1.
Tertiary education
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Tertiary education, also referred to as third stage, third level, and post-secondary education, is the educational level following the completion of a school providing a secondary education. Tertiary education generally culminates in the receipt of certificates, diplomas, Tertiary education includes further education, as well as higher education. Since the 1970s specialized FE colleges called “tertiary colleges” have been set up to courses such as A Levels. An early example of this expanded in September 1982 as part of a reorganization of education in the Halesowen area which also saw three-tier education axed after just 10 years in force. In some areas where schools do not universally offer sixth forms, unlike sixth form colleges, the staff join lecturers rather than teachers unions. Within Australia Tertiary Education refers to continuing studies after a students Higher School Certificate and it also refers to any education a student receives after there final compulsory schooling, which occurs at the age of 17 within Australia. Tertiary Education options include University, TAFE or private colleges, List of countries by tertiary education attainment Education by country List of universities and colleges by country Brick, Jean. Academic Culture, A Students Guide to Studying at University, sydney, N. S. W, National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research
2.
Primary education
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Primary education or elementary education is typically the first stage of compulsory education, coming between early childhood education and secondary education. Primary education usually takes place in a school or elementary school. In some countries, primary education is followed by school, an educational stage which exists in some countries. In order to achieve the goal by 2015, the United Nations estimated that all children at the entry age for primary school would have had to have been attending classes by 2009. This would depend on the duration of the level, as well as how well the schools retain students until the end of the cycle. As of 2010, the number of new teachers needed in sub-Saharan Africa alone, however, the gender gap for children not in education had also been narrowed. Between 1999 and 2008, the number of not in education worldwide had decreased from 57 percent to 53 percent, however it should also be noted that in some regions. According to the United Nations, there are things in the regions that have already been accomplished. The country doubled its enrollment ratio over the same period, other regions in Latin America such as Guatemala and Nicaragua as well as Zambia in Southern Africa broke through the 90 percent towards greater access to primary education. In Australia, students undertake preschool then 13 years of schooling before moving to vocational or higher education, Primary schooling for most children starts after they turn 5 years old. In most states, children can be enrolled earlier at the discretion of individual school principals on the basis of intellectual giftedness, in Victoria, New South Wales, Northern Territory, ACT and Tasmania students then move through Kindergarten/Preparatory School/Reception and Years 1 to 6 before starting high school. Pre-School/Kindergarten,4 to 5 years old Prep, currently, at the age of 6 children attend from the grade 1 to 4 what is called Ensino Primário, and afterwards from grade 5 to 9 the Ensino Fundamental. At the age of 15 the teenagers go to Ensino Médio, which is equivalent High School in other countries, Primary school is mandatory and consists in nine years called Ensino Fundamental, separated in Ensino Fundamental I and Ensino Fundamental II. Primary school is followed by the three years called Ensino Médio. 1st grade, 15- to 16-year-olds, 2nd grade, 16- to 17-year-olds, 3rd grade, in Canada, primary school usually begins at ages three or four, starting with either Kindergarten or Grade 1 and lasts until age 13 or 14. Many places in Canada have a split between primary and elementary schools, in Nova Scotia elementary school is the most common term. The provincial government of Nova Scotia uses the term Primary instead of Kindergarten, most children are pupils in the Danish Folkeskolen, which has the current grades, Kindergarten, 3–6 years https, //meta. wikimedia. The first three grades of school are called Algkool which can be translated as beginning school and can be confused with primary school
3.
Higher education
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Higher education, post-secondary education, or third level education is an optional final stage of formal learning that occurs after completion of secondary education. Tertiary education at non-degree level is referred to as further education or continuing education as distinct from higher education. The right of access to education is mentioned in a number of international human rights instruments. In Europe, Article 2 of the First Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights, adopted in 1950, in the days when few pupils progressed beyond primary education, the term higher education was often used to refer to secondary education, which can create some confusion. Higher education includes teaching, research, exacting applied work, within the realm of teaching, it includes both the undergraduate level, and beyond that, graduate-level. The latter level of education is referred to as graduate school. Higher education is important to national economies, both as an industry, in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy. College educated workers have commanded a measurable wage premium and are less likely to become unemployed than less educated workers. However, the admission of so many students of average ability to higher education inevitably requires a decline in academic standards. There is some question as to whether advanced mathematical skills or talent are in fact necessary for such as history, English, philosophy. In contrast, the higher education and training that takes place at vocational universities and schools usually concentrates on practical applications. Requirements for admission to such high-level graduate programs is extremely competitive, in the United States, there are large differences in wages and employment associated with different degrees. Medical doctors and lawyers are generally the highest paid workers, and have among the lowest unemployment rates and it may encompass using insights to conceive, model and scale an appropriate solution to a problem or objective. Engineering disciplines include, aerospace, biological, civil, chemical, computer, electrical, industrial, examples are painting, sculpture, and drawing, etc. Higher educational institutions in these arts include Film schools and Art schools, Higher vocational education and training takes place at the non-university tertiary level. Such education combines teaching of practical skills and theoretical expertise. Higher education differs from other forms of education such as that offered by institutions of vocational education. Higher vocational education might be contrasted with education in a broader scientific field
4.
Vocational education
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Craft vocations are usually based on manual or practical activities and are traditionally non-academic but related to a specific trade or occupation. Vocational education is referred to as career education or technical education. Vocational education can take place at the secondary, post-secondary, further education, and higher education level, however, online vocational education has grown in popularity, and made it easier than ever for students to learn various trade skills and soft skills from established professionals in the industry. Wilhelm von Humboldts educational model goes beyond vocational training, if this basis is laid through schooling, vocational skills are easily acquired later on, and a person is always free to move from one occupation to another, as so often happens in life. In Australia vocational education and training is mostly post-secondary and provided through the vocational education, however some senior schools do offer school-based apprenticeships and traineeships for students in years 10,11 and 12. Australia’s apprenticeship system includes both apprenticeships in trades and traineeships in other more service-oriented occupations. Both involve a legal contract between the employer and the apprentice or trainee and provide a combination of school-based and workplace training, Apprenticeships typically last three to four years, traineeships only one to two years. Apprentices and trainees receive a wage which increases as they progress through the training scheme and this allows national portability of qualifications and units of competency. A crucial feature of the package is that the content of the vocational qualifications is theoretically defined by industry. A Training Package is owned by one of 11 Industry Skills Councils which are responsible for developing and reviewing the qualifications, the National Centre for Vocational Education Research or NCVER is a not-for-profit company owned by the federal, state and territory ministries responsible for training. It is responsible for collecting, managing, analysing, evaluating and communicating research and statistics about vocational education, the boundaries between vocational education and tertiary education are becoming more blurred. A number of training providers such as Melbourne Polytechnic, BHI. Such applied courses include equine studies, winemaking and viticulture, aquaculture, information technology, music, illustration, culinary management, the largest and the most unified system of vocational education was created in the Soviet Union with the professionalno-tehnicheskoye uchilische and Tehnikum. But it became effective with the transition of the economies of post-Soviet countries to a market economy. Education and training is the responsibility of states, but the single European labour market makes some cooperation on education imperative, including on vocational education. The process is based on mutually agreed priorities that are reviewed periodically, much of the activity is monitored by Cedefop, the European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training. In Finland, vocational education belongs to secondary education, after the nine-year comprehensive school, almost all students choose to go to either a lukio, which is an institution preparing students for tertiary education, or to a vocational school. Both forms of secondary education last three years, and give a qualification to enter university or ammattikorkeakoulu, i. e. Finnish polytechnics
5.
Compulsory education
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Compulsory education refers to a period of education that is required of all people and is imposed by law. Depending on the country, this education may take place at a school or at home. Compulsory education was not unheard of in ancient times, however instances are generally tied to royal, religious or military organization—substantially different from modern notions of compulsory education. Platos The Republic is credited with having popularized the concept of education in Western intellectual thought. The ideal city would require ideal individuals, and ideal individuals would require an ideal education, popularization of Platos ideas began with the wider Renaissance and the translation of Platos works by Marsilio Ficino, culminating in the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau, known for his own work on education, Emile, or On Education had said To get an idea of public education. It is not a treatise, as those who merely judge books by their title think. In Sparta boys between the age 6 and 7 left their homes and were sent to military school, School courses were harsh and have been described as a brutal training period. Between the age of 18 and 20, Spartan males had to pass a test that consisted of fitness, military ability, a students failure meant a forfeiture of citizenship and political rights. Every parent in Judea since ancient times was required to teach their children at least informally, over the centuries, as cities, towns and villages developed, a class of teachers called Rabbis evolved. The Aztec Triple Alliance, which ruled from 1428 to 1521 in what is now central Mexico, is considered to be the first state to implement a system of compulsory education. The Protestant Reformation prompted the establishment of compulsory education for boys and girls, first in regions that are now part of Germany, and later in Europe and in the United States. Martin Luthers seminal text An die Ratsherren aller Städte deutschen Landes called for establishing compulsory schooling so that all parishioners would be able to read the Bible by themselves, the Protestant South-West of the Holy Roman Empire soon followed suit. In 1559, the German Duchy Württemberg established an education system for boys. In Scotland, the School Establishment Act of 1616 commanded every parish to establish a school for everyone paid for by parishioners, the Parliament of Scotland confirmed this with the Education Act of 1633 and created a local land-based tax to provide the required funding. The required majority support of parishioners, however, provided a tax evasion loophole which heralded the Education Act of 1646, the turmoil of the age meant that in 1661 there was a temporary reversion to the less compulsory 1633 position. In the United States, following Luther and other Reformers, the Separatist Congregationalists who founded Plymouth Colony in 1620, obliged parents to teach their children how to read and write. The 1647 law, in particular, required every town having more than 50 families to hire a teacher, the Puritan zeal for learning was reflected in the early and rapid rise of educational institutions, e. g. Harvard College was founded as early as 1636
6.
