the length of a rats, Pyramidal specification occurs during early development of the cerebrum. Progenitor cells are committed to the lineage in the subcortical proliferative ventricular zone
35.
Spanish Civil War
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Ultimately, the Nationalists won, and Franco then ruled Spain for the next 36 years, from April 1939 until his death in November 1975. Sanjurjo was killed in an accident while attempting to return from exile in Portugal. The coup was supported by units in the Spanish protectorate in Morocco, Pamplona, Burgos, Zaragoza, Valladolid, Cádiz, Córdoba. However, rebelling units in some important cities—such as Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Bilbao, and Málaga—did not gain control, Spain was thus left militarily and politically divided. The Nationalists and the Republican government fought for control of the country, the Nationalist forces received munitions and soldiers from Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, while the Republican side received support from the Communist Soviet Union and leftist populist Mexico. Other countries, such as the United Kingdom and France, operated a policy of non-intervention. The Nationalists advanced from their strongholds in the south and west and they also besieged Madrid and the area to its south and west for much of the war. Those associated with the losing Republicans were persecuted by the victorious Nationalists, with the establishment of a dictatorship led by General Franco in the aftermath of the war, all right-wing parties were fused into the structure of the Franco regime. The war became notable for the passion and political division it inspired, organized purges occurred in territory captured by Francos forces to consolidate the future regime. A significant number of killings took place in areas controlled by the Republicans, the extent to which Republican authorities took part in killings in Republican territory varied. The 19th century was a turbulent time for Spain and those in favour of reforming Spains government vied for political power with conservatives, who tried to prevent reforms from taking place. Some liberals, in a tradition that had started with the Spanish Constitution of 1812, sought to limit the power of the monarchy of Spain, the reforms of 1812 did not last after King Ferdinand VII dissolved the Constitution and ended the Trienio Liberal government. Twelve successful coups were carried out between 1814 and 1874, until the 1850s, the economy of Spain was primarily based on agriculture. There was little development of an industrial or commercial class. The land-based oligarchy remained powerful, a number of people held large estates called latifundia as well as all the important government positions. In 1868 popular uprisings led to the overthrow of Queen Isabella II of the House of Bourbon, two distinct factors led to the uprisings, a series of urban riots and a liberal movement within the middle classes and the military concerned with the ultra-conservatism of the monarchy. In 1873 Isabellas replacement, King Amadeo I of the House of Savoy, abdicated owing to increasing pressure. After the restoration of the Bourbons in December 1874, Carlists and Anarchists emerged in opposition to the monarchy, alejandro Lerroux, Spanish politician and leader of the Radical Republican Party, helped bring republicanism to the fore in Catalonia, where poverty was particularly acute
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Regenerationism
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Regenerationism was an intellectual and political movement in late 19th century and early 20th century Spain. It sought to make objective and scientific study of the causes of Spains decline as a nation and it is largely seen as distinct from another movement of the same time and place, the Generation of 98. The word regeneración entered the Spanish language in the early 19th century as a medical term, but late 19th century Regenerationism was specifically a reaction against the political system founded by Cánovas under the Bourbon restoration. Under Cánovas system, alternation between conservative and liberal parties was guaranteed by rigged elections and this made the late 19th century, after the last of the Carlist Wars, a period of an illusory stability sustained on the basis of massive political corruption. Only Catalonia and the Basque Country had seen the rise of an industrial capitalist bourgeoisie. Wages were low and many Spaniards were day laborers living on the edge of hunger, Regenerationism was strongly influenced by Krausism, the philosophy of Karl Christian Friedrich Krause, which proclaimed freedom of conscience. Introduced into Spain by Julian Sanz del Rio, Krausism was very influential among liberal reformers in that country throughout the 19th century, today, Regenerationism survives mostly as a component of Aragonese nationalism, for which it has long provided an ideological foundation. Many of these predated those publications associated with the Generation of 98, the first was the Revista Contemporánea, founded by José del Perojo. Among its initial collaborators were numerous scholars associated with the Krausist Institución Libre de Enseñanza, another prestigious publication was La España Moderna. Founded by José Lázaro Galdiano, it sought to be Spains Revue des deux mondes, like Revista Contemporánea, it sought to be cosmopolitan, European, and contemporary. Among its collaborators were Ramiro de Maeztu and Miguel de Unamuno, another Regenerationist magazine was Nuevo Teatro Crítico, written almost entirely by literary theorist Emilia Pardo Bazán, who was Europeanist as well as sincerely feminist. The Regenerationist writers published studies and essays that denounced the corrupt Canovist system, later, a constellation of authors would follow the Costas road. Rafael Altamira, from Alicante, wrote Psicología del pueblo español, other Regenerationists were Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda, Francisco de Quevedo, Benito Jerónimo Feijoo, and others. Lucas Mallada, Aragonese like Costa, strongly criticized the Idearium español proposed by Ángel Ganivet and addressed French Hispanophobia as a grave evil and he defended Spanish activity in the Americas and believed that its reputation had improved, despite inadequate attention to its own affairs. He rejected the pessimism of Ricardo Macías Picavea in the latters El problema nacional, rejecting Macías Picaveas call for a dictatorship, he sympathized instead with the 18th century satirist Juan Pablo Forner and with Joaquín Costa, who sought to reform Spains democracy. At the same time, Regenerationsim was equally taken up by politicians such as Santiago Alba, José Canalejas. He brought to fruition at least one of Costas dreams, a national hydrological plan
