1.
Japanese name
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Japanese names in modern times usually consist of a family name, followed by a given name. More than one name is not generally used. Japanese names are written in kanji, which are characters usually Chinese in origin. The kanji for a name may have a variety of possible Japanese pronunciations, Names written in hiragana or katakana are phonetic renderings, and so lack the visual meaning of names expressed in the logographic kanji. Japanese family names are extremely varied, according to estimates, there are over 100,000 different surnames in use today in Japan, the three most common family names in Japan are Satō, Suzuki, and Takahashi. Many Japanese family names derive from features of the landscape, for example, Ishikawa means stone river, Yamamoto means the base of the mountain. While family names follow relatively consistent rules, given names are more diverse in pronunciation. Unusual pronunciations have especially become common, with this trend having increased significantly since the 1990s, male names often end in -rō or -ta, or contain ichi, kazu, ji, or dai while female names often end in -ko or -mi. Other popular endings for female names include -ka and -na, the majority of Japanese people have one surname and one given name with no other names, except for the Japanese imperial family, whose members bear no surname. The family name – myōji, uji or sei – precedes the given name, the given name may be referred to as the lower name because, in vertically written Japanese, the given name appears under the family name. People with mixed Japanese and foreign parentage may have middle names, historically, myōji, uji and sei had different meanings. Sei was originally the patrilineal surname which is why up till now it has granted only by the emperor as a title of male rank. The lower form of the name sei being tei which is a name in Japanese men. Although there was an ancestor in ancient Japan from whom the name Sei originally came. There were relatively few sei, and most of the noble clans trace their lineage either directly to these sei or to the courtiers of these sei. Uji was another name used to designate patrilineal descent, but later merged with myōji around the same time, myōji was, simply, what a family chooses to call itself, as opposed to the sei granted by the emperor. While it was passed on patrilineally in male ancestors including in male ancestors called haku, multiple Japanese characters have the same pronunciations, so several Japanese names have multiple meanings. A particular kanji itself can have multiple meanings and pronunciations, in some names, Japanese characters phonetically spell a name and have no intended meaning behind them
2.
Japanese tea ceremony
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The Japanese tea ceremony, also called the Way of Tea, is a Japanese cultural activity involving the ceremonial preparation and presentation of matcha, powdered green tea. In Japanese, it is called chanoyu or sadō, chadō, while the manner in which it is performed, Zen Buddhism was a primary influence in the development of the Japanese tea ceremony. Much less commonly, Japanese tea ceremony uses leaf tea, primarily sencha, in case it is known in Japanese as senchadō as opposed to chanoyu or chadō, see sencha tea ceremony. Tea gatherings are classified as a tea gathering chakai and a formal tea gathering chaji. A chakai is a simple course of hospitality that includes confections, thin tea. A chaji is a more formal gathering, usually including a full-course kaiseki meal followed by confections, thick tea. A chaji can last up to four hours, chadō is counted as one of the three classical Japanese arts of refinement, along with kōdō for incense appreciation, and kadō for flower arrangement. The first documented evidence of tea in Japan dates to the 9th century, the entry in the Nihon Kōki states that Eichū personally prepared and served sencha to Emperor Saga who was on an excursion in Karasaki in the year 815. It was practiced by Japanese nobles, by imperial order in the year 816, tea plantations began to be cultivated in the Kinki region of Japan. However, the interest in tea in Japan faded after this, in China, tea had already been known, according to legend, for more than a thousand years. The form of tea popular in China in Eichūs time was cake tea or brick tea —tea compressed into a nugget in the manner as Pu-erh. This then would be ground in a mortar, and the resulting ground tea mixed together various other herbs. The custom of drinking tea, first for medicinal, and then largely also for reasons, was already widespread throughout China. In the early 9th century, Chinese author Lu Yu wrote The Classic of Tea, Lu Yus life had been heavily influenced by Buddhism, particularly the Zen–Chán school. His ideas would have an influence in the development of the Japanese tea ceremony. He also took tea seeds back with him, which eventually produced tea that was considered to be the most superb quality in all of Japan and this powdered green tea was first used in religious rituals in Buddhist monasteries. This period, approximately 1336 to 1573, saw the budding of what is regarded as Japanese traditional culture as we know it today. The Japanese tea ceremony developed as a practice, and began to evolve its own aesthetic
3.
Sengoku period
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The Sengoku period is a period in Japanese history marked by social upheaval, political intrigue and near-constant military conflict. Japanese historians named it after the otherwise unrelated Warring States period in China and it came to an end when all political power was unified under the Tokugawa shogunate. In the years preceding this era the Shogunate gradually lost influence, many of these Lords began to fight uncontrollably with each other for control over land and influence over the shogunate. As trade with China grew, the developed, and the use of money became widespread as markets. This, combined with developments in agriculture and small-scale trading, led to the desire for local autonomy throughout all levels of the social hierarchy. As early as the beginning of the 15th century, the caused by earthquakes and famines often served to trigger armed uprisings by farmers weary of debt. The Ōnin War, a conflict rooted in economic distress and brought on by a dispute over succession, is generally regarded as the onset of the Sengoku period. The eastern army of the Hosokawa family and its allies clashed with the army of the Yamana. Fighting in and around Kyoto lasted for nearly 11 years, leaving the city almost completely destroyed, the conflict in Kyoto then spread to outlying provinces. The period culminated with a series of three warlords, Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa Ieyasu, who gradually unified Japan, after Tokugawa Ieyasus final victory at the siege of Osaka in 1615, Japan settled down into several centuries of peace under the Tokugawa Shogunate. The Ōnin War in 1467 is usually considered the point of Sengoku period. There are several events which could be considered the end of it, The Siege of Odawara, the Battle of Sekigahara, the upheaval resulted in the further weakening of central authority, and throughout Japan regional lords, called daimyōs, rose to fill the vacuum. There were many, however, whose positions eroded and were usurped by more capable underlings. One of the earliest instances of this was Hōjō Sōun, who rose from humble origins. Building on the accomplishments of Sōun, the Late Hōjō clan remained a power in the Kantō region until its subjugation by Toyotomi Hideyoshi late in the Sengoku period. Well-organized religious groups also gained power at this time by uniting farmers in resistance. The monks of the Buddhist True Pure Land sect formed numerous Ikkō-ikki and this in turn provided Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who had risen through the ranks from ashigaru to become one of Odas most trusted generals, with the opportunity to establish himself as Odas successor. Toyotomi eventually consolidated his control over the remaining daimyōs and, although he was ineligible for the title of Seii Taishogun because of his common birth, during his short reign as Kampaku, Toyotomi attempted two invasions of Korea
4.
Urasenke
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Urasenke is the name of one of the main schools of Japanese tea ceremony. It is one of the san-Senke, the two are Omotesenke and Mushakōjisenke. The san-Senke derive from Sen Rikyū, and it was not until after the era of his grandson, Sen Sōtan, that the three separate lines of the family came into being. Three sons of Sōtan each became heirs to the name, Sen. The original tea room of Urasenke was built by Sen Sōtan when he was contemplating retirement and he built this retirement tea room on land located next to the Sen house, on the north. The head of this carries the hereditary name Sen Sōshitsu. The present head of Urasenke is Zabōsai Genmoku Sōshitsu and he is the 16th generation in the line. The protagonist and their friend Kenichi Doi start investigating the case, SEN Soshitsu XVI, Iemoto in Urasenke website. The Urasenke Legacy in Urasenke website, konnichian--The Urasenke Home in Urasenke website. Genshitsu Sen and Sōshitsu Sen. Media related to Urasenke at Wikimedia Commons Urasenke Headquarters Urasenke San Francisco Urasenke Seattle Urasenke New York
5.