Convention on the Rights of the Child
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The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child is a human rights treaty which sets out the civil, political, economic, social, health and cultural rights of children. The Convention defines a child as any human being under the age of eighteen, Nations that ratify this convention are bound to it by international law. Compliance is monitored by the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child and their reports and the committees written views and concerns are available on the committees website. The UN General Assembly adopted the Convention and opened it for signature on 20 November 1989 and it came into force on 2 September 1990, after it was ratified by the required number of nations. Currently,196 countries are party to it, including member of the United Nations except the United States. Two optional protocols were adopted on 25 May 2000, the First Optional Protocol restricts the involvement of children in military conflicts, and the Second Optional Protocol prohibits the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography. Both protocols have been ratified by more than 160 states, a third optional protocol relating to communication of complaints was adopted in December 2011 and opened for signature on 28 February 2012. It came into effect on 14 April 2014, the Convention deals with the child-specific needs and rights. It requires that the nations that ratify this convention are bound to it by international law, ratifying states must act in the best interests of the child. The Convention obliges states to allow parents to exercise their parental responsibilities, the Convention forbids capital punishment for children. The European Court of Human Rights has referred to the Convention when interpreting the European Convention on Human Rights, global human rights standards were challenged at the World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna when a number of governments raised serious objections to the idea of universal human rights. Some scholars link slavery and slavery-like practices for many child marriages, Child marriage as slavery is not directly addressed by the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Currently 196 countries are parties to the treaty and this includes every member of the United Nations, plus the Cook Islands, Niue, the State of Palestine, and the Holy See. The United States has not ratified it, somalias domestic ratification finished in January 2015 and the instrument was deposited with the United Nations in October 2015. All successor states of Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia made declarations of succession to the treaty, the convention does not apply in the territories of Akrotiri and Dhekelia, Gibraltar, Guernsey and Tokelau. Canada became a signatory to the Convention on 28 May 1990, Youth criminal laws in Canada underwent major changes resulting in the Youth Criminal Justice Act which went into effect on 1 April 2003. The Act specifically references Canadas different commitments under the Convention, the convention was influential in the administrative Law decision of Baker v Canada. India ratified UNCRC on 11 December 1992, agreeing in principles all articles except with certain reservations on issues relating to child labor
7.
Comenius
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John Amos Comenius was a Czech philosopher, pedagogue and theologian from the Margraviate of Moravia. He is considered the father of modern education, John Amos Comenius originated from Margraviate of Moravia in the Bohemian Crown in Uherský Brod or Nivnice, or Komňa, all of which are located in Uherské Hradiště District of todays Czech Republic. John Comenius was the youngest child and only son of Martin Komenský and his grandfather, whose name was Jan Szeges, was of Hungarian origin. He started to use the surname Komenský after leaving Komňa to live in Uherský Brod, Martin and Anna Komenský belonged to the Moravian Brethren, and Comenius later became one of the leaders of that pre-Reformation Protestant denomination. His parents and two of his four sisters died in 1604 and young John went to live with his aunt in Strážnice, owing to his impoverished circumstances he was unable to begin his formal education until late. He was 16 when he entered the Latin school in Přerov and he continued his studies in the Herborn Academy and the University of Heidelberg. In 1612 he read Fama Fraternitatis, Comenius was greatly influenced by the Irish Jesuit William Bathe as well as his teachers Johann Piscator, Heinrich Gutberleth, and particularly Heinrich Alsted. The Herborn school held the principle that every theory has to be functional in practical use, in the course of his study he also became acquainted with the educational reforms of Ratichius and with the report of these reforms issued by the universities of Jena and Giessen. Comenius book Janua linguarum reserata brought him prominence and fame. However he and the Unity became special targets of the Counter Reformation movement and were forced into exile even as his fame grew across Europe, Comenius became rector of a school in Přerov. In 1616 he was ordained into the ministry of the Moravian Brethren and four later became pastor and rector at Fulnek. Throughout his life this pastoral activity was his most immediate concern, Comenius took refuge in Leszno in Poland, where he led the gymnasium and, furthermore, was given charge of the Bohemian and Moravian churches. In 1628 he corresponded with Johann Valentin Andreae, the same year he moved to Elbląg in Poland and in 1648 went to England with the aid of Samuel Hartlib, who came originally from Elbląg. In 1650 Zsuzsanna Lorántffy, widow of George I Rákóczi prince of Transylvania invited him to Sárospatak, Comenius remained there until 1654 as a professor at the first Hungarian Protestant College, he wrote some of his most important works there. During the Deluge in 1655, he declared his support for the Protestant side, for which Polish partisans burned his house, his manuscripts, from Leszno he took refuge in Amsterdam in the Netherlands, where he died in 1670. For unclear reasons he was buried in Naarden, where visitors can see his grave in the devoted to him. After his religious duties, Comeniuss second great interest was in furthering the Baconian attempt at the organization of all human knowledge. In 1639, Comenius published his Pansophiæ Prodromus, and in the year his English friend Hartlib published, without his consent
8.
John Locke
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John Locke FRS was an English philosopher and physician, widely regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers and commonly known as the Father of Liberalism. Considered one of the first of the British empiricists, following the tradition of Sir Francis Bacon and his work greatly affected the development of epistemology and political philosophy. His writings influenced Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers and his contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in the United States Declaration of Independence. Locke was the first to define the self through a continuity of consciousness and he postulated that, at birth, the mind was a blank slate or tabula rasa. This is now known as empiricism, an example of Lockes belief in Empiricism can be seen in his quote, whatever I write, as soon as I discover it not to be true, my hand shall be the forwardest to throw it into the fire. This shows the ideology of science in his observations in that something must be capable of being tested repeatedly, challenging the work of others, Locke is said to have established the method of introspection, or observing the emotions and behaviours of one’s self. Locke was born on 29 August 1632, in a thatched cottage by the church in Wrington, Somerset. He was baptised the same day, soon after Lockes birth, the family moved to the market town of Pensford, about seven miles south of Bristol, where Locke grew up in a rural Tudor house in Belluton. In 1647, Locke was sent to the prestigious Westminster School in London under the sponsorship of Alexander Popham, after completing studies there, he was admitted to Christ Church, Oxford, in the autumn of 1652 at the age of twenty. The dean of the college at the time was John Owen, although a capable student, Locke was irritated by the undergraduate curriculum of the time. He found the works of philosophers, such as René Descartes. Locke was awarded a degree in February 1656 and a masters degree in June 1658. In 1666, he met Lord Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, Cooper was impressed with Locke and persuaded him to become part of his retinue. Locke had been looking for a career and in 1667 moved into Shaftesburys home at Exeter House in London, in London, Locke resumed his medical studies under the tutelage of Thomas Sydenham. Sydenham had an effect on Lockes natural philosophical thinking – an effect that would become evident in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Lockes medical knowledge was put to the test when Shaftesburys liver infection became life-threatening, Locke coordinated the advice of several physicians and was probably instrumental in persuading Shaftesbury to undergo surgery to remove the cyst. Shaftesbury survived and prospered, crediting Locke with saving his life, Shaftesbury, as a founder of the Whig movement, exerted great influence on Lockes political ideas. Locke became involved in politics when Shaftesbury became Lord Chancellor in 1672, following Shaftesburys fall from favour in 1675, Locke spent some time travelling across France as tutor and medical attendant to Caleb Banks
9.
Reformation
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The period is usually considered to have begun with the publication of the Ninety-five Theses by Luther in 1517 to the Thirty Years War and ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The Protestant position, however, would come to incorporate doctrinal changes such as sola scriptura, the initial movement within Germany diversified, and other reform impulses arose independently of Luther. The spread of Gutenbergs printing press provided the means for the dissemination of religious materials in the vernacular. The largest groups were the Lutherans and Calvinists, Lutheran churches were founded mostly in Germany, the Baltics and Scandinavia, while the Reformed ones were founded in Switzerland, Hungary, France, the Netherlands and Scotland. The new movement influenced the Church of England decisively after 1547 under Edward VI and Elizabeth I, there were also reformation movements throughout continental Europe known as the Radical Reformation, which gave rise to the Anabaptist, Moravian and other Pietistic movements. The Roman Catholic Church responded with a Counter-Reformation initiated by the Council of Trent, much work in battling Protestantism was done by the well-organised new order of the Jesuits. In general, Northern Europe, with the exception of most of Ireland, southern Europe remained Roman Catholic, while Central Europe was a site of a fierce conflict, culminating in the Thirty Years War, which left it devastated. The oldest Protestant churches, such as the Unitas Fratrum and Moravian Church, the later Protestant Churches generally date their doctrinal separation from the Roman Catholic Church to the 16th century. The Reformation began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church, by priests who opposed what they perceived as false doctrines and ecclesiastic malpractice. They especially objected to the teaching and the sale of indulgences, and the abuses thereof, and to simony, the reformers saw these practices as evidence of the systemic corruption of the Churchs hierarchy, which included the pope. Unrest due to the Great Schism of Western Christianity excited wars between princes, uprisings among the peasants, and widespread concern over corruption in the Church, New perspectives came from John Wycliffe at Oxford University and from Jan Hus at the Charles University in Prague. Hus rejected indulgences and adopted a doctrine of justification by grace through faith alone, the Roman Catholic Church officially concluded this debate at the Council of Constance by condemning Hus, who was executed by burning despite a promise of safe-conduct. Wycliffe was posthumously condemned as a heretic and his corpse exhumed and burned in 1428, the Council of Constance confirmed and strengthened the traditional medieval conception of church and empire. The council did not address the national tensions or the theological tensions stirred up during the century and could not prevent schism. Pope Sixtus IV established the practice of selling indulgences to be applied to the dead, Pope Alexander VI was one of the most controversial of the Renaissance popes. He was the father of seven children, including Lucrezia and Cesare Borgia, in response to papal corruption, particularly the sale of indulgences, Luther wrote The Ninety-Five Theses. The Reformation was born of Luthers dual declaration – first, the discovering of Jesus and salvation by faith alone, the Protestant reformers were unanimous in agreement and this understanding of prophecy furnished importance to their deeds. It was the point and the battle cry that made the Reformation nearly unassailable
10.
