1.
Keyumars
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Keyumars is the Persian form of the name Gayō Marətan, the Avestan name of the mythological first human being in the world. The corresponding name in Middle Persian is Kayōmart, in Ferdowsis Shahnameh he appears as the first shah of the world. He is also called the pishdād, the first to practice justice, the Avestan form means the living mortal, from gaya life and marətan mortal, human being, cf. Persian mard human. Keyumars is also a popular first name in contemporary Iran, according to the Zoroastrian creation myth, Gayōmart was the first human, or, according to the Avesta, he was the first person to worship Ahura Mazda. The Avestan forms Mashya and Mashyana appear as the male and female first humans, in the eighth book of the Denkard, a reference is made to the Chethrdāt section of the Avesta, which is divided into 21 sections. Apparently this section dealt with how the world and mankind were created, but I finally repelled them and plunged them into the darkness. A concise story of Gayōmart according to Middle Persian texts is given by Zabihollah Safa, before Gayōmart came, in the fifth Gāh Gavevagdāt was created from mud in Erān-vēdj on the right side of the river Veh-Dāit. In the sixth Gāh Gayōmart was created from mud. on the side of Veh-Dāit, to help Uhrmazd. They lived for 3000 years in peace and they did not pray, did not eat and did not talk, at the end of the 3000 period, which Ahriman was stunned and could not do anything Jēh yelled which woke him up. Upon this, Ahriman and his minions the Dīvs fought with the light and he started to create death, illness, lust, thirst, hunger among the life forms and spread evil beings in the world. And Ahriman left Astovidat to guard Gayōmart, but could not kill him because his fate had not yet come, in the Avesta, Gayōmart is named as the pure and righteous, and according to Zoroastrian tradition the genealogy of Zoroaster can be traced through 45 generations to him. Ferdowsis great epic poem, the Shahnameh, begins with the story of Keyumars and he was the first king to arise among humans, who at that time lived in mountain caves and wore the skins of leopards. Keyumars was also the first human to introduce royal practices, preparation of food and he was so powerful that all humans, tame animals, and wild animals paid homage to him. God granted Keyumars the supernatural radiance called the farr, reserved for kings and his son was Siāmak was beloved of all except the Devil, Ahriman, who raised an army under the command of his own demonic son. When the angel Sorush warned Keyumars, Siāmak led an army of his own, Siāmak accepted a challenge to single combat and died at the hands of the demon. Keyumars mourned for a year, and then Sorush advised him to fight Ahriman once more, siāmaks son Hushang was grown by this time and led the army that defeated Ahrimans son, who was bound and beheaded. Keyumars died after a reign, leaving his throne to Hushang. Shahnameh, The Persian Book of Kings ISBN 0-670-03485-1, modern English translation, current standard Warner, Arthur and Edmond Warner, shirzad Aghaee, Nam-e kasan va jai-ha dar Shahnama-ye Ferdousi (Personalities and Places in the Shahnama of Ferdousi, Nyköping, Sweden,1993
2.
Persian language
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Persian, also known by its endonym Farsi, is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. It is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan and it is mostly written in the Persian alphabet, a modified variant of the Arabic script. Its grammar is similar to that of many contemporary European languages, Persian gets its name from its origin at the capital of the Achaemenid Empire, Persis, hence the name Persian. A Persian-speaking person may be referred to as Persophone, there are approximately 110 million Persian speakers worldwide, with the language holding official status in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan. For centuries, Persian has also been a cultural language in other regions of Western Asia, Central Asia. It also exerted influence on Arabic, particularly Bahrani Arabic. Persian is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-European family, other Western Iranian languages are the Kurdish languages, Gilaki, Mazanderani, Talysh, and Balochi. Persian is classified as a member of the Southwestern subgroup within Western Iranian along with Lari, Kumzari, in Persian, the language is known by several names, Western Persian, Parsi or Farsi has been the name used by all native speakers until the 20th century. Since the latter decades of the 20th century, for reasons, in English. Tajiki is the variety of Persian spoken in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan by the Tajiks, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term Persian as a language name is first attested in English in the mid-16th century. Native Iranian Persian speakers call it Fārsi, Farsi is the Arabicized form of Pārsi, subsequent to Muslim conquest of Persia, due to a lack of the phoneme /p/ in Standard Arabic. The origin of the name Farsi and the place of origin of the language which is Fars Province is the Arabicized form of Pārs, in English, this language has historically been known as Persian, though Farsi has also gained some currency. Farsi is encountered in some literature as a name for the language. In modern English the word Farsi refers to the language while Parsi describes Zoroastrians, some Persian language scholars such as Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, and University of Arizona professor Kamran Talattof, have also rejected the usage of Farsi in their articles. The international language-encoding standard ISO 639-1 uses the code fa, as its system is mostly based on the local names. The more detailed standard ISO 639-3 uses the name Persian for the dialect continuum spoken across Iran and Afghanistan and this consists of the individual languages Dari and Iranian Persian. Currently, Voice of America, BBC World Service, Deutsche Welle, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty also includes a Tajik service and an Afghan service. This is also the case for the American Association of Teachers of Persian, The Centre for Promotion of Persian Language and Literature, Persian is an Iranian language belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages
3.