Sakai
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Sakai is a city located in Osaka Prefecture, Japan on the edge of Osaka Bay at the mouth of the Yamato River. It has been one of the largest and most important seaports of Japan since the Medieval era. Following the February 2005 annexation of the town of Mihara, the city has grown further and is now the fourteenth most populous city in Japan, the current city was legally founded on April 1,1889 according to the laws of Imperial Japan. Sakai became a city in April 2006 giving it a greater measure of self-determination in governmental affairs. It is divided into seven districts, Sakai is known for its keyhole-shaped burial mounds, or kofun, which date from the 5th century. The largest of these, Daisen Kofun, is believed to be the grave of the Emperor Nintoku and is the largest grave in the world by area. Once known for samurai swords, Sakai is now famous for the quality of its kitchen knives, most high-quality Japanese cutlery originates in Sakai, and its production is a major industry in the city. As of October 1,2016, the city has an population of 837,603. The total area is 149.99 km2, the area that would later become known as Sakai has been inhabited since approximately 8,000 BC. During the Yamato dynasty between 300 and 500 AD, the Mozu Tumulus Cluster was built from one hundred burial mounds. The name Sakai appears in Fujiwara Sadoyoris poetry by 1045, tradition holds that 10,000 homes burned to the ground in 1399. Medieval Sakai was a city run by merchant citizens. It was a producer of textiles and ironwork. In those days, it was said that the richest cities were Umi no Sakai, the famous Zen Buddhist priest Ikkyū chose to live in Sakai because of its free atmosphere. The first reliable account of the city is dated to the 1480s and contains publicly issued legal notices, which suggests that the city had a governing council at that point. By the 1530s, the population was around 40,000 residents, almost all of which earned a living through commercial enterprises, at this time, Sakai was administered by an oligarchy of powerful merchants. The government had ten divisions machi that were subordinate to the council of wealthy townsmen known as the egoshu. Sen no Rikyū, known as the greatest master of the tea ceremony, was originally a merchant of Sakai
6.
Osaka Prefecture
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Osaka Prefecture is a prefecture located in the Kansai region on Honshu, the main island of Japan. The capital is the city of Osaka and it is the center of Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto area. Osaka is one of the two prefectures of Japan, Kyoto being the other. Until the Meiji Restoration, the area of Osaka prefecture was known as Kawachi, Izumi, Osaka Prefecture was created on June 21,1868, at the very beginning of the Meiji era. During the instigation of Fuhanken Sanchisei in 1868, the received its suffix fu. On September 1,1956, the city of Osaka was promoted to a city designated by government ordinance, in 2000, Fusae Ota became Japans first female governor when she replaced Knock Yokoyama, who resigned after prosecution for sexual harassment. On April 1,2006, the city of Sakai was promoted to a city designated by government ordinance, in 2008, Tōru Hashimoto, previously famous as a counselor on television, was elected at the age of 38 as the youngest governor in Japan. In the 2011 local elections the association was able to win the majority of the prefectural seats, the plan was narrowly defeated in the 2015 referendum. Osaka Prefecture neighbors the prefectures of Hyōgo and Kyoto in the north, Nara in the east, the west is open to Osaka Bay. The Yodo and Yamato Rivers flow through the prefecture, prior to the construction of Kansai International Airport, Osaka was the smallest prefecture in Japan. The artificial island on which the airport was built added enough area to make it larger than Kagawa Prefecture. This represented approximately 48% of the Kinki region, the per capita income was ¥3.0 million, seventh in the nation. Commercial sales the year was ¥60.1 trillion. Overshadowed by such globally renowned electronics giants as Panasonic and Sharp, the number of SMEs based in Osaka in 2006 was 330,737, accounting for 99. 6% of the total number of businesses in the prefecture. The Osaka Securities Exchange, specializing in such as Nikkei 225 Futures, is based in Osaka. There are many electrical, chemical, pharmaceutical, heavy industry, food, and housing companies in Osaka Prefecture. According to the 2005 Population Census of Japan, Osaka prefecture has a population of 8,817,166, as of 2013 this prefecture has about 200,000 ethnic Korean persons, the largest such population of any prefecture in Japan. As of 2013 most ethnic Korean children attend ordinary Japanese public schools, although some Korean schools operated by the Chongryon, during the Japanese rule of Korea many ethnic Koreans came to the Osaka area to look for work
7.
Wabi-sabi
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Wabi-sabi is a concept in traditional Japanese aesthetics constituting a world view centered on the acceptance of transience and imperfection. The aesthetic is sometimes described as one of beauty that is imperfect, impermanent and it is a concept derived from the Buddhist teaching of the three marks of existence, specifically impermanence, suffering and emptiness or absence of self-nature. Whereas Andrew Juniper notes that f an object or expression can bring about, within us, a sense of serene melancholy, for Richard Powell, abi-sabi nurtures all that is authentic by acknowledging three simple realities, nothing lasts, nothing is finished, and nothing is perfect. Buddhist author Taro Gold describes wabi-sabi as the wisdom and beauty of imperfection, the words wabi and sabi do not translate easily. Wabi originally referred to the loneliness of living in nature, remote from society, sabi meant chill, around the 14th century these meanings began to change, taking on more positive connotations. Wabi now connotes rustic simplicity, freshness or quietness, and can be applied to natural and human-made objects, or understated elegance. It can also refer to quirks and anomalies arising from the process of construction, Sabi is beauty or serenity that comes with age, when the life of the object and its impermanence are evidenced in its patina and wear, or in any visible repairs. After centuries of incorporating artistic and Buddhist influences from China, wabi-sabi eventually evolved into a distinctly Japanese ideal, over time, the meanings of wabi and sabi shifted to become more lighthearted and hopeful. Around 700 years ago, particularly among the Japanese nobility, understanding emptiness and imperfection was honored as tantamount to the first step to satori, in todays Japan, the meaning of wabi-sabi is often condensed to wisdom in natural simplicity. In art books, it is defined as flawed beauty. Specifically, although the Japanese kanji characters 錆 and 寂 are different, as are their applied meanings, the spoken word is believed to be one. A good example of this embodiment may be seen in certain styles of Japanese pottery, in fact, it is up to the knowledge and observational ability of the participant to notice and discern the hidden signs of a truly excellent design or glaze. Wabi and sabi both suggest sentiments of desolation and solitude, in the Mahayana Buddhist view of the universe, these may be viewed as positive characteristics, representing liberation from a material world and transcendence to a simpler life. Mahayana philosophy itself, however, warns that genuine understanding cannot be achieved through words or language, in this sense wabi-sabi is the material representation of Zen Buddhism. The idea is that being surrounded by natural, changing, unique objects helps us connect to our real world, in one sense wabi-sabi is a training whereby the student of wabi-sabi learns to find the most basic, natural objects interesting, fascinating and beautiful. Fading autumn leaves would be an example, Wabi-sabi can change our perception of the world to the extent that a chip or crack in a vase makes it more interesting and gives the object greater meditative value. Similarly materials that age such as wood, paper and fabric become more interesting as they exhibit changes that can be observed over time. The wabi and sabi concepts are religious in origin, but actual usage of the words in Japanese is often quite casual, the syncretic nature of Japanese belief systems should be noted
8.