Academy
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An academy is an institution of secondary education, higher learning, research, or honorary membership. The name traces back to Platos school of philosophy, founded approximately 385 BC at Akademia, a sanctuary of Athena, the site of Akademia was sacred to Athena and other immortals. Platos immediate successors as scholarch of Akademia were Speusippus, Xenocrates, Polemon, Crates, later scholarchs include Lacydes of Cyrene, Carneades, Clitomachus, and Philo of Larissa. Other notable members of Akademia include Aristotle, Heraclides Ponticus, Eudoxus of Cnidus, Philip of Opus, Crantor, however, there cannot have actually been any geographical, institutional, economic or personal continuity with the original Academy in the new organizational entity. The emperor Justinian closed the school in AD529, a date that is cited as the end of Antiquity. After a peace treaty between the Persian and the Byzantine empire in 532 guaranteed their personal security, some members found sanctuary in the stronghold of Harran. One of the last leading figures of this group was Simplicius, a pupil of Damascius and it has been speculated that Akademia did not altogether disappear. After his exile, Simplicius, may have travelled to Harran, from there, the students of an Academy-in-exile could have survived into the 9th century, long enough to facilitate the Arabic revival of the Neoplatonist commentary tradition in Baghdad. With the Neoplatonist revival that accompanied the revival of humanist studies, Cosimo had been inspired by the arrival at the otherwise ineffective Council of Florence of Gemistos Plethon, who seemed a dazzling figure to the Florentine intellectuals. In 1462 Cosimo gave Ficino a villa at Careggi for the Academys use, situated where Cosimo could see it from his own villa, the academy remained a wholly informal group, but one which had a great influence on Renaissance Neo-Platonism. The Vatican Library was not coordinated until 1475 and was never catalogued or widely accessible and his valuable Greek as well as Latin library was at the disposal of the academicians. Bessarion, in the years of his life, retired from Rome to Ravenna. He was a worshipper not merely of the literary and artistic form, but also of the ideas and spirit of classic paganism, which made him appear a condemner of Christianity, in his academy every member assumed a classical name. The prisoners begged so earnestly for mercy, and with such protestations of repentance, in Naples, the Quattrocento academy founded by Alfonso of Aragon and guided by Antonio Beccadelli was the Porticus Antoniana, later known as the Accademia Pontaniana, after Giovanni Pontano. The 16th century saw at Rome a great increase of literary and aesthetic academies, more or less inspired by the Renaissance, all of which assumed, as was the fashion, odd and fantastic names. We learn from various sources the names of such institutes, as a rule, they soon perished. In the 1520s came the Accademia degl Intronati, for the encouragement of theatrical representations, there were also the Academy of the Vignaiuoli, or Vinegrowers, and the Accademia della Virtù, founded by Claudio Tolomei under the patronage of Cardinal Ippolito de Medici. These were followed by a new academy in the Orti or Farnese gardens, there were also the academies of the Intrepidi, the Animosi, and the Illuminati, this last, founded by the Marchesa Isabella Aldobrandini Pallavicino
11.
Gymnasium (school)
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In its current meaning, it usually refers to secondary schools focused on preparing students to enter a university for advanced academic study. In the US, the German Gymnasium curriculum was used at a number of universities such as the University of Michigan as a model for their undergraduate college programs. The word γυμνάσιον was used in Ancient Greece, meaning a locality for both physical and intellectual education of young men, in the Polish educational system the gimnazjum is a middle school for pupils aged 13 to 16. The same applies in the Greek educational system, with the option of Εσπερινό Γυμνάσιο for adults. The gymnasium is a school which prepares the student for higher education at a university. They are thus meant for the more academically minded students, who are sifted out at about the age of 10–13, in addition to the usual curriculum, students of a gymnasium often study Latin and Ancient Greek. Some gymnasiums provide general education, others have a specific focus, today, a number of other areas of specialization exist, such as gymnasiums specializing in economics, technology or domestic sciences. In some countries, there is a notion of progymnasium, which is equivalent to beginning classes of the full gymnasium, here, the prefix pro indicates that this curriculum precedes normal gymnasium studies. The term was derived from the classical Greek word gymnasion, which was applied to an exercising ground in ancient Athens. Here teachers gathered and gave instruction between the hours devoted to exercises and sports, and thus the term became associated with. This use of the term did not prevail among the Romans, but was revived during the Renaissance in Italy, in 1538, Johannes Sturm founded at Strasbourg the school which became the model of the modern German gymnasium. In 1812, a Prussian regulation ordered that all schools which had the right to send their students to the university should bear the name of gymnasia, by the 20th century, this practice was followed in almost the entire Austrian-Hungarian, German, and Russian Empires. In the modern era, many countries which have gymnasiums were once part of three empires. In Albania a gymnasium education takes three years following a compulsory nine-year elementary education and ending with an aptitude test called Matura Shtetërore. The final test is standardized at the level and serves as an entrance qualification for universities. There are both public and private schools in these countries. Therefore, gymnasiums often base their admittance criteria on an entrance exam, in Austria the Gymnasium has two stages, from the age of 11 to 14, and from 15 to 18, concluding with Matura. The Humanistisches Gymnasium focuses on Ancient Greek and Latin, the Neusprachliches Gymnasium puts its focus on actively spoken languages
12.
Middle schools
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A middle school is an educational stage, which exists in some countries, and takes place between primary school and high school. The concept, regulation and classification of schools, as well as the ages covered. In Afghanistan, middle school consists of grades 6,7 and 8, besides there is a change in the scenario. In Albania, middle school is included in the education which lasts 9 years. In Algeria, a middle school includes grades 6 through 10, most regions of Australia do not have middle schools, as students go directly from primary school to secondary school. The first middle school established in Australia was The Armidale School, Schools have since followed this trend, such as The Kings School. The Northern Territory has introduced a three tier system featuring Middle Schools for years 7–9 and high school year 10–12, many schools across Queensland have introduced a Middle School tier within their schools. The middle schools cover the grades/years 5 to 8, in Brazil, middle school is a mandatory stage that precedes High School called Ensino Fundamental II consisting of grades 6 to 9, ages 11 to 14. In Canada, the middle school and junior high school are both used, depending on which grades the school caters to. Another common model is grades 5–8, alberta, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Prince Edward Island junior high schools include only grades 7–9, with the first year of high school traditionally being grade 10. In some places students go from school to secondary school. Quebec uses a system that is different from those of the other provinces. The Secondary level has five grades, starting after Elementary Grade 6 and these are called Secondary I to Secondary V. In the Peoples Republic of China, middle school has two stages, junior stage and senior stage, some middle schools have both stages while some have either of them. Other students may avoid the exam, based on their talents, like athletics. In the Czech Republic after completing the elementary school a student may apply for high school. Students have the opportunity to enroll in school from Grade 5 or Grade 7 of elementary school. Thus they can spend five years in school, followed by eight in high school
13.
College
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College is an educational institution or a constituent part of one. A college may be a tertiary educational institution, a part of a collegiate or federal university. In ancient Rome a collegium was a club or society, a group of living together under a common set of rules. Aside from the educational context - nowadays the most common use of college - there are various other meanings also derived from the original Latin term. In the United States, college can be a synonym for university, in Singapore and India, this is known as a junior college. The municipal government of the city of Paris uses the sixth form college as the English name for a lycée. In some national education systems, secondary schools may be called colleges or have college as part of their title, in Australia the term college is applied to any private or independent primary and, especially, secondary school as distinct from a state school. Melbourne Grammar School, Cranbrook School, Sydney and The Kings School, there has also been a recent trend to rename or create government secondary schools as colleges. In the state of Victoria, some high schools are referred to as secondary colleges. Interestingly, the pre-eminent government secondary school for boys in Melbourne is still named Melbourne High School, in Western Australia, South Australia and the Northern Territory, college is used in the name of all state high schools built since the late 1990s, and also some older ones. In New South Wales, some schools, especially multi-campus schools resulting from mergers, are known as secondary colleges. In Queensland some newer schools which accept primary and high school students are styled state college, in Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory, college refers to the final two years of high school, and the institutions which provide this. In this context, college is an independent of the other years of high school. Here, the expression is a version of matriculation college. This is because these schools have traditionally focused on academic, rather than vocational, subjects. Some private secondary schools choose to use the college in their names nevertheless. Some secondary schools elsewhere in the country, particularly ones within the school system. In New Zealand the word normally refers to a secondary school for ages 13 to 17
14.
Sixth-form college
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In Singapore and India, this is known as a junior college. The municipal government of the city of Paris uses the sixth form college as the English name for a lycée. In England and the Caribbean, education is compulsory until the end of year 13, in the independent sector, sixth forms are an integral part of secondary schools, and there is also a number of smaller-scale independent sixth form colleges. In Wales, education is compulsory until the end of year 11. Students at sixth form college typically study for two years, some students sit AS examinations at the end of the first year, and A-level examinations at the end of the second. These exams are called C. A. P. E. in the Caribbean, in addition, in recent years a variety of vocational courses have been added to the curriculum. There are currently over 90 sixth form colleges in England and Wales, most perform extremely well in national examination league tables. In addition, they offer a range of courses at a lower cost per student than most school sixth forms. In a few areas, authorities run sixth form schools which function like sixth form colleges but are completely under the control of the education authorities. Unlike further education colleges, sixth form colleges rarely accept part-time students or run evening classes, there are a few schools in Brunei providing sixth form education. Five of them are dedicated sixth form colleges, with four located in Brunei-Muara District, belait has yet to have its own sixth form centre and sixth form education is presently housed in Sayyidina Ali Secondary School, sharing facilities with the secondary education. There is no sixth form education in Temburong — prospective students go to sixth form colleges in Brunei-Muara where they may stay in dormitories, almost all sixth form schools are government schools. Five of them provide education leading up to Brunei-Cambridge GCE A Level qualification, jerudong International School is the only non-government school which has sixth form education and its A Level is independent of those offered by its counterpart. Another school, Hassanil Bolkiah Boys Arabic Secondary School, is a government sixth form centre for students in the specialised Arabic stream, instead of A Level subjects, students generally learn subjects pertaining to Islamic knowledge in Arabic medium. The schooling culminates in the sitting of Sijil Tinggi Pelajaran Ugama Brunei and they may then proceed to Islamic universities, locally or abroad such as Al-Azhar University. In the English-speaking Caribbean, there are many sixth form colleges, students must usually attain a grade A-C in 1-3 in the Caribbean Examinations Council, examinations. Students that fail these exams are not accepted into the sixth form program and either can do courses in other tertiary facilities, after sixth form, students are presented with an Associate Degree. Higher Grade qualifications can be taken in both the fifth and sixth years, the first comprehensive intake sixth form college in England was established in Mexborough, South Yorkshire, and took its first intake of students in September 1964
15.
