1.
Common scold
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The Latin name for the offender, communis rixatrix, appears in the feminine gender and makes it clear that only women could commit this crime. The offence, which was exported to North America with the colonists, was punishable by ducking, being placed in a chair, although rarely prosecuted it remained on the statute books in England and Wales until 1967. In the Commentaries on the Laws of England, Blackstone says of this offence, Lastly, the prescribed penalty for this offence involved dunking the convicted offender in water in an instrument called the cucking stool. The cucking stool, according to Blackstone, eventually known as a ducking stool by folk etymology. Other writers disagree with Blackstones assertion equating the two sorts of punishment seat, the Domesday Book notes the use of a cucking stool at Chester, a seat also known as cathedra stercoris, a dung chair, whose punishment apparently involved exposing the sitters buttocks to onlookers. This seat served to punish not only scolds, but also brewers and bakers who sold bad ale or bread, whereas the ducking stool dunked its victim into the water. Francois Maximilian Misson, a French traveller and writer, recorded the method used in England in the early 18th century, The way of punishing scolding women is pleasant enough. They set up a post on the bank of a pond or river, and over this post they lay, almost in equilibrio, the two pieces of wood, at one end of which the chair hangs just over the water. They place the woman in this chair and so plunge her into the water as often as the sentence directs, another method of ducking was to use the tumbrel, which consisted of a chair on two wheels with two long shafts fixed to the axles. This would be pushed into the pond and the shafts would be released, tipping the chair up backwards. A scolds bridle, known in Scotland as a brank, consists of a metal mask or head cage that contains a tab that fits in the mouth to inhibit talking. Some have claimed that convicted common scolds had to wear such a device as a preventive or punitive measure, legal sources do not mention them in the context of the punishment of common scolds, but there are anecdotal reports of their historical use as a public punishment. A plaque on the Fye Bridge in Norwich, England claims to mark the site of a stool. On her fourth conviction, the Kings Bench declined to dunk her again, and instead ordered her to pay a fine of three marks, and ordered her imprisoned until payment took place. And a 1780 poem by Benjamin West, who wrote that, There stands, my friend, in pool, An engine calld a ducking-stool, By legal powr commanded down, The joy. While these literary sources do not prove that the punishment still took place, in The Queen v. Foxby,6 Mod. 11, counsel for the stated that he knew of no law for the dunking of scolds. The tenor of Holts remarks however suggests that he found the punishment an antiquarian curiosity, the last recorded uses of the stool for ducking involve a Mrs. Ganble at Plymouth and Jenny Pipes, a notorious scold from Leominster
2.
New England
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New England is a geographical region comprising six states of the northeast United States, Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. It is bordered by the state of New York to the west and south, the Atlantic Ocean is to the east and southeast, and Long Island Sound is to the south. Its largest metropolitan area is Greater Boston, which also includes Worcester, Manchester, ten years later, more Puritans settled north of Plymouth Colony in Boston, thus forming Massachusetts Bay Colony. Over the next 126 years, people in the region fought in four French and Indian Wars, until the British and their Iroquois allies defeated the French and their Algonquin allies in North America. In 1692, the town of Salem, Massachusetts and surrounding areas experienced one of the most infamous cases of hysteria in the history of the Western Hemisphere. The Boston Tea Party was a protest to which Britain responded with a series of punitive laws stripping Massachusetts of self-government, the confrontation led to the first battles of the American Revolutionary War in 1775, and the expulsion of the British authorities from the region in spring 1776. Each state is subdivided into small incorporated municipalities known as towns. The only unincorporated areas in the region exist in the populated northern regions of Vermont, New Hampshire. The region is one of the U. S. Census Bureaus nine regional divisions, the earliest known inhabitants of New England were American Indians who spoke a variety of the Eastern Algonquian languages. Prominent tribes included the Abenaki, Mikmaq, Penobscot, Pequot, Mohegans, Narragansett Indians, Pocumtuck, prior to the arrival of Europeans, the Western Abenakis inhabited New Hampshire, New York, and Vermont, as well as parts of Quebec and western Maine. Their principal town was Norridgewock in present-day Maine, the Penobscot lived along the Penobscot River in Maine. The Narragansett and smaller tribes under Narragansett sovereignty lived in most of modern-day Rhode Island, west of Narragansett Bay, the Wampanoag occupied southeastern Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and the islands of Marthas Vineyard and Nantucket. The Pocumtucks lived in Western Massachusetts, and the Mohegan and Pequot tribes in the Connecticut region, the Connecticut River Valley includes parts of Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, and linked different indigenous communities culturally, linguistically, and politically. As early as 1600, French, Dutch, and English traders began exploring the New World, trading metal, glass, on April 10,1606, King James I of England issued a charter for each of the Virginia Companies, London and Plymouth. These were privately funded ventures, intended to land for England, conduct trade. In 1620, Plymouth in present-day Massachusetts was settled by Pilgrims from the Mayflower, in 1616, English explorer John Smith named the region New England. As the first colonists arrived in Plymouth, they wrote and signed the Mayflower Compact, the Massachusetts Bay Colony came to dominate the area and was established by royal charter in 1629 with its major town and port of Boston established in 1630. Massachusetts Puritans began to settle in Connecticut as early as 1633, roger Williams was banished from Massachusetts for heresy, led a group south, and founded Providence Plantation in the area that became the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations in 1636
3.
Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum
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The Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum is a museum and art gallery in Glasgow, Scotland. It reopened in 2006 after a refurbishment and since then has been one of Scotlands most popular visitor attractions. The gallery is located on Argyle Street, in the West End of the city and it is adjacent to Kelvingrove Park and is situated near the main campus of the University of Glasgow on Gilmorehill. The construction of Kelvingrove was partly financed by the proceeds of the 1888 International Exhibition held in Kelvingrove Park, the gallery was designed by Sir John W. Simpson and E. J. Milner Allen and opened in 1901, as the Palace of Fine Arts for the Glasgow International Exhibition held in that year, the centrepiece of the Centre Hall is a concert pipe organ constructed and installed by Lewis & Co. The organ was commissioned as part of the Glasgow International Exhibition. The organ was installed in the hall of the exhibition. The Centre Hall of the newly completed Art Gallery and Museum was intended from the beginning to be a space in which to hold concerts. When the 1901 exhibition ended, a Councillor urged the Glasgow Corporation to purchase the organ, stating that without it, purchase price and installation costs were met from the surplus exhibition proceeds, and the organ was installed in the Centre Hall by Lewis and Co. The present case front in walnut with non-functional display pipes was commissioned at this time from John W. Simpson, Simpson was the senior partner of Simpson & Milner Allen, architects of the gallery building. There is a myth in Glasgow, that the building was accidentally built back-to-front, and the architect jumped from one of the towers in despair. This is only an urban myth, the grand entrance was always intended to face into Kelvingrove Park. The museums collections came mainly from the McLellan Galleries and from the old Kelvingrove House Museum in Kelvingrove Park and it has one of the finest collections of arms and armour in the world and a vast natural history collection. The art collection includes many outstanding European artworks, including works by the Old Masters, French Impressionists, Dutch Renaissance, the museum houses Christ of Saint John of the Cross by Salvador Dalí. The copyright of this painting was bought by the curator at the time after a meeting with Dalí himself, for a period between 1993 and 2006, the painting was moved to the St Mungo Museum of Religious Life and Art. The museum also contains a gift of the decorative arts from Anne Hull Grundy. Kelvingrove was reopened by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II on 11 July 2006 after a closure for major refurbishment. The work cost around £28 million and includes a new restaurant, a new display layout and wayfinding scheme was introduced to make the building more visitor-friendly
4.
St Andrews
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St Andrews is a town on the east coast of Fife in Scotland,10 miles southeast of Dundee and 30 miles northeast of Edinburgh. The town is home to the University of St Andrews, the third oldest university in the English-speaking world, according to some rankings, it is ranked as the third best university in the United Kingdom, behind Oxbridge. The University is an part of the burgh and during term time students make up approximately one third of the towns population. St Andrews has a population of 16,800, the town is named after Saint Andrew the Apostle. There has been an important church in St Andrews since at least the 8th century, the settlement grew to the west of St Andrews cathedral with the southern side of the Scores to the north and the Kinness burn to the south. The burgh soon became the capital of Scotland, a position which was held until the Scottish Reformation. The famous cathedral, the largest in Scotland, now lies in ruins, St Andrews is also known worldwide as the home of golf. Visitors travel to St Andrews in great numbers for several courses ranked amongst the finest in the world, as well as for the sandy beaches. The Martyrs Memorial, erected to the honour of Patrick Hamilton, George Wishart, the civil parish has a population of 18,421. The earliest recorded name the area is Muckross, after the founding of a religious settlement in Muckross in around 370 AD, the name changed to Cennrígmonaid. This is Old Gaelic and composed of the elements cenn, ríg and this became Cell Rígmonaid and was anglicised Kilrymont. The modern Gaelic spelling is Cill Rìmhinn, the name St Andrews derives from the towns claim to be the resting place of bones of the apostle Andrew. According to legend, St Regulus brought the relics to Kilrymont and this is the origin of a third name for the town Kilrule. The first inhabitants who settled on the fringes of the rivers Tay. This was followed by the people who settled around the modern town around 4,500 BC as farmers clearing the area of woodland. In AD877, king Causantín mac Cináeda built a new church for the Culdees at St Andrews and later the same year was captured and executed after defending against Viking raiders. In AD906, the became the seat of the bishop of Alba. In 940 Constantine III abdicated and took the position of abbot of the monastery of St Andrews, the establishment of the present town began around 1140 by Bishop Robert on an L-shaped vill, possibly on the site of the ruined St Andrews Castle
5.
Dunfermline
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Dunfermline is a town and former Royal Burgh, and parish, in Fife, Scotland, on high ground 3 miles from the northern shore of the Firth of Forth. The earliest known settlements in the area around Dunfermline likely date as far back as the Neolithic period, the area was not regionally significant until at least the Bronze Age. The town was first recorded in the 11th century, with the marriage of Malcolm III, King of Scotland, as his Queen consort, Margaret established a new church dedicated to the Holy Trinity, which evolved into an Abbey under their son, David I in 1128. Following the burial of Alexander I in 1160, the abbey graveyard confirmed its status as the place of Scotlands kings and queens up to. The town is a service centre for west Fife. Dunfermline retains much of its significance, as well as providing facilities for leisure. Employment is focused in the sector, with the largest employer being Sky UK. Other large employers in the area include Amazon, Best Western, CR Smith, FMC Technologies, Lloyds, there have been various interpretations of the name, Dunfermline. The first element, dun translated from Gaelic, has accepted as a hill. The rest of the name is problematic, the first record of a settlement in the Dunfermline area was in the Neolithic period. This evidence includes finds of an axe, some flint arrowheads. A cropmark which is understood to have used as a possible mortuary enclosure has been found at Deanpark House. By the time of the Bronze Age, the area was beginning to some importance. Important finds included an axe in Wellwood and a gold torc from the Parish Churchyard. The first historic record for Dunfermline was made in the 11th century, following her marriage to King Malcolm III, Queen Margaret encouraged her husband to convert the small culdee chapel into a church for Benedictine monks. The founding of new church of Dunfermline was inaugurated around 1072. The foundations of the church evolved into an Abbey in 1128, under the reign of their son, Dunfermline Abbey would play a major role in the general romanisation of religion throughout the kingdom. At the peak of its power the abbey controlled four burghs, Dunfermline had become a burgh between 1124 and 1127, if not before this time
6.