Rinzai school
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The Rinzai school is one of three sects of Zen in Japanese Buddhism. Rinzai is the Japanese line of the Chinese Linji school, which was founded during the Tang Dynasty by Linji Yixuan, though there were several attempts to establish Rinzai lines in Japan, it first took root in a lasting way through the efforts of the monk Myōan Eisai. In 1168, Myōan Eisai traveled to China, whereafter he studied Tendai for twenty years, in 1187, he went to China again, and returned to establish a Linji lineage, which is known in Japan as Rinzai. Decades later, Nanpo Shōmyō also studied Linji teachings in China before founding the Japanese Ōtōkan lineage, the time during which Rinzai Zen was established in Japan also saw the rise of the samurai to power. Along with early support, Rinzai came to enjoy the patronage of this newly ascendant warrior class. During the Muromachi period, the Rinzai school was the most successful of the schools because it was favoured by the Shogun. The school may be said to have flowered and achieved a distinctly Japanese identity with Shūhō Myōchō and Musō Soseki. In the beginning of the Muromachi period, the Five Mountain System system was worked out. The final version contained five temples of both Kyoto and Kamakura, presided over by Nanzen-ji, a second tier of the system consisted of Ten Temples. This system was extended throughout Japan, effectively giving control to the central government, the monks, often well educated and skilled, were employed by the shogun for the governing of state affairs. Not all Rinzai Zen organisations were under strict state control. The Rinka monasteries, which were located in rural areas rather than cities, had a greater degree of independence. The Ōtōkan lineage, which centered on Daitoku-ji, also had a degree of freedom. It was founded by Nanpo Shōmyō, Shūhō Myōchō, and Kanzan Egen, a well-known teacher from Daitoku-ji was Ikkyū. Another Rinka lineage was the Hotto lineage, of which Bassui Tokushō is the best-known teacher, by the 18th century, the Rinzai school had entered a period of stagnation and decline. At that time, the monk Hakuin Ekaku became prominent as a revitalizer and organizer of Rinzai Zen, Hakuins systemization of the kōan training system serves today as the framework of formal Rinzai practice. All contemporary Rinzai-lineages stem from Inzan Ien and Takujū Kosen, both students of Gasan Jitō, Gasan is considered to be a dharma heir of Hakuin, though he did not belong to the close circle of disciples and was probably not even one of Hakuins dharma heirs. Through Hakuin, all contemporary Japanese Rinzai-lineages are part of the lineage, brought to Japan in 1267 by Nanpo Jomyo
9.
Zen
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Zen is a school of Mahayana Buddhism that originated in China during the Tang dynasty as Chan Buddhism. Zen school was influenced by Taoism and developed as a distinguished school of Chinese Buddhism. From China, Chan Buddhism spread south to Vietnam, northeast to Korea and east to Japan, the term Zen is derived from the Japanese pronunciation of the Middle Chinese word 禪 which traces its roots to the Indian practice of Dhyana. Zen emphasizes rigorous self-control, meditation-practice, insight into Buddha-nature, as such, it de-emphasizes mere knowledge of sutras and doctrine and favors direct understanding through zazen and interaction with an accomplished teacher. The Prajñāpāramitā literature and, to an extent, Madhyamaka have also been influential in the shaping of the paradoxical language of the Zen-tradition. Central to Zen is the practice of dhyana or meditation, during sitting meditation, practitioners usually assume a position such as the lotus position, half-lotus, Burmese, or seiza postures, using the dhyāna mudrā. To regulate the mind, awareness is directed towards counting or watching the breath or by bringing that awareness to the center below the navel. Often, a square or round cushion placed on a mat is used to sit on, in some other cases. This practice may simply be called sitting dhyāna, which is zuòchán in Chinese, in the Sōtō school of Zen, meditation with no objects, anchors, or content, is the primary form of practice. The meditator strives to be aware of the stream of thoughts, allowing them to arise, in the Japanese language, this practice is called Shikantaza. Intensive group meditation may be practiced occasionally in some temples, in the Japanese language, this practice is called Sesshin. While the daily routine may require monks to meditate for hours each day. In modern Buddhist practice in Japan, Taiwan, and the West, lay students often attend these intensive practice sessions and these are held at many Zen centers, especially in commemoration of the Buddhas attainment of Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi. One distinctive aspect of Zen meditation in groups is the use of a kyosaku, at the beginning of the Sòng dynasty, practice with the kōan method became popular, whereas others practiced silent illumination. This became the source of differences in practice between the Línjì and Cáodòng schools. A kōan, literally public case, is a story or dialogue and these anecdotes give a demonstration of the masters insight. Koans emphasize the non-conceptional insight that the Buddhist teachings are pointing to, koans can be used to provoke the great doubt, and test a students progress in Zen practice. Kōan-inquiry may be practiced during zazen, kinhin, and throughout all the activities of daily life, kōan practice is particularly emphasized by the Japanese Rinzai school, but it also occurs in other schools or branches of Zen depending on the teaching line
10.
Daitoku-ji
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Daitoku-ji is a Buddhist temple, one of fourteen autonomous branches of the Rinzai school of Japanese Zen. It is located in Kita-ku, Kyoto, Japan, the mountain name by which it is known is Ryūhōzan. The Daitoku-ji temple complex today covers more than 23 hectares, Daitoku-ji originated as a small monastery founded in 1315 or 1319 by the monk Shūhō Myōchō, who is known by the title Daitō Kokushi given by Emperor Go-Daigo. In 1325, the monastery was converted into a hall for the imperial court at the request of the retired Emperor Hanazono. Like many other temples in Kyoto during that time, the buildings were destroyed by fire. In 1474, which was when Kyoto was the scene of the Onin War, with the help of merchants of the city of Sakai, Ikkyū contributed significantly to the temples rehabilitation. From its earliest days, the temple experienced alternating periods of fortune and decline and this can be attributed to the rivalries and conflicts between Daitoku-ji and other well-known Zen temples, as well as between Daitoku-ji and the political authorities. In 1582, Toyotomi Hideyoshi buried his predecessor, Oda Nobunaga and he also contributed land and built the Sōken-in. Around this period in history, Daitoku-ji became closely linked to the master of the Japanese tea ceremony, Sen no Rikyū, and consequently to the realm of the Japanese tea ceremony. After the era of Sen no Rikyū, another figure in the history of the Japanese tea ceremony who left his mark at this temple was Kobori Enshū. List of National Treasures of Japan List of National Treasures of Japan List of National Treasures of Japan List of National Treasures of Japan List of National Treasures of Japan Levine, daitokuji, The Visual Cultures of a Zen Monastery. Daitoku-ji - halls, sub-temples Photos of Daitoku-ji and its sub-temples
11.
