1.
Vice President of the United States
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The executive power of both the vice president and the president is granted under Article Two, Section One of the Constitution. The vice president is elected, together with the president. The Office of the Vice President of the United States assists, as the president of the United States Senate, the vice president votes only when it is necessary to break a tie. Additionally, pursuant to the Twelfth Amendment, the president presides over the joint session of Congress when it convenes to count the vote of the Electoral College. Currently, the president is usually seen as an integral part of a presidents administration. The Constitution does not expressly assign the office to any one branch, causing a dispute among scholars whether it belongs to the executive branch, the legislative branch, or both. The modern view of the president as a member of the executive branch is due in part to the assignment of executive duties to the vice president by either the president or Congress. Mike Pence of Indiana is the 48th and current vice president and he assumed office on January 20,2017. The formation of the office of vice president resulted directly from the compromise reached at the Philadelphia Convention which created the Electoral College, the delegates at Philadelphia agreed that each state would receive a number of presidential electors equal to the sum of that states allocation of Representatives and Senators. The delegates assumed that electors would typically choose to favor any candidate from their state over candidates from other states, under a plurality election process, this would tend to result in electing candidates solely from the largest states. Consequently, the delegates agreed that presidents must be elected by a majority of the number of electors. To guard against such stratagems, the Philadelphia delegates specified that the first runner-up presidential candidate would become vice president, the process for selecting the vice president was later modified in the Twelfth Amendment. Each elector still receives two votes, but now one of those votes is for president, while the other is for vice president. The requirement that one of those votes be cast for a candidate not from the electors own state remains in effect. S, other statutorily granted roles include membership of both the National Security Council and the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. As President of the Senate, the president has two primary duties, to cast a vote in the event of a Senate deadlock and to preside over. For example, in the first half of 2001, the Senators were divided 50-50 between Republicans and Democrats and Dick Cheneys tie-breaking vote gave the Republicans the Senate majority, as President of the Senate, the vice president oversees procedural matters and may cast a tie-breaking vote. As President of the Senate, John Adams cast 29 tie-breaking votes that was surpassed by John C. Calhoun with 31. Adamss votes protected the presidents sole authority over the removal of appointees, influenced the location of the national capital, on at least one occasion Adams persuaded senators to vote against legislation he opposed, and he frequently addressed the Senate on procedural and policy matters
2.
Ulysses S. Grant
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Ulysses S. Grant was the 18th President of the United States. As Commanding General, Grant worked closely with President Abraham Lincoln to lead the Union Army to victory over the Confederacy in the American Civil War and he implemented Congressional Reconstruction, often at odds with President Andrew Johnson. His presidency has often criticized for tolerating corruption and for the severe economic depression in his second term. Grant graduated in 1843 from the United States Military Academy at West Point, after the war he married Julia Boggs Dent in 1848, their marriage producing four children. Grant initially retired from the Army in 1854 and he struggled financially in civilian life. When the Civil War began in 1861, he rejoined the U. S. Army, in 1862, Grant took control of Kentucky and most of Tennessee, and led Union forces to victory in the Battle of Shiloh, earning a reputation as an aggressive commander. He incorporated displaced African American slaves into the Union war effort, in July 1863, after a series of coordinated battles, Grant defeated Confederate armies and seized Vicksburg, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River and dividing the Confederacy in two. After his victories in the Chattanooga Campaign, Lincoln promoted him to lieutenant general, Grant confronted Robert E. Lee in a series of bloody battles, trapping Lees army in their defense of Richmond. Grant coordinated a series of devastating campaigns in other theaters, as well, in April 1865, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox, effectively ending the war. Historians have hailed Grants military genius, and his strategies are featured in history textbooks. After the Civil War, Grant led the armys supervision of Reconstruction in the former Confederate states and he also used the army to build the Republican Party in the South. After the disenfranchisement of some former Confederates, Republicans gained majorities, in his second term, the Republican coalitions in the South splintered and were defeated one by one as redeemers regained control using coercion and violence. In May 1875, Grant authorized his Secretary of Treasury Benjamin Bristow to shut down and his peace policy with the Indians initially reduced frontier violence, but is best known for the Great Sioux War of 1876. Grant responded to charges of corruption in executive offices more than any other 19th Century president and he appointed the first Civil Service Commission and signed legislation ending the corrupt moiety system. In foreign policy, Grant sought to trade and influence while remaining at peace with the world. His administration successfully resolved the Alabama claims by the Treaty of Washington with Great Britain, Grant avoided war with Spain over the Virginius Affair, but Congress rejected his attempted annexation of the Dominican Republic. His administration implemented a standard and sought to strengthen the dollar. Grant left office in 1877 and embarked on a two-year diplomatic world tour that captured the nations attention, in 1880, Grant was unsuccessful in obtaining the Republican presidential nomination for a third term
3.
Andrew Johnson
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Andrew Johnson was the 17th President of the United States, serving from 1865 to 1869. Johnson became president as he was president at the time of the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. A Democrat who ran with Lincoln on the National Union ticket, the new president favored quick restoration of the seceded states to the Union. His plans did not give protection to the slaves, and he came into conflict with the Republican-dominated Congress. The first American president to be impeached, he was acquitted in the Senate by one vote, Johnson was born in poverty in Raleigh, North Carolina. Apprenticed as a tailor, he worked in several towns before settling in Greeneville. He served as alderman and mayor there before being elected to the Tennessee House of Representatives in 1835, after brief service in the Tennessee Senate, Johnson was elected to the federal House of Representatives in 1843, where he served five two-year terms. He became Governor of Tennessee for four years, and was elected by the legislature to the Senate in 1857, in his congressional service, he sought passage of the Homestead Bill, which was enacted soon after he left his Senate seat in 1862. As Southern slave states, including Tennessee, seceded to form the Confederate States of America and he was the only sitting senator from a Confederate state who did not resign his seat upon learning of his states secession. In 1862, Lincoln appointed him as governor of Tennessee after most of it had been retaken. When Johnson was sworn in as president in March 1865, he gave a rambling speech. Six weeks later, the assassination of Lincoln made him president, Johnson implemented his own form of Presidential Reconstruction – a series of proclamations directing the seceded states to hold conventions and elections to re-form their civil governments. Johnson vetoed their bills, and Congressional Republicans overrode him, setting a pattern for the remainder of his presidency, Johnson opposed the Fourteenth Amendment, which gave citizenship to former slaves. In 1866, Johnson went on a national tour promoting his executive policies. As the conflict between the branches of government grew, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act, restricting Johnsons ability to fire Cabinet officials. When he persisted in trying to dismiss Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, he was impeached by the House of Representatives, and narrowly avoided conviction in the Senate and removal from office. Returning to Tennessee after his presidency, Johnson sought political vindication, Johnson is regarded by many historians as one of the worst presidents in American history. While some admire his strict constitutionalism, his opposition to federally guaranteed rights for African Americans is widely criticized
4.
Henry Wilson
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Henry Wilson was the 18th Vice President of the United States and a Senator from Massachusetts. Before and during the American Civil War, he was a leading Republican, and he devoted his energies to the destruction of the Slave Power – the faction of slave owners and their political allies which anti-slavery Americans saw as dominating the country. Originally a Whig, Wilson was a founder of the Free Soil Party in 1848 and he served as the party chairman before and during the 1852 presidential election. Wilson successfully authored bills that outlawed slavery in Washington D. C. after the Civil War, he supported the Radical Republican program for Reconstruction. In 1872, he was elected Vice President as the mate of Ulysses S. Grant, the incumbent President of the United States. The Grant and Wilson ticket was successful, and Wilson served as Vice President from March 4,1873 until his death on November 22,1875. Throughout his career, Wilson was known for championing causes that were at times unpopular, including the abolition of slavery, Henry Wilson was born in Farmington, New Hampshire on February 16,1812, one of several children born to Winthrop and Abigail Colbath. His father named him Jeremiah Jones Colbath after a neighbor who was a childless bachelor. Winthrop Colbath was a veteran of the War of 1812 who worked as a day laborer and hired himself out to local farms and businesses. The Colbath family was impoverished and, after an elementary education, at the age of 10 Wilson was indentured to a neighboring farmer. During this time two neighbors gave him books and Wilson enhanced his meager education by reading extensively on English and American history, at the end of his service he was given six sheep and a yoke of oxen. Wilson immediately sold his animals for $85, which was the first money he had earned during his indenture, Wilson apparently did not like his birth name, though the reasons given vary. Some sources indicate that he was not close to his family, or disliked his name because of his fathers supposed intemperance, others indicate that he was called Jed and Jerry, and disliked the nicknames so much that he resolved to change his name. Whatever the reason, when he turned 21 he successfully petitioned the New Hampshire General Court to legally change it and he chose the name Henry Wilson, inspired either by a biography of a Philadelphia teacher or a portrait from a book on English clergymen. After trying and failing to work in New Hampshire, in 1833 Wilson walked more than one hundred miles to Natick. Having met William P. Legro, a shoemaker who was willing to train him, Wilson learned the trade in a few weeks, bought out his employment contract for $15, and opened his own shop, intending to save enough money to study law. Wilson had success as a shoemaker, and was able to save several hundred dollars in a short time. Wilsons shoe making experience led to the creation of the nicknames his supporters later used to highlight his working class roots—the Natick Cobbler
5.
Galusha A. Grow
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Galusha Aaron Grow was a prominent American politician, lawyer, writer and businessman, and was a Pennsylvania representative and Speaker of the U. S. House of Representatives from 1861 to 1863. He was defeated for reelection in 1862 and he remained the last sitting House Speaker to be defeated until Tom Foley of Washington lost his seat in 1994. Grow was born Aaron Galusha Grow in Ashford, Connecticut and his family called him Galusha when he was growing up, and before Grow was a teenager, he had started writing his name with his given names reversed. He was educated at Franklin Academy in Susquehanna County, Pennsylvania and he studied law and was admitted to the bar in November 1847 and then began his law practice. Grow ran as a Democrat in the 1850 elections and served as a member of party during the 32nd and 33rd Congresses. He switched parties in the wake of President Pierces signing of the Kansas-Nebraska Act and he ran as a Republican for the 1856 elections and remained a member of that party for the rest of his political career. During the 35th United States Congress, on February 5,1858, he was attacked by Democrat Laurence M. Keitt in the House chambers. Keitt, offended by Grows having stepped over to his side of the House chamber, dismissively demanded that Grow sit down, Grow responded by telling Keitt that No negro-driver shall crack his whip over me. Keitt became enraged and went for Grows throat, shouting that he would choke for that, the embarrassed Barksdale accidentally replaced the wig backwards, causing both sides to erupt in spontaneous laughter. He was re-elected during the 1858 elections, and, before the end of the 36th Congress, Grow, a supporter of the Radical Republicans, was defeated in his re-election bid in 1862, becoming the second sitting House Speaker in a row to lose his seat. Grow was a delegate to the Republican National Convention in 1864 and 1868 and he moved to Houston, Texas in 1871, and that year became president of what became known as the International - Great Northern Railroad, a position he held until 1875. He then returned to Pennsylvania and the practice of law from 1875 to 1894, Grow returned to the United States Congress as a member at-large from Pennsylvania from 1894 to 1903, was the chairman of the committee on education in the 56th Congress. Grow resided in Glenwood, Pennsylvania from 1903 until his death at age 84, a biography of Galusha Grow, Galusha A. Grow, Father of the Homestead Law, was written by James T. Du Bois and Gertrude S. Mathews and published by Houghton Mifflin in 1917, a monument to Grow was erected in 1915 at the Susquehanna County Courthouse Complex in Montrose, Pennsylvania. Galusha Grow from Mr. Lincolns White House, a website of the Lehrman Institute Grow, Galusha Aaron from The Political Graveyard Grow, Galusha Aaron
6.