Bridle
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A bridle is a piece of equipment used to direct a horse. As defined in the Oxford English Dictionary, the bridle includes both the headstall that holds a bit that goes in the mouth of a horse, and the reins that are attached to the bit. Headgear without a bit that uses a noseband to control a horse is called a hackamore, or, in some areas, a bitless bridle. The bridle consists of the elements, Crownpiece, The crownpiece, headstall or headpiece goes over the horses head just behind the animals ears. It is the strap that holds the remaining parts of the bridle in place. Cheekpieces, On most bridles, two cheekpieces attach to either side of the crownpiece and run down the side of the face, along the cheekbone. On some designs, the crownpiece is a strap that includes the right cheek and crownpiece as a single unit. Throatlatch, the throatlatch or throatlash is usually part of the piece of leather as the crownpiece. It runs from the right ear, under the horses throatlatch. Browband, The crownpiece runs through the browband, the browband runs from just under one ear of the horse, across the forehead, to just under the other ear. In certain sports, such as dressage and Saddle seat, decorative browbands are sometimes fashionable, noseband, the noseband encircles the nose of the horse. It is often used to keep the mouth closed, or to attach other pieces or equipment. Because it has a separate headstall, a cavesson can be adjusted with greater precision, in Saddle seat riding, the cavesson is often brightly colored and matches the browband. Variations on the standard English-style bridle are often named for their style of noseband, for use in polo, a gag bridle usually has a noseband plus a cavesson. Frentera, a running from the browband to the noseband. Fiador, a form of throatlatch, is used with a hackamore, reins, The reins of a bridle attach to the bit, below the attachment for the cheekpieces. The reins are the link to the horse, and are seen on every bridle. Reins are often laced, braided, have stops, or are made of rubber or some other material to provide extra grip
7.
Presbyterian polity
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Presbyterian polity is a method of church governance typified by the rule of assemblies of presbyters, or elders. Each local church is governed by a body of elected elders usually called the session or consistory, though other terms, such as church board, may apply. Responsibility for conduct of services is reserved to an ordained minister or pastor known as a teaching elder, or a minister of the word. Presbyterian polity was developed as a rejection of governance by hierarchies of single bishops, in contrast to the other two forms, authority in the presbyterian polity flows both from the top down and from the bottom up. This theory of governance developed in Geneva under John Calvin and was introduced to Scotland by John Knox after his period of exile in Geneva and it is strongly associated with French, Dutch, Swiss and Scottish Reformation movements, and the Reformed and Presbyterian churches. St. Jerome In Epistle Titus, vol, decreed throughout the world that one chosen from among the presbyters should be placed over the others. This observation was made by Chrysostom in Homilia i, in Phil. I,1 and Theodoret in Interpret ad, Presbyterianism was first described in detail by Martin Bucer of Strasbourg, who believed that the early Christian church implemented presbyterian polity. The first modern implementation was by the Geneva church under the leadership of John Calvin in 1541, Presbyterian polity is constructed on specific assumptions about the form of the government intended by the Bible, Bishop and elder are synonymous terms. Episcopos means literally overseer and describes the function of the elder, rather than the maturity of the officer, a bishop holds the highest office of the church. In addition to these ministers, there are also others … with gifts for government … commonly call elders or ruling elders. Pastoral care, church discipline, leadership and legislation are committed to the care of ruling assemblies of presbyters among whom the ministers, all Christian people together are the priesthood, on behalf of whom the elders are called to serve by the consent of the congregation. Presbyterianism uses a method of church government. Thus, the presbyters and elders govern together as a group, the elders together exercise oversight over the local congregation, with superior groups of elders gathered on a regional basis exercising wider oversight. Presbyterians typically have viewed this method of government as approximating that of the New Testament, however, sometimes it is admitted that episcopacy was a form of government that was used very early in the church for practical reasons. Presbyterianism is also distinct from congregationalism, in that individual congregations are not independent, moreover, the ordained ministry possesses a distinct responsibility for preaching and sacraments. Thus, these are ruled by only at the level of the congregations. Reformed Baptist churches are organized to be governed by elders, on the congregationalist model, there are two types of elder, the teaching elder and the ruling elder
8.
Social class
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Class is an essential object of analysis for sociologists, political scientists, anthropologists, and social historians. However, there is not a consensus on the best definition of the class, the precise measurements of what determines social class in society has varied over time. According to philosopher Karl Marx, class is determined entirely by ones relationship to the means of production, the term class is etymologically derived from the Latin classis, which was used by census takers to categorize citizens by wealth, in order to determine military service obligations. In the late 18th century, the class began to replace classifications such as estates, rank. Historically social class and behavior was sometimes laid down in law, definitions of social classes reflect a number of sociological perspectives, informed by anthropology, economics, psychology, and sociology. The major perspectives historically have been Marxism and Structural functionalism, the common stratum model of class divides society into a simple hierarchy of working class, middle class and upper class. For Marx, class is a combination of objective and subjective factors, objectively, a class shares a common relationship to the means of production. Subjectively, the members will necessarily have some perception of their similarity, Class consciousness is not simply an awareness of ones own class interest but is also a set of shared views regarding how society should be organized legally, culturally, socially and politically. These class relations are reproduced through time and this is the fundamental economic structure of work and property, a state of inequality that is normalized and reproduced through cultural ideology. Marxists explain the history of civilized societies in terms of a war of classes between those who control production and those who produce the goods or services in society, in the Marxist view of capitalism, this is a conflict between capitalists and wage-workers. Furthermore, in countries where modern civilisation has become fully developed, an industrial army of workmen, under the command of a capitalist, requires, like a real army, officers and sergeants who, while the work is being done, command in the name of the capitalist. This would mark the beginning of a society in which human needs rather than profit would be motive for production. In a society with democratic control and production for use, there would be no class, no state and no need for financial and banking institutions and money. Max Weber formulated a three-component theory of stratification, that saw social class as emerging from an interplay between class, status and power. Weber believed that class position was determined by a relationship to the means of production. Weber derived many of his key concepts on social stratification by examining the structure of many countries. He noted that contrary to Marxs theories, stratification was based on more than simply ownership of capital, Weber pointed out that some members of the aristocracy lack economic wealth yet might nevertheless have political power. Likewise in Europe, many wealthy Jewish families in lack prestige and honor, Class, A persons economic position in a society
9.
Riot
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A riot is a form of civil disorder commonly characterized by a group lashing out in a violent public disturbance against authority, property or people. Riots typically involve vandalism and the destruction of property, public or private, the property targeted varies depending on the riot and the inclinations of those involved. Targets can include shops, cars, restaurants, state-owned institutions, Riots often occur in reaction to a perceived grievance or out of dissent. While individuals may attempt to lead or control a riot, riots typically consist of disorganized groups that are frequently chaotic, however, there is a growing body of evidence to suggest that riots are not irrational, herd-like behavior, but actually follow inverted social norms. T. S. Charles Wilson noted, Spasmodic rises in food prices provoked keelmen on the Tyne to riot in 1709, today, some rioters have an improved understanding of the tactics used by police in riot situations. Manuals for successful rioting are available on the internet, with such as encouraging rioters to get the press involved, as there is more safety. Citizens with video cameras may also have an effect on both rioters and police, dealing with riots is often a difficult task for police forces. They may use tear gas or CS gas to control rioters, Riot police may use less-than-lethal methods of control, such as shotguns that fire flexible baton rounds to injure or otherwise incapacitate rioters for easier arrest. A police riot is a term for the disproportionate and unlawful use of force by a group of police against a group of civilians and this term is commonly used to describe a police attack on peaceful civilians, or provoking peaceful civilians into violence. A prison riot is a large-scale, temporary act of concerted defiance or disorder by a group of prisoners against prison administrators, prison officers and it is often done to express a grievance, force change or attempt escape. In a race riot, race or ethnicity is the key factor, the term had entered the English language in the United States by the 1890s. Early use of the referred to riots that were often a mob action by members of a majority racial group against people of other perceived races. In a religious riot, the key factor is religion, the rioting mob targets people and properties of a specific religion, or those believed to belong to that religion. Student riots are riots precipitated by students, often in higher education, student riots in the US and Western Europe in the 1960s and the 1970s were often political in nature. Student riots may occur as a result of oppression of peaceful demonstration or after sporting events. Students may constitute a political force in a given country. Such riots may occur in the context of political or social grievances. Urban riots are closely associated with race riots and police riots, sports riots such as the Nika riots can be sparked by the losing or winning of a specific team
10.
Witchcraft
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Witchcraft broadly means the practice of, and belief in, magical skills and abilities that are able to be exercised by individuals and certain social groups. Witchcraft often occupies a religious, divinatory or medicinal role, and is present within societies. The concept of witchcraft and the belief in its existence have existed throughout recorded history and it posits a theosophical conflict between good and evil, where witchcraft was generally evil and often associated with the Devil and Devil worship. Christian views in the day are diverse and cover the gamut of views from intense belief and opposition to non-belief. From the mid-20th century, witchcraft – sometimes called contemporary witchcraft to clearly distinguish it from older beliefs – became the name of a branch of modern paganism and it is most notably practiced in the Wiccan and modern witchcraft traditions, and no longer practices in secrecy. The Western mainstream Christian view is far from the only societal perspective about witchcraft, Beliefs related to witchcraft and magic in these cultures were at times influenced by the prevailing Western concepts. Suspicion of modern medicine due to beliefs about illness being due to witchcraft also continues in countries to this day. HIV/AIDS and Ebola virus disease are two examples of infectious disease epidemics whose medical care and containment has been severely hampered by regional beliefs in witchcraft. Other severe medical conditions whose treatment is hampered in this way include tuberculosis, leprosy, epilepsy, the word witchcraft derives from the Old English wiccecræft, a compound of wicce and cræft. This definition was pioneered in a study of central African magical beliefs by E. E. Evans-Pritchard, European witchcraft is seen by historians and anthropologists as an ideology for explaining misfortune, however, this ideology has manifested in diverse ways, as described below. Some modern commentators believe the malefic nature of witchcraft is a Christian projection, many examples appear in early texts, such as those from ancient Egypt and Babylonia. Malicious magic users can become a cause for disease, sickness in animals, bad luck, sudden death, impotence. Witchcraft of a benign and socially acceptable sort may then be employed to turn the malevolence aside. The folk magic used to identify or protect against malicious magic users is often indistinguishable from that used by the witches themselves, there has also existed in popular belief the concept of white witches and white witchcraft, which is strictly benevolent. Many neopagan witches strongly identify with this concept, and profess ethical codes that prevent them from performing magic on a person without their request. Probably the most obvious characteristic of a witch was the ability to cast a spell, spell being the word used to signify the means employed to carry out a magical action. A spell could consist of a set of words, a formula or verse, or a ritual action, or any combination of these. Strictly speaking, necromancy is the practice of conjuring the spirits of the dead for divination or prophecy – although the term has also applied to raising the dead for other purposes
11.