Oda Nobunaga
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Oda Nobunaga was a powerful Daimyō of Japan in the late 16th century who attempted to unify Japan during the late Sengoku period. Nobunaga is regarded as one of three unifiers of Japan along with his retainers Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu, Nobunaga was widely known as one of the most brutal figures in history, eliminating anyone who stood in his way. He was both a ruler and keen businessman, strategizing at both the micro- and macroeconomic scales. He met his demise when his retainer Akechi Mitsuhide rebelled against him at Honnō-ji, Oda Nobunaga was the first for whom this goal seemed attainable. Nobunaga had gained control over most of Honshu before his death during the 1582 Honnō-ji incident and it is not certain whether Nobunaga was killed in the attack or else committed seppuku. The motivations behind Mitsuhides betrayal was never revealed to anyone who survived the incident, following the incident, Akechi Mitsuhide declared himself master over Nobunagas domains, but was quickly defeated by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who regained control of and greatly expanded the Oda holdings. Oda Nobunaga was born on June 23,1534, in the Owari domain and he was the second son of Oda Nobuhide, a deputy shugo with land holdings in Owari Province. He is said to have born in Nagoya Castle, although this is subject to debate. Through his childhood and early years, he was well known for his bizarre behavior. He was known to run around with other youths from the area, with the introduction of firearms into Japan, however, he became known for his fondness of tanegashima firearms. In 1551, Oda Nobuhide died unexpectedly, Nobunaga was said to have acted outrageously during his funeral, throwing ceremonial incense at the altar. This convinced many Oda retainers of Nobunagas mediocrity and lack of discipline, alienated, they then began to side with his soft-spoken and well-mannered brother, Nobuyuki. Hirate Masahide, a mentor and retainer to Nobunaga, was ashamed by Nobunagas behavior. This had an effect on Nobunaga, who later built a temple to honor Masahide. Although Nobunaga was Nobuhides legitimate successor, the Oda clan was divided into factions. Oda Nobutomo, the deceased Nobuhides brother and deputy to the shugo, used the weak Yoshimune as his puppet, Nobutomo murdered Yoshimune when it was discovered that he supported and attempted to aid Nobunaga. This also ensured that the Imagawa clan would have to stop attacking Owaris borders, although Nobuyuki and his supporters were still at large, Nobunaga brought an army to Mino Province to aid Saitō Dōsan after Dōsans son, Saitō Yoshitatsu, turned against him. The campaign failed, as Dōsan was killed in the Battle of Nagara-gawa, a few months later Nobuyuki, with support from Shibata Katsuie and Hayashi Hidesada, rebelled against Nobunaga
12.
Toyotomi Hideyoshi
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Toyotomi Hideyoshi was a preeminent daimyō, warrior, general, samurai, and politician of the Sengoku period who is regarded as Japans second great unifier. He succeeded his former lord, Oda Nobunaga, and brought an end to the Warring States period. The period of his rule is called the Momoyama period. After his death, his young son Hideyori was displaced by Tokugawa Ieyasu, Hideyoshi is noted for a number of cultural legacies, including the restriction that only members of the samurai class could bear arms. He financed the construction, restoration and rebuilding of many temples standing today in Kyoto, Hideyoshi played an important role in the history of Christianity in Japan when he ordered the execution by crucifixion of twenty-six Christians. Very little is known for certain about Hideyoshi before 1570, when he begins to appear in surviving documents and his autobiography starts in 1577 but in it Hideyoshi spoke very little about his past. According to tradition, he was born in Owari Province, the home of the Oda clan and he was born of no traceable samurai lineage, being the son of a peasant-ashigaru named Yaemon. He had no surname, and his given name was Hiyoshi-maru although variations exist. Many legends describe Hideyoshi being sent to study at a temple as a young man, under the name Kinoshita Tōkichirō, he first joined the Imagawa clan as a servant to a local ruler named Matsushita Yukitsuna. He traveled all the way to the lands of Imagawa Yoshimoto, daimyō of Suruga Province, in 1558 he joined the Oda clan, now headed by Oda Nobunaga, as an ashigaru. According to his biographers, he supervised the repair of Kiyosu Castle, a described as apocryphal. In 1561, Hideyoshi married One who was Asano Nagakatsus adopted daughter and he carried out repairs on Sunomata Castle with his younger brother Toyotomi Hidenaga and the bandits Hachisuka Masakatsu and Maeno Nagayasu. Hideyoshis efforts were well received because Sunomata was in enemy territory and he constructed a fort in Sunomata, according to legend overnight, and discovered a secret route into Mount Inaba after which much of the garrison surrendered. Hideyoshi was very successful as a negotiator, in 1564, he managed to convince, mostly with liberal bribes, a number of Mino warlords to desert the Saitō clan. Hideyoshi approached many Saitō clan samurai and convinced them to submit to Nobunaga, including the Saitō clans strategist, the new surname included two characters, one each from Odas two other right-hand men, Niwa Nagahide and Shibata Katsuie. Hideyoshi led troops in the Battle of Anegawa in 1570 in which Oda Nobunaga allied with Tokugawa Ieyasu to lay siege to two fortresses of the Azai and Asakura clans and he participated in the 1573 Siege of Nagashima. In 1573, after victorious campaigns against the Azai and Asakura, initially based at the former Azai headquarters in Odani, Hideyoshi moved to Kunitomo, and renamed the city Nagahama in tribute to Nobunaga. Hideyoshi later moved to the port at Imahama on Lake Biwa, from there he began work on Imahama Castle and took control of the nearby Kunitomo firearms factory that had been established some years previously by the Azai and Asakura
13.
Chashitsu
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A chashitsu in Japanese tradition is an architectural space designed to be used for tea ceremony gatherings. The architectural style developed for chashitsu is referred to as the sukiya style. The ideal floor size of a chashitsu is 4.5 tatami mats, in Japanese, free-standing structures specifically designed for exclusive tea ceremony use, as well as individual rooms intended for tea ceremony, are both referred to as chashitsu. The term may be used to indicate the tea room itself where the guests are received, or that room and its attached facilities, even extending to the roji garden path leading to it. In English, a distinction is made between free-standing structures for tea, referred to as tea houses, and rooms used for tea ceremony incorporated within other structures. Tea houses are small, simple wooden buildings. They are located in the gardens or grounds of private homes, other common sites are the grounds of temples, museums, and parks. The smallest tea house will have two rooms, the room where the host and guests gather and tea is served, and a mizuya. The entire structure may have a floor area of only three tatami mats. Tea rooms are spaces for holding tea gatherings. They may be located within larger tea houses, or within private homes or other structures not intended for tea ceremony. A tea room may have an area as small as 1.75 tatami mats. A tea room will contain a tokonoma and a sunken hearth for preparing tea in the winter. The term chashitsu came into use after the start of the Edo period, in earlier times, various terms were used for spaces used for tea ceremony, such as chanoyu zashiki, sukiya such as chanoyu), and kakoi. Before this, tea ceremony was generally enjoyed in rooms built in the architectural style. Tea houses first appeared in the Sengoku period, a time in which the government had almost no practical power, the country was in chaos. Tea houses were mostly by Zen monks or by daimyōs, samurai. They sought simplicity and tranquility – central tenets of Zen philosophy, the acknowledgment of simplicity and plainness, which is a central motivation of the tea house, continued to remain as a distinct Japanese tradition in the later periods
14.
