1.
Bamberg
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Bamberg is a town in Upper Franconia, Germany, on the river Regnitz close to its confluence with the river Main. A large part of the town has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1993, during the post-Roman centuries of Germanic migration and settlement, the region afterwards included in the Diocese of Bamberg was inhabited for the most part by Slavs. The town, first mentioned in 902, grew up by the castle Babenberch which gave its name to the Babenberg family, on their extinction it passed to the Saxon house. The area was Christianized chiefly by the monks of the Benedictine Fulda Abbey, in 1007, Holy Roman Emperor Henry II or Heinrich II made Bamberg a family inheritance, the seat of a separate diocese. The emperors purpose in this was to make the Diocese of Würzburg less unwieldy in size and to give Christianity a firmer footing in the districts of Franconia, Henry II ordered the building of a new cathedral, which was consecrated 6 May 1012. The church was enriched with gifts from the pope, and Henry had it dedicated in honor of him, in 1017 Henry also founded Michaelsberg Abbey on the Michaelsberg, near Bamberg, a Benedictine abbey for the training of the clergy. The emperor and his wife Kunigunde gave large temporal possessions to the new diocese, pope Benedict VIII visited Bamberg in 1020 to meet Henry II for discussions concerning the Holy Roman Empire. While he was here he placed the diocese in direct dependence on the Holy See and he also personally consecrated some of Bambergs churches. For a short time Bamberg was the centre of the Holy Roman Empire, Henry and Kunigunde were both buried in the cathedral. From the middle of the 13th century onward the bishops were princes of the Empire and ruled Bamberg, in 1248 and 1260 the see obtained large portions of the estates of the Counts of Meran, partly through purchase and partly through the appropriation of extinguished fiefs. By the changes resulting from the Reformation, the territory of this see was reduced nearly one half in extent, since 1279 the coat of arms of the city of Bamberg is known in form of a seal. The witch trials of the 17th century claimed about one thousand victims in Bamberg, the famous Drudenhaus, built in 1627, is no longer standing today, however, detailed accounts of some cases, such as that of Johannes Junius, remain. In 1647, the University of Bamberg was founded as Academia Bambergensis, bambrzy are German Poles who are descended from settlers from the Bamberg area who settled in villages around Posen in the years 1719–1753. In 1759, the possessions and jurisdictions of the diocese situated in Austria were sold to that state, when the secularization of church lands took place the diocese covered 3,305 km2 and had a population of 207,000. Bamberg thus lost its independence in 1802, becoming part of Bavaria in 1803, Bamberg was first connected to the German rail system in 1844, which has been an important part of its infrastructure ever since. The first republican constitution of Bavaria was passed in Bamberg, becoming known as the Bamberger Verfassung, in February 1926 Bamberg served as the venue for the Bamberg Conference, convened by Adolf Hitler in his attempt to foster unity and to stifle dissent within the then-young Nazi party. Bamberg was chosen for its location in Upper Franconia, reasonably close to the residences of the members of the dissident northern Nazi faction, in 1973, the town celebrated the 1, 000th anniversary of its founding. Bamberg is located in Franconia,63 km north of Nuremberg by railway and 101 km east of Würzburg and it is situated on the Regnitz river,3 km before it flows into the Main river
2.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
3.