Shahnameh
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The Shahnameh, also transliterated as Shahnama, is a long epic poem written by the Persian poet Ferdowsi between c.977 and 1010 CE and is the national epic of Greater Iran. Consisting of some 50,000 distichs or couplets, the Shahnameh is the worlds longest epic poem written by a single poet. It tells mainly the mythical and to some extent the historical past of the Persian Empire from the creation of the world until the Islamic conquest of Persia in the 7th century. Modern Iran, Azerbaijan, Afghanistan and the region influenced by the Persian culture celebrate this national epic. The work is of importance in Persian culture, regarded as a literary masterpiece. Ferdowsi started writing the Shahnameh in 977 A. D and completed it on 8 March 1010, the Shahnameh is a monument of poetry and historiography, being mainly the poetical recast of what Ferdowsi, his contemporaries, and his predecessors regarded as the account of Irans ancient history. Many such accounts already existed in prose, an example being the Abu-Mansuri Shahnameh, a small portion of Ferdowsis work, in passages scattered throughout the Shahnameh, is entirely of his own conception. The Shahnameh is a poem of over 50,000 couplets. It is based mainly on a work of the same name compiled in Ferdowsis earlier life in his native Tus. The Xwadāynāmag contained historical information on the later Sassanid period, Ferdowsi added material continuing the story to the overthrow of the Sassanids by the Arabs in the middle of the 7th century. These verses, which deal with the rise of the prophet Zoroaster, were incorporated by Ferdowsi, with acknowledgment. The style of the Shahnameh shows characteristics of written and oral literature. Some claim that Ferdowsi also used Zoroastrian nasks, such as the now-lost Chihrdad, besides, the text is written in the late Middle Persian, which was the immediate ancestor of Modern Persian. According to one account of the sources, a Persian named Dehqan in the court of King Anushehrawan Dadgar had composed a book in prose form. After the fall of the Iranian Empire, Khoday Nameh came into the possession of King Yaqub Lais and then the Samani king Nuh ordered the poet Daqiqi to complete it, Ferdowsi obtained the book through a friend. The work is not precisely chronological, but there is a movement through time. Some of the characters live for hundreds of years but most have normal life spans, there are many shāhs who come and go, as well as heroes and villains, who also come and go. The only lasting images are those of Greater Persia itself, and of a succession of sunrises and sunsets, the work is divided into three successive parts, the mythical, heroic, and historical ages
4.