Theodore M. Pomeroy
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He spent his childhood in the village of Elbridge where he went to live when he was nine years old. He was educated at the Monroe Academy and at 15, entered Hamilton College and he graduated in 1842 at 17 years-old and was ranked in the first division of six in a class of 24. In May 1843, at the age of 18, he left his parents home in Cayuga and moved to the Village of Auburn where he entered the firm of Beach & Underwood, as a law student. William H. Seward was counsel for the firm as he had just finished serving as the Governor of New York from 1838 to 1842. Christopher Morgan and Samuel Blatchford, who became one of the Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. On May 23,1846, he was admitted to practice as an attorney in New York State, in 1847, he was elected by the Whig Party as clerk of Auburn and in 1851, he was nominated by the Whigs and was elected district attorney. He was reelected again in 1853 and served a second term, in September 1860, he was nominated and elected by the Republican party to represent the 25th Congressional district, composed of the counties of Cayuga and Wayne, in the House of Representatives. On July 4,1861, he took his seat at the session of the 37th Congress convened by the President Abraham Lincoln. The lions of buccaneer Democracy fare hard when they fall into his hands and he was nominated by acclamation in 1862,1864, and 1866 from the then 24th Congressional district which comprised the counties of Cayuga, Wayne and Seneca. For a few hours, Pomeroy was the Speaker of the House, due to Vice President-elect Schuyler Colfaxs resignation on March 3,1869, until the session was adjourned sine die. Pomeroy returned to politics and was elected mayor of Auburn, New York, serving from 1875 to 1876, after the war ended, a boom in business production and industry began around the country. Beardsley as treasurer, and Pomeroy as their attorney, by October 1866, the company was transporting goods across the major U. S. railroads and by the beginning of 1867, the company operated a network of express lines across the entire United States. The huge business incurred equally huge debts and in 1868, the company was acquired and merged with the American Merchants Union, Pomeroy stayed on and served as first vice-president and general counsel, along with co-founder William Fargo and later with Williams brother, J. C. On September 4,1855, while serving his term as District Attorney, he married Elizabeth Leitch Watson. Elizabeths sister, Janet MacNeil Watson, married William H. Seward, Jr. Together, they had five children, Janet Watson Pomeroy Lillias Pomeroy, who married Charles I. Avery Josephine Pomeroy, who married Frank Rufus Herrick, of Cleveland, Ohio Robert Watson Pomeroy, of Buffalo, New York, who married Lucy Bemis, of Massachusetts. Theodore M. Pomeroy, Jr. Hamilton College class of 1897 who bred dogs Pomeroy retired from life in 1879 and lived at 168 Genesee Street in Auburn. Harriet Tubman was a friend of the family who helped care for the Pomeroy children
7.
United States House of Representatives
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The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
8.
Indiana
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Indiana /ɪndiˈænə/ is a U. S. state located in the midwestern and Great Lakes regions of North America. Indiana is the 38th largest by area and the 16th most populous of the 50 United States and its capital and largest city is Indianapolis. Indiana was admitted to the United States as the 19th U. S. state on December 11,1816, before becoming a territory, varying cultures of indigenous peoples and historic Native Americans inhabited Indiana for thousands of years. Indiana has an economy with a gross state product of $298 billion in 2012. Indiana has several areas with populations greater than 100,000. The states name means Land of the Indians, or simply Indian Land and it also stems from Indianas territorial history. On May 7,1800, the United States Congress passed legislation to divide the Northwest Territory into two areas and named the section the Indiana Territory. In 1816, when Congress passed an Enabling Act to begin the process of establishing statehood for Indiana, a resident of Indiana is officially known as a Hoosier. The first inhabitants in what is now Indiana were the Paleo-Indians, divided into small groups, the Paleo-Indians were nomads who hunted large game such as mastodons. They created stone tools made out of chert by chipping, knapping and flaking, the Archaic period, which began between 5000 and 4000 BC, covered the next phase of indigenous culture. The people developed new tools as well as techniques to cook food, such new tools included different types of spear points and knives, with various forms of notches. They made ground-stone tools such as axes, woodworking tools. During the latter part of the period, they built mounds and middens. The Archaic period ended at about 1500 BC, although some Archaic people lived until 700 BC, afterward, the Woodland period took place in Indiana, where various new cultural attributes appeared. During this period, the people created ceramics and pottery, an early Woodland period group named the Adena people had elegant burial rituals, featuring log tombs beneath earth mounds. In the middle portion of the Woodland period, the Hopewell people began developing long-range trade of goods, nearing the end of the stage, the people developed highly productive cultivation and adaptation of agriculture, growing such crops as corn and squash. The Woodland period ended around 1000 AD, the Mississippian culture emerged, lasting from 1000 until the 15th century, shortly before the arrival of Europeans. During this stage, the people created large urban settlements designed according to their cosmology, with mounds and plazas defining ceremonial
9.
Indiana's 9th congressional district
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Indianas 9th congressional district is a congressional district in the U. S. state of Indiana. Located in south-central and southeastern Indiana, the district is based in Bloomington, House of Representatives from Indianas 9th congressional district are alive. Indianas congressional districts List of United States congressional districts United States House of Representatives, Office of the Clerk Martis, the Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress. The Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts, Congressional Biographical Directory of the United States 1774–present Congressman Todd Young Official House site
10.
Norman Eddy
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Norman Eddy was an American politician and military officer. Trained as a doctor at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, earning an M. D. in 1835, Eddy moved to Mishawaka, Indiana after graduation in 1835. There, he practiced medicine until 1847, when he changed his focus to law, passing the bar and moving to South Bend and his efforts shifted again three years later, when he commenced a political career in the Democratic Party with a post in the Indiana State Senate. After holding that position and several local offices, he was elected to the 33rd Congress. Eddy served only one term in office, as he was in turn defeated by Colfax when he attempted to run for re-election. Undaunted, Eddy continued his career as Attorney General of the Territory of Minnesota. The outbreak of the American Civil War marked a new phase of Eddys life, as he organized the 48th Indiana Infantry, Eddy served in this capacity for two years, but received disabling wounds in Mississippi at the Battle of Iuka and left the service in July 1863. Despite the wounds, he was fortunate, as 119 of his 420 men were killed or wounded in the engagement, an Episcopalian, Eddy was buried in City Cemetery
11.
John P. C. Shanks
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John Peter Cleaver Shanks was a U. S. Born in Martinsburg, Virginia, Shanks pursued an academic course and he studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1848 and commenced practice in Portland, Indiana, in 1849. He served as prosecuting attorney of Jay County in 1850 and 1851, during the Civil War he served in the Union Army as a colonel and aide-de-camp. Shanks was elected as a Republican to the Thirty-seventh Congress and he was an unsuccessful candidate for reelection in 1862 to the Thirty-eighth Congress. Shanks was elected to the Fortieth and to the three succeeding Congresses and served as chairman of the Committee on Militia and the Committee on Indian Affairs and he was an unsuccessful candidate for renomination in 1874. He resumed the practice of his profession and he was again a member of the State house of representatives in 1879. Shanks died in Portland, Indiana, January 23,1901 and was interred in Green Park Cemetery, list of American Civil War generals United States Congress. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, retrieved on 2008-11-05 John P. C. This article incorporates public domain material from the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress website http, //bioguide. congress. gov
12.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
13.
Mankato, Minnesota
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Mankato is a city in Blue Earth, Nicollet, and Le Sueur counties in the State of Minnesota. The population was 41,044 according to 2015 US census estimates, the county seat of Blue Earth County, it is located along a large bend of the Minnesota River at its confluence with the Blue Earth River. Mankato is across the Minnesota River from North Mankato, Mankato and North Mankato have a combined population of over 53,000, according to the 2010 census. It completely encompasses the town of Skyline, North of Mankato Regional Airport, a tiny non-contiguous part of the city is located within Le Sueur County. Most of the city of Mankato is located within Blue Earth County, Mankato was designated a Metropolitan Statistical Area by the U. S. Census Bureau in November 2008. Highways 14 and 169 and Minnesota State Highways 22 and 60 are four of the routes in Mankato. The area was settled by various cultures of indigenous peoples. After European colonization began on the East Coast, pressure from settlement, by the mid-nineteenth century Dakota language–speaking four divisions of the Dakota Sioux were the primary indigenous group in the territory. Mankato Township was not settled by European Americans until Parsons King Johnson in February 1852, New residents organized the city of Mankato on May 11,1858. The city was organized by Henry Jackson, Parsons King Johnson, Col. D. A. Robertson, a popular story says that the city was intended to have been named Mahkato, but a typographical error by a clerk established the name as Mankato. While it may or may not be true that the city was intended to be called Mahkato, the Anglo settlers adapted that as the Blue Earth River. Ishtakhaba, also known as Chief Sleepy Eye, of the Sisseton band of Dakota Indians was said to have directed settlers to this location. He said the site at the confluence of the Minnesota and Blue Earth Rivers was well suited for building and for river traffic, and yet safe from flooding. On December 26,1862, the US Army carried out the largest mass execution in U. S. history at Mankato following the Dakota War of 1862, thirty-eight Dakota Native Americans were hanged for their parts in the uprising. A military tribunal had sentenced 303 to death, President Lincoln reviewed the record and pardoned 265, believing they had been involved in legitimate defense against military forces. Episcopal Bishop Henry Benjamin Whipple had urged leniency in the case, lincolns intervention was not popular at the time. Two commemorative statues are located on the site of the hangings, in 1880, Mankato ranked fourth in size in the state. Former Vice President Schuyler Colfax died while traveling in Mankato on January 13,1885, Mankato served as the basis for the Deep Valley of Maud Hart Lovelaces Betsy-Tacy series of childrens books and novels
14.