Tatami
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A tatami is a type of mat used as a flooring material in traditional Japanese-style rooms. Traditionally made using straw to form the core, the cores of contemporary tatami are sometimes composed of compressed wood chip boards or polystyrene foam. With a covering of woven soft rush straw, tatami are made in sizes, with the length exactly twice the width. Usually, on the sides, they have edging of brocade or plain cloth. The term tatami is derived from the verb tatamu, meaning to fold or pile and this indicates that the early tatami were thin and could be folded up when not used or piled in layers. Tatami were originally an item for the nobility. In the Kamakura period, there arose the shoin-zukuri architectural style of residence for the samurai and this architectural style reached its peak of development in the Muromachi period, when tatami gradually came to be spread over whole rooms, beginning with small rooms. Rooms completely spread with tatami came to be known as zashiki and it is said that prior to the mid-16th century, the ruling nobility and samurai slept on tatami or woven mats called goza, while commoners used straw mats or loose straw for bedding. The lower classes had mat-covered earth floors, Tatami were gradually popularized and finally reached the homes of commoners toward the end of the 17th century. Houses built in Japan today often have very few tatami-floored rooms, having just one is not uncommon. The rooms having tatami flooring and other such architectural features are referred to as nihonma or washitsu. The size of tatami differs between different regions in Japan, in the Kyoto area, tatami generally measure 0.955 m by 1.91 m. Tatami of this size are referred to as Kyōma tatami, Tatami in the Nagoya region generally measure 0.91 m by 1.82 m, and are referred to as ainoma tatami. In the region around Tokyo, tatami generally measure 0.88 m by 1.76 m, Tatami of this size are referred to as Edoma or Kantōma tatami. In terms of thickness,5.5 cm is average for a Kyōma tatami, a half mat is called a hanjō, and a mat of three-quarter length, which is used in tea-ceremony rooms, is called daimedatami. In terms of traditional Japanese length units, a tatami is 1 ken by half a ken, or equivalently 6 shaku by 3 shaku – formally this is 1.81818 metres ×0.90909 metres, the size of Nagoya tatami. Note that a shaku is almost the length as one foot in the traditional English/American measurement system. In Japan, the size of a room is often measured by the number of tatami mats, about 1.653 square meters
15.
National Treasure (Japan)
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A National Treasure is the most precious of Japans Tangible Cultural Properties, as determined and designated by the Agency for Cultural Affairs. A Tangible Cultural Property is considered to be of historic or artistic value, classified either as buildings, each National Treasure must show outstanding workmanship, a high value for world cultural history, or exceptional value for scholarship. Approximately 20% of the National Treasures are structures such as castles, Buddhist temples, Shinto shrines, the items span the period of ancient to early modern Japan before the Meiji period, including pieces of the worlds oldest pottery from the Jōmon period and 19th-century documents and writings. The designation of the Akasaka Palace in 2009 and of the Tomioka Silk Mill in 2014 added two modern, post-Meiji Restoration, National Treasures, Japan has a comprehensive network of legislation for protecting, preserving, and classifying its cultural patrimony. The regard for physical and intangible properties and their protection is typical of Japanese preservation and restoration practices, methods of protecting designated National Treasures include restrictions on alterations, transfer, and export, as well as financial support in the form of grants and tax reduction. The Agency for Cultural Affairs provides owners with advice on restoration, administration and these efforts are supplemented by laws that protect the built environment of designated structures and the necessary techniques for restoration of works. Kansai, the region of Japans capitals from ancient times to the 19th century, has the most National Treasures, Kyoto alone has about one in five National Treasures. Fine arts and crafts properties are owned privately or are in museums, including national museums such as Tokyo, Kyoto, and Nara, public prefectural and city museums. Religious items are housed in temples and Shinto shrines or in an adjacent museum or treasure house. Japanese cultural properties were originally in the ownership of Buddhist temples, Shinto shrines, feudal Japan ended abruptly in 1867/68 when the Tokugawa shogunate was replaced by the Meiji Restoration. In 1871, the government confiscated temple lands, considered symbolic of the ruling elite, Properties belonging to the feudal lords were expropriated, historic castles and residences were destroyed, and an estimated 18,000 temples were closed. During the same period, Japanese cultural heritage was impacted by the rise of industrialization and westernization, as a result, Buddhist and Shinto institutions became impoverished. Temples decayed, and valuable objects were exported, in 1871, the Daijō-kan issued a decree to protect Japanese antiquities called the Plan for the Preservation of Ancient Artifacts. Based on recommendations from the universities, the decree ordered prefectures, temples, however, these efforts proved to be ineffective in the face of radical westernisation. In 1880, the government allotted funds for the preservation of ancient shrines and temples, by 1894,539 shrines and temples had received government funded subsidies to conduct repairs and reconstruction. The five-storied pagoda of Daigo-ji, the kon-dō of Tōshōdai-ji, a survey conducted in association with Okakura Kakuzō and Ernest Fenollosa between 1888 and 1897 was designed to evaluate and catalogue 210,000 objects of artistic or historic merit. The end of the 19th century was a period of change in Japan as cultural values moved from the enthusiastic adoption of western ideas to a newly discovered interest in Japanese heritage. Japanese architectural history began to appear on curricula, and the first books on history were published, stimulated by the newly compiled inventories of buildings
16.
Raku ware
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Raku ware is a type of Japanese pottery traditionally used in Japanese tea ceremonies, most often in the form of chawan tea bowls. In the traditional Japanese process, the raku piece is removed from the hot kiln and is allowed to cool in the open air. The familiar technique of placing the ware in a filled with combustible material is not a traditional Raku practice. Raku techniques have been modified by contemporary potters worldwide, Raku means enjoyment, comfort or ease and is derived from Jurakudai, the name of a palace, in Kyoto, that was built by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who was the leading warrior statesman of the time. The resulting tea bowls made by Chōjirō were initially referred to as ima-yaki and were distinguished as Juraku-yaki. Hideyoshi presented Jokei, Chōjirōs son, with a seal that bore the Chinese character for raku, Raku then became the name of the family that produced the wares. Both the name and the style have been passed down through the family to the present 15th generation. The name and the style of ware has become influential in both Japanese culture and literature, in Japan, there are branch kilns, in the raku-ware tradition, that have been founded by Raku-family members or porters who apprenticed at the head familys studio. One of the most well-known of these is Ōhi-yaki, other famous Japanese clay artists of this period include Dōnyū, Honami Kōetsu and Ogata Kenzan. In the western style of raku firing, the aluminium container acts as a reduction chamber, a reduction atmosphere is created by closing the container. A reduction atmosphere induces a reaction between oxygen and the minerals, which affects the color. It also affects the metal elements of the glaze, Reduction is a decrease in oxidation number. Closing the can reduces the content after the combustible materials such as sawdust catch fire and forces the reaction to pull oxygen from the glazes. For example, luster gets its color from deprivation of oxygen, the reduction agent is a substance from which electrons are being taken by another substance. The reaction uses oxygen from the atmosphere within the reduction tube and this leaves ions and iridescent luster behind. Pieces with no glaze have nowhere to get the oxygen from and this atmosphere will turn clay black, making a matte color. Reduction firing is when the atmosphere, which is full of combustible material, is heated up. Reduction is incomplete combustion of fuel, caused by a shortage of oxygen and this then draws oxygen from the glaze and the clay to allow the reaction to continue
17.
Chawan
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A chawan is a bowl used for preparing and drinking tea. There are many types of chawan used in East Asian tea ceremonies, the choice of their use depends upon many considerations. The earliest chawan in Japan were imported from China between the 13th through the 16th century, the Jian chawan, a Chinese tea bowl known as Tenmoku chawan in Japan, was the preferred tea bowl for the Japanese tea ceremony up until the 16th century. In Japan, tea was also drunk from this Chinese variety of tea bowls up till about the 15th century. The Japanese term tenmoku is derived from the name of the Tianmu Mountain, with the rise of the wabi tea ceremony in the late Muromachi period, the Ido chawan, a variety of Korean bowls mainly used for rice in Korea, also became highly prized in Japan. Korean bowls were a favourite of Sen no Rikyu because of their rough simplicity, with time and development of the Japanese tea ceremony as a distinct form, local ceramics became more priced and developed. Around the Edo period, the chawan was often made in Japan, the most esteemed pieces for a tea ceremony chawan are Raku ware, Hagi ware and Karatsu ware. There is a saying in the tea ceremony schools for the types of chawan, Raku first, Hagi second. Another chawan type that became popular during the Edo period from abroad was the Annan ware from Vietnam. Annan ware is blue and white, with a high foot
18.