Smoked beer
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Smoked beer is a type of beer with a distinctive smoke flavour imparted by using malted barley dried over an open flame. The Rauchbiers of Bamberg in Germany, Schlenkerla in particular, are the best-known of the smoked beers, drying malt over an open flame may impart a smoky character to the malt. This character may carry over to beers brewed with the smoked malt, prior to the modern era, drying malted barley in direct sunlight was used in addition to drying over flames. Even though kiln drying of malt, using heat, did not enter into widespread usage until the industrial era. Also, there have various methods over the years of preparing cereal grains for brewing, including making beer from bread. Beginning in the 18th century, kiln drying of malt became progressively more common and, since the kiln method shunts the smoke away from the wet malt, a smoky flavour is not imparted to the grain, nor to the subsequent beer. As a result, smoke flavour in beer became less and less common, certain breweries, however, maintained the smoked beer tradition by continuing to use malt which had been dried over open flames. Two brewpubs in Bamberg, Germany—Schlenkerla and Spezial—have continued smoked beer production for two centuries. Both are still in operation today, alongside seven other breweries in the same town, both dry their malt over fires made from beechwood logs, and produce several varieties of Rauchbier. In Australia, the Feral Brewing Company, in Western Australia, in Belgium, the Dupont Brewery produces Triomfbier Vooruit, a Saison produced with smoked malt. In Brazil, Eisenbahn produces a beer called Eisenbahn Rauchbier. In Britain, Meantime Brewery produces Winter Time, an old ale. Adnams bottles a Smoked Ruby, using wood, exclusively for Marks & Spencer and has brewed a similar. In Canada, Les Trois Mousquetaires makes a beer. Also, Church-Key brewing of Campbellford, Ontario produces a peat smoked Scotch ale called Holy Smoke, camerons brewing in Oakville, Ontario produces Bamburg Castle smoked ale. In the Netherlands, Emelisse produces a traditional German-style Rauchbier, as well as a smoked porter, brouwerij De Molen has several different smoked beers, such as Bloed, Zweet & Tranen and Rook & Vuur. Othmar also produces a smoked beer, named Rauchbier. In Norway, Haandbryggeriet produces a smoked, juniper-flavoured beer called Norwegian Wood, in Italy, Birrificio Lambrate make two smoked stout beers, the draught or bottled Ghisa and the bottled Imperial Ghisa
4.
Lager
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Lager is a type of beer that is conditioned at low temperatures, normally at the brewery. It may be pale, golden, amber, or dark, although one of the most defining features of lager is its maturation in cold storage, it is also distinguished by the use of a specific yeast. On the other hand, German Altbier and Kölsch, brewed with a top-fermenting yeast at a warm temperature, until the 19th century, the German word Lagerbier referred to all types of bottom-fermented, cool-conditioned beer, in normal strengths. In Germany today however, the term is reserved for the prevalent lager beer styles of southern Germany, Helles. Pilsner, a heavily hopped pale lager, is most often known as Pilsner, Pilsener. Other lagers are Bock, Märzen, and Schwarzbier, in the United Kingdom, the term lager commonly refers specifically to pale lagers, many of which are derived from the Pilsner style. Worldwide, pale lager is the most widely consumed and commercially available style of beer and it is often known primarily by its brand name, and labeled simply as beer. Well-known brands include Miller, Stella Artois, Becks, Brahma, Budweiser, Corona, Snow, Tsingtao, Kirin Company, Heineken, Carling, Fosters, and Carlsberg. In 2011, a team of researchers claimed to have discovered that Saccharomyces eubayanus is responsible for creating the hybrid yeast used to make lager. To further protect the cellars from the heat, they would plant chestnut trees. The practice of serving beer at these sites evolved into the beer garden. The first large-scale refrigerated lagering tanks were developed for Gabriel Sedelmayrs Spaten Brewery in Munich by Carl von Linde in 1870, Lager beer uses a process of cool fermentation, followed by maturation in cold storage. The German word Lager means storeroom or warehouse, the yeast generally used with lager brewing is Saccharomyces pastorianus. It is a relative of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast used for warm fermented ales. While prohibited by the German Reinheitsgebot tradition, lagers in some countries often feature large proportions of adjuncts, adjuncts entered United States brewing as a means of thinning out the body of U. S. beers, balancing the large quantities of protein introduced by six-row barley. Adjuncts are often used now in beermaking to introduce a large quantity of sugar, there are however cases in which adjunct usage actually increases the cost of manufacture. The examples of lager beers produced worldwide vary greatly in flavour, colour, composition, pale lager Helles Pilsner — Pilsner Urquell, Stella Artois Märzen Bock Dark lager Dunkel Dopplebock Schwarzbier The most common lager beers in worldwide production are pale lagers. The flavor of these lighter lagers is usually mild, and the producers often recommend that the beers be served refrigerated, pale lager is a very pale to golden-coloured lager with a well attenuated body and noble hop bitterness
5.