South Bend, Indiana
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South Bend is a city in and the county seat of St. Joseph County, Indiana, United States, on the St. Joseph River near its southernmost bend, from which it derives its name. As of the 2010 census, the city had a total of 101,168 residents, its Metropolitan Statistical Area had a population of 318,586 and it is the fourth-largest city in Indiana, serving as the economic and cultural hub of Northern Indiana. The highly ranked University of Notre Dame is located just to the north in unincorporated Notre Dame, the area was originally settled in the early 19th century by fur traders and was established as a city in 1865. The St. Joseph River shaped South Bends economy through the mid-20th century, River access assisted heavy industrial development such as that of the Studebaker Corporation, the Oliver Chilled Plow Company, and other large corporations. The population of South Bend declined after 1960, when it had a population of 132,445. This was chiefly due to migration to areas as well as the demise of Studebaker and other heavy industry. Today, the largest industries in South Bend are health care, education, small business, remaining large corporations include Crowe Horwath, Honeywell, and AM General. Recently, the city population has started to grow for the first time in fifty years. The old Studebaker plant and surrounding area, now called Ignition Park, is being redeveloped as a center to attract new industry. The St. Joseph Valley was long occupied by Native Americans, one of the earliest known groups to occupy what would later become northern Indiana was the Miami tribe. Later, the Potawatomi moved into the region, utilizing the rich food, the Potawatomi occupied this region of Indiana until most of them were forcibly removed in the 1840s. The South Bend area was so popular because its portage was the shortest overland route from the St. Joseph River to the Kankakee River and this route was used for centuries, first by the Native Americans, then by French explorers, missionaries and traders. The first permanent white settlers of South Bend were fur traders who established trading posts in the area, in 1820, Pierre Frieschutz Navarre arrived, representing the American Fur Company of John Jacob Astor. He settled near what is now downtown South Bend, alexis Coquillard, another agent of the AFC, established a trading post known as the Big St. Joseph Station. In 1827, Lathrop Minor Taylor established a post for Samuel Hanna and Company, in whose records the name St. Josephs, by 1829, the town was growing, with Coquillard and Taylor emerging as leaders. They applied for a post office, Taylor was appointed postmaster, and the post office was designated as Southold, Allen County, Indiana. The following year, the name was changed to South Bend, probably to ease confusion, in 1831, South Bend was laid out as the county seat and as one of the four original townships of St. Joseph County with 128 residents. Soon after, design began on what would become the town of South Bend, the town was formally established in 1835 and rapidly grew
15.
Republican Party (United States)
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The Republican Party, commonly referred to as the GOP, is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, the other being its historic rival, the Democratic Party. The party is named after republicanism, the dominant value during the American Revolution and it was founded by anti-slavery activists, modernists, ex-Whigs, and ex-Free Soilers in 1854. The Republicans dominated politics nationally and in the majority of northern States for most of the period between 1860 and 1932, there have been 19 Republican presidents, the most from any one party. The Republican Partys current ideology is American conservatism, which contrasts with the Democrats more progressive platform, further, its platform involves support for free market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defense, deregulation, and restrictions on labor unions. In addition to advocating for economic policies, the Republican Party is socially conservative. As of 2017, the GOP is documented as being at its strongest position politically since 1928, in addition to holding the Presidency, the Republicans control the 115th United States Congress, having majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a majority of governorships and state legislatures, the main cause was opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise by which slavery was kept out of Kansas. The Northern Republicans saw the expansion of slavery as a great evil, the first public meeting of the general anti-Nebraska movement where the name Republican was suggested for a new anti-slavery party was held on March 20,1854, in a schoolhouse in Ripon, Wisconsin. The name was chosen to pay homage to Thomas Jeffersons Republican Party. The first official party convention was held on July 6,1854, in Jackson and it oversaw the preserving of the union, the end of slavery, and the provision of equal rights to all men in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877. The Republicans initial base was in the Northeast and the upper Midwest, with the realignment of parties and voters in the Third Party System, the strong run of John C. Fremont in the 1856 United States presidential election demonstrated it dominated most northern states, early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan free labor, free land, free men, which had been coined by Salmon P. Chase, a Senator from Ohio. Free labor referred to the Republican opposition to labor and belief in independent artisans. Free land referred to Republican opposition to the system whereby slaveowners could buy up all the good farm land. The Party strove to contain the expansion of slavery, which would cause the collapse of the slave power, Lincoln, representing the fast-growing western states, won the Republican nomination in 1860 and subsequently won the presidency. The party took on the mission of preserving the Union, and destroying slavery during the American Civil War, in the election of 1864, it united with War Democrats to nominate Lincoln on the National Union Party ticket. The partys success created factionalism within the party in the 1870s and those who felt that Reconstruction had been accomplished and was continued mostly to promote the large-scale corruption tolerated by President Ulysses S. Grant ran Horace Greeley for the presidency. The Stalwarts defended Grant and the system, the Half-Breeds led by Chester A. Arthur pushed for reform of the civil service in 1883
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Whig Party (United States)
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The Whig Party was a political party active in the middle of the 19th century in the United States. Four US presidents belonged to the party while in office and it emerged in the 1830s as the immediate successor to the National Republican and Anti-Masonic Parties, and was also rooted in the tradition of the Federalist Party. Along with the rival Democratic Party, it was central to the Second Party System from the early 1840s to the mid-1860s and it originally formed in opposition to the policies of President Andrew Jackson and his Democratic Party. In particular, the Whigs supported the supremacy of the US Congress over the Presidency and favored a program of modernization, banking and it appealed to entrepreneurs, planters, reformers and the emerging urban middle class, but had little appeal to farmers or unskilled workers. It included many active Protestants, and voiced a moralistic opposition to the Jacksonian Indian removal, Party founders chose the Whig name to echo the American Whigs of the 18th century who fought for independence. The underlying political philosophy of the American Whig Party was not directly related to the British Whig party, the Whig Party nominated several presidential candidates in 1836. General William Henry Harrison of Ohio was nominated in 1840, former Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky in 1844, another war hero, General Winfield Scott of New Jersey was the Whig Partys last presidential nominee, in 1852. In its two decades of existence, the Whig Party had two of its candidates, Harrison and Taylor, elected president, John Tyler succeeded to the presidency after Harrisons death in 1841, but was expelled from the party later that year. Millard Fillmore, who became president after Taylors death in 1850, was the last Whig president, the party fell apart because of the internal tension over the expansion of slavery to the territories. Most Whig Party leaders eventually quit politics or changed parties, the northern voter base mostly gravitated to the new Republican Party. In the South, most joined the Know Nothing Party, which unsuccessfully ran Fillmore in the 1856 presidential election, the Constitutional Union Party experienced significant success from conservative former Whigs in the Upper South during the 1860 presidential election. Whig ideology as a policy orientation persisted for decades and played a role in shaping the modernizing policies of the state governments during Reconstruction. The name Whig derived from a term that Patriots used to refer to themselves during the American Revolution and it indicated hostility to the British Sovereign, and despite the identical name, did not directly derive from the British Whig Party. The American Whigs were modernizers who saw President Andrew Jackson as a man on horseback with a reactionary opposition to the forces of social, economic. Casting their enemy as King Andrew, they sought to identify themselves as opponents of governmental overreaching. Despite the apparent unity of Jeffersons Democratic-Republicans from 1800 to 1824, as Jackson purged his opponents, vetoed internal improvements, and killed the Second Bank of the United States, alarmed local elites fought back. In 1831, Henry Clay re-entered the Senate and started planning a new party and he defended national rather than sectional interests. His Jacksonian opponents, however, distrusted the government and opposed all federal aid for internal improvements
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John Nance Garner
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John Nance Garner IV, known among his contemporaries as Cactus Jack, was an American Democratic politician and lawyer from Texas. He was a Texas state representative from 1898 to 1902, and U. S and he was the 39th Speaker of the House from 1931 to 1933. In 1932 and 1936 he was elected the 32nd Vice President of the United States, a conservative Southerner, Garner opposed the sit-down strikes of the labor unions and the New Deals deficit spending. Garner was born in the village of Detroit in Red River County in northeastern Texas, to John Nance Garner III and his wife, Garners home place still stands today, approximately two blocks from the tiny towns center. Garner attended Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee, for one semester before dropping out and he was a member of the Pi Kappa Alpha fraternity. He eventually studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1890, in 1893, Garner entered politics, running for county judge of Uvalde County. At that time, Democrats entirely dominated politics in Texas, thus the Democratic primary election was the real election, with the general election being a formality. Garner was opposed in the County Judge primary by a woman—Mariette Rheiner, Two years later, on 25 November 1895, she married Garner in Sabinal, Texas. They had one child, Tully Charles Garner, Garner was elected County Judge, and served until 1896. Garner was elected to the Texas House of Representatives in 1898, during his service, the legislature selected a state flower for Texas. Garner fervently supported the prickly pear cactus for the honor and thus earned the nickname Cactus Jack and this ended challenges to Democratic power, disfranchised most minority voters until the 1960s, and Texas became a one-party state. He was elected from the district fourteen subsequent times, serving until 1933 and his wife was paid and worked as his private secretary during this period. Garner was chosen to serve as minority leader for the Democrats in 1929, and in 1931 as Speaker of the United States House of Representatives. Garner supported passage of the income tax but opposed most tariffs except for those on wool and mohair. He also believed in investment, bringing taxpayer dollars to farmers of the Brush Country region of South Texas. Garner was popular with his fellow House members in both parties and he held what he called his board of education during the era of Prohibition, a gathering spot for lawmakers to drink alcohol, or as Garner called it, strike a blow for liberty. In 1932, Garner ran for the Democratic Presidential nomination and it became evident that Franklin D. Garner cut a deal with Roosevelt, becoming his Vice-Presidential candidate, Garner was re-elected to the Seventy-third Congress on November 8,1932, and on the same day was elected Vice President of the United States
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Union Pacific Railroad