Corporal punishment
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Corporal punishment or physical punishment is a punishment intended to cause physical pain on a person. It is most often used where there is a disparity of power between punisher and punished. Corporal punishment is commonly practiced on minors, especially in home and also school settings, common methods in this regard often include spanking or paddling. It is however used on adults, particularly prisoners in some countries. In history most cultures have practiced corporal punishment on adults in settings of imprisonment or slavery, frequently employed methods are flagellation and caning. In some countries bastinado is still practiced on prisoners as well, official punishment for crime by inflicting pain or injury, including flogging, branding and even mutilation, was practised in most civilizations since ancient times. However, with the growth of humanitarian ideals since the Enlightenment, by the late 20th century, corporal punishment had been eliminated from the legal systems of most developed countries. The legality in the 21st century of corporal punishment in various settings differs by jurisdiction,52 countries, most of them in Europe and Latin America, have banned the practice as of April 2017. School corporal punishment—of students by teachers or school administrators—has been banned in countries, including Canada, Kenya, South Africa, New Zealand. It remains legal, if increasingly less common, in the United States, judicial corporal punishment, as part of a criminal sentence ordered by a court of law, has long disappeared from European countries. However, it remains lawful in parts of Africa, Asia, closely related is prison corporal punishment or disciplinary corporal punishment, ordered by prison authorities or carried out directly by staff. Corporal punishment is also allowed in some settings in a few jurisdictions. Other uses of corporal punishment have existed, for instance as once practised on apprentices by their masters, in many Western countries, medical and human-rights organizations oppose corporal punishment of children. Campaigns against corporal punishment have aimed to bring about legal reform to ban the use of punishment against minors in homes. Corporal punishment of children has traditionally used in the Western world by adults in authority roles. Withhold not correction from a child, for if thou strike him with the rod, thou shalt beat him with the rod, and deliver his soul from hell. It was certainly present in civilizations, being used in Greece, Rome. Some states gained a reputation for using such punishments cruelly, Sparta, in particular, used them as part of a disciplinary regime designed to build willpower, although the Spartan example was extreme, corporal punishment was possibly the most frequent type of punishment
12.
Workhouse
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In England and Wales a workhouse, colloquially known as a spike, was a place where those unable to support themselves were offered accommodation and employment. The earliest known use of the dates from 1631, in an account by the mayor of Abingdon reporting that wee haue erected wthn our borough a workehouse to sett poore people to worke. The New Poor Law of 1834 attempted to reverse the trend by discouraging the provision of relief to anyone who refused to enter a workhouse. Some Poor Law authorities hoped to run workhouses at a profit by utilising the free labour of their inmates, who generally lacked the skills or motivation to compete in the open market. Most were employed on such as breaking stones, crushing bones to produce fertiliser, or picking oakum using a large metal nail known as a spike. Life in a workhouse was intended to be harsh, to deter the able-bodied poor, although workhouses were formally abolished by the same legislation in 1930, many continued under their new appellation of Public Assistance Institutions under the control of local authorities. It was not until the National Assistance Act of 1948 that the last vestiges of the Poor Law disappeared, the Poor Law Act of 1388 was an attempt to address the labour shortage caused by the Black Death, a devastating pandemic that killed about one-third of Englands population. The resulting laws against vagrancy were the origins of state-funded relief for the poor, supporting the destitute was a problem exacerbated by King Henry VIIIs Dissolution of the Monasteries, which began in 1536. They had been a significant source of relief, and provided a good deal of direct and indirect employment. The Poor Relief Act of 1576 went on to establish the principle that if the poor needed support. The Act for the Relief of the Poor of 1601 made parishes responsible for the care of those within their boundaries who. The Act essentially classified the poor into one of three groups and it proposed that the able-bodied be offered work in a house of correction, where the persistent idler was to be punished. The workhouse system evolved in the 17th century, allowing parishes to reduce the cost to ratepayers of providing poor relief and it put the number of parish workhouses in England and Wales at more than 1800, with a total capacity of more than 90,000 places. The growth in the number of workhouses was also bolstered by the Relief of the Poor Act 1782, the able-bodied poor were instead either given outdoor relief or found employment locally. Relatively few Gilbert Unions were set up, but supplementing inadequate wages under the Speenhamland system did become established towards the end of the 18th century. So keen were some Poor Law authorities to cut costs wherever possible that cases were reported of husbands being forced to sell their wives, by the 1830s most parishes had at least one workhouse, but many were badly managed. In his 1797 work, The State of the Poor, Sir Frederick Eden, wrote, The workhouse is an inconvenient building, with windows, low rooms. It is surrounded by a wall, that gives it the appearance of a prison
13.
Lanark
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Lanark is a small town in the central belt of Scotland. The name is believed to come from the Cumbric Lanerc meaning clear space, Lanark is traditionally the county town of Lanarkshire, though there are several larger towns in the county. Lanark railway station and coach station have frequent services to Glasgow, there is little industry in Lanark and some residents commute to work in Glasgow and Edinburgh. Its shops serve the agricultural community and surrounding villages. There is a modern livestock auction market on the outskirts of the town. Lanark has served as an important market town since medieval times, King David I realised that greater prosperity could result from encouraging trade. He decided to create a chain of new towns across Scotland and these would be centres of Norman civilisation in a largely Celtic country, and would be established in such a way as to encourage the development of trade within their area. These new towns were to be known as Burghs, bastides were established in France for much the same reason. When a site had been selected for a new town the King’s surveyors would lay out an area for the town’s market, each merchant who came to the town was granted a plot of land bordering on the marketplace. These plots were known as feus or rigs, each feu in a burgh was the same size, though the size varied between burghs. In Forres in the north of Scotland each feu was 24 feet 10 inches wide and 429 feet deep, the layout of the feus in Lanark can still be easily seen between the north side of Lanark High Street and North Vennel, a lane which runs behind the feus. A motte and bailey castle was constructed at the bottom of Castlegate. Lanark had four gates, West Port, East port. West Port gate was demolished in the 1770s, the first aviation meeting to be held in Scotland was held at Lanark Racecourse between 6 and 13 August 1910. The aeroplanes were transported to the meeting by rail, as aviation technology at the time was not advanced enough to fly there. The Lanark meeting took place shortly after an event in Bournemouth at which Charles Rolls lost his life. Influenced by this, it was decided that no aircraft would fly closer than 300 yards away from the spectators, for the first time, aeroplanes were accurately timed over a straight measured distance, allowing the first world records to be set, covering flights over 1 mile. The meeting was described by The Aero magazine as the most successful yet held in Britain, a permanent military presence was established in the town with the completion of Winston Barracks in 1930
14.
Gossip
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Gossip is idle talk or rumor, especially about the personal or private affairs of others, the act of is also known as dishing or tattling. Gossip has been researched in terms of its evolutionary psychology origins and this has found gossip to be an important means by which people can monitor cooperative reputations and so maintain widespread indirect reciprocity. Indirect reciprocity is an interaction in which one actor helps another and is then benefited by a third party. Gossip has also identified by Robin Dunbar, an evolutionary biologist. Social media has also provided a faster way to share gossip. In only a matter of minutes, harmful gossip and rumors can spread online from one place in the world to another, the term is sometimes used to specifically refer to the spreading of dirt and misinformation, as through excited discussion of scandals. Some newspapers carry gossip columns which detail the social and personal lives of celebrities or of élite members of certain communities. The word is from Old English godsibb, from god and sibb, in the 16th century, the word assumed the meaning of a person, mostly a woman, one who delights in idle talk, a newsmonger, a tattler. In the early 19th century, the term was extended from the talker to the conversation of such persons, the verb to gossip, meaning to be a gossip, first appears in Shakespeare. The term originates from the bedroom at the time of childbirth, giving birth used to be a social, ladies only, event, in which a pregnant womans female relatives and neighbours would gather. As with any social gathering there was chattering and this is where the term came to mean talk of others. Peter Vajda identifies gossip as a form of violence, noting that it is essentially a form of attack. Gossip is thought by many to one person while disempowering another. Accordingly, many companies have policies in their employee handbooks against gossip. TLK Healthcare cites as examples of gossip, tattletailing to the boss without intention of furthering a solution or speaking to co-workers about something else has done to upset us. Low self-esteem and a desire to fit in are frequently cited as motivations for workplace gossip, breaks existing bonds by ostracizing individuals within an organization. Enhances ones social status/power/prestige within the organization, inform individuals as to what is considered socially acceptable behavior within the organization. This causes the gossipers coercive power to increase, reward, when a gossiper tells positive information about a person, their recipient might believe that the gossiper will also spread positive information about them
15.
Humiliation
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Humiliation is the abasement of pride, which creates mortification or leads to a state of being humbled or reduced to lowliness or submission. It is an emotion felt by a person whose social status has just decreased and it can be brought about through intimidation, physical or mental mistreatment or trickery, or by embarrassment if a person is revealed to have committed a socially or legally unacceptable act. Whereas humility can be alone as a means to de-emphasize the ego, humiliation must involve other person. A person who suffers from severe humiliation could cause major depressions, suicidal states, the loss of status, like losing a job or being labeled as a sexual predator, could cause people inability to behave normally in their communities. Humiliated individuals could be provoked and crave for revenge, and some people could feel worthless, hopeless and helpless, losing sense of reality, Klein explains, When it is outwardly directed, humiliated fury unfortunately creates additional victims, often including innocent bystanders. When it is directed, the resulting self-hate renders victims incapable of meeting their own needs, let alone having energy available to love. He goes on to say, In either case, those who are consumed by humiliated fury are absorbed in themselves or their cause, wrapped in wounded pride. ”In other words, some practices, such as tarring and feathering, became tools of unofficial mob justice. In folk customs such as the English skimmington rides and rough music, dramatic public demonstrations of moral disapproval were enacted to humiliate transgressors, some U. S. states have experimented with humiliating or shaming lawbreakers by publishing their names and indicating their offense. In 2010, there was public outcry about reports showing police in Dongguan, the national Ministry of Public Security reprimanded the local police and affirmed that such punishments are not allowed. Donald Klein described humiliation as a factor in human affairs that has, for a variety of reasons, been overlooked by students of individual. It is a pervasive and all too destructive influence in the behavior of individuals, groups, organizations, and nations. Though it is an emotion, humiliation has a universal aspect which applies to all human beings, it is the feeling of being put down. A society that suffers from humiliation is an unstable one, according to Jonathan Sacks, By turning the question What did we do wrong. Restores some measure of self-respect and provides a course of action, in psychiatry, the clinical terms for this process are splitting and projection, it allows people to define themselves as victims. Gender, humiliation, and global security, dignifying relationships from love, sex, Humiliation and other essays on honor, social discomfort, and violence. Healing Humiliation and the Need for Revenge
16.