Wheat beer
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Wheat beer is a beer, usually top-fermented, which is brewed with a large proportion of wheat relative to the amount of malted barley. The two main varieties are Weissbier and Witbier, minor types include Lambic, Berliner Weisse and Gose, Belgian white beers are often made with raw unmalted wheat, as opposed to the malted wheat used in other varieties. Both German Weißbier and Belgian witbier are termed white beers because wheat has the same root as white in most West Germanic languages. U. S. brewers and Canadian brewers follow both of the wheat beer traditions, usually with greater variation. In Britain, wheat beer is not considered traditional, however and this change has been attributed by some to the reduction in the cost of travelling abroad. This is in line with the sales of other speciality products. It tends to be a hybrid of the style with an English bitter, rather than an exact emulation. Other minor wheat beer such as Berliner Weiße, Gose. By German law, Weißbiers brewed in Germany must be top-fermented, specialized strains of yeast are used which produce overtones of banana and clove as by-products of fermentation. Weißbier is so called because it was, at the time of its inception and it is well known throughout Germany, though better known as Weizen outside Bavaria. The terms Hefeweizen or Hefeweißbier refer to beer in its traditional. The term Kristallweizen, or kristall Weiß, refers to a beer that is filtered to remove the yeast. The Hefeweizen style is noted for its low hop bitterness and relatively high carbonation. Hefeweizens phenolic character has described as clove and medicinal but also smoky. Other more typical but less assertive flavour notes produced by Weißbier yeast include banana, bubble gum, Weißbier is available in a number of other forms, including Dunkelweizen and Weizenstarkbier, commonly referred to as Weizenbock. The dark wheat varieties are made with darker, more highly kilned malts, the Weizenbocks typically have a much higher alcohol content than their lighter cousins. The four largest brands in Germany are Erdinger, Paulaner, Franziskaner, other renowned brands are Augustiner, Weihenstephaner, Schneider, and Andechser. Regional brands in Bavaria are Hopf, Unertl, Ayinger, Schweiger, aventinus is an example of Weizen Doppelbock, stronger and darker version of Weizenbock, made by the G. Schneider & Sohn brewery in Kelheim
6.
Seasonal beer
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A seasonal beer is a beer that is typically brewed during or for a particular season, holiday or festival period. Many breweries and microbreweries produce seasonal beers, seasonal beers may be produced when fresh ingredients are available during various seasons, per climatic conditions during the time of the year, and also as a tradition. Furthermore, seasonal beer is produced based upon seasons, holidays, festivals, bock was traditionally produced during winter for consumption during Lent and Easter in the spring. It was also produced for consumption during winter. Lambic has been described as a beer that is prepared during the winter for consumption in spring. Traditionally, the preparation of lambic includes leaving the wort mixture outside overnight to absorb wild yeasts in the air and they are aged in wooden barrels or stainless steel tanks. Lambics are typically liberally hopped as a preservative to control bacteria levels, some varieties are aged for years. They typically have a sweetness, along with a distinct sourness. Summer seasonal beers are formulated for warmer weather, and are typically light-bodied. They may have citrus or fruity flavor, which may be accented with the use of honey, brewing spices, many summer seasonal beers are ales and wheat ales. Saison has been described as a seasonal beer. General characteristics include a fruity flavor and smell, light or bitter hoppiness, pale orange body, thick head, Bière de Garde is a seasonal beer that is traditionally brewed in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region of France. It is brewed in Autumn, after which it is stored during the winter, Bière de Garde was originally brewed in farmhouses in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region. Varieties of Bière de Garde are produced by some American craft brewers, some of these American varieties have a high alcohol by volume content, ranging from 7-9%. Pumpkin ale is brewed as an autumn seasonal beer. Traditionally, bock was a beer brewed at winter for consumption at both winter and during Lent and Easter in the spring. Winter warmers are a type of winter seasonal beer and these include old ales and mild ales that have been brewed during the winter months. Prior to the times of the Industrial Revolution in the century in England, some winter warmers were aged in barrels for months, and even years
7.