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Burgos
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Burgos is a city in northern Spain and the historic capital of Castile. It is situated on the confluence of the Arlanzón river tributaries and it has about 180,000 inhabitants in the actual city and another 20,000 in the metropolitan area. It is the capital of the province of Burgos, in the community of Castile. A large number of churches, palaces and other buildings from the medieval age remain, the city is surrounded by the Fuentes Blancas and the Paseo de la Isla parks. The city forms the principal crossroad of northern Spain along the Camino de Santiago and it has a well-developed transportation system, forming the main communication node in northern Spain. In 2008, the international Burgos Airport started to offer commercial flights, furthermore, AVE high speed trains are planned to start service in the near future, stopping at the newly-built Rosa de Lima train station. The Museum of Human Evolution was opened in 2010, unique in its kind across the world, the museum features the first Europeans, which lived in this area 800,000 years ago. Burgos was selected as the Spanish Gastronomy Capital of 2013, there are several possible origins for the toponymy. When the city was founded, the inhabitants of the country moved into the fortified village. The city began to be called Caput Castellae, early humans occupied sites around Burgos as early as 800,000 years ago. When the Romans took possession of what is now the province of Burgos, in Roman times, it belonged to Hispania Citerior and then to Hispania Tarraconensis. The region came to be known as Castile, i. e. land of castles, the city began to be called Caput Castellae. The county of Burgos, subject to the Kings of León, continued to be governed by counts and was extended, one of these counts, Fernán González. In the 11th century, the city became the see of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Burgos, throughout the 13th and 14th centuries, Burgos was a favourite seat of the kings of León and Castile and a favoured burial site. In 1285, Sancho IV added a new body to the consejo which came to dominate it, the jurado in charge of collecting taxes and overseeing public works, the alguacil was the royal official instituted to judge disagreements. On 9 June 1345, sweeping aside the city government, Alfonso XI established direct rule of Burgos through the Regimiento of sixteen appointed men. In 1574, Pope Gregory XIII made the bishopric a Metropolitan archbishorpic, Burgos has been the scene of many wars, with the Moors, the struggles between León and Navarre, and between Castile and Aragon. In the Peninsular War against Napoleonic France, the siege of Burgos was a scene of a withdrawal for Arthur Wellesley, again in the 19th-century Carlist civil wars of the Spanish succession Burgos was the scene of a battle
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Honorary degree
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An example of identifying a recipient of this award is as follows, Doctorate in Business Administration. The degree is conferred as a way of honouring a distinguished visitors contributions to a specific field or to society in general. It is sometimes recommended that such degrees be listed in ones CV as an award, rev. Theodore Hesburgh held the record for most honorary degrees, having been awarded 150 during his lifetime. The earliest honorary degree on record was awarded to Lionel Woodville in the late 1470s by the University of Oxford and he later became Bishop of Salisbury. In the latter part of the 16th century, the granting of honorary degrees became quite common, generally, universities nominate several persons each year for honorary degrees, these nominees usually go through several committees before receiving approval. Under certain circumstances, a degree may be conferred on an individual for both the nature of the office they hold and the completion of a dissertation, the dissertation et jure dignitatis is considered to be a full academic degree. Although higher doctorates such as DSc, DLitt, etc. are often awarded honoris causa, the university will appoint a panel of examiners who will consider the case and prepare a report recommending whether or not the degree be awarded. Usually, the applicant must have some strong connection with the university in question, for example full-time academic staff. The Archbishop of Canterbury has the authority to award degrees, some institutes of higher education do not confer honorary degrees as a matter of policy - see below. Some learned societies award honorary fellowships in the way as honorary degrees are awarded by universities. A typical example of university regulations is, Honorary graduates may use the approved post-nominal letters and it is not customary, however, for recipients of an honorary doctorate to adopt the prefix Dr. In some universities, it is however a matter of preference for an honorary doctor to use the formal title of Doctor. Written communications where an honorary doctorate has been awarded may include the letters h. c. after the award to indicate that status. In some countries, a person who holds an honorary doctorate may use the title Doctor prenominally, abbreviated Dr. h. c. or Dr. Sometimes, they use Hon before the letters, for example. In recent years, some universities have adopted entirely separate post nominal titles for honorary degrees and this is in part due to the confusion that honorary degrees have caused. It is now common in countries to use certain degrees, such as LLD or HonD. For instance, a doctor of the Auckland University of Technology takes the special title HonD. Some universities, including the Open University grant Doctorates of the University to selected nominees, most American universities award the degrees of LLD, LittD, LHD, ScD, PedD and DD only as honorary degrees
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