Mercat cross
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It therefore served a secular purpose as a symbol of authority, and was an indication of a burghs relative prosperity. Historical documents often refer simply to the cross of whichever town or village is mentioned, today, there are around 126 known examples of extant crosses in Scotland, though the number rises if later imitations are added. The earliest documentary reference occurs in the reign of William the Lion and they are thought to have been originally pillars of wood, possibly placed on stone bases, changing to stone pillars in later centuries. Some, as at Inverkeithing, incorporate sundials, the cross was the place around which market stalls would be arranged, and where merchants would gather to discuss business. It was also the spot where state and civic proclamations would be read by the bellman. For example, in 1682 a town guild in Stirling was accorded the privilege of making a proclamation, to this day, royal proclamations are still ceremonially read in public at the Mercat Cross in Edinburgh, including the calling of a general election and succession of a new monarch. The cross was also the focal point of public events such as civic ceremonials, official rejoicings. Some crosses still incorporate the iron staples to which jougs and branks were once attached, communal gatherings still take place at crosses, as at Galashiels on Braw Lads Day or Peebles at the start of the Beltane Festival. Crosses are often the place to mark the start or end of Common Ridings as at Musselburgh or events such as the Stonehaven fireball ceremony. Despite the name, the typical mercat cross is not usually cruciform, another finial commonly seen is a stone ball as at Clackmannan and Newton Stewart. The shaft is usually surmounted by a plain or decorated capital, a variety of decorative designs are employed, including foliage, emblems like thistles and roses, armorial shields, and mouldings of the egg-and-dart type. Five crosses, at Edinburgh, Dundee, Perth, Aberdeen and Preston were supported by a drum-shaped understructure, known as a cross-house, in the case of Aberdeens late 17th-century cross the platform is supported by a series of open semi-circular arcades. The Preston Cross, built in the early 17th century, is the one of the type still existing on its original site. This traditional design has been replicated approximately with added Scots baronial elements in Victorian reconstructions at Edinburgh, most crosses, however, stand on stepped, often octagonal stone bases and are of an average height of between 9 and 13 feet. In some cases, as at Musselburgh and Kirkcudbright, the pillar is secured within or stands upon a stone structure. A war memorial may incorporate a part of the cross, as at Renfrew or Bowden, or have been built deliberately in the style of a mercat cross, as at Lauder. The war memorials at Abernethy, North Berwick and Portree also closely resemble mercat crosses and are known as such, the last, of course, lies geographically well outside the historic area of Scottish Lowland burghs. Another example of what might be termed a cross is the war memorial at Dalmeny
17.
Tolbooth
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A tolbooth or town house was the main municipal building of a Scottish burgh, from medieval times until the 19th century. The tolbooth usually provided a meeting chamber, a court house. The tolbooth was one of three features in a Scottish burgh, along with the mercat cross and the kirk. Burghs were created in Scotland from the 12th century and they had the right to hold markets and levy customs and tolls, and tolbooths were originally established for collection of these. Royal burghs were governed by a council, led by a provost and baillies. The tolbooth developed into a building providing for all these functions. Most tolbooths had a bell, often mounted on a steeple, as well as housing accused criminals awaiting trial, and debtors, tolbooths were also places of public punishment, equipped with a whipping post, stocks or jougs. The tolbooth was occasionally a place of execution, and where victims heads were displayed, the tolbooth may also have served as the guardhouse of the town guard. Other functions provided in various tolbooths included schoolrooms, weighhouses, storage of equipment and records, the oldest tolbooths which survive intact are those of Musselburgh and Canongate. The tolbooth of Glasgow has been described as Scotlands most remarkable building of the 17th century. Other Renaissance-style tolbooths were erected at Linlithgow and Kirkcaldy, by the 18th century, the term tolbooth had become closely associated with prison, and the term town house became more common to denote the municipal buildings. Classical architectural styles were introduced, as at Dundee and Sanquhar, the prison functions of tolbooths were overseen by prison boards from 1839, but the jail cell in the Falkirk Steeple remained in use until 1984. There are around 90 tolbooths surviving in Scotland, many are still used as municipal buildings, while others have been renovated as museums, theatres, or other attractions. Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland, tolbooths and Townhouses, Civic Architecture in Scotland to 1833. Edinburgh, Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland, mercat Cross and Tolbooth, Understanding Scotlands Old Burghs
18.
Quakers
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Quakers are members of a historically Christian group of religious movements generally known as the Religious Society of Friends. They include those with evangelical, holiness, liberal, and traditional Quaker understandings of Christianity, to differing extents, the different movements that make up the Religious Society of Friends/Friends Church avoid creeds and hierarchical structures. In 2007, there were about 359,000 adult Quakers, in 2012, there were 377,055 adult Quakers. Some meetings of both types have Recorded Ministers in their meetings—Friends recognised for their gift of vocal ministry, the first Quakers lived in mid-17th century England. The movement arose from the Legatine-Arians and other dissenting Protestant groups, some of these early Quaker ministers were women. They emphasized a personal and direct experience of Christ, acquired through both direct religious experience and the reading and studying of the Bible. Quakers focused their private life on developing behaviour and speech reflecting emotional purity, in the past, Quakers were known for their use of thee as an ordinary pronoun, refusal to participate in war, plain dress, refusal to swear oaths, opposition to slavery, and teetotalism. & J. Clark and the big three British confectionery makers Cadbury, Rowntree and Frys, and philanthropic efforts, including abolition of slavery, prison reform, during and after the English Civil War many dissenting Christian groups emerged, including the Seekers and others. A young man named George Fox was dissatisfied with the teachings of the Church of England and he had a vision on Pendle Hill in Lancashire, England, in which he believed that the Lord let me see in what places he had a great people to be gathered. Following this he travelled around England, the Netherlands, and Barbados preaching and teaching with the aim of converting new adherents to his faith, the central theme of his Gospel message was that Christ has come to teach his people himself. His followers considered themselves to be the restoration of the true Christian church, in 1650, Fox was brought before the magistrates Gervase Bennet and Nathaniel Barton, on a charge of religious blasphemy. According to George Foxs autobiography, Bennet was the first that called us Quakers and it is thought that George Fox was referring to Isaiah 66,2 or Ezra 9,4. Thus, the name Quaker began as a way of ridiculing George Foxs admonition, Quakerism gained a considerable following in England and Wales, and the numbers increased to a peak of 60,000 in England and Wales by 1680. This was relaxed after the Declaration of Indulgence and stopped under the Act of Toleration 1689, with the restructuring of the family and household came new roles for women, Fox and Fell viewed the Quaker mother as essential to developing holy conversation in her children and husband. Quaker women were responsible for the spirituality of the larger community, coming together in meetings that regulated marriage. The persecution of Quakers in North America began in 1656 when English Quaker missionaries Mary Fisher and they were considered heretics because of their insistence on individual obedience to the Inner Light. They were imprisoned and banished by the Massachusetts Bay Colony and their books were burned, and most of their property was confiscated. They were imprisoned in terrible conditions, then deported, in 1660, English Quaker Mary Dyer was hanged on Boston Common for repeatedly defying a Puritan law banning Quakers from the colony
19.
Jougs
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The jougs, juggs, or joggs was an instrument of punishment formerly used in Scotland, the Netherlands and other countries. It was an iron collar fastened by a chain to a wall, often of the parish church. The collar was placed round the neck and fastened by a padlock. Time spent in the jougs was intended to shame an offender publicly, Jougs were used for ecclesiastical as well as civil offences. Some surviving examples can still be seen in situ in Scottish towns, Jougs may be the origin of the later slang word jug, meaning prison. Sir Walter Scott rescued the jougs from Threave Castle in the Borders, the old Tolbooth museum in Sanquhar in the Nith valley has jougs attached to the wall just outside the entrance to the old gaol. The jougs at Sorn Kirk were stolen in the 1930s, cuthbertson refers to the jougs as symbols of the sessions power against gossips and evil-doers. The jougs on the Isle of Cumbrae survive, attached to a gatepost at the entrance to the Millport Old Cemetery entrance, the Clachan Oak is an ancient sessile oak near Balfron in Stirlingshire. It can still be seen bearing metal bands around its trunk to which jougs were once attached for the restraint and humiliation of petty criminals. Mr Carse of the Shawhill Estate protected a fine old thorn tree that grew at the Hurlford Bridge end by attaching a pair of jougs to it and these were never used, but acted as a deterrent to local children who might have harmed the tree. Stool of Repentance Branks Shrews fiddle This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. Video and narration about the Fenwick Jougs, bygone Punishments of Scotland by William Andrews 1899 on electricscotland
20.
Pillory
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The pillory is related to the stocks. The word is documented in English since 1274, and stems from Old French pellori, itself from medieval Latin pilloria, of origin, perhaps a diminutive of Latin pila pillar. Pillories were set up to people in marketplaces, crossroads. They were often placed on platforms to increase visibility of the person. Often a placard detailing the crime was placed nearby, these punishments generally lasted only a few hours, in being forced to bend forward and stick their head and hands out in front of them, offenders in the pillory would have been extremely uncomfortable during their punishment. However, the purpose in putting criminals in the pillory was to publicly humiliate them. On discovering that the pillory was occupied, people would gather in the marketplace to taunt, tease. Those who gathered to watch the punishment typically wanted to make the experience as unpleasant as possible. In addition to being jeered and mocked, those in the pillory might be pelted with food, mud, offal, dead animals. As a result, criminals were often very dirty by the end of their punishment, their faces, sometimes people were killed or maimed in the pillory because crowds could get too violent and pelt the offender with stones, bricks and other dangerous objects. However, when Daniel Defoe was sentenced to the pillory in 1703 for Seditious libel, after 1816, use of the pillory was restricted in England to punishment for perjury or subornation. The pillory was formally abolished as a form of punishment in England and Wales in 1837, the last person to be pilloried in England was Peter James Bossy, who was convicted of wilful and corrupt perjury in 1830. He was offered the choice of seven years penal transportation or one hour in the pillory, in France, time in the pilori was usually limited to two hours. It was replaced in 1789 by exposition, and abolished in 1832, two types of devices were used, The poteau was a simple post, often with a board around only the neck, and was synonymous with the mode of punishment. This was the same as the schandpaal in Dutch, the carcan, an iron ring around the neck to tie a prisoner to such a post, was the name of a similar punishment that was abolished in 1832. Like other permanent apparatus for physical punishment, the pillory was placed prominently. It served as a symbol of the power of the judicial authorities, in Portugal, it is called Pelourinho, and there are monuments of great importance because they are known since the Roman times. Usually, they are located on the square of the town
21.
New World
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The New World is one of the names used for the Earths Western Hemisphere, specifically the Americas. The term was coined by Florentine explorer Amerigo Vespucci, the Americas were also referred to as the fourth part of the world. New World are meaningful in historical context and for the purpose of distinguishing the worlds major ecozones, and to classify plant and animal species that originated therein. One can speak of the New World in a context, e. g. when discussing the voyages of Christopher Columbus. For lack of alternatives, the term is still useful to those discussing issues that concern the Americas. The term New World is used in a context, when one speaks of Old World. Biological taxonomists often attach the New World label to groups of species that are exclusively in the Americas, to distinguish them from their counterparts in the Old World. New World monkeys, New World vultures, New World warblers, the label is also often used in agriculture. Common Old World crops, and domesticated animals did not exist in the Americas until they were introduced by contact in the 1490s. Other famous New World crops include the cashew, cocoa, rubber, sunflower, tobacco, and vanilla, there are rare instances of overlap, e. g. In wine terminology, New World has a different definition, Vespucci was finally convinced when he proceeded on his mapping expedition through 1501-02, covering the huge stretch of coast of eastern Brazil. But this opinion is false, and entirely opposed to the truth, Vespuccis letter was a publishing sensation in Europe, immediately reprinted in several other countries. The Venetian explorer Alvise Cadamosto had used the term un altro mundo to refer to sub-Saharan Africa, however, this was merely a literary flourish, not a suggestion of a new fourth part of the world. Cadamosto was quite aware sub-Saharan Africa was firmly part of the African continent, the Italian-born Spanish chronicler Peter Martyr dAnghiera often shares credit with Vespucci for designating the Americas as a new world. Peter Martyr used the term Orbe Novo in the title of his history of the discovery of the Americas as a whole, a year later, Peter Martyr again refers to the marvels of the New Globe and the Western hemisphere. Christopher Columbus touched the continent of South America in his 1498 third voyage, in another letter, Columbus refers to having reached a new heavens and world and that he had placed another world under the dominion of the Kings of Spain. The Vespucci passage above applied the New World label to merely the continental landmass of South America, although the proceedings of the Toro-Burgos conferences are missing, it is almost certain that Vespucci articulated his recent New World thesis to his fellow navigators there. In English usage the term New World was problematic and only accepted relatively late, while it became generally accepted after Vespucci that Columbuss discoveries were not Asia but a New World, the geographic relationship between the two continents was still unclear
22.