Bock
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Bock is a strong lager of German origin. Originally a dark beer, a modern bock can range from light copper to brown in colour, the style is very popular, with many examples brewed internationally. The style known now as bock was a dark, malty, the style from Einbeck was later adopted by Munich brewers in the 17th century and adapted to the new lager style of brewing. Due to their Bavarian accent, citizens of Munich pronounced Einbeck as ein Bock, to this day, as a visual pun, a goat often appears on bock labels. Bock is historically associated with special occasions, often religious festivals such as Christmas, Bocks have a long history of being brewed and consumed by Bavarian monks as a source of nutrition during times of fasting. Bockfest, in Cincinnati, Ohio, is the longest running, the festival celebrates bock beer, the Cincinnati neighborhood of Over-the-Rhine, the citys German heritage, and the coming of spring. Traditional bock is a sweet, relatively strong, lightly hopped lager, the beer should be clear, and colour can range from light copper to brown, with a bountiful and persistent off-white head. The aroma should be malty and toasty, possibly with hints of alcohol, the mouthfeel is smooth, with low to moderate carbonation and no astringency. The taste is rich and toasty, sometimes with a bit of caramel, again, hop presence is low to undetectable, providing just enough bitterness so that the sweetness is not cloying and the aftertaste is muted. The following commercial products are indicative of the style, Einbecker Ur-Bock Dunkel, Pennsylvania Brewing St. Nick Bock, Aass Bock, Great Lakes Rockefeller Bock, Stegmaier Brewhouse Bock. It is a recent development compared to other styles of bock beers, frequently associated with springtime. Colour can range from gold to light amber with a large, creamy, persistent white head. Historically, doppelbock was high in alcohol and sweet, thus serving as liquid bread for the Friars during times of fasting, today, doppelbock is still strong—ranging from 7%–12% or more by volume. It isnt clear, with color ranging from gold, for the paler version. It has a large, creamy, persistent head, the aroma is intensely malty, with some toasty notes, and possibly some alcohol presence as well, darker versions may have a chocolate-like or fruity aroma. The flavor is rich and malty, with toasty notes and noticeable alcoholic strength. Paler versions may have a drier finish, the monks who originally brewed doppelbock named their beer Salvator, which today is trademarked by Paulaner. Brewers of modern doppelbocks often add -ator to their beers name as a signpost of the style and it is clear, with a colour ranging from deep copper to dark brown in colour, often with ruby highlights
8.