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The Union Pacific Railroad is a freight hauling railroad that operates 8,500 locomotives over 32,100 route-miles in 23 states west of Chicago, Illinois and New Orleans, Louisiana. The Union Pacific Railroad network is the largest in the United States and it is also one of the worlds largest transportation companies. Union Pacific Railroad is the operating company of Union Pacific Corporation. Union Pacific Corporations main competitor is the BNSF Railway, the second largest freight railroad. Together, the two railroads have a duopoly on all freight rail lines in the U. S. The original company was incorporated on July 1,1862, under an act of Congress entitled Pacific Railroad Act of 1862. The act was approved by President Abraham Lincoln, and it provided for the construction of railroads from the Missouri River to the Pacific as a war measure for the preservation of the Union. It was constructed westward from Council Bluffs, Iowa to meet the Central Pacific Railroad line, the line was constructed primarily by Irish labor who had learned their craft during the recent Civil War. The two lines were joined together at Promontory Summit, Utah,53 miles west of Ogden on May 10,1869, hence creating the first transcontinental railroad in North America. Under the guidance of its dominant stockholder Dr. Thomas Clark Durant, the namesake of the city of Durant, Iowa, the first rails were laid in Omaha. It built or purchased local lines that gave it access to Denver, Colorado, to Portland, Oregon and it also owned narrow gauge trackage into the heart of the Colorado Rockies and a standard gauge line south from Denver across New Mexico into Texas. UP was entangled in the Crédit Mobilier scandal, exposed in 1872 and its independent construction company the Crédit Mobilier had bribed congressmen. The UP itself was not guilty but it did get bad publicity, the financial crisis of 1873 led to financial troubles but not bankruptcy. The company was reorganized as the Union Pacific Railway on January 24,1880, the new company declared bankruptcy during the Panic of 1893. When it emerged in 1897 it reverted to the original name, the corporate headquarters of the Union Pacific Corporation were located in New York City from its initial founding in the 1860s until Drew Lewis became CEO in the mid-1980s. He relocated it to Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, later the headquarters was shifted to Dallas, Texas, before relocating to Omaha to join the operating headquarters. From the ICC annual reports, except 1979 is from Moodys, on December 31,1925 UP-OSL-OWRN-LA&SL-StJ&GI operated 9,834 route-miles and 15,265 track-miles. At the end of 1980, Union Pacific operated 9,266 route-miles and 15,647 miles of track, Moodys shows 220,697 million revenue ton-miles in 1993 on the expanded system
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First Transcontinental Railroad
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The rail line was built by three private companies over public lands provided by extensive US land grants. Construction was financed by state and US government subsidy bonds as well as by company issued mortgage bonds. The Western Pacific Railroad Company built 132 mi of track from Oakland/Alameda to Sacramento, the Central Pacific Railroad Company of California constructed 690 mi eastward from Sacramento to Promontory Summit, Utah Territory. And the Union Pacific built 1,085 mi from the eastern terminus at Council Bluffs near Omaha. The railroad opened for traffic on May 10,1869 when CPRR President Leland Stanford ceremonially drove the gold Last Spike with a silver hammer at Promontory Summit. The coast-to-coast railroad connection revolutionized the settlement and economy of the American West and it brought the western states and territories into alignment with the northern Union states and made transporting passengers and goods coast-to-coast considerably quicker and less expensive. Paddle steamers linked Sacramento to the cities and their facilities in the San Francisco Bay until 1869. The roads rail terminus was moved two months later to the Oakland Long Wharf about a mile to the north, Service between San Francisco and Oakland Pier continued to be provided by ferry. The CPRR eventually purchased 53 miles of UPRR-built grade from Promontory Summit to Ogden, the transcontinental line was popularly known as the Overland Route after the principal passenger rail service that operated over the length of the line until 1962. In 1847 he submitted to the U. S. Congress a Proposal for a Charter to Build a Railroad from Lake Michigan to the Pacific Ocean, Congress agreed to support the idea. Under the direction of the Department of War, the Pacific Railroad Surveys were conducted from 1853 through 1855 and these included an extensive series of expeditions of the American West seeking possible routes. A report on the explorations described alternative routes and included an amount of information about the American West. It included the natural history and illustrations of reptiles, amphibians, birds. The report failed however to include detailed maps of potential routes needed to estimate the feasibility, cost. This in part motivated the United States to complete the Gadsden Purchase, the U. S. Congress was strongly divided on where the eastern terminus of the railroad should be—in a southern or northern city. Three routes were considered, A northern route roughly along the Missouri River through present-day northern Montana to Oregon Territory and this was considered impractical due to the rough terrain and extensive winter snows. A central route following the Platte River in Nebraska through to the South Pass in Wyoming, following most of the Oregon Trail, snow on this route remained a concern. A southern route across Texas, New Mexico Territory, the Sonora desert, connecting to Los Angeles, surveyors found during a 1848 survey that the best route lay south of the border between the United States and Mexico
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Rock Rapids, Iowa
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Rock Rapids is a city in Lyon County, Iowa, United States. It is the county seat of Lyon County, the population was 2,549 in the 2010 census, a decline from 2,573 in the 2000 census. A post office called Rock Rapids has been in operation since 1871, the city was named from the falls on the Rock River. Rock Rapids is located at 43°25′41″N 96°10′7″W, along the Rock River, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 3.96 square miles, all of it land. As of the census of 2010, there were 2,549 people,1,083 households, the population density was 643.7 inhabitants per square mile. There were 1,207 housing units at a density of 304.8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 98. 2% White,0. 2% African American,0. 1% Native American,0. 1% Asian,0. 8% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 8% of the population. 33. 7% of all households were made up of individuals and 18. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.28 and the average family size was 2.92. The median age in the city was 42.1 years. 24. 4% of residents were under the age of 18,6. 2% were between the ages of 18 and 24, 23% were from 25 to 44,24. 6% were from 45 to 64, and 21. 9% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47. 1% male and 52. 9% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 2,573 people,1,085 households, and 720 families residing in the city. The population density was 650.2 people per square mile, there were 1,160 housing units at an average density of 293.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 99. 14% White,0. 16% African American,0. 04% Native American,0. 35% Asian,0. 04% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 23% of the population. 31. 3% of all households were made up of individuals and 17. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.28 and the average family size was 2.86. 23. 5% are under the age of 18,6. 2% from 18 to 24,22. 5% from 25 to 44,21. 7% from 45 to 64, the median age was 43 years. For every 100 females there were 87.8 males, for every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 81.8 males. The median income for a household in the city was $35,135, males had a median income of $30,691 versus $19,425 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,035, about 3. 4% of families and 7. 5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7. 0% of those under age 18 and 12. 5% of those age 65 or over
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William Colfax
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William Colfax was a revolutionary war figure who served as Captain of George Washingtons Life Guard beginning on March 18,1778. William was the child born to George Colfax and Lucy Avery. Colfax was about 5-10 tall and weighed about 190-200 lbs and he had blue eyes, dark hair, and was clean shaven. His hair was powdered and worn in a cue, tied with a black ribbon and he was married to Hester Schuyler, cousin of Philip Schuyler, of Pompton on August 27,1783, together they had six children. Together they lived in Hesters inherited Schuyler-Colfax House in Wayne, New Jersey and their grandson was Schuyler Colfax, the 17th Vice President of the United States. When Colfax was 17 years old, he was commissioned as a Lieutenant in the Continental Army leading him to be present at the Battle of Bunker Hill in 1775. Colfax was wounded three times in battle during the war, one of those times was at the Battle of White Plains in October 1776, another was on July 3,1781, four miles from Valentines Hill north of New York City near Kingsbridge. Upon one occasion, when he was in the act of giving the word of command to his men, a bullet struck his sword, shattering the blade. On another occasion, also riding on horseback in an exposed position a bullet was sent through his body, just above the hip and below the bowels, entering in front. The long buff waistcoat he wore at the time is preserved by his grandchildren, in the excitement of the battle the Colfax did not notice the wound, but still galloped from point to point over the field delivering orders. Some Hessian soldiers, who had taken prisoners, saw the blood streaming from his side and into his boot. As he kept on in the some of his own men saw the blood flow and cried to him. The blood is running out of your boot, looking down, he noticed his condition for the first time and recognized that it must be serious, and rode over toward the field hospital. Dr. Ledyard looked at the wound and bade him go at once into the hospital, and stay in, the excitement over, the wounded Colfax succumbed to the loss of blood and grew faint and weak as a child. After hurriedly examining and dressing the injury, Dr. Ledyard subsequently asked, Do you want to be cured quickly, to which the Captain replied, As quickly as possible. The Surgeon promptly applied the bistouri, tore tho wound open and dressed it, however, recovery was attended by an eruption of boils, covering Colfax from head to heels. Washington seeing the state of his Captain, told him, You are in a deplorable condition, Colfax persisted in staying with the army till they went into winter quarters at Morristown, in the winter of 1779-80. During that season he went home to Connecticut on horseback through snow in March so deep that he rode over the fence-tops and he returned greatly improved in health, and was with the army till the close of the war
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George Washington
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George Washington was an American politician and soldier who served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and he is popularly considered the driving force behind the nations establishment and came to be known as the father of the country, both during his lifetime and to this day. Washington was widely admired for his leadership qualities and was unanimously elected president by the Electoral College in the first two national elections. Washingtons incumbency established many precedents still in use today, such as the system, the inaugural address. His retirement from office two terms established a tradition that lasted until 1940 when Franklin Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term. The 22nd Amendment now limits the president to two elected terms and he was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia to a family of wealthy planters who owned tobacco plantations and slaves, which he inherited. In his youth, he became an officer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the French. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress commissioned him as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, in that command, Washington forced the British out of Boston in 1776 but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the middle of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey, and restored momentum to the Patriot cause and his strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies, after victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism. Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which devised a new form of government for the United States. Following his election as president in 1789, he worked to unify rival factions in the fledgling nation and he supported Alexander Hamiltons programs to satisfy all debts, federal and state, established a permanent seat of government, implemented an effective tax system, and created a national bank. In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795 and he remained non-partisan, never joining the Federalist Party, although he largely supported its policies. Washingtons Farewell Address was a primer on civic virtue, warning against partisanship, sectionalism. He retired from the presidency in 1797, returning to his home, upon his death, Washington was eulogized as first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen by Representative Henry Lee III of Virginia. He was revered in life and in death, scholarly and public polling consistently ranks him among the top three presidents in American history and he has been depicted and remembered in monuments, public works, currency, and other dedications to the present day. He was born on February 11,1731, according to the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar was adopted within the British Empire in 1752, and it renders a birth date of February 22,1732. Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from Sulgrave and his great-grandfather John Washington emigrated to Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence and his grandson, Georges father Augustine