Olaudah Equiano
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Olaudah Equiano, known in his lifetime as Gustavus Vassa, was a prominent African in London, a freed slave who supported the British movement to end the slave trade. His autobiography, published in 1789, helped in the creation of the Slave Trade Act 1807 which ended the African trade for Britain, since the late 20th century, there has been some debate on his origins, but most of his account has been extensively documented. His last owner was Robert King, an American Quaker merchant who allowed Equiano to trade on his own account and he published his autobiography, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, which depicted the horrors of slavery. It went through nine editions and aided passage of the British Slave Trade Act of 1807, since 1967, his memoir has been regarded as the true beginning of modern African literature. As a free man, Equiano had a life, he had suffered suicidal thoughts before he became a born-again Christian. After settling in London, Equiano married an English woman named Susannah Cullen in 1792 and he died in 1797 in London, his gravesite is unknown. Equianos death was recognized in Britain as well as by American newspapers, plaques commemorating his life have been placed at buildings where he lived in London. Since the late 20th century, when his autobiography was published in a new edition, he has been studied by a range of scholars. Equiano recounted an incident when a kidnapping of children was foiled by adults in his villages in Igboland. When he was around the age of eleven, he and his sister were left alone to look after their familys compound and they were both kidnapped and taken far away from their hometown of Essaka, separated, and sold to slave traders. After changing hands several times, Equiano met his sister again, but they were separated and he was taken over a river to the coast. He was transported with 244 other enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to Barbados in the West Indies and he and a few other slaves were sent on to the British colony of Virginia. A number of scholars agree with Carretta, while his conclusion is disputed by scholars who believe the weight of evidence supports Equianos account of coming from Igboland. In Virginia, Equiano was bought in 1754 by Michael Pascal, Pascal renamed the boy as Gustavus Vassa, after the Swedish noble who had become Gustav I of Sweden, king in the 16th century. Equiano had already been renamed twice, he was called Michael while on the ship that brought him to the Americas. This time Equiano refused and told his new owner that he would prefer to be called Jacob and his refusal, he says, gained me many a cuff – and eventually he submitted to the new name. He used this name for the rest of his life, including on all official records and he only used Equiano in his autobiography. Pascal took Equiano with him when he returned to England, and had him accompany him as a valet during the Seven Years War with France
23.
Slavery
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A slave is unable to withdraw unilaterally from such an arrangement and works without remuneration. Many scholars now use the chattel slavery to refer to this specific sense of legalised. In a broader sense, however, the word slavery may also refer to any situation in which an individual is de facto forced to work against his or her will. Scholars also use the generic terms such as unfree labour or forced labour. However – and especially under slavery in broader senses of the word – slaves may have some rights and/or protections, Slavery began to exist before written history, in many cultures. A person could become a slave from the time of their birth, capture, while slavery was institutionally recognized by most societies, it has now been outlawed in all recognized countries, the last being Mauritania in 2007. Nevertheless, there are still more slaves today than at any point in history. The most common form of the trade is now commonly referred to as human trafficking. Chattel slavery is still practiced by the Islamic State of Iraq. An older interpretation connected it to the Greek verb skyleúo to strip a slain enemy, there is a dispute among historians about whether terms such as unfree labourer or enslaved person, rather than slave, should be used when describing the victims of slavery. Chattel slavery, also called traditional slavery, is so named because people are treated as the chattel of the owner and are bought, although it dominated many societies in the past, this form of slavery has been formally abolished and is very rare today. Even when it can be said to survive, it is not upheld by the system of any internationally recognized government. Indenture, otherwise known as bonded labour or debt bondage is a form of labour under which a person pledges himself or herself against a loan. The services required to repay the debt, and their duration, debt bondage can be passed on from generation to generation, with children required to pay off their parents debt. It is the most widespread form of slavery today, debt bondage is most prevalent in South Asia. This may also include institutions not commonly classified as slavery, such as serfdom, conscription, Human trafficking primarily involves women and children forced into prostitution. And is the fastest growing form of forced labour, with Thailand, Cambodia, India, Brazil, in 2007, Human Rights Watch estimated that 200,000 to 300,000 children served as soldiers in current conflicts. A forced marriage may be regarded as a form of slavery by one or more of the involved in the marriage
24.
Stocks
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Stocks are devices that were used internationally, in medieval, Renaissance and colonial American times as a form of physical punishment involving public humiliation. The stocks partially immobilized its victims and they were exposed in a public place such as the site of a market to the scorn of those who passed by. This scorn was commonly represented by throwing food at the victim. With stocks, boards are placed around the ankles and the wrists in some cases, whereas in the pillory they are placed around the arms and neck and fixed to a pole, and the victim stands. However, the terms can be confused, and many refer to the pillory as the stocks. The victims feet were bare, this caused heightened humiliation. Since stocks served a public form of punishment, its victims were subjected to the daily and nightly weather. As a consequence it was common for people kept in stocks over several days to die from exposure, the practice of using stocks continues to be cited as an example of torture and cruel and unusual punishment. Victims may be insulted, kicked, tickled, spat on, one of the earliest references to the stocks in literature appears in the Bible. Paul and Silas, disciples of Jesus, were arrested and their treatment by their jailer was detailed in the Book of Acts, Having received such a charge, he put them into the inner prison and fastened their feet in the stocks. The Old Testaments book of Job also describes the stocks, referring to God, He puts my feet in the stocks, he watches all my paths. The stocks were popular among civil authorities from medieval to early modern times. In the stocks, an offenders ankles, and sometimes wrists, the stocks were popular during the Colonial days in America. Public punishment in the stocks was an occurrence from around 1500 until at least 1748. The stocks were popular among the early American Puritans, who frequently employed the stocks for punishing the lower class. In the American colonies, the stocks were used, not only for punishment. They would eventually be brought before a judge, the offender would be exposed to whatever treatment those who passed by could imagine. This could include tickling of the feet, englands second Statute of Labourers prescribed the use of the stocks for unruly artisans in 1350, and required that every town and village erect a set of stocks
25.
Defamation
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Under common law, to constitute defamation, a claim must generally be false and must have been made to someone other than the person defamed. Some common law jurisdictions also distinguish between spoken defamation, called slander, and defamation in other such as printed words or images. False light laws protect against statements which are not technically false, in some civil law jurisdictions, defamation is treated as a crime rather than a civil wrong. A person who defames another may be called a defamer, libeler, slanderer, or, rarely, the common law origins of defamation lie in the torts of slander, each of which gives a common law right of action. Defamation is the term used internationally, and is used in this article where it is not necessary to distinguish between slander and libel. Libel and slander both require publication, the fundamental distinction between libel and slander lies solely in the form in which the defamatory matter is published. If the offending material is published in some fleeting form, as by words or sounds, sign language, gestures or the like. Libel is defined as defamation by written or printed words, pictures, the law of libel originated in the 17th century in England. With the growth of publication came the growth of libel and development of the tort of libel, an early example of libel is the case of John Peter Zenger in 1735. Zenger was hired to publish New York Weekly Journal, when he printed another mans article that criticized William Cosby, who was then British Royal Governor of Colonial New York, Zenger was accused of Seditious Libel. Another example of libel is the case of New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, there are several ways a person must go about proving that libel has taken place. For example, in the United States, the person must prove that the statement was false, caused harm and these steps are for an ordinary citizen. Many nations have criminal penalties for defamation in some situations, there can be regional statutes that may differ from the national norm. For example, in the United States, defamation is generally limited to the living, however, there are nine states that have criminal statutes regarding defamation of the dead. Early cases of criminal defamation Questions of group libel have been appearing in law for hundreds of years. One of the earliest known cases of a defendant being tried for defamation of a group was the case of Rex v. Orme and Nutt. In this case, the found that the defendant was guilty of libeling several subjects. Since the jury was unable to identify the people who were being defamed
26.
Edinburgh
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Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 local government council areas. Located in Lothian on the Firth of Forths southern shore, it is Scotlands second most populous city and the seventh most populous in the United Kingdom. The 2014 official population estimates are 464,990 for the city of Edinburgh,492,680 for the authority area. Recognised as the capital of Scotland since at least the 15th century, Edinburgh is home to the Scottish Parliament and it is the largest financial centre in the UK after London. Historically part of Midlothian, the city has long been a centre of education, particularly in the fields of medicine, Scots law, literature, the sciences and engineering. The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582 and now one of four in the city, was placed 17th in the QS World University Rankings in 2013 and 2014. The city is famous for the Edinburgh International Festival and the Fringe. The citys historical and cultural attractions have made it the United Kingdoms second most popular tourist destination after London, attracting over one million overseas visitors each year. Historic sites in Edinburgh include Edinburgh Castle, Holyrood Palace, the churches of St. Giles, Greyfriars and the Canongate, Edinburghs Old Town and New Town together are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, which has been managed by Edinburgh World Heritage since 1999. It appears to derive from the place name Eidyn mentioned in the Old Welsh epic poem Y Gododdin, the poem names Din Eidyn as a hill fort in the territory of the Gododdin. The Celtic element din was dropped and replaced by the Old English burh, the first documentary evidence of the medieval burgh is a royal charter, c. 1124–1127, by King David I granting a toft in burgo meo de Edenesburg to the Priory of Dunfermline. In modern Gaelic, the city is called Dùn Èideann, the earliest known human habitation in the Edinburgh area was at Cramond, where evidence was found of a Mesolithic camp site dated to c.8500 BC. Traces of later Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have found on Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat, Craiglockhart Hill. When the Romans arrived in Lothian at the end of the 1st century AD, at some point before the 7th century AD, the Gododdin, who were presumably descendants of the Votadini, built the hill fort of Din Eidyn or Etin. Although its location has not been identified, it likely they would have chosen a commanding position like the Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat. In 638, the Gododdin stronghold was besieged by forces loyal to King Oswald of Northumbria and it thenceforth remained under their jurisdiction. The royal burgh was founded by King David I in the early 12th century on land belonging to the Crown, in 1638, King Charles Is attempt to introduce Anglican church forms in Scotland encountered stiff Presbyterian opposition culminating in the conflicts of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In the 17th century, Edinburghs boundaries were defined by the citys defensive town walls
27.