Microbrewery
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A microbrewery or craft brewery is a brewery that produces small amounts of beer, typically much smaller than large-scale corporate breweries, and is independently owned. Such breweries are generally characterized by their emphasis on quality, flavor, the microbrewing movement began in the United Kingdom in the 1970s although traditional artisanal brewing existed in Europe for centuries and subsequently spread to other countries. As the movement grew and some breweries expanded their production and distribution, a brewpub is a pub that brews its own beer for sale on the premises. The term and trend spread to the US in the 1980s and was used as a designation of breweries that produce fewer than 15,000 U. S. beer barrels annually. Their influence has been greater than their market share, which amounts to only 2% in the UK. However, when the failed, the corporate breweries invested in microbreweries or, in many cases. Microbreweries gradually appeared in countries, such as New Zealand. The website The Food Section defines a nanobrewery as a microbrewery, often run by a solo entrepreneur. The US Department of the Treasury defines nanobreweries as very small brewery operations that produce beer for sale, Craft brewing is a more encompassing term for developments in the industry succeeding the microbrewing movement of the late 20th century. The definition is not entirely consistent but typically applies to small, independently-owned commercial breweries that employ traditional brewing methods and emphasize flavor. The term is reserved for breweries established since the 1970s. A United States trade group, the Brewers Association, interested in brand transparency, offers a definition of craft breweries as small, independent, according to Russ Phillips, author of Canned. Artwork of the Modern American Beer Can, the use of cans by craft brewers in the US has doubled since 2012, however, since drinking directly from a can may still result in a metallic taste, most craft brewers recommend pouring beer into a glass prior to consumption. In June 2014, the BA estimated 3% of craft beer is sold in cans, 60% is sold in bottles, Brewpub is an abbreviated term combining the ideas of a brewery and a pub or public-house. A brewpub can be a pub or restaurant that brews beer on the premises, Beer arrived in Australia at the beginning of British colonisation. In 2004, Australia was ranked fourth internationally in per capita consumption, at around 110 litres per year. The most popular style in modern-day Australia is lager. The oldest brewery still in operation is the Cascade Brewery, established in Tasmania in 1824, fosters Lager is made mostly for export or under licence in other countries, particularly the UK
9.
Franconia
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However, there is no fixed area that is officially defined as Franconia. The German word Franken - Franconians - also refers to the people group and they are to be distinguished from the Germanic tribe of the Franks and who historically formed their easternmost settlement area. The origins of Franconia lie in the settlement of the Franks from the 6th century in the area probably populated until then mainly by the Elbe Germanic people in the Main river area. Known from the 9th century as Francia Orientalis. in the Middle Ages the region formed much of the part of the Duchy of Franconia and, from 1500. In the course of the restructuring of the south German states by Napoleon after the demise of the Holy Roman Empire, the German name for Franconia, Franken, comes from the dative plural form of Franke, a member of the Germanic tribe known as the Franks. The onomatologists largely follow the book compiled by early medieval scholar, Saint Isidore of Seville. This syllable occurs in the Middle Dutch vrac, avaricious, and old Norwegian frakkr, quick, bold, according to this the Franks were thus the brave ones, courageous ones or audacious ones. From the 9th century the name no longer referred to the whole of France, but increasingly to the region along the River Main. The German word frank in the sense of free is, by contrast, not a description of the Franks. Not until the 15th century was the German word frei borrowed from the French, other large rivers include the upper Werra in Thuringia and the Tauber, as well as the upper Jagst and Kocher streams in the west, both right tributaries of the Neckar. In southern Middle Franconia, the Altmühl flows towards the Danube, the man-made Franconian Lake District has become a popular destination for day-trippers and tourists. The landscape is characterized by numerous Mittelgebirge ranges of the German Central Uplands, to the north rise the Rennsteig ridge of the Thuringian Forest, the Thuringian Highland and the Franconian Forest, the border with the Upper Saxon lands of Thuringia. In the east, the Fichtel Mountains lead to Vogtland, Bohemian Egerland in the Czech Republic, the hills of the Franconian Jura in the south mark the border with the Upper Bavarian region, historical Swabia, and the Danube basin. The northern parts of the Upper Bavarian Eichstätt District, territory of the historical Bishopric of Eichstätt, are counted as part of Franconia. In the west, Franconia proper comprises the Tauber Franconia region along the Tauber river, the states larger Heilbronn-Franken region also includes the adjacent Hohenlohe and Schwäbisch Hall districts. In the city of Heilbronn, beyond the Haller Ebene plateau, furthermore, in those easternmost parts of the Neckar-Odenwald-Kreis which had formerly belonged to the Bishopric of Würzburg, the inhabitants have preserved their Franconian identity. Franconian areas in East Hesse along Spessart and Rhön comprise Gersfeld, the two largest cities of Franconia are Nuremberg and Würzburg. Though located on the periphery of the area, the Nuremberg metropolitan area is often identified as the economic
10.