Vocational school
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In the case of secondary education, these schools differ from academic high schools which usually prepare students who aim to pursue tertiary education, rather than enter directly into the workforce. Vocational schools were called technical colleges in Australia, and there were more than 20 schools specializing in vocational educational training, only four technical colleges remain, and these are now referred to as trade colleges. At these colleges, students complete a modified year 12 certificate, in Queensland, students can also undertake VET at private and public high schools instead of studying for their overall position, which is a tertiary entrance score. However these students usually undertake more limited vocational education of one day per week whereas in the colleges the training is longer. Vocational schools are called colleges in Canada. However, a college may also refer to an institution that offers part of a university degree, in Ontario, secondary schools were separated into three streams, technical schools, commercial or business schools, and collegiates. In Ontario, the Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities have divided postsecondary education into universities, community colleges, in the Province of Quebec, there are some vocational programs offered at institutions called CEGEPs, but these too may function as an introduction to university. Generally, students complete two years at a CEGEP directly out of school, and then complete three years at a university, to earn an undergraduate degree. In Central and Eastern Europe, an education is represented in forms of vocational technical schools often abbreviated as PTU. Vocational school Vocational school or Vocational college is considered a post-secondary education type school, in Ukraine, the term is used mostly for sports schools sometimes interchangeably with the term college. Such college could be an entity or a branch of bigger university. Successful graduates receive a specialist degree and it could be compared to a trade high school. In the 1920-30s, such PTUs were called schools of factory and plant apprenticeship, sometime after 1959, the name PTU was established, however, with the reorganization of the Soviet educational system these vocational schools renamed into lyceums. There were several types of PTUs such as middle city PTU, technicum Technical college is becoming an obsolete term for a college in different parts of Central and Eastern Europe. Technicums provided a level of vocational education. Aside of technicums and PTU there also were vocational schools also provided a middle level of vocational education. In 1920-30s Ukraine, technicums were a vocational institutes, however, Institute Institutes were considered a higher level of education, however, unlike universities, they were more oriented to a particular trade. With the reorganization of the Soviet education system, most institutes have been renamed as technical universities, the Finnish system is divided between vocational and academic paths
16.
University-preparatory school
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A university-preparatory school or college-preparatory school is a type of secondary school. The term can refer to public, private independent or parochial schools primarily designed to prepare students for higher education, in the United States, there are public, private, and charter college preparatory schools and they can be either parochial or secular. Admission is sometimes based on selection criteria, usually academic. Fewer than 1% of students enrolled in school in the United States attend an independent, private school, compared to 9% who attend parochial schools. Public and charter college prep schools are connected to a local school district. The term prep school in the U. S. is usually associated with private, elite institutions that have very selective admission criteria, prep schools can be day schools, boarding schools, or both, and may be co-educational or single-sex. Currently day schools are more common than boarding, and since the 1970s co-educational schools are more common than single-sex, unlike the public schools which are free, they charge tuition Some prep schools are affiliated with a particular religious denomination. Unlike parochial schools, independent preparatory schools are not governed by a religious organization, in most parts of Europe, such as Germany, the Netherlands, France, Italy, and Scandinavia, there are state-funded secondary schools specializing in university-preparatory education. These go by many names depending on the country but may be called gymnasia, athenaea, unlike American prep schools then, they begin after high-school graduation. The most famous French classes préparatoires are exceptionally intensive and selective, taking only the very best students graduating from high schools, nevertheless, there exist many less prestigious classes préparatoires. As a result, 90% of the students in the scientific classes préparatoires eventually become engineers or scientists, a Gymnasium is a particular type of school in Germany and other countries in Europe, with the goal to prepare its pupils to enter a university. The γυμνάσιον of Ancient Greece was a place for physical and eventually also intellectual education of young men, the later meaning of intellectual education persisted in German and other languages, whereas in English, the older meaning of physical education was retained. The German Gymnasien are selective and competitive schools and they enroll students after completing 4th or 6th grade and prepare them for college. The vast majority of Gymnasien is public and does not charge tuition fees, article 7, Paragraph 4 of the German constitution, forbids segregation of students according to the means of their parents. Therefore, most private Gymnasien have rather low tuition fees and/or offer scholarships, every child will be able to enter the lottery, no matter how he or she performed in primary school. It is hoped that this policy will increase the number of lower, a total of zero percent was in favour of the lottery. Germanys oldest Gymnasien include Gymnasium Paulinum, Gymnasium Theodorianum and Gymnasium Carolinum, in Italy, there are several kinds of high schools, both public and private, whose curriculum has as a primary aim the preparation for university. These are called Liceo, plural Licei, the name comes from Lyceum, the Latin rendering of the Ancient Greek Λύκειον, the name of a gymnasium in Classical Athens dedicated to Apollo Lyceus
17.
History of Education
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The systematic provision of learning techniques to most children, such as literacy, has been a development of the last 150 or 200 years, or even last 50 years in some countries. Schools for the young have historically been supplemented with advanced training for priests, bureaucrats and specialists, starting in about 3500 B. C. various writing systems developed in ancient civilizations around the world. In Egypt fully developed hieroglyphs were in use at Abydos as early as 3400 B. C. oldest known alphabet was developed in central Egypt around 2000 B. C. from a hieroglyphic prototype. The Phoenician writing system was adapted from the Proto-Canaanite script in around the 11th century BC and this script was adapted by the Greeks. A variant of the early Greek alphabet gave rise to the Etruscan alphabet, other descendants from the Greek alphabet include the Cyrillic script, used to write Russian, among others. The Phoenician system was adapted into the Aramaic script, from which the Hebrew script. In China, the oracle bone script has survived on tens of thousands of oracle bones dating from around 1400-1200 B. C. in the Shang Dynasty. Out of more than 2500 written characters in use in China in about 1200 BC, of several pre-Columbian scripts in Mesoamerica, the one that appears to have been best developed, and the one to be deciphered the most, is the Maya script. The earliest inscriptions which are identifiably Maya date to the 3rd century B. C. in Chinese civilization, in school the children were not allowed to scribble. They were not to write slanted or sloppy charterers. C, vellum, made from calfskin, and wax tablets which could be wiped clean to provide a fresh surface. In what became Mesopotamia, the logographic system of cuneiform script took many years to master. Thus only a number of individuals were hired as scribes to be trained in its reading and writing. Only royal offspring and sons of the rich and professionals such as scribes, physicians, Most boys were taught their fathers trade or were apprenticed to learn a trade. Girls stayed at home with their mothers to learn housekeeping and cooking, later, when a syllabic script became more widespread, more of the Mesopotamian population became literate. Later still in Babylonian times there were libraries in most towns and temples, there arose a whole social class of scribes, mostly employed in agriculture, but some as personal secretaries or lawyers. Women as well as men learned to read and write, and for the Semitic Babylonians, this knowledge of the extinct Sumerian language. Vocabularies, grammars, and interlinear translations were compiled for the use of students, as well as commentaries on the texts and explanations of obscure words. Massive archives of texts were recovered from the archaeological contexts of Old Babylonian scribal schools, the Epic of Gilgamesh, an epic poem from Ancient Mesopotamia is among the earliest known works of literary fiction
18.
History of writing
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The history of writing traces the development of expressing language by letters or other marks and also the study and description of these developments. One of the earliest forms of expression is cuneiform. Writing numbers for the purpose of record keeping began long before the writing of language, see History of writing ancient numbers for how the writing of numbers began. It is generally agreed that true writing of language was conceived and developed in at least two places and possibly more. Egyptian script is dissimilar from Mesopotamian cuneiform, but similarities in concepts, similar debate surrounds the Indus script of the Bronze Age Indus Valley civilization in Ancient India. In addition, the script is still undeciphered and there is debate whether the script is true writing at all. An additional possibility is the undeciphered Rongorongo script of Easter Island and it is debated whether this is true writing, and if it is, whether it is another case of cultural diffusion of writing. The oldest example is from 1851,139 years after their first contact with Europeans, one explanation is that the script was inspired by Spains written annexation proclamation in 1770. Recent examples are the Cherokee syllabary, invented by Sequoyah, symbolic communication systems are distinguished from writing systems in that one must usually understand something of the associated spoken language to comprehend the text. In contrast, symbolic systems such as signs, painting, maps. Every human community possesses language, a feature regarded by many as an innate, however the development of writing systems, and their partial supplantation of traditional oral systems of communication, have been sporadic, uneven and slow. Once established, writing systems on the change more slowly than their spoken counterparts. Writing allows societies to transmit information and share knowledge, scholars make a reasonable distinction between prehistory and history of early writing, but have disagreed concerning when prehistory becomes history and when proto-writing became true writing. Writing, in its most general terms, is a method of recording information and is composed of graphemes, the emergence of writing in a given area is usually followed by several centuries of fragmentary inscriptions. Historians mark the historicity of a culture by the presence of coherent texts in the writing system. The invention of writing was not an event, but a gradual process initiated by the appearance of symbols. A conventional proto-writing to true writing system follows a series of developmental stages, Picture writing system. Transitional system, graphemes refer not only to the object or idea which it represents, phonetic system, graphemes refer to sounds or spoken symbols, and the form of the grapheme is not related to its meanings
19.