Walsall
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Walsall is an industrial town in the West Midlands of England. It is located 8 miles north-west of the City of Birmingham and 6 miles east of the City of Wolverhampton, historically a part of Staffordshire, Walsall is a component area of the West Midlands conurbation, and part of the Black Country. Walsall is the centre of the wider Metropolitan Borough of Walsall. At the 2011 census, the towns built-up area had a population of 67,594, neighbouring settlements in the borough include Darlaston, Brownhills, Willenhall, Bloxwich and Aldridge. The name Walsall is thought to have derived from the words Walh halh, Walsall is first referenced as Walesho in a document dated 1002. However, it is believed that a manor was held here by William FitzAnsculf, by the first part of the 13th century, Walsall was a small market town, with the weekly market being introduced in 1220 and held on Tuesdays. The mayor of Walsall was created as a position in the 14th century. The town was visited by Queen Elizabeth I, when it was known as Walshale and it was also visited by Henrietta Maria in 1643. She stayed in the town for one night at a building named the White Hart in the area of Caldmore, the Industrial Revolution changed Walsall from a village of 2,000 people in the 16th century to a town of over 86,000 in approximately 200 years. The town manufactured a range of products including saddles, chains, buckles. Nearby, limestone quarrying provided the town with much prosperity, in 1824, the Walsall Corporation received an Act of Parliament to improve the town by providing lighting and a gasworks. The gasworks was built in 1826 at a cost of £4,000, in 1825, the corporation built eleven tiled, brick almshouses for poor women. They were known to the area as Molesleys Almshouses, the Walsall Improvement and Market Act was passed in 1848 and amended in 1850. The Act provided facilities for the poor, improving and extending the sewerage system, on 10 October 1847, a gas explosion killed one person and destroyed the west window of St Matthews Church. Walsall finally received a line in 1847,48 years after canals reached the town. In 1855, Walsalls first newspaper, the Walsall Courier and South Staffordshire Gazette, was published, over 2000 men from Walsall were killed in fighting during the First World War. They are commemorated by the cenotaph, which is located on the site of a bomb which was dropped by Zeppelin L21 – killing the towns mayoress. Damage from the Zeppelin can still be seen on what is now a club on the corner of the main road, the town also has a memorial to two local VC recipients, John Henry Carless and Frederick Gibbs
28.
Walton-on-Thames
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Walton-on-Thames /ˈwɔːltən ɒn ˈtɛmz/ is a town on the River Thames in the Elmbridge borough of Surrey. An outlying suburb of London, the town is centred 15.3 miles south west of Charing Cross and is between the towns of Weybridge and Molesey and its waterside has the Thames Path National Trail between Sunbury Lock and Shepperton Lock. Its own localities include Ashley Park and Field Common and its station on the South West Main Line has proven important to its development – its services run with a minimum of one stop before London Waterloo station. The town is divided into four wards and is a hub in terms of retail. The name Walton is Anglo-Saxon in origin and is cognate with the phonetic combination meaning Briton settlement. Before the Romans and the Saxons were present, a Celtic settlement was here, the most common Old English word for the Celtic inhabitants was the Wealas originally meaning foreigners or strangers. Elmbridge Museum requires definitive evidence of these stakes, the evidence at present limited to pre 20th-century secondary sources that conflict as to detail, Walton lay within the Anglo-Saxon quasi-administrative district, Elmbridge hundred in the shire of Surrey. Walton appears in the Domesday Book of 1086 as Waletona, the settlement was held jointly as overlords in the feudal system by Edward de Sarisber and Richard de Tonbrige. Its Domesday assets were,6 hides,1 church,2 mills worth £1 5s 0d,1 fishery worth 5s,14 ploughs,40 acres of meadow, supporting 50 hogs. On a smaller scale, the majority of Oatlands village which is to the south-west was in the parish until its independence, St. Marys Parish Church has some Saxon material and an architectural structure of the 12th century, with later additions. The square flint tower, supported by a 19th-century brick buttress has a ring of eight bells. Also in the aisle a brass to John Selwyn keeper of Oatlands Park, with figures of himself, his wife. An unusual relic kept in the church is a copy of a scolds bridle presented to the parish in the seventeenth century, the royal palace of Oatlands, built by Henry VIII in 1538, was a mile upstream to the west. John Bradshaw lived in the Tudor manor house in the 17th century and he presided at Charles Is trial. An Inclosure Act 1800 enabled to be enclosed 3,117 acres of the Walton manors which included holdings at Chertsey and 475 acres of common fields. A School Board was formed in 1878, a previously existing school was enlarged in 1881. The infant school was built in 1884, the Methodist Church with a spire taller than the tower of the Anglican Church was built in 1887. The Baptist Church was built in 1901, a now demolished Public Hall, in High Street, was built by Mrs. Sassoon in 1879 who was seated at Ashley Park House at the time
29.
Church (building)
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A church building, often simply called a church, is a building used for Christian religious activities, particularly worship services. The term in its sense is most often used by Christians to refer to their religious buildings. In traditional Christian architecture, the church is arranged in the shape of a Christian cross. When viewed from plan view the longest part of a cross is represented by the aisle, towers or domes are often added with the intention of directing the eye of the viewer towards the heavens and inspiring church visitors. The earliest identified Christian church was a church founded between 233 and 256. During the 11th through 14th centuries, a wave of building of cathedrals, a cathedral is a church, usually Roman Catholic, Anglican, Oriental Orthodox or Eastern Orthodox, housing the seat of a bishop. In standard Greek usage, the word ecclesia was retained to signify both a specific edifice of Christian worship, and the overall community of the faithful. This usage was retained in Latin and the languages derived from Latin, as well as in the Celtic languages. In the Germanic and some Slavic languages, the word kyriak-ós/-ē/-ón was adopted instead, in Old English the sequence of derivation started as cirice, then churche, and eventually church in its current pronunciation. German Kirche, Scottish kirk, Russian церковь, etc. are all similarly derived, according to the New Testament, the earliest Christians did not build church buildings. Instead, they gathered in homes or in Jewish worship places like the Second Temple or synagogues, the earliest archeologically identified Christian church is a house church, the Dura-Europos church, founded between 233 and 256. During the 11th through 14th centuries, a wave of building of cathedrals, in addition to being a place of worship, the cathedral or parish church was used by the community in other ways. It could serve as a place for guilds or a hall for banquets. Mystery plays were performed in cathedrals, and cathedrals might also be used for fairs. The church could be used as a place to thresh and store grain, a common architecture for churches is the shape of a cross. These churches also often have a dome or other large vaulted space in the interior to represent or draw attention to the heavens. Other common shapes for churches include a circle, to represent eternity, or an octagon or similar star shape, another common feature is the spire, a tall tower on the west end of the church or over the crossing. The Latin word basilica was used to describe a Roman public building
30.
Lancashire
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Lancashire is a non-metropolitan ceremonial county in north west England. The county town is Lancaster although the administrative centre is Preston. The county has a population of 1,449,300, people from Lancashire are known as Lancastrians. The history of Lancashire begins with its founding in the 12th century, in the Domesday Book of 1086, some of its lands were treated as part of Yorkshire. The land that lay between the Ribble and Mersey, Inter Ripam et Mersam, was included in the returns for Cheshire, when its boundaries were established, it bordered Cumberland, Westmorland, Yorkshire, and Cheshire. Lancashire emerged as a commercial and industrial region during the Industrial Revolution. Liverpool and Manchester grew into its largest cities, dominating global trade, the county contained several mill towns and the collieries of the Lancashire Coalfield. By the 1830s, approximately 85% of all cotton manufactured worldwide was processed in Lancashire, Accrington, Blackburn, Bolton, Burnley, Bury, Chorley, Colne, Darwen, Manchester, Nelson, Oldham, Preston, Rochdale and Wigan were major cotton mill towns during this time. Blackpool was a centre for tourism for the inhabitants of Lancashires mill towns, the detached northern part of Lancashire in the Lake District, including the Furness Peninsula and Cartmel, was merged with Cumberland and Westmorland to form Cumbria. Lancashire lost 709 square miles of land to other counties, about two fifths of its area, although it did gain some land from the West Riding of Yorkshire. Today the county borders Cumbria to the north, Greater Manchester and Merseyside to the south and North and West Yorkshire to the east, with a coastline on the Irish Sea to the west. The county palatine boundaries remain the same with the Duke of Lancaster exercising sovereignty rights, including the appointment of lords lieutenant in Greater Manchester, the county was established in 1182, later than many other counties. During Roman times the area was part of the Brigantes tribal area in the zone of Roman Britain. The towns of Manchester, Lancaster, Ribchester, Burrow, Elslack, in the centuries after the Roman withdrawal in 410AD the northern parts of the county probably formed part of the Brythonic kingdom of Rheged, a successor entity to the Brigantes tribe. During the mid-8th century, the area was incorporated into the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Northumbria, in the Domesday Book, land between the Ribble and Mersey were known as Inter Ripam et Mersam and included in the returns for Cheshire. Although some historians consider this to mean south Lancashire was then part of Cheshire and it is also claimed that the territory to the north formed part of the West Riding of Yorkshire. It bordered on Cumberland, Westmorland, Yorkshire, and Cheshire, the county was divided into hundreds, Amounderness, Blackburn, Leyland, Lonsdale, Salford and West Derby. Lonsdale was further partitioned into Lonsdale North, the part north of the sands of Morecambe Bay including Furness and Cartmel
31.
The Scold's Bridle
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The Scolds Bridle is a crime novel by English writer Minette Walters. The book, Walters third, won a CWA Gold Dagger, the dead womans only friend, Dr. Sarah Blakeney, becomes prime suspect in her murder after police discover that shes been left a great deal of money in the will. To clear her name, Sarah delves deep into Mathildas mysterious past, in 1998, The Scolds Bridle was adapted for television by the BBC. It was directed by David Thacker from a written by Tony Bicât, producer Chris Parr, editor St John ORorke. The cast included, More about The Scolds Bridle on Walters website Agents dedicated page The Scolds Bridle at the Internet Movie Database
32.
Minette Walters
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Minette Walters is an English crime writer. During a gap year between school and Durham University,1968, she went to Israel as a volunteer with The Bridge in Britain, working on a kibbutz and she graduated from Trevelyan College, Durham in 1971 with a BA in French. Minette met her husband Alec Walters while she was at Durham and they have two sons, Roland and Philip. Walters joined IPC Magazines as a sub-editor in 1972 and became an editor of Womans Weekly Library the following year and she supplemented her salary by writing romantic novelettes, short stories and serials in her spare time. She turned freelance in 1977 but continued to write for magazines to cover her bills and her first full-length novel, The Ice House, was published in 1992. It took two and a years to write and was rejected by numerous publishing houses until Maria Rejt, Macmillan Publishers. Within four months, it had won the Crime Writers Association John Creasey award for best first novel and had snapped up by 11 foreign publishers. With her next two books, The Sculptress and The Scolds Bridle, Walters won the Mystery Writers of America Edgar Award and she was the first crime/thriller writer to win three major prizes with her first three books. Walters themes include isolation, family dysfunction, rejection, marginalisation, justice and her novels are often set against real backgrounds and real events to draw her readers into the reality of what she is writing about. As part of the British project Quick Reads, to encourage literacy amongst adults with reading difficulties, Walters wrote a 20, 000-word novella called Chickenfeed. In competition with works by other best-selling authors, such as Ruth Rendell, Maeve Binchy and Joanna Trollope and it has also been translated into several languages. In September 2007, Walters released her book, The Chameleons Shadow. The series was won by the actress Sherrie Hewson, whose debut novel The Tannery was published in March 2009, since publishing The Chameleons Shadow Walters has been working on a novel set during the Black Death. The latter was published for World Book Day 2006 as part of the Quick Reads initiative, Minette has written another entry in the Quick Reads series entitled A Dreadful Murder for World Book Day 2013. The novella is based on the 1908 murder of Caroline Luard, Walters first five books were adapted for television by the BBC and her eighth book, Acid Row, is currently under option with Company Pictures. The Sculptress – adapted 1996, starred Pauline Quirke and Caroline Goodall, the Ice House – adapted 1997, starred Daniel Craig, Frances Barber and Corin Redgrave. The Scolds Bridle – adapted 1998, starred Miranda Richardson, Siân Phillips, Virginia McKenna, the Echo – adapted 1998, starred Clive Owen and Joely Richardson. The Dark Room – adapted 1999, starred Dervla Kirwan and James Wilby, the Impenetrable M and the Mysteries of Narration, Narrative in Minette Walterss The Shape of Snakes
33.