Smoking (cooking)
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Smoking is the process of flavoring, browning, cooking, or preserving food by exposing it to smoke from burning or smoldering material, most often wood. Meats and fish are the most common smoked foods, though cheeses, vegetables, and ingredients used to make such as whisky, smoked beer. In Europe, alder is the traditional smoking wood, but oak is often used now. In North America, hickory, mesquite, oak, pecan, alder, maple, and fruit-tree woods, such as apple, cherry, other biomass besides wood can also be employed, sometimes with the addition of flavoring ingredients. Chinese tea-smoking uses a mixture of uncooked rice, sugar, and tea, some North American ham and bacon makers smoke their products over burning corncobs. Peat is burned to dry and smoke the barley used to make whisky. In New Zealand, sawdust from the native manuka is commonly used for hot smoking fish, in Iceland, dried sheep dung is used to cold-smoke fish, lamb, mutton and whale. Historically, farms in the Western world included a building termed the smokehouse. This was generally well-separated from other buildings both because of the danger and because of the smoke emanations. The smoking of food directly with wood smoke is known to contaminate the food with carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, the smoking of food dates back to the time of primitive cavemen. As caves or simple huts lacked chimneys, these dwellings could become very smoky, until the modern era, smoking was of a more heavy duty nature as the main goal was to preserve the food. Large quantities of salt were used in the process and smoking times were quite long. The advent of modern transportation made it easier to transport food products long distances. Smoking became more of a way to flavor than to preserve food, in 1939 a device called the Torry Kiln was invented at the Torry Research Station in Scotland. The kiln allowed for uniform mass-smoking and is considered the prototype for all modern large-scale commercial smokers, smokehouse temperatures for cold smoking are typically done between 20 to 30 °C. In this temperature range, foods take on a smoked flavor, cold smoking does not cook foods. Meats should be cured before cold smoking. Cold smoking can be used as an enhancer for items such as chicken breasts, beef, pork chops, salmon, scallops
11.
Helles
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Helles or Hell is a traditional German pale lager beer, produced chiefly in Southern Germany, particularly Munich. The German word hell can be translated as bright, light, helles-style beers typically are full-bodied, mildly sweet, and light-colored, with low bitterness. The beer is clear due to prior to bottling, although some restaurants. Helles has a less-pronounced hop flavor than pilsner beers, until the 1960s, Helles were universally available in German-speaking regions. In many regions, Helles was slowly replaced by Pilsner-style beers, in regions outside of Southern Germany, Helles is regaining popularity, particularly Berlin, where the beers traditional image has become trendy. Helles enjoys great popularity in the Southern German regions of Bavaria, Franconia and it can be referred to as Helles, Spezial, Landbier, Munich Lager, or Export. No clear distinction is drawn between Lager and Export, although Export typically is closer in style to Dortmunder Export, which has a slightly higher ABV of 5. 5% for extended shelf life
12.