Christianity
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Christianity is a Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, who serves as the focal point for the religion. It is the worlds largest religion, with over 2.4 billion followers, or 33% of the global population, Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God and the savior of humanity whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Old Testament. Christian theology is summarized in creeds such as the Apostles Creed and his incarnation, earthly ministry, crucifixion, and resurrection are often referred to as the gospel, meaning good news. The term gospel also refers to accounts of Jesuss life and teaching, four of which—Matthew, Mark, Luke. Christianity is an Abrahamic religion that began as a Second Temple Judaic sect in the mid-1st century, following the Age of Discovery, Christianity spread to the Americas, Australasia, sub-Saharan Africa, and the rest of the world through missionary work and colonization. Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization, throughout its history, Christianity has weathered schisms and theological disputes that have resulted in many distinct churches and denominations. Worldwide, the three largest branches of Christianity are the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the denominations of Protestantism. There are many important differences of interpretation and opinion of the Bible, concise doctrinal statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as creeds. They began as baptismal formulae and were expanded during the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith. Many evangelical Protestants reject creeds as definitive statements of faith, even agreeing with some or all of the substance of the creeds. The Baptists have been non-creedal in that they have not sought to establish binding authoritative confessions of faith on one another. Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in the Restoration Movement, such as the Christian Church, the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada, the Apostles Creed is the most widely accepted statement of the articles of Christian faith. It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists, and Congregationalists and this particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator, each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome. Most Christians accept the use of creeds, and subscribe to at least one of the mentioned above. The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God, Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was anointed by God as savior of humanity, and hold that Jesus coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept, Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin
20.
King's School, Canterbury
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The Kings School is a British co-educational independent school for both day and boarding pupils in the English city of Canterbury in Kent. It is a member of the Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference and the Eton Group and it is held to be the oldest continuously operating school in the world, having been founded in 597 AD. This is based on the fact that St Augustine founded an abbey where it is known that teaching took place, during the 17th and 18th centuries, the school remained a grammar school. During the Victorian era the school began to establish itself as a public school, the school evacuated to Cornwall following the outbreak of World War II and received a new Royal Charter at the end of the war. Girls were admitted for the first time when the form became coeducational during the 1970s. In 1990, the school became fully coeducational, the school is also the oldest charity in the UK. In 2011, the school was subject to its latest regular, in summary, the inspection team praised the pastoral care system, the high academic achievements of all its pupils — irrespective of their age, aptitude or ability — and the happiness of the pupils. According to the Good Schools Guide the school is Highly successful, the Guide also stated that You need to be creative, academically able and hard-working, as everything moves fast here. There are 16 houses at Kings,13 boarding and 3 day, most are named after past headmasters or people of interest in the schools history, with the exception of School House, The Grange and Carlyon. The Houses of the School are, School House, founded 1860 The Grange, founded 1928, reopened 2007 Walpole, named after the novelist Sir Hugh Walpole Meister Omers, founded 1936. Named after the poet and dramatist Christopher Marlowe Luxmoore, founded 1945, named after Sir Arthur Fairfax Coryndon Luxmoore, Lord Justice of Appeal Galpins, founded 1952. Named after The Reverend Arthur Galpin, Headmaster from 1897-1910, named after Thomas Linacre, founder of the Royal College of Physicians Broughton, founded 1976. Named after William Broughton, the first Bishop of Australia Tradescant, named after John Tradescant, the distinguished gardener and collector Mitchinsons, founded 1982. Named after John Mitchinson, Headmaster 1859-73 and co-founder of the Headmasters Conference Jervis, named after Douglas Jervis OKS Harvey, founded 1996. Named after William Harvey Bailey, first founded 1990, named after Henry Bailey, second warden of St Augustines College between 1850 and 1875 and an honorary Canon of the Cathedral Carlyon, founded 2005. Named after evacuation of the School to Carlyon Bay in Cornwall during the Second World War Lady Kingsdown House, founded 2015. A new pavilion was opened by David Gower on 17 September 2005 Blackfriars The Cleary Foundation donated the refectory of the 13th-century friary by the Marlowe Theatre as an art school and gallery. Built as a synagogue in 1847–8 by architect Hezekiah Marshall, the Old Synagogue is used as a hall by the music department
21.
Ecclesiastical History of the English People
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It is believed to have been completed in 731 when Bede was approximately 59 years old. The Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum, or An Ecclesiastical History of the English People is Bedes best-known work, the first of the five books begins with some geographical background and then sketches the history of England, beginning with Caesars invasion in 55 BC. The second book begins with the death of Gregory the Great in 604, and follows the progress of Christianity in Kent. These encountered a setback when Penda, the king of Mercia. The setback was temporary, and the book recounts the growth of Christianity in Northumbria under kings Oswald. The climax of the book is the account of the Council of Whitby. The fourth book begins with the consecration of Theodore as Archbishop of Canterbury, the fifth book brings the story up to Bedes day, and includes an account of missionary work in Frisia, and of the conflict with the British church over the correct dating of Easter. Bede wrote a preface for the work, in which he dedicates it to Ceolwulf, the preface mentions that Ceolwulf received an earlier draft of the book, presumably Ceolwulf knew enough Latin to understand it, and he may even have been able to read it. Divided into five books, the Historia covers the history of England, ecclesiastical and political and this is impressive, nevertheless, the Historia, like other historical writing from this period has a lower degree of objectivity than modern historical writings. It seems to be a mixture of fact, legend and literature, the monastery at Jarrow had an excellent library. Both Benedict Biscop and Ceolfrith had acquired books from the Continent, for the period prior to Augustines arrival in 597, Bede drew on earlier writers, including Orosius, Eutropius, Pliny, and Solinus. He used Constantiuss Life of Germanus as a source for Germanuss visits to Britain, Bedes account of the invasion of the Anglo-Saxons is drawn largely from Gildass De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae. Bede would also have been familiar with more recent accounts such as Eddius Stephanuss Life of Wilfrid and he also drew on Josephuss Antiquities, and the works of Cassiodorus, and there was a copy of the Liber Pontificalis in Bedes monastery. Bede also had correspondents who supplied him with material, almost all of Bedes information regarding Augustine is taken from these letters, which includes the Libellus responsionum, as chapter 27 of book 1 is often known. Bede also mentions an Abbot Esi as a source for the affairs of the East Anglian church, the historian Walter Goffart argues that Bede based the structure of the Historia on three works, using them as the framework around which the three main sections of the work were structured. For the early part of the work, up until the Gregorian mission, the second section, detailing the Gregorian mission of Augustine of Canterbury was framed on the anonymous Life of Gregory the Great written at Whitby. The last section, detailing events after the Gregorian mission, Goffart asserts were modelled on Stephen of Ripons Life of Wilfrid, the History of the English Church and People has a clear polemical and didactic purpose. Bede sets out not just to tell the story of the English, in political terms he is a partisan of his native Northumbria, amplifying its role in English history over and above that of Mercia, its great southern rival
22.
Computus
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Computus is a calculation that determines the calendar date of Easter. The name has been used for this procedure since the early Middle Ages, for most of their history Christians have calculated Easter independently of the Jewish calendar. In principle, Easter falls on the Sunday following the moon that follows the northern spring equinox. However, the equinox and the full moon are not determined by astronomical observation. The vernal equinox is fixed to fall on 21 March, the full moon is an ecclesiastical full moon determined by reference to a lunar calendar, which again varied in different areas. The last limit arises from the fact that the crucifixion was considered to have happened on the 14th, the synodic month had already been measured to a high degree of accuracy. The schematic model that eventually was accepted is the Metonic cycle, in 1583, the Catholic Church began using 21 March under the Gregorian calendar to calculate the date of Easter, while the Eastern Churches have continued to use 21 March under the Julian calendar. The Catholic and Protestant denominations thus use a full moon that occurs four. The earliest and latest dates for Easter are 22 March and 25 April, in the Gregorian calendar those dates are as commonly understood. Easter is the most important Christian feast, and the date of its celebration has been the subject of controversy as early as the meeting of Anicetus. The rest of the Christian world at time, according to Eusebius, held to the view which still prevails. Eusebius does not say how the Sunday was decided, by the end of the 3rd century some Christians had become dissatisfied with what they perceived as the disorderly state of the Jewish calendar. The chief complaint was that the Jewish practice sometimes set the 14th of Nisan before the spring equinox, and it was explicitly stated by Peter, bishop of Alexandria that the men of the present day now celebrate before the equinox. through negligence and error. Another objection to using the Jewish computation may have been that the Jewish calendar was not unified, Jews in one city might have a method for reckoning the Week of Unleavened Bread different from that used by the Jews of another city. Because of these perceived defects in the practice, Christian computists began experimenting with systems for determining Easter that would be free of these defects. At the First Council of Nicaea in 325, it was agreed that the Christians should observe a common date, because of the divergence of tables mentioned above it was usual to negotiate a common date when discrepancies arose. It took several centuries before a common method was accepted throughout Christendom, the process of working out the details generated still further controversies. The method from Alexandria became authoritative, in its developed form it was based on the epacts of a reckoned moon according to the 19-year Metonic cycle
23.