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American Revolution
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The British responded by imposing punitive laws on Massachusetts in 1774 known as the Coercive Acts, following which Patriots in the other colonies rallied behind Massachusetts. Tensions escalated to the outbreak of fighting between Patriot militia and British regulars at Lexington and Concord in April 1775, the conflict then developed into a global war, during which the Patriots fought the British and Loyalists in what became known as the American Revolutionary War. The Continental Congress determined King George IIIs rule to be tyrannical and infringing the rights as Englishmen. The Patriot leadership professed the political philosophies of liberalism and republicanism to reject monarchy and aristocracy, Congress rejected British proposals requiring allegiance to the monarchy and abandonment of independence. The British were forced out of Boston in 1776, but then captured and they blockaded the ports and captured other cities for brief periods, but failed to defeat Washingtons forces. After a failed Patriot invasion of Canada, a British army was captured at the Battle of Saratoga in late 1777, a combined American–French force captured a second British army at Yorktown in 1781, effectively ending the war in the United States. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 formally ended the conflict, confirming the new nations complete separation from the British Empire. The United States took possession of all the territory east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes, with the British retaining control of Canada. Among the significant results of the revolution was the creation of a new Constitution of the United States. Historians typically begin their histories of the American Revolution with the British victory in the French and Indian War in 1763, the lands west of Quebec and west of a line running along the crest of the Allegheny mountains became Indian territory, temporarily barred to settlement. For the prior history, see Thirteen Colonies, in 1764, Parliament passed the Currency Act to restrain the use of paper money which British merchants saw as a means to evade debt payments. Parliament also passed the Sugar Act, imposing customs duties on a number of articles, none did and Parliament passed the Stamp Act in March 1765 which imposed direct taxes on the colonies for the first time. All official documents, newspapers, almanacs, and pamphlets—even decks of playing cards—were required to have the stamps, the colonists did not object that the taxes were high, but because they had no representation in the Parliament. Benjamin Franklin testified in Parliament in 1766 that Americans already contributed heavily to the defense of the Empire, stationing a standing army in Great Britain during peacetime was politically unacceptable. London had to deal with 1,500 politically well-connected British officers who became redundant, in 1765, the Sons of Liberty formed. They used public demonstrations, boycott, violence, and threats of violence to ensure that the British tax laws were unenforceable, in Boston, the Sons of Liberty burned the records of the vice admiralty court and looted the home of chief justice Thomas Hutchinson. Several legislatures called for united action, and nine colonies sent delegates to the Stamp Act Congress in New York City in October 1765, moderates led by John Dickinson drew up a Declaration of Rights and Grievances stating that taxes passed without representation violated their rights as Englishmen. Colonists emphasized their determination by boycotting imports of British merchandise, the Parliament at Westminster saw itself as the supreme lawmaking authority throughout all British possessions and thus entitled to levy any tax without colonial approval
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New Jersey
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New Jersey is a state in the Northeastern and mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by New York, on the southeast and south by the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by Pennsylvania, New Jersey is the fourth-smallest state but the 11th-most populous and the most densely populated of the 50 United States. New Jersey lies entirely within the statistical areas of New York City. New Jersey was inhabited by Native Americans for more than 2,800 years, in the early 17th century, the Dutch and the Swedes made the first European settlements. New Jersey was the site of decisive battles during the American Revolutionary War in the 18th century. In the 19th century, factories in cities such as Camden, Paterson, Newark, Trenton, around 180 million years ago, during the Jurassic Period, New Jersey bordered North Africa. The pressure of the collision between North America and Africa gave rise to the Appalachian Mountains, around 18,000 years ago, the Ice Age resulted in glaciers that reached New Jersey. As the glaciers retreated, they left behind Lake Passaic, as well as rivers, swamps. New Jersey was originally settled by Native Americans, with the Lenni-Lenape being dominant at the time of contact, scheyichbi is the Lenape name for the land that is now New Jersey. The Lenape society was divided into clans that were based upon common female ancestors. These clans were organized into three distinct phratries identified by their animal sign, Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf and they first encountered the Dutch in the early 17th century, and their primary relationship with the Europeans was through fur trade. The Dutch became the first Europeans to lay claim to lands in New Jersey, the Dutch colony of New Netherland consisted of parts of modern Middle Atlantic states. Although the European principle of ownership was not recognized by the Lenape. The first to do so was Michiel Pauw who established a patronship called Pavonia in 1630 along the North River which eventually became the Bergen, peter Minuits purchase of lands along the Delaware River established the colony of New Sweden. During the English Civil War, the Channel Island of Jersey remained loyal to the British Crown and it was from the Royal Square in St. Helier that Charles II of England was proclaimed King in 1649, following the execution of his father, Charles I. The North American lands were divided by Charles II, who gave his brother, the Duke of York, the region between New England and Maryland as a proprietary colony. James then granted the land between the Hudson River and the Delaware River to two friends who had remained loyal through the English Civil War, Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton, the area was named the Province of New Jersey. Since the states inception, New Jersey has been characterized by ethnic, New England Congregationalists settled alongside Scots Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed migrants
25.
Militia
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For instance, the members of some U. S. Army National Guard units are considered professional soldiers, as they are trained to maintain the same standards as their full-time counterparts. Militias thus can be military or paramilitary, depending on the instance, some of the contexts in which the term militia is used include, Forces engaged in defense activity or service, to protect a community, its territory, property, and laws. The entire able-bodied population of a community, town, county, or state, a subset of these who may be legally penalized for failing to respond to a call-up. A subset of these who actually respond to a call-up, regardless of legal obligation, a private, non-government force, not necessarily directly supported or sanctioned by its government. An irregular armed force enabling its leader to exercise military, economic, an official reserve army, composed of citizen soldiers. Called by various names in different countries, such as the Army Reserve, National Guard, the national police forces in several former communist states such as the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact countries, but also in the non-aligned SFR Yugoslavia. The term was inherited in Russia and other former CIS countries, in France the equivalent term Milice has become tainted due to its use by notorious collaborators with Nazi Germany. A select militia is composed of a small, non-representative portion of the population, as regular military forces were insufficient to counter the British attackers, Santiago de Liniers drafted all males in the city capable of bearing arms into the military. These recruits included the peoples, who ranked low down in the social hierarchy. With these reinforcements, the British armies were twice defeated, the militias became a strong factor in the politics of the city afterwards, as a springboard from which the criollos could manifest their political ambitions. They were a key element in the success of the May Revolution, a decree by Mariano Moreno derogated the system of promotions involving criollos, allowing instead their promotion on military merit. The Argentine Civil War was waged by militias again, as both federalists and unitarians drafted common people into their ranks as part of ongoing conflicts and these irregular armies were organized at a provincial level, and assembled as leagues depending on political pacts. This system had declined by the 1870s, mainly due to the establishment of the modern Argentine Army, provincial militias were outlawed and decimated by the new army throughout the presidential terms of Mitre, Sarmiento, Avellaneda and Roca. Armenian militia also played a role in the Georgia-Abkhazia War of 1992–1993, in the Colony of New South Wales Governor Lachlan Macquarie proposed a colonial militia but the idea was rejected. Governor Ralph Darling felt a mounted force was more efficient than a militia. A military volunteer movement attracted wide interest during the Crimean War, following Federation, the various military reserve forces of the Commonwealth of Australia became the Citizen Military Force. In the beginning, members didnt have uniforms and often paraded in business attire and they were given instruction on guerrilla warfare, and later the private organization was taken over by the Australian Government and became part of the Australian Military Forces. After World War I, multiple militias formed as soldiers returned home to their villages, only to many of them occupied by Slovene
26.
Major general (United States)
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In the United States Army, United States Marine Corps, and United States Air Force, major general is a two-star general-officer rank, with the pay grade of O-8. Major general ranks above brigadier general and below lieutenant general, a major general typically commands division-sized units of 10,000 to 15,000 soldiers. Major general is equivalent to the rank of rear admiral in the United States Navy. The United States Code explicitly limits the number of general officers that may be on active duty at any given time. The total number of active duty general officers is capped at 231 for the Army,61 for the Marine Corps, some of these slots are reserved or finitely set by statute. This promotion board then generates a list of officers it recommends for promotion to general rank and this list is then sent to the service secretary and the Joint Chiefs of Staff for review before it can be sent to the President, through the Secretary of Defense for consideration. The President nominates officers to be promoted from this list with the advice of the Secretary of Defense, the secretary, and if applicable. The President may nominate any eligible officer who is not on the recommended list if it serves in the interest of the nation, the Senate must then confirm the nominee by a majority vote before the officer can be promoted. Once confirmed, the nominee is promoted to rank on assuming a position of office that requires an officer to hold the rank. For positions of office that are reserved by statute, the President nominates an officer for appointment to fill that position, since the grade of major general is permanent, the rank does not expire when the officer vacates a two-star position. Tour length varies depending on the position, by statute, and/or when the officer receives a new assignment or a promotion, in the case of the Air National Guard, they may also serve as The Adjutant General for their state, commonwealth or territory. Other than voluntary retirement, statute sets a number of mandates for retirement of general officers, all major generals must retire after five years in grade or 35 years of service, whichever is later, unless appointed for promotion or reappointed to grade to serve longer. Otherwise, all officers must retire the month after their 64th birthday. However, the Secretary of Defense may defer a general officers retirement until the officers 66th birthday, because there are a finite number of General Officer positions, one officer must retire before another can be promoted. As a result, general officers typically retire well in advance of the age and service limits. The rank of general was abolished in the U. S. Army by the Act of March 16,1802. Major general has been a rank in the U. S. Army ever since, to address this anomaly, Washington was posthumously promoted by Congress to the rank of General of the Armies of the United States in 1976. The position of Major General Commanding the Army was entitled to three stars according to General Order No.6 of March 13,1861
27.