Gothic architecture
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Gothic architecture is a style of architecture that flourished in Europe during the high and late medieval period. It evolved from Romanesque architecture and was succeeded by Renaissance architecture and its characteristics include the pointed arch, the ribbed vault and the flying buttress. Gothic architecture is most familiar as the architecture of many of the cathedrals, abbeys. It is also the architecture of many castles, palaces, town halls, guild halls, universities and to a less prominent extent, private dwellings, for this reason a study of Gothic architecture is largely a study of cathedrals and churches. A series of Gothic revivals began in mid-18th-century England, spread through 19th-century Europe and continued, largely for ecclesiastical and university structures, the term Gothic architecture originated as a pejorative description. Hence, François Rabelais, also of the 16th century, imagines an inscription over the door of his utopian Abbey of Thélème, Here enter no hypocrites, slipping in a slighting reference to Gotz and Ostrogotz. Authorities such as Christopher Wren lent their aid in deprecating the old medieval style, the Company disapproved of several of these new manners, which are defective and which belong for the most part to the Gothic. Gothic architecture is the architecture of the medieval period, characterised by use of the pointed arch. As an architectural style, Gothic developed primarily in ecclesiastical architecture, the greatest number of surviving Gothic buildings are churches. The Gothic style is most particularly associated with the cathedrals of Northern France. At the end of the 12th century, Europe was divided into a multitude of city states, norway came under the influence of England, while the other Scandinavian countries and Poland were influenced by trading contacts with the Hanseatic League. Angevin kings brought the Gothic tradition from France to Southern Italy, throughout Europe at this time there was a rapid growth in trade and an associated growth in towns. Germany and the Lowlands had large flourishing towns that grew in comparative peace, in trade and competition with other, or united for mutual weal. Civic building was of importance to these towns as a sign of wealth. England and France remained largely feudal and produced grand domestic architecture for their kings, dukes and bishops, the Catholic Church prevailed across Europe at this time, influencing not only faith but also wealth and power. Bishops were appointed by the lords and they often ruled as virtual princes over large estates. The early Medieval periods had seen a growth in monasticism, with several different orders being prevalent. Foremost were the Benedictines whose great abbey churches vastly outnumbered any others in France, a part of their influence was that towns developed around them and they became centers of culture, learning and commerce
13.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
14.
Pub
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A pub, or public house, is an establishment licensed to sell alcoholic drinks, which traditionally include beer, ale and cider. It is a relaxed, social drinking establishment and a prominent part of British, Irish, New Zealand, Canadian, in many places, especially in villages, a pub is the focal point of the community. In his 17th century diary Samuel Pepys described the pub as the heart of England, Pubs can be traced back to Roman taverns, through the Anglo-Saxon alehouse to the development of the tied house system in the 19th century. In 1393, King Richard II of England introduced legislation that pubs had to display a sign outdoors to make them easily visible for passing ale tasters who would assess the quality of ale sold, most pubs focus on offering beers, ales and similar drinks. As well, pubs often sell wines, spirits, and soft drinks, meals, the owner, tenant or manager is known as the pub landlord or publican. The pub quiz was established in the UK in the 1970s and these alehouses quickly evolved into meeting houses for the folk to socially congregate, gossip and arrange mutual help within their communities. Herein lies the origin of the public house, or Pub as it is colloquially called in England. They rapidly spread across the Kingdom, becoming so commonplace that in 965 King Edgar decreed that there should be no more than one alehouse per village. A traveller in the early Middle Ages could obtain overnight accommodation in monasteries, the Hostellers of London were granted guild status in 1446 and in 1514 the guild became the Worshipful Company of Innholders. A survey in 1577 of drinking establishment in England and Wales for taxation purposes recorded 14,202 alehouses,1,631 inns, Inns are buildings where travellers can seek lodging and, usually, food and drink. They are typically located in the country or along a highway, in Europe, they possibly first sprang up when the Romans built a system of roads two millennia ago. Some inns in Europe are several centuries old, in addition to providing for the needs of travellers, inns traditionally acted as community gathering places. In Europe, it is the provision of accommodation, if anything, the latter tend to provide alcohol, but less commonly accommodation. Famous London inns include The George, Southwark and The Tabard, there is however no longer a formal distinction between an inn and other kinds of establishment. In North America, the aspect of the word inn lives on in hotel brand names like Holiday Inn. The Inns of Court and Inns of Chancery in London started as ordinary inns where barristers met to do business, traditional English ale was made solely from fermented malt. The practice of adding hops to produce beer was introduced from the Netherlands in the early 15th century, alehouses would each brew their own distinctive ale, but independent breweries began to appear in the late 17th century. By the end of the century almost all beer was brewed by commercial breweries, the 18th century saw a huge growth in the number of drinking establishments, primarily due to the introduction of gin
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