Renaissance
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The Renaissance was a period in European history, from the 14th to the 17th century, regarded as the cultural bridge between the Middle Ages and modern history. It started as a movement in Italy in the Late Medieval period and later spread to the rest of Europe. This new thinking became manifest in art, architecture, politics, science, Early examples were the development of perspective in oil painting and the recycled knowledge of how to make concrete. Although the invention of movable type sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century. In politics, the Renaissance contributed to the development of the customs and conventions of diplomacy, the Renaissance began in Florence, in the 14th century. Other major centres were northern Italian city-states such as Venice, Genoa, Milan, Bologna, the word Renaissance, literally meaning Rebirth in French, first appeared in English in the 1830s. The word also occurs in Jules Michelets 1855 work, Histoire de France, the word Renaissance has also been extended to other historical and cultural movements, such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century. The Renaissance was a movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism, however, a subtle shift took place in the way that intellectuals approached religion that was reflected in many other areas of cultural life. In addition, many Greek Christian works, including the Greek New Testament, were back from Byzantium to Western Europe. Political philosophers, most famously Niccolò Machiavelli, sought to describe life as it really was. Others see more competition between artists and polymaths such as Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Donatello, and Masaccio for artistic commissions as sparking the creativity of the Renaissance. Yet it remains much debated why the Renaissance began in Italy, accordingly, several theories have been put forward to explain its origins. During the Renaissance, money and art went hand in hand, Artists depended entirely on patrons while the patrons needed money to foster artistic talent. Wealth was brought to Italy in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries by expanding trade into Asia, silver mining in Tyrol increased the flow of money. Luxuries from the Eastern world, brought home during the Crusades, increased the prosperity of Genoa, unlike with Latin texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since late antiquity, the study of ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval Western Europe. One of the greatest achievements of Renaissance scholars was to bring this entire class of Greek cultural works back into Western Europe for the first time since late antiquity, Arab logicians had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered Egypt and the Levant. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into Spain and Sicily and this work of translation from Islamic culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history
24.
Gutenberg Bible
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The Gutenberg Bible was the first major book printed using mass-produced movable metal type in Europe. It marked the start of the Gutenberg Revolution and the age of the book in the West. Widely praised for its aesthetic and artistic qualities, the book has an iconic status. Written in Latin, the Catholic Gutenberg Bible is an edition of the Vulgate, printed by Johannes Gutenberg, in Mainz, in present-day Germany, in the 1450s. Since its publication,49 copies have survived, and they are considered to be among the most valuable books in the even though no complete copy has been sold since 1978. In March 1455, the future Pope Pius II wrote that he had seen pages from the Gutenberg Bible, being displayed to promote the edition and it is not known how many copies were printed, with the 1455 letter citing sources for both 158 and 180 copies. The 36-line Bible, believed to be the second printed version of the Bible, is sometimes referred to as a Gutenberg Bible. The Gutenberg Bible, an edition of the Vulgate, contains the Latin version of the Hebrew Old Testament and it is mainly the work of Jerome who began his work on the translation in 380 AD, with emendations from the Parisian Bible tradition, and further divergences. The Bible was not Gutenbergs first work, preparation of the Bible probably began soon after 1450, and the first finished copies were available in 1454 or 1455. It is not known exactly how long the Bible took to print, the first precisely datable printing is the Gutenbergs 31-line Indulgence which is known to already exist on 22 October 1454. Gutenberg made three significant changes during the printing process, the first sheets were rubricated by being passed twice through the printing press, using black and then red ink. This was soon abandoned, with spaces being left for rubrication to be added by hand, some time later, after more sheets had been printed, the number of lines per page was increased from 40 to 42, presumably to save paper. Therefore, pages 1 to 9 and pages 256 to 265, page 10 has 41, and from there on the 42 lines appear. The increase in number was achieved by decreasing the interline spacing. Finally, the print run was increased, necessitating resetting those pages which had already been printed, the new sheets were all reset to 42 lines per page. Consequently, there are two settings in folios 1-32 and 129-158 of volume I and folios 1-16 and 162 of volume II. The most reliable information about the Bibles date comes from a letter, in March 1455, the future Pope Pius II wrote that he had seen pages from the Gutenberg Bible, being displayed to promote the edition, in Frankfurt. It is not known how many copies were printed, with the 1455 letter citing sources for both 158 and 180 copies
25.
Tyndale Bible
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The Tyndale Bible generally refers to the body of biblical translations by William Tyndale. Tyndale’s Bible is credited with being the first English translation to directly from Hebrew. Furthermore, it was the first English biblical translation that was mass-produced as a result of new advances in the art of printing, the term Tyndales Bible is not strictly correct, because Tyndale never published a complete Bible. Prior to his execution Tyndale had only finished translating the entire New Testament, of the latter, the Pentateuch, Jonah and a revised version of the book of Genesis were published during his lifetime. His other Old Testament works were first used in the creation of the Matthew Bible, the chain of events that led to the creation of Tyndale’s New Testament possibly began in 1522, the year Tyndale acquired a copy of Martin Luther’s German New Testament. Tyndale made his purpose known to the Bishop of London at the time, Cuthbert Tunstall, thwarted in England, Tyndale moved to the continent. A partial edition was put into print in 1525 in Cologne, but before the work could be completed, Tyndale was betrayed to the authorities and forced to flee to Worms, where the first complete edition of his New Testament was published in 1526. Two revised versions were published in 1534 and 1536, both personally revised by Tyndale himself. After his death in 1536 Tyndale’s works were revised and reprinted numerous times and are reflected in modern versions of the Bible, including, perhaps most famously. Tyndales Pentateuch was published at Antwerp by Merten de Keyser in 1530 and his English version of the book of Jonah was published the following year. This was followed by his version of the book of Genesis in 1534. When Tyndale was martyred these works came to be in the possession of one of his associates John Rogers and these translations would be influential in the creation of the Matthew Bible which was published in 1537. Tyndale used a number of sources when carrying out his translations of both the New and Old Testaments, when translating the New Testament, he referred to the third edition of Erasmus’s Greek New Testament, often referred to as the Received Text. Tyndale also used Erasmus Latin New Testament, as well as Luther’s German version, scholars believe that Tyndale stayed away from using Wycliffes Bible as a source because he didn’t want his English to reflect that which was used prior to the Renaissance. The sources Tyndale used for his translation of the Pentateuch however are not known for sure, scholars believe that Tyndale used either the Hebrew Pentateuch or the Polyglot Bible, and may have referred to the Septuagint. It is suspected that his other Old Testament works were translated directly from a copy of the Hebrew Bible and he also made abundant use of Greek and Hebrew grammars. Tyndale’s translations were condemned in England, where his work was banned, betrayed to church officials in 1536, he was defrocked in an elaborate public ceremony and turned over to the civil authorities to be strangled to death and burned at the stake. His last words are said to have been, Lord, open the King of Englands eyes
26.
Boston Latin School
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The Boston Latin School is a public exam school in Boston, Massachusetts. Established on April 23,1635, it is the oldest school as well as the first public school in the United States and its curriculum follows that of the 18th century Latin-school movement, which holds the classics to be the basis of an educated mind. Four years of Latin are mandatory for all pupils who enter the School in the 7th grade, in 2007, the School was named one of the top twenty high schools in the United States by U. S. News & World Report magazine. It is a part of Boston Public Schools, the School was named a 2011 Blue Ribbon School of Excellence, the U. S. Department of Educations highest award. As of 2016, the School is listed under the medal list. Puritan leaders themselves were accustomed to the highest educational standards, with most of their ministers having graduated from Oxford or Cambridge University in England, in early years they were not funded by tax dollars, but rather by donations and land rentals. A school established in nearby Dedham thus became the first tax supported public school years later. English was not the dominant language of the world at time. Therefore, the learning of Latin was also a priority, as it was with grammar schools in England, seventeenth-century schoolboys throughout Europe, Catholic or Protestant, learned Latin, and which explains the Latin in Boston Latin. The ability to read at least Cicero and Virgil was a requirement of all colonial colleges, Boston Latin prepared many students for admission to Harvard, with a total of seven years being devoted to the classics, and providing almost one seventh of Harvard members during just one period. However, most graduates of Boston Latin did not go on to college since business and professions did not require collegiate training, which more basic learning provided for. The Schools first class was in single figures, but it now has 2,400 pupils drawn from all parts of the City of Boston and it has produced four Harvard presidents, four Massachusetts governors, and five signers of the United States Declaration of Independence. Benjamin Franklin and Louis Farrakhan are among its well-known dropouts, the School originally began as the South Grammar School, and was specifically modeled after the Boston Grammar School in Lincolnshire, England, from where many of Bostons original settlers derived. Current students assert with pride that Harvard College, founded a year later in 1636, was created for Boston Latins first graduates to attend, more than 99% of Boston Latins approximately 400 annual graduates are accepted by at least one four-year college. The Latin School admitted only students and hired only male teachers from its founding in 1635. The Schools first female student was not until the 19th century, with Helen Magill White as the schools first female graduate, however, soon after Whites graduation in 1877, the Girls Latin School, was founded. For nearly a century, all qualified female students would attend that all-girls institution and it was not until 1972 that Boston Latin would admit its first co-educational class. Female teachers predated female students at Boston Latin, in 1967 the school appointed Marie Frisardi Cleary and Juanita Ponte as the first two women in its academic faculty
27.