Three Men in a Boat
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Three Men in a Boat, published in 1889, is a humorous account by English writer Jerome K. Jerome of a two-week boating holiday on the Thames from Kingston upon Thames to Oxford and back to Kingston. One of the most praised things about Three Men in a Boat is how undated it appears to modern readers – the jokes seem fresh and witty even today. The three men are based on Jerome himself and two friends, George Wingrave and Carl Hentschel, with whom Jerome often took boating trips. The dog, Montmorency, is fictional but, as Jerome admits, developed out of that area of inner consciousness which, in all Englishmen. The trip is a boating holiday of the time in a Thames camping skiff. This was just after commercial traffic on the Upper Thames had died out. Following the overwhelming success of Three Men in a Boat, Jerome later published a sequel, about a tour in Germany. The story begins by introducing George, Harris, Jerome, and Jeromes dog, the men are spending an evening in J. s room, smoking and discussing illnesses from which they fancy they suffer. They conclude that they are all suffering from overwork and need a holiday, a stay in the country and a sea trip are both considered. The country stay is rejected because Harris claims that it would be dull, the sea-trip after J. describes bad experiences of his brother-in-law and they set off the following Saturday. George must go to work day, so J. They cannot find the train at Waterloo station so they bribe a train driver to take his train to Kingston. They meet George further up river at Weybridge, the remainder of the story describes their river journey and the incidents that occur. One might have imagined … that the British Empire was in danger, … The Standard spoke of me as a menace to English letters, and The Morning Post as an example of the sad results to be expected from the over-education of the lower orders. … I think I may claim to have been, for the first twenty years of my career, the reception by critics varied between lukewarm and hostile. Punch magazine dubbed Jerome Arry K. Arry, yet the book sold in huge numbers. I pay Jerome so much in royalties, the publisher told a friend, I often think the public must eat them. The first edition was published in August 1889 and serialised in the popular magazine Home Chimes in the same year, the first edition remained in print from 1889 until March 1909, when the second edition was issued
34.
Jerome K. Jerome
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Jerome Klapka Jerome was an English writer and humourist, best known for the comic travelogue Three Men in a Boat. Other works include the essay collections Idle Thoughts of an Idle Fellow and Second Thoughts of an Idle Fellow, Three Men on the Bummel, a sequel to Three Men in a Boat, Jerome was born in Caldmore, Walsall, England. He was the child of Marguerite Jones and Jerome Clapp. He had two sisters, Paulina and Blandina, and one brother, Milton, who died at an early age, Jerome was registered as Jerome Clapp Jerome, like his fathers amended name, and the Klapka appears to be a later variation. The young Jerome attended St Marylebone Grammar School and he was employed at the London and North Western Railway, initially collecting coal that fell along the railway, and he remained there for four years. Jerome was inspired by his older sister Blandinas love for the theatre and he joined a repertory troupe that produced plays on a shoestring budget, often drawing on the actors own meagre resources – Jerome was penniless at the time – to purchase costumes and props. After three years on the road with no evident success, the 21-year-old Jerome decided that he had enough of stage life and he tried to become a journalist, writing essays, satires, and short stories, but most of these were rejected. Over the next few years, he was a teacher, a packer. On 21 June 1888, Jerome married Georgina Elizabeth Henrietta Stanley Marris and she had a daughter from her previous, five-year marriage nicknamed Elsie. The honeymoon took place on the Thames in a little boat, Jerome sat down to write Three Men in a Boat as soon as the couple returned from their honeymoon. In the novel, his wife was replaced by his longtime friends George Wingrave and this allowed him to create comic situations which were nonetheless intertwined with the history of the Thames region. The book, published in 1889, became an instant success and is still in print, in its first twenty years alone, the book sold over a million copies worldwide. It has been adapted to films, TV and radio shows, stage plays and its writing style influenced many humorists and satirists in England and elsewhere. With the financial security that the sales of the book provided and he wrote a number of plays, essays, and novels, but was never able to recapture the success of Three Men in a Boat. In 1892, he was chosen by Robert Barr to edit The Idler, the magazine was an illustrated satirical monthly catering to gentlemen. In 1893, he founded To-Day, but had to withdraw from both publications because of difficulties and a libel suit. In 1898, a stay in Germany inspired Three Men on the Bummel. The book was nonetheless unable to capture the life-force and historic roots of its predecessor, in 1902, he published the novel Paul Kelver, which is widely regarded as autobiographical
35.
Joseph Andrews (film)
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Joseph Andrews is a 1977 British period comedy film directed by Tony Richardson. It is based on the novel Joseph Andrews by Henry Fielding, ann-Margret was nominated for a Golden Globe Award in 1978 for her performance in the film. Sir Thomas really seeks relief for his foot, but drowns in the famous Roman baths. On his way home on foot, Joseph falls prey to highwaymen who rob him of everything. He is found and nursed by a maid, lusts are stirred at the inn, once more challenging his honour. Meanwhile, the lady consents to her cousin marrying below his station, on learning that his fiancée is Josephs sister, Pamela. The parson prevents an attempted rape by a squire, and barely escapes a wicked gentlemans totally unjust justice after being accused of it - he comes to learn of a significant child theft by gypsies. Meanwhile, the parson, Joseph and Fanny again fall prey to the squires utter debauchery, the ballads were sung by Jim Dale who plays the gypsy in the movie. Vincent Canby of The New York Times was impressed with the film and its one of the few movies around now that truly lifts the spirits, not only because it is so good-humored but also because the humor is laced with so much wit and wisdom. Looks great and she is funny, but so is almost everyone else in a cast so big I really dont know where to begin. Its one of films in which even the smaller roles are as beautifully. John Addisons score was well received, the period costumes by Michael Annals are extraordinarily flamboyant. David Watkins cinematography was praised as clever and particularly reflective of the period depicted, demonstrating a painterly quality, Nominee Best Supporting Actress Golden Globe award Nominee Best Costume Design BAFTA award Joseph Andrews at the Internet Movie Database Joseph Andrews at Rotten Tomatoes
36.
Henry Fielding
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Henry Fielding was an English novelist and dramatist best known for his rich, earthy humour and satirical prowess, and as the author of the novel Tom Jones. His younger sister, Sarah, also became a successful writer, Fielding was born at Sharpham, Somerset, and educated at Eton College, where he established a lifelong friendship with William Pitt the Elder. After a romantic episode with a woman that ended in his getting into trouble with the law, he went to London. In 1728, he travelled to Leiden to study classics and law at the university, however, lack of money obliged him to return to London and he began writing for the theatre. Some of his work was critical of the government of Prime Minister Sir Robert Walpole. The Theatrical Licensing Act of 1737 is alleged to be a response to his activities. The particular play that triggered the Licensing Act was the unproduced, anonymously authored, The Golden Rump, once the act was passed, political satire on the stage became virtually impossible, and playwrights whose works were staged were viewed as suspect. Fielding therefore retired from the theatre and resumed his career in law in order to support his wife Charlotte Craddock, Allen went on to provide for the education and support of Fieldings children after the writers death. Fielding never stopped writing political satire and satires of current arts, the Tragedy of Tragedies was, for example, quite successful as a printed play. He also contributed a number of works to journals of the day and he wrote for Tory periodicals, usually under the name Captain Hercules Vinegar. Fielding continued to air his liberal and anti-Jacobite views in articles and newspapers in the late 1730s. Almost by accident he took to writing novels in 1741, angered by Samuel Richardsons success with Pamela and his first big success was an anonymous parody of that, Shamela. This satire follows the model of the famous Tory satirists of the generation, Jonathan Swift and John Gay. Fielding followed this with Joseph Andrews, an original work supposedly dealing with Pamelas brother, although begun as a parody, it developed into an accomplished novel in its own right and is considered to mark Fieldings debut as a serious novelist. It is a satire of Walpole that draws a parallel between him and Jonathan Wild, the gang leader and highwayman. Though a minor item in Fieldings œuvre, the subject is consistent with his preoccupation with fraud, shamming. His greatest work was Tom Jones, a meticulously constructed picaresque novel telling the convoluted, Fielding married his first wife, Charlotte Craddock, in 1734 at the Church of St Mary in Charlcombe, Somerset. Charlotte, on whom he modelled the heroines of both Tom Jones and Amelia, died in 1744
37.
Michael Hordern
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Sir Michael Murray Hordern, CBE was an English stage and film actor whose career spanned nearly 60 years. He is best known for his Shakespearean roles, especially that of King Lear and he then successfully assumed the role on television five years later. He often appeared in film, rising from a bit actor in the late 1930s to a member of the main cast. His later work was predominantly in television and radio, born in Hertfordshire into a family with no theatrical connections, Hordern was educated at Windlesham House School where he became interested in drama. He went on to Brighton College where his interest in the theatre developed, after leaving the college he joined an amateur dramatics company, and came to the notice of several influential Shakespearean directors who cast him in minor roles in Othello and Macbeth. During the Second World War he served on HMS Illustrious where he reached the rank of lieutenant commander, upon his demobilisation he resumed his acting career and made his television debut, becoming a reliable bit-part actor in many films, particularly in the war film genre. Hordern came to prominence in the early 1950s when he took part in a competition at the Arts Theatre in London. The following season Hordern joined Michael Benthalls company at the Old Vic where, among other parts, he played Polonius in Hamlet, and the title role in King John. In 1958 he won a best actor award at that years British Academy Television Awards for his role as the barrister in John Mortimers courtroom drama The Dock Brief. Along with his theatrical responsibilities Hordern had regular roles in various films including Cleopatra. In the late 1960s Hordern met the British theatre director Jonathan Miller, who cast him in Whistle and Ill Come to You, Horderns next major play was Jumpers which appeared at the Royal National Theatre at the start of 1972. His performance was praised by critics and he reprised the role four years later and his television commitments increased towards the end of his life. His credits include Paradise Postponed, the BAFTA award-winning Memento Mori, and he was appointed a CBE in 1972 and was knighted eleven years later. Hordern suffered from disease during the 1990s and died from it in 1995 at the age of 83. Horderns mother, Margaret Murray, was descended from James Murray, the invention earned him a knighthood and brought the family great wealth. Margaret grew up in England, and attended St Audries School for Girls in Somerset, Horderns father, Edward, was the son of a Lancastrian priest who was the rector at the Holy Trinity Church in Bury. As a young man Edward joined the Royal Indian Marines and gained the rank of lieutenant, during a short break on home-leave he fell in love with Margaret, after they were introduced by one of his brothers. The courtship was brief and the couple married in Burma on 28 November 1903
38.