Ikebana
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Ikebana is the Japanese art of flower arrangement, also known as kadō. The tradition dates back to the 7th century when floral offerings were made at altars, later they were placed in the tokonoma alcove of a home. Ikebana reached its first zenith in the 16th century under the influence of Buddhist teamasters and has grown over the centuries, with over 1000 different schools in Japan, the best known schools are Ikenobo, Ohara-ryū, and Sōgetsu-ryū. Kadō is counted as one of the three classical Japanese arts of refinement, along with kōdō for incense appreciation and chadō for tea, Ikebana is from the Japanese ikeru and hana. Possible translations include giving life to flowers and arranging flowers, more than simply putting flowers in a container, ikebana is a disciplined art form in which nature and humanity are brought together. Though ikebana is an expression of creativity, certain rules govern its form, the artists intention behind each arrangement is shown through a pieces color combinations, natural shapes, graceful lines, and the implied meaning of the arrangement. Another common but not exclusive aspect present in ikebana is its employment of minimalism, some arrangements may consist of only a minimal number of blooms interspersed among stalks and leaves. Use of these terms is limited to schools and is not customary in more traditional schools. A notable exception is the traditional form, which follows other precepts. The container can be a key element of the composition, in some schools the container is only regarded as a vessel to hold water and should be subordinate to the arrangement. The spiritual aspect of ikebana is considered important to its practitioners. Some practitioners feel silence is needed while making ikebana while others feel this is not necessary and it is a time to appreciate things in nature that people often overlook because of their busy lives. One becomes more patient and tolerant of differences, not only in nature, Ikebana can inspire one to identify with beauty in all art forms. This is also the time when one feels closeness to nature, which provides relaxation for the mind, body, during ancient times, offering flowers on the altar in honor of Buddha was part of worship. Ikebana evolved from the Buddhist practice of flower offerings combined with the Shinto Yorishiro belief of attracting kami by using evergreen materials, together they form the basis for the original purely Japanese derivation of the practice of ikebana. As time passed, other schools emerged, styles changed, hundreds of schools and styles have developed throughout the centuries. Amongst the most notable are, Ikenobō, which goes back to the Heian period, is considered the oldest school and this school marks its beginnings from the construction of the Chōhō-ji in Kyoto, the second oldest Buddhist temple in Japan. It was built in 587 by Prince Shotoku, who had camped near a lake in what is now central Kyoto
19.
Seppuku
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Seppuku, sometimes metathesized as harakiri which is a native Japanese kun reading, is a form of Japanese ritual suicide by disembowelment. It was originally reserved for samurai, if the cut, done with a movement, is done deep enough, it sections, cuts, the descending Aorta, inducing a massive blood loss inside the abdomen, with very fast death. A Japanese form of suicide, the term seppuku derives from the two Sino-Japanese roots setsu 切 and puku 腹. It is also known as harakiri, a more widely familiar outside Japan, and which is written with the same kanji as seppuku. In Japanese, the more formal seppuku, a Chinese onyomi reading, is used in writing, while harakiri. Ross notes, It is commonly pointed out that hara-kiri is a vulgarism, hara-kiri is a Japanese reading or Kun-yomi of the characters, as it became customary to prefer Chinese readings in official announcements, only the term seppuku was ever used in writing. So hara-kiri is a term, but only to commoners and seppuku a written term. The practice of committing seppuku at the death of ones master, known as oibara or tsuifuku, the word jigai means suicide in Japanese. The usual modern word for suicide is jisatsu, in some popular western texts, such as martial arts magazines, the term is associated with suicide of samurai wives. The term was introduced into English by Lafcadio Hearn in his Japan, An Attempt at Interpretation, joshua S. Mostow notes that Hearn misunderstood the term jigai to be the female equivalent of seppuku. The first recorded act of seppuku was performed by Minamoto no Yorimasa during the Battle of Uji in the year 1180. Seppuku eventually became a key part of bushido, the code of the warriors, it was used by warriors to avoid falling into enemy hands. Samurai could also be ordered by their daimyo to carry out seppuku, later, disgraced warriors were sometimes allowed to carry out seppuku rather than be executed in the normal manner. This way the head could, both metaphorically and literally, rest in its owners hands and those who did not belong to the samurai caste were never ordered or expected to carry out seppuku. Samurai generally could carry out the act only with permission, sometimes a daimyo was called upon to perform seppuku as the basis of a peace agreement. This would weaken the defeated clan so that resistance would effectively cease, toyotomi Hideyoshi used an enemys suicide in this way on several occasions, the most dramatic of which effectively ended a dynasty of daimyo. Until this practice became more standardized during the 17th century, the ritual of seppuku was less formalized. In the 12th and 13th centuries, such as with the seppuku of Minamoto no Yorimasa, seppukus defining characteristic was plunging either the Tachi, Wakizashi or Tanto into the gut and slicing the abdomen horizontally
20.
Siege of Odawara (1590)
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The third siege of Odawara occurred in 1590, and was the primary action in Toyotomi Hideyoshis campaign to eliminate the Hōjō clan as a threat to his power. The months leading up to it saw hasty but major improvements in the defense of the castle, thus, despite the overwhelming force brought to bear by Hideyoshi, the siege saw little actual fighting. The massive army of Toyotomi Hideyoshi surrounded the castle in what has called the most unconventional siege lines in samurai history. The samurai were entertained by everything, from concubines, prostitutes and musicians to acrobats, fire-eaters, the defenders slept on the ramparts with their arquebuses and armor, despite their smaller numbers, they discouraged Hideyoshi from attacking. So, for the most part, this consisted of traditional starvation tactics. Only a few small skirmishes erupted around the castle, as when a group of miners from Kai Province dug under the castle walls, after three months, the Hōjō surrendered, facing overwhelming numbers and, presumably, an impending shortage of food and supplies. Tokugawa Ieyasu, one of Hideyoshis top generals, was given the Hōjō lands, though Hideyoshi could not have guessed it at the time, this would turn out to be a great stepping-stone towards Tokugawas attempts at conquest and the office of Shogun. In addition to taking Odawara Castle, Hideyoshi also defeated the Hōjō at their outposts at Hachiōji, Yorii, the Chiba, allies of the Hōjō in Shimōsa, also saw Sakura Castle fall to Honda Tadakatsu and Sakai Ietsugu of the Tokugawa army during the campaign. Chiba Shigetane, daimyō of the Chiba, surrendered the castle to the forces on the condition that his clan would not be abolished. The Siege of Odawara is the climax of Hideyoshis story in the video game Samurai Warriors 2, in the Sengoku Basara Season 2 anime, Odawara Castle was the setting for the fight between Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Date Masamune. Hideyoshi was killed in the castle at Masamunes hands, afterward, Ishida Mitsunari went to the castle to grieve his masters demise
21.