Moravians
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Moravians are a West Slavic ethnographic group from the Moravia region of the Czech Republic, who speak the Moravian dialects of the Czech language or Common Czech or a mixed form of both. Along with the Silesians of the Czech Republic, a part of the population to identify ethnically as Moravian has registered in Czech censa since 1991, in 2011, the figure has fluctuated and in the 2011 census,4. 9% of the Czech population declared Moravian. Smaller pockets of persons declaring Moravian ethnicity are also native to neighbouring Slovakia, the majority from Moravia have traditionally declared Czech. The Moravians were a West Slavic tribe in the Early Middle Ages, in the 9th century Moravians settled mainly around the historic Region of Moravia and Western Slovakia, but also in parts of central-southern Poland, Lower Austria and Upper Hungary. The first known mention of the Moravians was in the Annales Regni Francorum in 822 AD, the tribe was located by the Bavarian Geographer between the tribe of the Bohemians and the tribe of the Bulgarians. In the 9th century Moravians gain control over neighbouring Nitra and founded the Realm of Great Moravia, at times, the empire controlled even other neighboring regions, including Bohemia and parts of present-day Hungary, Poland and Ukraine. It emerged into one of the most powerful state in Central Europe, after the breakup of the Moravian Realm the Moravian tribe was divided between the new states Duchy of Bohemia and Hungary. The western Moravians were assimilated by the Czechs and presently identify as Czechs, the modern nation of the Slovaks was formed out of the eastern part of the Moravian tribe within the Kingdom of Hungary. Bretislaus I, Duke of Bohemia, solving the question, in his will decided to completely reorganize Moravia. It was still considered one of the country, but from an objective standpoint it was weakened, the way leading to the differentiation of the Moravians from the Czechs was caused by political and economic changes of the late 12th and early 13th century. Czech historical tradition was grown in Moravia during the Middle Ages, for example Czech Chronicles was reread, Moravian ethnicity was declared for the first time in the population census of 1991. After the Velvet Revolution a strong movement to reinstate the Moravian-Silesian land was active in Moravia. Accordingly, the so far officially united Czech ethnicity was split in line with the division of the Czech Republic into Bohemia, Moravia. Part of the Czech speaking inhabitants of Moravia declared Moravian ethnicity,1,363,000 citizens of the Czech Republic declared Moravian ethnicity in 1991. However, the number dropped to 380,474 in the 2001 census – many persons previously declaring themselves as Moravians declared themselves again as Czechs in this census, in 2011, the number increased again to 522,474. The strongest sense of patriotism towards Moravia is forming around Brno, only in the first years after the Velvet Revolution in 1989 did a few Moravian political parties seem to be able to gain some success in elections. However they lost much of their strength around the time of the Dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993 when Czechoslovakia peacefully split into the Czech Republic, list of Moravians Inline citations Sources Graus, František. Die Nationenbildung der Westslawen im Mittelalter, Lubomír E. Havlík, Svatopluk Veliký, král Moravanů a Slovanů
28.
Protestant
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Protestantism is a form of Christianity which originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical. Although there were earlier breaks from or attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church—notably by Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Protestants reject the notion of papal supremacy and deny the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The Five solae summarize the reformers basic differences in theological beliefs, in the 16th century, Lutheranism spread from Germany into Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic states, and Iceland. Reformed churches were founded in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Switzerland and France by such reformers as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, the political separation of the Church of England from Rome under King Henry VIII brought England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement. Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, some Protestant denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of families, Adventism, Anglicanism, Baptist churches, Reformed churches, Lutheranism, Methodism. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, the edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. During the Reformation, the term was used outside of the German politics. The word evangelical, which refers to the gospel, was more widely used for those involved in the religious movement. Nowadays, this word is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran and Calvinist traditions in Europe, above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German-speaking area, such as the EKD. In continental Europe, an Evangelical is either a Lutheran or a Calvinist, the German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal, which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to Evangelical Protestant churches, and it traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. Protestantism as a term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian traditions, i. e. Roman Catholicism. Initially, Protestant became a term to mean any adherent to the Reformation movement in Germany and was taken up by Lutherans. Even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or Evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ, French and Swiss Protestants preferred the word reformed, which became a popular, neutral and alternative name for Calvinists
29.
Some Thoughts Concerning Education
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Some Thoughts Concerning Education is a 1693 treatise on the education of gentlemen written by the English philosopher John Locke. For over a century, it was the most important philosophical work on education in England. In his Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Locke outlined a new theory of mind, contending that the mind was a tabula rasa or blank slate. As England became increasingly mercantilist and secularist, the humanist educational values of the Renaissance, although Locke revised and expanded the text five times before he died, he never substantially altered the familiar and friendly style of the work. Tarcov claims Locke treated his readers as his friends and they responded in kind, of Lockes major claims in the Essay Concerning Human Understanding and Some Thoughts Concerning Education, two played a defining role in eighteenth-century educational theory. In his Essay Locke posits an empty mind—a tabula rasa—that is filled by experience, in describing the mind in these terms, Locke was drawing on Platos Theatetus, which suggests that the mind is like a wax tablet. Although Locke argued strenuously for the tabula rasa theory of mind, Locke also discusses a theory of the self. He writes, the little and almost insensible impressions on our tender infancies have very important and that is, the associations of ideas made when young are more significant than those made when mature because they are the foundation of the self—they mark the tabula rasa. As both he and Tarcov highlight, Lockes writings are full of directives to actively seek out knowledge and reflect on received opinion, in fact, Locke advises parents to carefully nurture their childrens physical habits before pursuing their academic education. To convince parents that they must attend to the health of their children above all, Locke posited that if children were accustomed to having sodden feet, a sudden shower that wet their feet would not cause them to catch a cold. Such advice was quite popular, it appears throughout John Newberys childrens books in the middle of the century, for example. Locke also offers advice on topics ranging from bed linens to diet to sleeping regimens. Locke dedicates the bulk of Some Thoughts Concerning Education to explaining how to instill virtue in children, future virtuous adults must be able not only to practice self-denial but also to see the rational path. Locke was convinced that children could reason early in life and that parents should address them as reasoning beings, moreover, he argues that parents should, above all, attempt to create a habit of thinking rationally in their children. Locke continually emphasises habit over rule—children should internalise the habit of reasoning rather than memorise a complex set of prohibitions and this focus on rationality and habit corresponds to two of Lockes concerns in the Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Throughout the Essay, Locke bemoans the irrationality of the majority and their inability, because of the authority of custom, to change or forfeit long-held beliefs. His attempt to solve this problem is not only to children as rational beings but also to create a disciplinary system founded on esteem and disgrace rather than on rewards. For Locke, rewards such as sweets and punishments such as beatings turn children into sensualists rather than rationalists and he argues that such a sort of slavish discipline makes a slavish temper
30.
Louis XIV
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Louis XIV, known as Louis the Great or the Sun King, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1643 until his death in 1715. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of any monarch of a country in European history. In the age of absolutism in Europe, Louis XIVs France was a leader in the centralization of power. Louis began his rule of France in 1661, after the death of his chief minister. By these means he became one of the most powerful French monarchs, under his rule, the Edict of Nantes, which granted rights to Huguenots, was abolished. The revocation effectively forced Huguenots to emigrate or convert in a wave of dragonnades, which managed to virtually destroy the French Protestant minority. During Louis reign, France was the leading European power, and it fought three wars, the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg. There were also two lesser conflicts, the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions, warfare defined Louis XIVs foreign policies, and his personality shaped his approach. Impelled by a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique, in peacetime he concentrated on preparing for the next war. He taught his diplomats their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the French military, Louis XIV was born on 5 September 1638 in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, to Louis XIII and Anne of Austria. He was named Louis Dieudonné and bore the title of French heirs apparent. At the time of his birth, his parents had married for 23 years. His mother had experienced four stillbirths between 1619 and 1631, leading contemporaries thus regarded him as a divine gift and his birth a miracle of God. Sensing imminent death, Louis XIII decided to put his affairs in order in the spring of 1643, in defiance of custom, which would have made Queen Anne the sole Regent of France, the king decreed that a regency council would rule on his sons behalf. His lack of faith in Queen Annes political abilities was his primary rationale and he did, however, make the concession of appointing her head of the council. Louis relationship with his mother was uncommonly affectionate for the time, contemporaries and eyewitnesses claimed that the Queen would spend all her time with Louis. Both were greatly interested in food and theatre, and it is likely that Louis developed these interests through his close relationship with his mother. This long-lasting and loving relationship can be evidenced by excerpts in Louis journal entries, such as, but attachments formed later by shared qualities of the spirit are far more difficult to break than those formed merely by blood
31.
Marquis de Condorcet
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Unlike many of his contemporaries, he advocated a liberal economy, free and equal public instruction, constitutionalism, and equal rights for women and people of all races. His ideas and writings were said to embody the ideals of the Age of Enlightenment and rationalism and he died a mysterious death in prison after a period of flight from French Revolutionary authorities. Condorcet was born in Ribemont, and descended from the ancient family of Caritat, fatherless at a young age, he was raised by his devoutly religious mother. He was educated at the Jesuit College in Reims and at the Collège de Navarre in Paris, where he showed his intellectual ability. When he was sixteen, his analytical abilities gained the praise of Jean le Rond dAlembert and Alexis Clairaut, soon, from 1765 to 1774, he focused on science. In 1765, he published his first work on mathematics entitled Essai sur le calcul intégral and he would go on to publish more papers, and on 25 February 1769, he was elected to the Académie royale des Sciences. In 1772, he published another paper on integral calculus, soon after, he met Jacques Turgot, a French economist, and the two became friends. Turgot was to be an administrator under King Louis XV in 1772, Condorcet worked with Leonhard Euler and Benjamin Franklin. In 1774, Condorcet was appointed general of the Paris mint by Turgot. From this point on, Condorcet shifted his focus from the purely mathematical to philosophy, in the following years, he took up the defense of human rights in general, and of womens and Blacks rights in particular. He supported the ideals embodied by the newly formed United States, in 1776, Turgot was dismissed as Controller General. Consequently, Condorcet submitted his resignation as Inspector General of the Monnaie, but the request was refused, Condorcet later wrote Vie de M. Turgot, a biography which spoke fondly of Turgot and advocated Turgots economic theories. In 1785, Condorcet wrote an essay on the application of analysis of the probability of decisions made on a majority vote, the paper also outlines a generic Condorcet method, designed to simulate pair-wise elections between all candidates in an election. He disagreed strongly with the method of aggregating preferences put forth by Jean-Charles de Borda. Condorcet was one of the first to apply mathematics in the social sciences. In 1781, Condorcet wrote a pamphlet, Reflections on Negro Slavery, in 1786, Condorcet worked on ideas for the differential and integral calculus, giving a new treatment of infinitesimals – a work which was never printed. In 1789, he published Vie de Voltaire, which agreed with Voltaire in his opposition to the Church, in 1791, Condorcet along with Sophie de Grouchy, Thomas Paine, Etienne Dumont, Jacques-Pierre Brissot, and Achilles Duchastellet published a brief journal titled Le Républicain. Its main goal being the promotion of republicanism and the rejection of establishing a constitutional monarchy, the theme being that any sort of monarchy is a threat to freedom no matter who is leading, which emphasized that liberty is freedom from domination
32.