Philip Schuyler
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Philip John Schuyler was a general in the American Revolution and a United States Senator from New York. He is usually known as Philip Schuyler, while his son is known as Philip J. Schuyler. Philip John Schuyler was born on November 201733 in Albany, New York, to Cornelia Van Cortlandt and Johannes Schuyler, prior to his fathers death on the eve of his eighth birthday, Schuyler attended the public school at Albany. Afterward, he was educated by tutors at the Van Cortlandt family estate at New Rochelle, in 1748 he began to study with Reverend Peter Strouppe at the New Rochelle French Protestant Church, where he learned French and mathematics. While he was at New Rochelle he also joined numerous trade expeditions where he met Iroquois leaders and he joined the British forces in 1755 during the French and Indian War, raised a company, and was commissioned as its Captain by his cousin, Lt. Later in that war, he served as a quartermaster, purchasing supplies, John Cochran, a brother-in-law who was the Director General of the Military Hospitals of the Continental Army. From 1761 to 1762, Schuyler made a trip to England to settle accounts from his work as quartermaster and he began construction on his home in Albany, later called Schuyler Mansion, during this time. He also began construction of his estate, at Saratoga. In 1768, Schuyler began his career as a member of the New York Assembly. During that time, his views came to be opposed to the colonial government, particularly in matters of trade. He was also made a Colonel in the militia for his support of Governor Henry Moore, Schuyler was elected to the Continental Congress in 1775, and served until he was appointed a Major General of the Continental Army in June. General Schuyler took command of the Northern Department, and planned the Invasion of Canada and his poor health required him to place Richard Montgomery in command of the invasion. In the summer of that year General John Burgoyne marched his British army south from Quebec over the valleys of Lakes Champlain, on the way he invested the small Colonial garrison occupying Fort Ticonderoga at the nexus of the two lakes. When General St. Clair abandoned Fort Ticonderoga in July, the Congress replaced Schuyler with General Horatio Gates, the British offensive was eventually stopped by Continental Army then under the command of Gates and Benedict Arnold in the Battle of Saratoga. That victory, the first wholesale defeat of a large British force, marked a point in the revolution. When Schuyler demanded a court martial to answer Gates charges, he was vindicated but resigned from the Army on April 19,1779 and he then served in two more sessions of the Continental Congress in 1779 and 1780. Schuyler was an member of the New York Society of the Cincinnati. After the war, he expanded his Saratoga estate to tens of thousands of acres, adding slaves, tenant farmers, a store, mills for flour, flax and his flax mill for the making of linen was the first one in America
28.
Sandy Hook
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Sandy Hook is a barrier spit in Middletown Township, Monmouth County, New Jersey, United States. The barrier spit, approximately 6 miles in length and varying from 0.1 to 1.0 mile wide, is located at the end of the Jersey Shore. It encloses the southern entrance of Lower New York Bay south of New York City, the Dutch called the area Sant Hoek, with the English Hook deriving from the Dutch Hoek, meaning spit of land. Most of Sandy Hook is currently owned and managed by the National Park Service as the Sandy Hook Unit of Gateway National Recreation Area. Geologically, Sandy Hook is a sand spit or barrier spit. On its western side, the peninsula encloses Sandy Hook Bay, the 2, 044-acre peninsula was discovered by Henry Hudson, and, historically, Sandy Hook has been a convenient anchorage for ships before proceeding into Upper New York Harbor. Sandy Hook is part of Middletown Township, although not contiguous with the rest of the Township, because the peninsula is a federal reservation, this technicality is essentially moot. The community of Highlands overlooks the part of the hook. Sandy Hook is owned by the federal government, most of it is managed by the National Park Service as the Sandy Hook Unit of Gateway National Recreation Area. The eastern shoreline consists of beaches, North Beach, Gunnison Beach. The southern part of the consists of public beaches, fishing areas, and the SeaGulls Nest. The peninsulas ocean-facing beaches are considered among the finest in New Jersey and are a destination for recreation in summer when seasonal ferries bring beachgoers. Gunnison Beach is one of the largest clothing optional beaches on the East Coast, there is a vocational school that was located at the tip of Sandy Hook called M. A. S. T. or The Marine Academy of Science and Technology. The school was destroyed by Hurricane Sandy in 2012, and rebuilt the subsequent year, Sandy Hook Lighthouse is located within the fort grounds, as is the Marine Academy of Science and Technology, a magnet high school, part of the Monmouth County Vocational School District. At the entrance to Fort Hancock is Guardian Park, a plaza dominated by two Nike missiles, some of the buildings of Fort Hancock are off-limits because their structural integrity is dubious. A controversial proposal was accepted to allow adaptive reuse of some of the buildings in Fort Hancock for private profit. The defunct U. S. Army post Fort Hancock at the end of the peninsula is open to the public. The Sandy Hook Nike station is one of a few stations that are still intact
29.
War of 1812
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Historians in the United States and Canada see it as a war in its own right, but the British often see it as a minor theatre of the Napoleonic Wars. By the wars end in early 1815, the key issues had been resolved, the view was shared in much of New England and for that reason the war was widely referred to there as Mr. Madison’s War. As a result, the primary British war goal was to defend their North American colonies, the war was fought in three theatres. Second, land and naval battles were fought on the U. S. –Canadian frontier, Third, large-scale battles were fought in the Southern United States and Gulf Coast. With the majority of its land and naval forces tied down in Europe fighting the Napoleonic Wars, early victories over poorly-led U. S. armies demonstrated that the conquest of the Canadas would prove more difficult than anticipated. Despite this, the U. S. was able to inflict serious defeats on Britains Native American allies, both governments were eager for a return to normality and peace negotiations began in Ghent in August 1814. This brought an Era of Good Feelings in which partisan animosity nearly vanished in the face of strengthened American nationalism, the war was also a major turning point in the development of the U. S. military, with militia being increasingly replaced by a more professional force. The U. S. also acquired permanent ownership of Spains Mobile District, the government of Canada declared a three-year commemoration of the War of 1812 in 2012, intended to offer historical lessons and celebrate 200 years of peace across the border. At the conclusion of the commemorations in 2014, a new national War of 1812 Monument was unveiled in Ottawa. The war is remembered in Britain primarily as a footnote in the much larger Napoleonic Wars occurring in Europe, historians have long debated the relative weight of the multiple reasons underlying the origins of the War of 1812. This section summarizes several contributing factors which resulted in the declaration of war by the United States, as Risjord notes, a powerful motivation for the Americans was the desire to uphold national honour in the face of what they considered to be British insults such as the Chesapeake–Leopard Affair. The approaching conflict was about violations of American rights, but it was also vindication of American identity. Americans at the time and historians since often called it the United States Second War of Independence, in 1807, Britain introduced a series of trade restrictions via a series of Orders in Council to impede neutral trade with France, with which Britain was at war. The United States contested these restrictions as illegal under international law, the American merchant marine had come close to doubling between 1802 and 1810, making it by far the largest neutral fleet. Britain was the largest trading partner, receiving 80% of U. S. cotton, the British public and press were resentful of the growing mercantile and commercial competition. The United States view was that Britains restrictions violated its right to trade with others, during the Napoleonic Wars, the Royal Navy expanded to 176 ships of the line and 600 ships overall, requiring 140,000 sailors to man. The United States believed that British deserters had a right to become U. S. citizens and this meant that in addition to recovering naval deserters, it considered any United States citizens who were born British liable for impressment. Aggravating the situation was the reluctance of the United States to issue formal naturalization papers and it was estimated by the Admiralty that there were 11,000 naturalized sailors on United States ships in 1805
30.
New Carlisle, Indiana
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New Carlisle is a suburban town in Olive Township, St. Joseph County, in the U. S. state of Indiana. The population was 1,861 at the 2010 Census and it is part of the South Bend–Mishawaka, IN-MI, Metropolitan Statistical Area. New Carlisle was originally known as Bourissa Hills and this was named after Lazarus Bourissa, a Potawatamie graduate of the Carey Mission who had been granted this section of land by the treaty that moved most of the Potawatamie to the west. It was platted under the name of New Carlisle, by Richard Risley Carlisle, the New Carlisle post office has been in operation since 1837. The New Carlisle Historic District and Jeremiah Service House are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, New Carlisle is located at 41°42′15″N 86°30′17″W. According to the 2010 census, New Carlisle has an area of 2.08 square miles. A nice place to visit, A great place to live is written on the curve before the viaduct, as of the census of 2010, there were 1,861 people,719 households, and 520 families residing in the town. The population density was 890.4 inhabitants per square mile, there were 795 housing units at an average density of 380.4 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 96. 0% White,0. 8% African American,0. 6% Native American,0. 4% Asian,0. 2% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 3% of the population. 23. 6% of all households were made up of individuals and 9. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.59 and the average family size was 3.04. The median age in the town was 36.1 years. 28. 2% of residents were under the age of 18, 8% were between the ages of 18 and 24,25. 2% were from 25 to 44,26. 8% were from 45 to 64, and 11. 9% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 47. 9% male and 52. 1% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 1,505 people,608 households, and 403 families residing in the town. The population density was 820.3 people per square mile, there were 633 housing units at an average density of 345.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 98. 01% White,0. 47% African American,0. 33% Native American,0. 07% Asian,0. 33% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 13% of the population. 28. 3% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.48 and the average family size was 3.07. In the town, the population was out with 28. 0% under the age of 18,7. 0% from 18 to 24,29. 0% from 25 to 44,21. 5% from 45 to 64. The median age was 36 years, for every 100 females there were 86.5 males
31.
St. Joseph County, Indiana
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St. Joseph County, commonly called St. Joe County by locals, is a county located in the U. S. state of Indiana. As of Census 2010, the population was 266,931, formed in 1830, it was named for the St. Joseph River which flows through it toward Lake Michigan. The county seat is South Bend, St. Joseph County is part of the South Bend–Mishawaka, IN-MI, Metropolitan Statistical Area. According to the 2010 census, the county has an area of 461.38 square miles. Average monthly precipitation ranged from 1.98 inches in February to 4.19 inches in June, the county government is a constitutional body, and is granted specific powers by the Constitution of Indiana, and by the Indiana Code. County Council, The county council is the branch of the county government and controls all the spending. Representatives are elected from county districts, the council members serve four-year terms. They are responsible for setting salaries, the budget. The council also has limited authority to local taxes, in the form of an income and property tax that is subject to state level approval, excise taxes. Board of Commissioners, The executive body of the county is made of a board of commissioners, the commissioners are elected county-wide, in staggered terms, and each serves a four-year term. One of the commissioners, typically the most senior, serves as president, the commissioners are charged with executing the acts legislated by the council, collecting revenue, and managing the day-to-day functions of the county government. Court, The county maintains a small court that can handle some civil cases. The judge on the court is elected to a term of four years, the judge is assisted by a constable who is also elected to a four-year term. In some cases, court decisions can be appealed to the state circuit court. County Officials, The county has several other elected offices, including sheriff, coroner, auditor, treasurer, recorder, surveyor, each of these elected officers serves a term of four years and oversees a different part of county government. Members elected to county government positions are required to declare party affiliations, St. Joseph County is part of Indianas 2nd congressional district and is represented by Jackie Walorski in the United States Congress. Indianas US Senators are Dan Coats and Joe Donnelly, Donnelly represented the 2nd district immediately before Walorski and actually defeated Walorski in the 2010 General Election. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 266,931 people,103,069 households, the population density was 583.0 inhabitants per square mile
32.