Jurakudai
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The Jurakudai or Jurakutei was a lavish palace constructed at the order of Toyotomi Hideyoshi in Kyoto, Japan. Construction began in 1586, when Hideyoshi had taken the post of kanpaku, the location is in present-day Kamigyō, on the site where the Imperial palace had stood in the Heian period. Hideyoshi moved to Jurakudai from Osaka Castle following completion, just after his victory over the Shimazu family in Kyūshū and he made it the base for his administration. In 1588, Hideyoshi held an entertainment of the reigning Emperor Go-Yōzei before the assembled daimyo. He also met Tokugawa Ieyasu here and he provided quarters for Sen no Rikyu within the grounds, and hosted the famous Great Kitano Tea Ceremony in nearby Kitano in 1587. Hideyoshi resigned the post of Kanpaku in 1591, and his nephew Toyotomi Hidetsugu assumed the position, Hidetsugu hosted a second visit by the same emperor. Said to have had gold leaf on the tiles, the Jurakudai was extremely lavish. Although it was a palace, it had defensive ramparts and moats typical of a castle. Some buildings of the Jurakudai survive, among them the Hiun-kaku at Nishi Hongan-ji, the Karamon at Daitoku-ji, recent excavations have yielded some tiles bearing gold leaf. Media related to Jurakudai at Wikimedia Commons Discovery of tiles
22.
Kyoto
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Kyoto is a city located in the central part of the island of Honshu, Japan. It has a close to 1.5 million. Kyoto is also known as the thousand-year capital, in Japanese, the city has been called Kyō, Miyako, or Kyō no Miyako. In the 11th century, the city was renamed Kyoto, after the Chinese word for capital city, after the city of Edo was renamed Tokyo in 1868, and the seat of the Emperor was transferred there, Kyoto was known for a short time as Saikyō. Obsolete spellings for the name include Kioto, Miaco and Meaco. Another term commonly used to refer to the city in the period was Keishi. His last choice for the site was the village of Uda, the new city, Heian-kyō, a scaled replica of the then Tang capital Changan, became the seat of Japans imperial court in 794, beginning the Heian period of Japanese history. The city suffered destruction in the Ōnin War of 1467–1477. Battles between samurai factions spilled into the streets, and came to involve the court nobility and religious factions as well, nobles mansions were transformed into fortresses, deep trenches dug throughout the city for defense and as firebreaks, and numerous buildings burned. The city has not seen such widespread destruction since, Hideyoshi also built earthwork walls called odoi encircling the city. Teramachi Street in central Kyoto is a Buddhist temple quarter where Hideyoshi gathered temples in the city, throughout the Edo period, the economy of the city flourished as one of three major cities in Japan, the others being Osaka and Edo. The Hamaguri rebellion of 1864 burnt down 28,000 houses in the city, the modern city of Kyoto was formed on April 1,1889. The construction of Lake Biwa Canal in 1890 is one taken to revive the city. The population of the city exceeded one million in 1932, stimson, Secretary of War in the Roosevelt and Truman administrations, the city was removed from the list of targets and replaced by Nagasaki. The city was spared from conventional bombing as well, although small-scale air raids did result in casualties. As a result, the Imperial City of Kyoto is one of the few Japanese cities that still have an abundance of prewar buildings, however, modernization is continually breaking down the traditional Kyoto in favor of newer architecture, such as the Kyōto Station complex. Kyoto became a city designated by government ordinance on September 1,1956, in 1997, Kyoto hosted the conference that resulted in the protocol on greenhouse gas emissions that bears the citys name. Kyoto is located in a valley, part of the Yamashiro Basin, in the part of the mountainous region known as the Tamba highlands
23.
Lunar calendar
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A lunar calendar is a calendar based upon cycles of the Moons phases, in contrast to solar calendars based solely upon the solar year. A purely lunar calendar is also distinguished from lunisolar calendars whose lunar months are brought into alignment with the year through some process of intercalation. The details of when months begin varies from calendar to calendar, with using new, full, or crescent moons. Because each lunation is a less than 29 days,12 hours,44 minutes. Such holidays include Ramadan, the Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, and Mongolian New Year, the Nepali New Year, the Mid-Autumn Festival and Chuseok, Loi Krathong, and Diwali. The earliest known lunar calendar was found at Warren Field in Scotland and has dated to c. 8000 BC. Some scholars argue for lunar calendars still further back—Rappenglück in the marks on a c. 17, 000-year-old cave painting at Lascaux and Marshack in the marks on a c. 27, most calendars referred to as lunar calendars are in fact lunisolar calendars. Their months are based on observations of the cycle, with intercalation being used to bring them into general agreement with the solar year. The solar civic calendar of ancient Egypt showed traces of its origin in the lunar calendar. Present-day lunisolar calendars include the Chinese, Hindu, and Thai calendars, synodic months are 29 or 30 days in length, making a lunar year of 12 months about 11 days shorter than a solar year. Some lunar calendars do not use intercalation, such as most Islamic calendars, for those that do, such as the Hebrew calendar, the most common form of intercalation is to add an additional month every second or third year. Some lunisolar calendars are also calibrated by annual natural events which are affected by lunar cycles as well as the solar cycle, an example of this is the lunar calendar of the Banks Islands, which includes three months in which the edible palolo worm mass on the beaches. These events occur at the last quarter of the lunar month, lunar and lunisolar calendars differ as to which day is the first day of the month. In some lunisolar calendars, such as the Chinese calendar, the first day of a month is the day when a new moon occurs in a particular time zone. In others, such as some Hindu calendars, each month begins on the day after the moon or the new moon. Others were based in the past on the first sighting of a lunar crescent, the length of each lunar cycle varies slightly from the average value. In addition, observations are subject to uncertainty and weather conditions, thus to avoid uncertainty about the calendar, there have been attempts to create fixed arithmetical rules to determine the start of each calendar month. The average length of the month is 29.530589 days
24.
Gregorian calendar
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The Gregorian calendar is internationally the most widely used civil calendar. It is named after Pope Gregory XIII, who introduced it in October 1582, the calendar was a refinement to the Julian calendar involving a 0. 002% correction in the length of the year. The motivation for the reform was to stop the drift of the calendar with respect to the equinoxes and solstices—particularly the northern vernal equinox, transition to the Gregorian calendar would restore the holiday to the time of the year in which it was celebrated when introduced by the early Church. The reform was adopted initially by the Catholic countries of Europe, the last European country to adopt the reform was Greece, in 1923. Many countries that have used the Islamic and other religious calendars have come to adopt this calendar for civil purposes. The reform was a modification of a made by Aloysius Lilius. His proposal included reducing the number of years in four centuries from 100 to 97. Lilius also produced an original and practical scheme for adjusting the epacts of the moon when calculating the date of Easter. For example, the years 1700,1800, and 1900 are not leap years, but the years 1600 and 2000 are. The canonical Easter tables were devised at the end of the third century, when the vernal equinox fell either on 20 March or 21 March depending on the years position in the leap year cycle. As the rule was that the full moon preceding Easter was not to precede the equinox, the date was fixed at 21 March for computational purposes, the Gregorian calendar reproduced these conditions by removing ten days. To unambiguously specify a date, dual dating or Old Style, dual dating gives two consecutive years for a given date, because of differences in the starting date of the year, and/or to give both the Julian and the Gregorian dates. The Gregorian calendar continued to use the calendar era, which counts years from the traditional date of the nativity. This year-numbering system, also known as Dionysian era or Common Era, is the predominant international standard today, the Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar. A regular Gregorian year consists of 365 days, but as in the Julian calendar, in a leap year, in the Julian calendar a leap year occurs every 4 years, but the Gregorian calendar omits 3 leap days every 400 years. In the Julian calendar, this day was inserted by doubling 24 February. In the modern period, it has become customary to number the days from the beginning of the month, some churches, notably the Roman Catholic Church, delay February festivals after the 23rd by one day in leap years. Gregorian years are identified by consecutive year numbers, the cycles repeat completely every 146,097 days, which equals 400 years
25.