Robert Peel
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Sir Robert Peel, 2nd Baronet, FRS, PC, a British statesman and member of the Conservative Party, served twice as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and twice as Home Secretary. He is regarded as the father of modern British policing and as one of the founders of the modern Conservative Party and he entered the House of Commons in 1809 under the tutelage of his father and of Sir Arthur Wellesley, the future Duke of Wellington. Peel was widely seen as a star in the Conservative Party and served in various junior ministerial offices, becoming Chief Secretary for Ireland. He cut tariffs to stimulate trade, to replace the lost revenue he pushed through a 3% income tax and he played a central role in making free trade a reality and set up a modern banking system. In 1830 the Whigs finally returned to power and Peel became a member of the Opposition for the first time, Peel then issued the Tamworth Manifesto, laying down the principles upon which the modern British Conservative Party is based. His first ministry was a minority government, dependent on Whig support, after only four months, his government collapsed and he served as Leader of the Opposition during the second government of the Viscount Melbourne. Peel declined to head another minority government in May 1839, prompting a political crisis and he finally became Prime Minister again after the 1841 general election. His second government ruled for five years - its major legislation included the Mines and Collieries Act 1842, the Income Tax Act 1842, the Factories Act 1844, Peels government was weakened by anti-Irish and anti-Catholic sentiment following the controversial Maynooth Grant of 1845. After the outbreak of the Great Irish Potato Famine, his decision to join with Whigs, Peel remained an influential backbench MP and leader of the Peelite faction until his death in 1850. Peel often started from a traditional Tory position in opposition to a measure, then reversed his stance, Peel, a Conservative, achieved repeal with the support of the Whigs in Parliament, overcoming the opposition of most of his own party. Many critics accordingly saw him as a traitor to the Tory cause, or as a Liberal wolf in sheeps clothing, taylor says, Peel was in the first rank of 19th century statesman. He carried Catholic Emancipation, he repealed the Corn Laws, he created the modern Conservative Party on the ruins of the old Toryism. Peel was born at Chamber Hall, Bury, Lancashire, to the industrialist and parliamentarian Sir Robert Peel, 1st Baronet and his father was one of the richest textile manufacturers of the early Industrial Revolution. Peel was educated briefly at Bury Grammar School, at Hipperholme Grammar School, then at Harrow School and finally Christ Church, Oxford and he was a law student at Lincolns Inn in 1809 before entering Parliament. Peel saw part-time military service as a Captain in the Manchester Regiment of Militia in 1808, Peel entered politics in 1809 at the age of 21, as MP for the Irish rotten borough of Cashel, Tipperary. With a scant 24 electors on the rolls, he was elected unopposed and his sponsor for the election was the Chief Secretary for Ireland, Sir Arthur Wellesley, the future Duke of Wellington, with whom Peels political career would be entwined for the next 25 years. Peel made his speech at the start of the 1810 session. His speech was a sensation, famously described by the Speaker, Charles Abbot, as chief secretary in Dublin in 1813, he proposed the setting up of a specialist police force, later called peelers
33.
Factory Act of 1802
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The Act required that cotton mills and factories be properly ventilated and basic requirements on cleanliness be met. Apprentices in these premises were to be given a basic education and they were to be provided with clothing and their working hours were limited to no more than twelve hours a day, they were not to work at night. The Act was not effectively enforced, and did not address the conditions of free children who rapidly came to heavily outnumber the apprentices. Hence it was not until 1819 that an Act to limit the hours of work for children working in cotton mills was piloted through Parliament by Peel. During the early Industrial Revolution in the United Kingdom, cotton mills were water-powered, when, as was often the case, there was no ready source of labour in the neighbourhood, the workforce had to be imported. A cheap and importable source of labour was parish apprentices, millowners would reach agreement with distant parishes to employ, house, in 1800 there were 20,000 apprentices working in cotton mills. The enclosed conditions and close contact within mills and factories allowed contagious diseases such as typhus, typhoid is spread not by poor working conditions but by poor sanitation, but sanitation in mills and the settlements round them often was poor. In about 1780 a water-powered cotton mill was built for Robert Peel on the River Irwell near Radcliffe, children were unpaid and bound apprentice until they were 21. They boarded on a floor of the building, and were locked in. Shifts were typically 10–10.5 hours in length, and the apprentices hot bunked, Peel himself admitted that conditions at the mill were very bad. The doctors of Manchester, led by Dr Thomas Percival were commissioned to investigate the cause of the fever, ( Natural ventilation was poor because there were too few opening lights in the mill windows, and they were all at the same height. The stoves currently used for heating did not give much airflow, chimneys should be built in each work room and turf fires lit in them to give better ventilation and combat contagion by their strong, penetrating, and pungent smoke. Rooms should be daily and floors washed with lime water once a week. The walls and ceilings should also be whitewashed two or three times a year, the apartments should be fumigated weekly with tobacco. Privies should be washed daily and ventilated to ensure that the smell did not permeate to the work rooms, rancid oil used to lubricate machinery should be replaced with purer oil. To prevent contagion and to health, all employees should be involved in keeping the factory clean. The clothes of those infected with fever should be washed in water, then in hot. Those who died of fever should be wrapped promptly in cloth, as a result of this report the magistrates decided not to allow parish apprentices to be indentured to cotton mills where they worked at night or more than ten hours in the day
34.
Sunday school
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A Sunday school is a Christian educational institution, usually catering to children and other young people. Many Seventh-day Adventists, Seventh Day Baptists, and other sabbatarian communities hold their Sabbath Schools on Saturdays, Sunday schools in England were first set up in the 1780s to provide education to working children. It aimed to teach the reading, writing and cyphering. By 1785,250,000 English children were attending Sunday School, there were 5,000 in Manchester alone. By 1895, the Society for the Establishment and Promotion of Sunday Schools had distributed 91,915 spelling books,24,232 Testaments and 5,360 Bibles. The Sunday School movement was cross-denominational, and through subscription built large buildings that could host public lectures as well as classrooms, in the early days, adults would attend the same classes as the infants, as each were instructed in basic reading. In some towns the Methodists withdrew from the Large Sunday School, the Anglicans set up their own National schools that would act as Sunday Schools and day schools. These schools were the precursors to a system of education. The role of the Sunday Schools changed with the Education Act 1870, in the 1920s they promoted sports. It was common for teams to compete in a Sunday School League and they were social centres hosting amateur dramatics and concert parties. By the 1960s, the term Sunday School could refer to the building, by the 1970s even the largest Sunday School at Stockport had been demolished. Sunday School became the name for many different types of religious education pursued on Sundays by various denominations. The first Sunday school may have opened in 1751 in St Marys Church. Another early start was made by Hannah Ball, a native of High Wycombe in Buckinghamshire, in 18th-century England education was reserved for a minority and was not compulsory. The wealthy educated their children privately at home, with hired governesses or tutors for younger children, boys of that class were often sent away to boarding school, hence these fee-based educational establishments were known, confusingly, as public schools. The town-based middle class may have sent their sons to grammar schools, the children of factory workers and farm labourers received no formal education, and typically worked alongside their parents six days a week, sometimes more than 13 hours a day. In 1781, after prompting from his friend William King who was running a Sunday School in Dursley. In the home of a Mrs Meredith he opened a school on Sunday, using the Bible as their textbook, he taught them to read and write
35.
Great Exhibition of 1851
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It was the first in a series of Worlds Fairs, exhibitions of culture and industry that became popular in the 19th century, and it was a much anticipated event. The Great Exhibition was organized by Henry Cole and Prince Albert, husband of the reigning monarch, Queen Victoria. It was arguably a response to the highly successful French Industrial Exposition of 1844, indeed, Queen Victoria and her family visited three times. Although the Great Exhibition was a platform on which countries from around the world could display their achievements, Britain sought to prove its own superiority. The British exhibits at the Great Exhibition held the lead in almost every field where strength, durability, utility and quality were concerned, whether in iron and steel, Britain also sought to provide the world with the hope of a better future. Europe had just struggled through two decades of political and social upheaval, and now Britain hoped to show that technology. Technology and moving machinery were popular, especially working exhibits and she also notes that visitors could watch the entire process of cotton production from spinning to finished cloth. Scientific instruments were found in class X, and included electric telegraphs, microscopes, air pumps and barometers, a special building, nicknamed The Crystal Palace, or The Great Shalimar, was built to house the show. The building was architecturally adventurous, drawing on Paxtons experience designing greenhouses for the sixth Duke of Devonshire. It took the form of a glass house,1851 feet long by 454 feet wide and was constructed from cast iron-frame components and glass made almost exclusively in Birmingham. From the interior, the large size was emphasized with trees and statues, this served, not only to add beauty to the spectacle. The Crystal Palace was an success, considered an architectural marvel. The building was moved and re-erected in 1854 in enlarged form at Sydenham Hill in south London. It was destroyed by fire on 30 November 1936, six million people—equivalent to a third of the entire population of Britain at the time—visited the Great Exhibition. The average daily attendance was 42,831 with an attendance of 109,915 on 7 October. The event made a surplus of £186,000, which was used to found the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Science Museum and they were all built in the area to the south of the exhibition, nicknamed Albertopolis, alongside the Imperial Institute. The remaining surplus was used to set up an educational trust to provide grants and scholarships for industrial research, the Exhibition caused controversy as its opening approached. Some conservatives feared that the mass of visitors might become a revolutionary mob, must shock every honest and well-meaning Englishman
Gilman, D. C.; Peck, H. T.; Colby, F. M., eds. (1905). ""Comenius, John Amos"". New International Encyclopedia (1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead.