Path of Exile
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Path of Exile is an online action role-playing game developed and published by Grinding Gear Games. It is a title supported by microtransactions. An open beta was released on 23 January 2013, and the game was released on 23 October 2013. The game borrows heavily from the Diablo series, particularly Diablo II, all areas aside from the central encampments are randomly generated for increased re-playability. While all players on a server can freely mingle in encampments, gameplay outside of encampments is highly instanced. Players can initially choose from six classes to play as. Each of these classes are aligned with one or two of the three attributes, Strength, Dexterity, or Intelligence. The final class, the Scion, can be unlocked by freeing her near the end of Act 3 on Normal difficulty, and is aligned with all three attributes. The different classes are not restricted from investing into skills not aligned with their core attributes, items are randomly generated from a wide variety of basic types and endowed with special properties and gem sockets. They come in different rarities with increasingly powerful properties and this makes a large part of gameplay dedicated to finding well-balanced and synergistic equipment. Skill gems can be placed in gem sockets of armor and weapons, as the character advances and levels up, the equipped skill gems also gain experience, allowing the skills themselves to be levelled up and increase in potency. Active skills can be modified by items known as Support Gems, given limits on the number of sockets, players must prioritize gem usage. All classes share the same selection of 1,325 passive skills, from which the player can choose one each time their character levels up, and as an occasional quest reward. These passive skills improve the attributes and grant further enhancements such as increased Mana, Health, damage, defenses, regeneration, speed. Each one of the start on a different position on the passive skill tree. The passive skill tree is arranged in a complex network starting in separate trunks for each class. As of the 2.0 Awakening Release, the possible number of passive skill points per character was 123 Path of Exile is unusual among action-RPG games in that there is no in-game currency. The games economy is based on bartering currency items, unlike traditional game currencies, these items have their own inherent uses and thus provide their own money sinks to prevent inflation
39.
The Magic Flute
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The Magic Flute, K.620, is an opera in two acts by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart to a German libretto by Emanuel Schikaneder. The work is in the form of a Singspiel, a form that included both singing and spoken dialogue. The work premiered on 30 September 1791 at Schikaneders theatre, the Freihaus-Theater auf der Wieden in Vienna, separately, then together, Tamino and Pamina undergo severe trials of initiation, which end in triumph, with the Queen and her cohorts vanquished. The earthy Papageno, who accompanies Tamino on his quest, fails the trials completely but is rewarded anyway with the hand of his female companion Papagena. The opera was the culmination of a period of increasing involvement by Mozart with Schikaneders theatrical troupe, Mozart was a close friend of one of the singer-composers of the troupe, tenor Benedikt Schack, and had contributed to the compositions of the troupe, which were often collaboratively written. Mozarts participation increased with his contributions to the 1790 collaborative opera Der Stein der Weisen, like The Magic Flute, Der Stein der Weisen was a fairy-tale opera and can be considered a kind of precursor, it employed much the same cast in similar roles. The libretto for The Magic Flute, written by Schikaneder, is thought by scholars to be based on many sources, especially for the role of Papageno, the libretto draws on the Hanswurst tradition of the Viennese popular theatre. Many scholars also acknowledge an influence of Freemasonry, for detailed discussion of sources see Branscombe, as well as Libretto of The Magic Flute. In composing the opera, Mozart evidently kept in mind the skills of the intended for the premiere. Thus, the lines for Papageno—sung by Schikaneder himself—and Monostatos are often stated first in the strings so the singer can find his pitch. In contrast, Mozarts sister-in-law Josepha Hofer, who premiered the role of the Queen of the Night, evidently needed little such help, in ensembles, Mozart skillfully combined voices of different ability levels. The vocal ranges of two of the singers for whom Mozart tailored his music have posed challenges for many singers who have since recreated their roles. Both arias of the Queen of the Night, O zittre nicht, mein lieber Sohn and Der Hölle Rache kocht in meinem Herzen require high F6, rare in opera. At the low end, the part of Sarastro, premiered by Franz Xaver Gerl, the opera was premiered in Vienna on 30 September 1791 at the suburban Freihaus-Theater auf der Wieden. Mozart conducted the orchestra, Schikaneder himself played Papageno, while the role of the Queen of the Night was sung by Mozarts sister-in-law Josepha Hofer, as Mozarts letters show, he was very pleased to have achieved such a success. Solomon continues, Mozarts delight is reflected in his last three letters, written to Constanze, who with her sister Sophie was spending the week of October in Baden. I have this moment returned from the opera, which was as full as ever, he wrote on 7 October, but what always gives me the most pleasure is the silent approval. You can see how this opera is becoming more and more esteemed, … He went to hear his opera almost every night, taking along relatives
40.
Brimstone (film)
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Brimstone is a 2017 western thriller film written and directed by Martin Koolhoven, starring Dakota Fanning, Guy Pearce, Kit Harington, and Carice van Houten. It is a production, although mostly Dutch. It was selected to compete for the Golden Lion at the 73rd Venice International Film Festival on September 3,2016 and it premiered in the Netherlands on January 12,2017, before being released on March 10 in the United States in selected theaters and video on demand. It received mixed reviews, in contrast to positive reviews in Europe, from the moment the new reverend climbs the pulpit, Liz knows she and her family are in great danger. In four chapters we see how she must fight to keep herself and her family safe, later Robert Pattinson came on board to portray an outlaw along with Carice van Houten. In May 2015, Koolhoven confirmed that Jack Roth has joined the cast of the film, in June 2015, the Hollywood Reporter confirmed that Dakota Fanning and Kit Harington had replaced Wasikowska and Pattinson in the film, respectively. Principal photography began from June 15,2015 and took place in Hungary, Spain, Austria. Brimstones first commercial release was in The Netherlands on 12 January 2017 and it was also released on March 10,2017 in selected theaters and video on demand in the United States. As of March 2017, Brimstone was sold to 79 countries, Brimstone was shown in competition at the Venice Film Festival where it was met by a rousing applause, yet stirred great controversy amongst the press. After Venice, the film had its North American premiere as a Special Presentation at the Toronto International Film Festival where it was met with good press, Koolhoven won the Gouden Pen for the screenplay and the Gouden Film for the film. The film received reviews in The Netherlands from critics and opened strongly. In contrast to the reception in Europe, American reviews for the film were mixed. On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a rating of 35% based on 40 reviews and the average rating is 4. 7/10. On Metacritic, which assigns an average score out of 100 from mainstream critics. The Political Film Society has nominated Brimstone as best film on human rights of 2017, official website Brimstone at the Internet Movie Database Cinema of the Netherlands
41.
Martin Koolhoven
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Martinus Wouter Martin Koolhoven is a Dutch film director and screenwriter. He directed the Dutch-language films Schnitzel Paradise, Knetter, n Beetje Verliefd, almost immediately, he made an impact on the Dutch film industry with his 53-minute television film Duister Licht in which the slaughtering of a pig was shown. The film was nominated twice at the Dutch Film Festival and it was his next film however that established his name, also outside of the Netherlands. Suzy Q became the most awarded Dutch film of 1999 and established both Koolhovens career and that of actress Carice van Houten, who Koolhoven worked with several times in the films to come. His first film for the cinema, AmnesiA, got a small release in New York City. Koolhoven was one of the New Faces In European Cinema as presented at the AFI festival in 2004, Koolhoven started off with strongly stylized films that were all hailed by the critics, but never gained commercial success. In 2005 that changed when he went into the mainstream with Schnitzel Paradise, that not only got him rave reviews, the film was shown at many international film festivals The film was sold to more than 20 countries, which is a remarkable amount for a Dutch film. In the same year Koolhoven released Bonkers, which became his most awarded film. He was also the first director to have two films in the Dutch box office top 20, N Beetje Verliefd was his third hit film in two years time, earning him another Golden Film. It was followed in 2008 by Oorlogswinter, a Dutch movie based on the hit novel by the name, written by Jan Terlouw. The movie was praised by almost all critics and was a success at the box office. Winter in Wartime grossed more money than all previous movies Koolhoven made together, the movie outgrossed competing movies like The Dark Knight and Twilight and was the Dutch entry for the Academy Awards. It made the shortlist of 9 movies, but failed to get nominated, the movie is being distributed in the United States by Sony Classics. In 2011, Koolhoven started his own company, together with producer Els Vandevorst. Koolhoven latest project is the thriller/western, called Brimstone, which was his first production for N279 Entertainment as a director and it premiered September 32016 at the 73rd Venice International Film Festival. All his films have won awards at the Dutch Film Festival, but Koolhovens work has won awards in France, England, Lithuania, Egypt, Surinam, Japan, Uruguay, Italy, Spain. Films Chess – short film KOEKOEK
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Carice van Houten
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Carice Anouk van Houten is a Dutch actress and singer. She is mostly known for playing the lead in Black Book, the most commercially successful Dutch film to date, internationally, she is also known for English-language work in films like Valkyrie, Repo Men, and Black Death. Within the Netherlands, Van Houten is an acclaimed actress. Van Houten was born on 5 September 1976 in Leiderdorp, the Netherlands and her mother, Margje Stasse, is on the board of Dutch educational TV, and her father, Theodore van Houten, was a writer and broadcaster. He raised Carice watching many silent movies, and during a Dutch interview she professed to prefer playing scenes without dialogue and she has a younger sister, Jelka van Houten, who is also an actress. Van Houten went to the St. Bonifatiuscollege in Utrecht, where she played the role in Hugo Claus Tijl Uilenspieghel. Van Houten studied briefly at the Maastricht Academy of Dramatic Arts, Van Houten played her first leading role in Martin Koolhovens TV film Suzy Q. She won a Golden Calf for her part as Suzy and she also won the Pisuisse Award and the Top Naeff Award for her stage acting and another Golden Calf for her part as the kitten that becomes a girl in Undercover Kitty. The first time she could be seen in cinemas in the USA was when Martin Koolhovens AmnesiA got a theatrical release. Van Houten won a Golden Calf for her performance as Rachel Stein in the 2006 film Black Book at the Netherlands Film Festival, the international press was also enthusiastic about her role in Black Book. Dick Schümer wrote in his review of the film in the Frankfurter Allgemeine that Carice van Houten is not only more beautiful, in December 2006, Van Houten withdrew from a theatre production of Alex van Warmerdam due to personal reasons. According to a theatre spokesman it was because of a work overload, carices first English spoken movie was Dorothy from French director Agnès Merlet. In 2008 she starred in the short movie Zingen in het donker. She appeared in the magazine Vanity Fair in the issue for March 2008, in 2008, Van Houten had a role opposite Leonardo DiCaprio in Body of Lies but her scenes did not make the final cut of the movie. On 4 October 2008 filming began on From Time To Time directed by Julian Fellowes and it is based on the childrens literature classic The Chimneys of Green Knowe by Lucy M. Boston. Van Houten is attached to star as Maria Oldknow and she also starred in the Science-Fiction thriller Repo Men. In July 2011, Van Houten was cast as the priestess Melisandre in the season of HBOs fantasy TV series Game of Thrones. In 2012, Van Houten appeared in Antony and the Johnsons Cut the world video, in late November 2012, the video for Particle of Light, the second single from her album, See You on the Ice, debuted on YouTube
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Shrew's fiddle
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A shrews fiddle or neck violin is a variation of the yoke, pillory or rigid irons whereby the wrists are locked in front of the bound person by a hinged board or steel bar. It was originally used in the Middle ages as a way of punishing women who were caught bickering or fighting, the shrews fiddle was used in medieval Germany and Austria, where it was known as a Halsgeige, meaning neck viola or neck violin. It was originally out of two pieces of wood fitted with a hinge and a lock at the front. The shrews fiddle consisted of three holes, one was a large hole for the neck and the other two were smaller holes which fastened the wrists in front of the face. A bell was attached to this portable pillory, to alert townspeople that the victim was approaching so that she might be mocked. Another version was a double fiddle by which two people could be attached together face-to-face, forcing them to talk to each other and they were not released until the argument had been resolved
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Media related to Scold's bridles at Wikimedia Commons