Indiana Senate
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The Indiana Senate is the upper house of the Indiana General Assembly, the state legislature of the U. S. state of Indiana. The Senate is composed of 50 members representing a number of constituent districts. Senators serve four-year terms without term limits, according to the 2010 census, the average State Senator represents 129,676 people. The Senate convenes at the Indiana Statehouse in Indianapolis, Indiana, the Indiana State Senate is operated according to a set of internal regulations developed and maintained largely by tradition. These rules are similar to the rules that govern the house most of the state senates in the United States. The Senate convenes its annual session the first Tuesday following the first Monday of January every year, in odd numbered years the senate must meet for 61 days, and must adjourn no later than April 30. This is typically called a long session, in even numbered years, when elections are held, the Senate must meet for 30 days and adjourn no later than March 15. This is typically called the short session, the only time the senate may convene outside of these dates is if the Governor calls a special assembly. The senate must convene by 1,30 pm each day a session is scheduled, two thirds of the senators must be present for the session to begin. Senators must be present at each session unless they are excused by the president-pro-tempore. Members who are not present can be forced to attend the session or be censured and expelled from the body, the Lieutenant Governor of Indiana serves as the President of the Senate and is responsible for ensuring that the senate rules are followed by its members. The President of the Senate takes no part in the debates of the senate, the senate also elects a president-pro-tempore, a majority leader, and a minority leader. The president-pro-tempore is typically a member of majority party. The president-pro-tempore presides over the senate whenever the President of the Senate is not present, the president-pro-tempore is largely responsible for setting the agenda of the senate. When debate occurs in the senate, each senator is granted permission to speak on each issue once, a senator may not speak on an issue more than once without a permission from the rest of the senate, which is attained with a senate vote. A senator can speak for no longer than a half-hour at any one time, article 4 of the Constitution of Indiana places several limitation on the size and composition of the senate. The senate can contain no more than 50 members, the term of a senator lasts four years with 25 senators being elected every two years. There is no limit to how many terms a senator may be elected, article 4 of the Constitution of Indiana states the qualifications to become a senator
33.
New-York Tribune
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The New-York Tribune was an American newspaper, first established by Horace Greeley in 1841. Between 1842 and 1866, the newspaper bore the name New-York Daily Tribune, from the 1840s through the 1860s it was the dominant Whig Party and then Republican newspaper in the U. S. The paper achieved a circulation of approximately 200,000 during the decade of the 1850s, making it the largest in New York City, the Tribunes editorials were widely read and helped shape national opinion. In 1924 it was merged with the New York Herald to form the New York Herald Tribune, Greeley had previously published a weekly newspaper, The New Yorker, in 1833, and was also publisher of the Whig Partys political organ, Log Cabin. In 1841, he merged operations of two publications into a new newspaper, the New-York Tribune. The Tribune did reflect some of Horace Greeleys idealist views, the journal retained Karl Marx as its London-based European correspondent in 1852. The arrangement provided Marx with much needed income during a period of his life in which his friend, the arrangement, whereby Engels also submitted articles under Marxs by-line, lasted ten years, with the final Marx column being published in February 1862. In 1854 the paper joined the newly formed Republican Party—Greeley chose the partys name—and emphasized opposition to slavery, during the American Civil War the Tribune usually spoke for the Radical Republican faction that was very hostile to the Confederacy and wanted slavery abolished immediately. The paper generated a large readership, with a circulation of approximately 200,000 during the decade of the 1850s. This made the paper the largest circulation daily in New York City and perhaps in the entire United States — gaining commensurate influence among voters and political decision-makers in the process. After the failure of the Peninsular Campaign in the spring of 1862, during the 1863 Draft Riots a mob tried to burn down the Tribune building which lacked the Gatling guns of the nearby New York Times. Following Greeleys defeat by Ulysses S. Grant for the presidency of the United States in 1872, Greeley checked into Dr. Choates Sanitarium where he died a few weeks later. In 1886, the Tribune became the first publication to be printed on a linotype machine, which allowed it to exceed the standard newspaper size of eight pages. Under Reids son, Ogden Mills Reid, the acquired the New York Herald in 1924 to form the New York Herald Tribune. Copies of the New-York Tribune are available on microfilm at large libraries. Also, indices from selected years in the nineteenth century are available on the Library of Congress website. The original paper articles from the newspapers morgue are kept at The Center for American History at the University of Texas at Austin, a new New York Tribune debuted in 1976 in New York City. The paper, which was originally named The News World and later changed to The New York City Tribune, was published by News World Communications, Inc. owned by the Unification Church
34.
Horace Greeley
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Horace Greeley was founder and editor of the New-York Tribune, among the great newspapers of its time. Greeley was born to a family in Amherst, New Hampshire. He was apprenticed to a printer in Vermont and went to New York City in 1831 to seek his fortune and he wrote for or edited several publications and involved himself in Whig Party politics, taking a significant part in William Henry Harrisons successful 1840 presidential campaign. The following year, he founded the Tribune, which became the newspaper in the country through weekly editions sent by mail. Among many other issues, he urged the settlement of the American West, which he saw as a land of opportunity for the young and the unemployed. He popularized the phrase Go West, young man, and grow up with the country, Greeleys alliance with William H. Seward and Thurlow Weed led to him serving three months in the House of Representatives, where he angered many by investigating Congress in his newspaper. In 1854, he helped found and may have named the Republican Party, Republican newspapers across the nation regularly reprinted his editorials. During the Civil War, he mostly supported Lincoln, though urging him to commit to the end of slavery before the President was willing to do so, after Lincolns assassination, he supported the Radical Republicans in opposition to President Andrew Johnson. He broke with Republican president Ulysses Grant because of corruption and Greeleys sense that Reconstruction policies were no longer needed, Greeley was the new Liberal Republican Partys candidate in the 1872 U. S. presidential election. He lost in a landslide, despite having the support of the Democratic Party. He was devastated by the death of his wife, who died five days before the election, Horace Greeley was born on February 3,1811, on a farm about five miles from Amherst, New Hampshire. He could not breathe for the first twenty minutes of his life and he was of English descent, and his forebears included early settlers of Massachusetts and New Hampshire. Greeley was the son of poor farmers Zaccheus and Mary Greeley, Zaccheus was not successful, and moved his family several times, as far west as Pennsylvania. Horace attended the schools, and was a brilliant student. Seeing the boys intelligence, some neighbors offered to pay Horaces way at Phillips Exeter Academy, in 1820, Zaccheuss financial reverses caused him to flee New Hampshire with his family lest he be imprisoned for debt, and settle in Vermont. Even as his father struggled to make a living as a hired hand, in 1822, Horace ran away from home to become a printers apprentice, but was told he was too young. In 1826, at age 15, he was made an apprentice to Amos Bliss, editor of the Northern Spectator. There, he learned the mechanics of a job, and acquired a reputation as the town encyclopedia
35.
Benjamin Wade
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Benjamin Franklin Bluff Wade was a United States Senator during Civil War reconstruction known for his leading role among the Radical Republicans. Had the impeachment of Andrew Johnson in 1868 led to a conviction at the trial in the Senate, he would have assumed the presidential powers, Wade was born in Feeding Hills, Massachusetts, on October 27,1800 to Mary and James Wade. Benjamin Wades first job was as a laborer on the Erie Canal and he also taught school before studying law in Ohio with Elisha Whittlesey. After being admitted to the bar in 1828, he began practicing law in Jefferson, Wade formed a partnership with Joshua Giddings, a prominent anti-slavery figure, in 1831. He became the attorney of Ashtabula County by 1836, and as a member of the Whig Party, Wade was elected to the Ohio State Senate. He established a new law practice with Rufus P. Ranney and was elected presiding judge of the district in 1847. Between 1847 and 1851, Wade was a judge of common pleas in what is now Summit County, after the decline of the Whigs power, Wade joined the Republican Party, and in 1851 he was elected by his legislature to the United States Senate. There, he associated with such eventual Radical Republicans as Thaddeus Stevens and he fought against the controversial Fugitive Slave Act and the Kansas–Nebraska Act. He was one of the most radical politicians in America at that time, supporting womens suffrage, trade union rights and he was also critical of how certain aspects of capitalism were practiced in the 19th century. In March 1861, he became chairman of the Committee on Territories, there, he was almost captured by the Confederate Army. After arriving back at Washington, D. C. he was one of those who blamed the attack on the incompetence of the leadership of the Union Army. Wade was also critical of Lincolns Reconstruction Plan, in December 1863, he and Henry Winter Davis sponsored a bill that would run the South, when conquered, their way. The Wade–Davis Bill mandated that there be a fifty-percent White male Iron-Clad Loyalty Oath, Black male suffrage, and Military Governors that were to be confirmed by the U. S. Senate. Tradition has it that Zachariah Chandler asked him if he plan on signing it or no. and Lincoln replied. On July 4,1864, he vetoed the bill by refusing to sign it. Lincoln later said that he didnt want to be held to one Reconstruction policy and this action drove Wade to sign, along with Davis, the Wade–Davis Manifesto, which accused the president of seeking reelection by the executive establishment of new state governments. On July 28,1866, the 39th Congress passed an act to adjust the peacetime establishment of the United States military, Wade proposed that two of the cavalry regiments should be composed of African American enlisted personnel. These units made up of black enlisted personnel and white officers were not the first of such units to serve on the Western Frontier, Wade, along with most other Radical Republicans, was highly critical of President Andrew Johnson
36.
1848 Whig National Convention
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The 1848 Whig National Convention was a quadrennial presidential nominating convention of the Whig Party. The convention was held in Philadelphia, War hero Zachary Taylor, a major general from Louisiana with no political background, was nominated as the partys candidate for president. Former New York Representative Millard Fillmore was nominated for vice president and they won the 1848 presidential election, defeating the Democratic candidates Lewis Cass and William O. Butler. The convention was quick, convening for only a day on June 7, Taylor had been courted by both the Democrats and the Whigs. Taylor ultimately declared himself a Whig, when delegates met in Philadelphia, Taylor secured 171 votes and won the presidential nomination on the fourth ballot. Former New York Representative Millard Fillmore was chosen as the presidential candidate on the second ballot. Several well-known political figures challenged Taylor for the nomination but failed to win enough votes at the convention, henry Clay, Winfield Scott, and Daniel Webster all sought the nomination. Webster was offered the vice presidential spot on the ticket, the Rise and Fall of the American Whig Party, Jacksonian Politics and the Onset of the Civil War
37.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
38.