Kakemono
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A kakemono, more commonly referred to as a kakejiku, is a Japanese scroll painting or calligraphy mounted usually with silk fabric edges on a flexible backing, so that it can be rolled for storage. The Maruhyōsō style of kakejiku has four distinct named sections, the top section is called the ten heaven. The bottom is the chi earth with the pillars supporting the heaven. The maruhyōsō style, also contains a section of ichimonji made from kinran gold thread, on observation, the Ten is longer than the Chi. This is because in the past, Kakemono were viewed from a kneeling position and this tradition carries on to modern times. There is a rod called jikugi at the bottom, which becomes the axis or center of the rolled scroll. The end knobs on this rod are in themselves called jiku, other parts of the scroll include the jikubo referenced above as the jikugi. The top half moon shaped wood rod is named the hassō to which the kan or metal loops are inserted in order to tie the kakehimo hanging thread. Attached to the jikubo are the jikusaki, the used for the end knobs. Additional decorative wood or ceramic pieces are called fuchin and come with multicolored tassels, the variation in the kakehimo, jikusaki and fuchin make each scroll more original and unique. ISBN 0-13-117602-1 Short documentary about how a kakejiku is being made
26.
Death poem
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The death poem is a genre of poetry that developed in the literary traditions of East Asian cultures—most prominently in Japan as well as certain periods of Chinese history and Joseon Korea. They tend to offer a reflection on death—both in general and concerning the imminent death of the author—that is often coupled with an observation on life. The practice of writing a poem has its origins in Zen Buddhism. These poems became associated with the literate, spiritual, and ruling segments of society, as they were composed by a poet, warrior, nobleman. The writing of a poem at the time of death and reflecting on the nature of death in an impermanent. It has close ties with Buddhism, and particularly the mystical Zen Buddhism, Chan Buddhism, from its inception, Buddhism has stressed the importance of death because awareness of death is what prompted the Buddha to perceive the ultimate futility of worldly concerns and pleasures. It has been the custom in modern Japan to have Shinto weddings, the writing of a death poem was limited to the societys literate class, ruling class, samurai, and monks. It was introduced to Western audiences during World War II when Japanese soldiers, emboldened by their cultures samurai legacy, the poems structure can be in one of many forms, including the two traditional forms in Japanese literature, kanshi or waka. Poetry has long been a part of Japanese tradition. Death poems are typically graceful, natural, and emotionally neutral, in accordance with the teachings of Buddhism and it was an ancient custom in Japan for literate persons to compose a jisei on their deathbed. One of earliest records was recited by Prince Ōtsu executed in 686, the custom has continued into modern Japan. Some people left their death poems in multiple forms, Prince Ōtsu made both waka and kanshi, Sen no Rikyū made both kanshi and kyōka. On March 17,1945, General Tadamichi Kuribayashi, the Japanese commander-in chief during the Battle of Iwo Jima, in the message, General Kuribayashi apologized for failing to successfully defend Iwo Jima against the overwhelming forces of the United States military. At the same time, however, he expressed pride in the heroism of his men. He closed the message with three traditional death poems in waka form, however, better-known examples are those written or recited by famous historical figures facing death when they were executed for loyalty to their former king or due to insidious plot. They are therefore impromptu verses, often declaring their loyalty or steadfastness, the following are some examples that are still learned by school children in Korea as models of loyalty. These examples are written in Korean sijo or in Hanja five-syllable format of ancient Chinese poetry, Yi Gae was one of six martyred ministers who were executed for conspiring to assassinate King Sejo, who usurped the throne from his nephew Danjong. Sejo offered to pardon six ministers including Yi Gae and Seong Sam-mun if they would repent their crime and accept his legitimacy and he recited the following poem in his cell before execution on June 8,1456
27.
Fushimi Castle
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Fushimi Castle, also known as Momoyama Castle or Fushimi-Momoyama Castle, is a castle in Kyotos Fushimi Ward. The current structure is a 1964 replica of the built by Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The construction of the castle was begun in 1592, the year after Hideyoshis retirement from the regency. Twenty provinces furnished workers for the construction, which numbered between 20,000 and 30,000, though bearing the external martial appearance of a castle, the structure was intended as a retirement palace for Hideyoshi, and was furnished and decorated as such. It is particularly famous for its tea room in which both the walls and the implements were covered in gold leaf. It was rebuilt afterwards, and came to be controlled by Torii Mototada. In 1600, the fell in a famous and significant siege by Ishida Mitsunari. Torii Mototada, in an act of honor and bravery, defended the castle for eleven days, delaying Ishidas forces. This had an effect on the Battle of Sekigahara, which came soon afterwards. In 1623, the castle was dismantled, and many of its rooms, in 1912, the tomb of Emperor Meiji was built on the original site of the castle. The castle was not rebuilt until 1964, when a replica was created very nearby and primarily in concrete. The new structure served as a museum of the life and campaigns of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and the attraction of a small theme park called Castle Land. Jurakudai—Hideyoshis previous luxurious residence from 1587 to 1594 Bryant, Anthony J. Sekigahara 1600, schmorleitz, Morton S. Castles in Japan. Tokyo, Charles E. Tuttle Co. pp. 78–80, sengokuDaimyo. com, The website of Samurai Author and Historian Anthony J. Bryant
28.
Rikyu (film)
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Rikyu is Hiroshi Teshigaharas film about the 16th century master of the Japanese tea ceremony, Sen no Rikyū. The film focuses on the stages of life of Rikyū. It starts near the end of Oda Nobunagas reign, with Rikyū serving as tea master to Nobunaga, Rikyū is portrayed as a man thoroughly dedicated to aesthetics and perfection, especially in relation to the art of tea. To the extent that he himself, he does so diplomatically. Yet, as society is changed violently and radically around him, also finding himself the focus of jealousy and misdirected suspicions and he is compelled to express an opinion on Hideyoshis military plans. This one breach of his isolation from world affairs leads quickly to tragic consequences. The film itself is very studied in its aestheticism, and very expressive of the force of life intruding into the guarded hermetic space of the artist/idealist. He also won four other Japanese acting awards for the role, tōru Takemitsu won the Japanese Academy award for best musical score. Director Hiroshi Teshigahara won awards from the Berlin International Film Festival, the film was selected as the Japanese entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 62nd Academy Awards, but was not accepted as a nominee
29.
Hiroshi Teshigahara
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Hiroshi Teshigahara was a Japanese avant-garde filmmaker. He is best known for his films Woman in the Dunes, Teshigahara is the first person of Asian descent to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Director, accomplishing this in 1966 for his work on Woman in the Dunes. Teshigahara was born in Tokyo, the son of Sofu Teshigahara, founder and he graduated in 1950 from the Tokyo National University of Fine Arts and Music and began working in documentary film. He directed his first feature film, Pitfall, in collaboration with author Kōbō Abe, in 1965, the Teshigahara/Abe film Woman in the Dunes was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film and won the Special Jury Prize at the Cannes Film Festival. In 1972, he worked with Japanese researcher and translator John Nathan to make Summer Soldiers, from the mid-1970s onwards, he worked less frequently on feature films as he concentrated more on documentaries, exhibitions and the Sogetsu School and became grand master of the school in 1980. In 1978, Teshigahara directed the two episodes of the long running and popular Japanese television series Shin Zatoichi, starring Shintaro Katsu as the blind wandering Yakuza. During Akira Kurosawas five-year hiatus from filmmaking, he watched a lot of television and was taken by the final episode of Shin Zatouichi - Episode