Beta Theta Pi
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Beta Theta Pi is a North American social fraternity that was founded in 1839 at Miami University in Oxford, Ohio. One of North Americas oldest, the fraternity currently consists of 110 active chapters and 26 colonies in the United States, more than 300,000 members have been initiated worldwide and there are currently around 10,000 undergraduate members. Beta Theta Pi is the oldest of the three fraternities that formed the Miami Triad along with Phi Delta Theta and Sigma Chi, students at Miami University at the time of Betas founding had previously formed two rival literary societies, The Erodelphian and Union Literary Society. A student of the school, John Reily Knox began to members of both the Erodelphian and Union Literary Societies with the goal of creating a new fraternity. Beta Theta Pi was founded at 9,00 pm on Thursday, August 8,1839, the group held its first regular meeting in the Hall of the Union Literary Society, an upper room of the campus building known as Old Main. These are the underpinnings for their statement to develop men of principle for a principled life. In 1879, Beta Theta Pi became the first college fraternity to publish its constitution, the fraternity continues to guard certain secrets about membership. Similar to other fraternities, Beta Theta Pis code emphasizes international fellowship, cultural development, in August 1996, St. Lawrence University Chairman and Beta Theta Pi alumnus E. B. In response to Wilson and a number of difficulties, the Men of Principle initiative was started during the 1998–99 academic year. Three chapters, Nebraska, Georgia and Pennsylvania, were used as pilot chapters for the new program, after this first year of piloting, the Men of Principle initiative was officially introduced at the 160th General Convention in Oxford, in 1999. Before Men of Principle, the Fraternitys average chapter GPA was just above a 2.8, in 2016, the fraternitys GPA had risen to a 3.22. The average chapter size in 2016 was 77.2 men, in 1997, there was an average of two advisors per chapter, while as of 2016 there was an average of eight advisors working with each one of the chapters. Beta received some backlash for the initiative, between the beginning of the program in 1998 and 2013, its international headquarters closed 85 chapters for failing to comply with the Men of Principle initiative. As part of the Men of Principle initiative, Beta runs several programs for undergraduate members. In the 1996-97 academic year, before the initiative, Beta sent seven undergraduates to a development program — equivalent to 0.1 percent of the total undergraduate membership. In the 2015-16 academic year, nearly 2,000 Betas attended one of the fraternitys programs — or 20 percent of the undergraduate membership. All told, in the years since the introduction of Men of Principle, as part of a multi-year dispute over co-ed student housing issues, the Beta Theta Pi chapter at Wesleyan University had been refusing access to campus security personnel. In March 2010, Wesleyan issued a warning to students to avoid the chapter house, in October of that year a freshman was raped by a non-member, non-student at a Beta Theta Pi Halloween party
39.
DePauw University
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DePauw University in Greencastle, Indiana, is a private liberal arts college with an enrollment of approximately 2,400 students. The school has a Methodist heritage and was known as Indiana Asbury University. DePauw is a member of both the Great Lakes Colleges Association and the North Coast Athletic Conference, the Society of Professional Journalists was founded at DePauw. Indiana Asbury University was founded in 1837 in Greencastle, Indiana, and was named after Francis Asbury, the first American bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church. The people of Greencastle raised $25,000, equivalent to around $500,000 in 2007 terms, to entice the Methodists to found the college in Greencastle and it was originally established as an all mens school, but began admitting women in 1867. In 1884 Indiana Asbury University changed its name to DePauw University in honor of Washington C, DePauw, who made a sequence of substantial donations throughout the 1870s, which culminated in his largest single donation that established the School of Music during 1884. Before his death in 1887, DePauw donated over $600,000 to Indiana Asbury, in 2002, the school received the largest-ever gift to a liberal arts college, $128 million by the Holton family. Sigma Delta Chi, known today as the Society of Professional Journalists, was founded at the university in 1909 by a group of student journalists, the worlds first Greek-letter sorority, Kappa Alpha Theta, was also founded at DePauw in 1870. DePauw is home to the two longest continually running fraternity chapters in the world, the Delta Chapter of Beta Theta Pi, DePauw is home to Indianas first chapter of Phi Beta Kappa. DePauw University has an enrollment of about 2,400 students, students hail from 42 states and 32 countries with a 20. 4% multicultural enrollment. DePauw is ranked in the top tier of liberal arts colleges by 2016 U. S. News & World Report as #51 in the United States. DePauw Universitys schedule is divided into a 4–1–4 calendar, besides the 15-week Autumn and Spring Semesters, one survey of DePauw students found that over 80% of DePauw graduates studied abroad. Past internships for Winter Term include ABC News, KeyBanc Capital Markets, Riley Hospital for Children, DePauw University has a student-faculty ratio of 10,1 and has no classes with more than 35 students. The average class size is 15, all courses are taught by adjunct or permanent professors, there are no teaching assistants. Prominent faculty members include, Mona Bhan, associate professor of anthropology and author of Counterinsurgency, Democracy, founded in 1884, the school has about 170 students. The student to teacher ratio is 5,1 with a class size of 13 students. DePauw students can apply for entry to five Programs of Distinction, there are the Honor Scholars and Information Technology Associates programs as well as three fellowships in Management, Media, and Science Research. The Honor Scholar Program is a journey for talented students who want the highest level of intellectual rigor
40.
Know Nothing
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The Native American Party, renamed the American Party in 1855 and commonly known as the Know Nothing movement, was an American political party that operated nationally in the mid-1850s. The motivators of the Partys rise were,1. )Nativist sentiment caused by the sudden, unprecedented influx of German and Irish immigrants in the late 1840s,2. )A rapid, steep decline in wages caused by the sudden influx of very large numbers of Irish immigrants fleeing the potato famine,3. )The threat members perceived that the expansion of slavery into factory labor. In the eyes of supporters of both the Free Soil and Know Nothing movements, the existence of black slavery threatened to reduce free, white workers to wage slaves, and 4. )Fear that land in the western territories would be awarded to wealthy slave plantation owners rather than to white small farmers. It was due to fear that slavery would destroy the economic prospects of working families that the Party enrolled massive numbers of voters in the wake of the Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854. The Partys most prominent leaders were U. S, the American Party nominated former President Millard Fillmore in the 1856 presidential election. Anti-Catholicism had been a factor in colonial America but played little role in American politics until the arrival of large numbers of Irish and it then reemerged in nativist attacks on Catholic immigration. It appeared in New York politics as early as 1843, under the banner of the American Republican Party, the movement quickly spread to nearby states, using that name or Native American Party or variants of it. They succeeded in a number of local and Congressional elections, notably in 1844 in Philadelphia, in the early 1850s, numerous secret orders grew up, of which the Order of United Americans and the Order of the Star Spangled Banner came to be the most important. They merged in New York in the early 1850s as an order that quickly spread across the North, reaching non-Catholics. The name Know Nothing originated in the organization of the party. When a member was asked about its activities, he was supposed to reply, outsiders called them Know Nothings, and the name stuck. In 1855, the Know Nothings first entered politics under the American Party label, the immigration of large numbers of Irish and German Catholics to the United States in the period between 1830 and 1860 made religious differences between Catholics and Protestants a political issue. Violence occasionally erupted at the polls, Protestants alleged that Pope Pius IX had put down the failed liberal Revolutions of 1848 and that he was an opponent of liberty, democracy and Republicanism. One Boston minister described Catholicism as the ally of tyranny, the opponent of material prosperity, the foe of thrift, the enemy of the railroad, the caucus, and the school. In 1849, a secret society, the Order of the Star Spangled Banner, was created by Charles B. Allen in New York City. Fear of Catholic immigration led to a dissatisfaction with the Democratic Party, activists formed secret groups, coordinating their votes and throwing their weight behind candidates sympathetic to their cause. When asked about these organizations, members were to reply I know nothing. Immigration during the first five years of the 1850s reached a level five times greater than a decade earlier, most of the new arrivals were poor Catholic peasants or laborers from Ireland and Germany who crowded into the tenements of large cities
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Radical Republican
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The Radical Republicans were a faction of American politicians within the Republican Party of the United States from around 1854 until the end of Reconstruction in 1877. During the war, Radical Republicans often opposed Lincoln in terms of selection of generals, Radicals pushed for the uncompensated abolition of slavery, while Lincoln wanted to pay slave owners who were loyal to the Union. After the war, the Radicals demanded civil rights for freedmen and they initiated the various Reconstruction Acts, and limited political and voting rights for ex-Confederate civil officials, military officers and soldiers. They bitterly fought President Andrew Johnson, they weakened his powers and attempted to remove him from office through impeachment, the term radical was in common use in the anti-slavery movement before the Civil War, referring not to abolitionists but to Northern politicians strongly opposed to Slave Power. There was movement in both directions, some of the pre-war radicals became more conservative during the war, while some prewar moderates became Radicals, some wartime radicals had been conservative Democrats before the war, often taking proslavery positions. The Radicals were never organized, and there was movement in. Their most successful and systematic leader was Pennsylvania Congressman Thaddeus Stevens in the House of Representatives, the Democrats were strongly opposed to the Radicals, but they were generally a weak minority in politics until they took control of the House in the 1874 congressional elections. The moderate and conservative Republican factions usually opposed the radicals, Lincoln tried to build a multi-faction coalition, including radicals, conservatives, moderates, and War Democrats, while he was often opposed by the Radicals, he never ostracized them. Andrew Johnson was thought to be a Radical when he became president in 1865, Johnson, however, was so inept as a politician he was unable to form a cohesive support network. Finally in 1872, the Liberal Republicans, most of them ex-radicals, ran a presidential campaign and they argued that Grant and the Radicals were corrupt, and had imposed Reconstruction far too long on the South. They were overwhelmingly defeated and collapsed as a movement, on issues not concerned with the Slave Power, the destruction of the Confederacy, the eradication of slavery and the rights of the Freedmen, Radicals took positions all over the political map. For example, Radicals who had once been Whigs generally supported high tariffs, some men were for hard money and no inflation, and others were for soft money and inflation. On foreign policy issues, the Radicals and moderates generally did not take distinctive positions, after the 1860 elections, moderate Republicans dominated the Congress. Radical Republicans were often critical of Lincoln, who believed was too slow in freeing slaves. Lincoln put all factions in his cabinet, including Radicals like Salmon P. Chase, Lincoln appointed many Radical Republicans, such as journalist James Shepherd Pike, to key diplomatic positions. Angry with Lincoln, in 1864 some Radicals briefly formed a party called the Radical Democracy Party with John C. Frémont as their candidate for president, until Frémont withdrew, an important Republican opponent of the Radical Republicans was Henry Jarvis Raymond. Raymond was both editor of the New York Times and also a chairman of the Republican National Committee, in Congress the most influential Radical Republicans were U. S