Greater Iran
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It roughly corresponds to the territory on the Iranian plateau and its bordering plains. It is also referred to as Greater Persia, while the Encyclopædia Iranica uses the term Iranian Cultural Continent. The term Iran is not limited to the state of Iran. The concept of Greater Iran has its source in the history of the Achaemenid Empire in Persis, the Treaty of Gulistan in 1813 resulted in Iran ceding Dagestan, Georgia, and most of Azerbaijan to Russia. After the Russo-Persian War, the Turkmanchey Treaty of 1828 ended centuries of Iranian control of its Caucasian provinces, in 1935, the endonym Iran was adopted as the official international name of Persia by its ruler Reza Shah. The name “Irān“, meaning “land of the Aryans”, is the New Persian continuation of the old genitive plural aryānām, the Avestan evidence is confirmed by Greek sources, Arianē is spoken of as being between Persia and the Indian subcontinent. However, this is a Greek pronunciation of the name Haroyum/Haraiva, a land listed separately from the homeland of the Aryans. While up until the end of the Parthian period in the 3rd century CE, the idea of “Irān“ had an ethnic, linguistic, the idea of an “Iranian“ empire or kingdom in a political sense is a purely Sasanian one. It was the result of a convergence of interests between the new dynasty and the Zoroastrian clergy, as we can deduce from the available evidence and this convergence gave rise to the idea of an Ērān-šahr “Kingdom of the Iranians, ” which was “ēr“. Richard Nelson Frye defines Greater Iran as including much of the Caucasus, Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan and Central Asia, with influences extending to China. According to Frye, Iran means all lands and peoples where Iranian languages were and are spoken, and this view, even though common among serious scholars, is almost certainly overstated. To the Ancient Greeks, Greater Iran ended at the Indus, according to J. P. Mallory and Douglas Q. Adams most of Western greater Iran spoke Southwestern Iranian languages in the Achaemenid era while the Eastern territory spoke Eastern Iranian languages related to Avestan. In the words of Richard Nelson Frye, Only in modern times did western colonial intervention, as Patrick Clawson states, ethnic nationalism is largely a nineteenth century phenomenon, even if it is fashionable to retroactively extend it. Greater Iran however has more of a cultural super-state, rather than a political one to begin with. A detailed list of these follows in this article. Greater Iran is called Iranzamin which means The Land of Iran, Iranzamin was in the mythical times opposed to the Turanzamin the Land of Turan, which was located in the upper part of Central Asia. In the pre-Islamic period, Iranians distinguished two main regions in the territory they ruled, one Iran and the other Aniran, by Iran they meant all the regions inhabited by ancient Iranian peoples, this region was more extensive in the past
5.
Persian miniature
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A Persian miniature is a small painting on paper, whether a book illustration or a separate work of art intended to be kept in an album of such works called a muraqqa. The techniques are comparable to the Western and Byzantine traditions of miniatures in illuminated manuscripts. The tradition continued, under some Western influence, after this, the Persian miniature was the dominant influence on other Islamic miniature traditions, principally the Ottoman miniature in Turkey, and the Mughal miniature in the Indian sub-continent. Persian art under Islam had never completely forbidden the human figure and this was partly because the miniature is a private form, kept in a book or album and only shown to those the owner chooses. It was therefore possible to be free than in wall paintings or other works seen by a wider audience. In Islamic art this is referred to as illumination, and manuscripts of the Quran, in later periods miniatures were increasingly created as single works to be included in albums called muraqqa, rather than illustrated books. This allowed non-royal collectors to afford a representative sample of works from different styles, the bright and pure colouring of the Persian miniature is one of its most striking features. Lighting is even, without shadows or chiaroscuro, walls and other surfaces are shown either frontally, or as at an angle of about 45 degrees, often giving the modern viewer the unintended impression that a building is hexagonal in plan. Buildings are often shown in complex views, mixing interior views through windows or cutaways with exterior views of parts of a facade. Costumes and architecture are always those of the time, many figures are often depicted, with those in the main scene normally rendered at the same size, and recession indicated by placing more distant figures higher up in the space. More important figures may be larger than those around them. The dress of figures is shown with great care, although artists understandably often avoid depicting the patterned cloth that many would have worn. Even when a scene in a palace is shown, the viewpoint often appears to be from a point some metres in the air. This is used in all the manuscripts for the court that constitute the most famous Persian manuscripts. The miniatures normally occupy a full page, later spreading across two pages to regain a square or horizontal landscape format. There are often panels of text or captions inside the picture area, the rest of the page is often decorated with dense designs of plants and animals in a muted grisaille, often gold and brown, text pages without miniatures often also have such borders. In later manuscripts, elements of the miniature begin to expand beyond the frame, another later development was the album miniature, conceived as a single picture rather than a book illustration, though such images may be accompanied by short lyric poems. The withdrawal of Shah Tahmasp I from commissioning illustrated books in the 1540s probably encouraged artists to transfer to these works for a wider circle of patrons
6.
Tabriz
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Tabriz is the most populated city in the Iranian Azerbaijan, one of the historical capitals of Iran, and the present capital of East Azerbaijan Province. Located in the Quru River valley between the ridge of the volcanic cones of the Sahand and Eynali mountains, Tabrizs elevation ranges between 1,350 and 1,600 metres above sea level. The valley opens up into a plain that slopes down to the eastern shores of Lake Urmia,60 kilometres to the west. With cold winters and temperate summers, the city is considered a summer resort, Tabriz is named Worlds Carpet and Crafts City, it is also appointed as the exemplary tourism city in 2018 by Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. With a population of 1.6 million, Tabriz is the biggest economic hub, the population consists mostly of Iranian Azerbaijanis and the most spoken language in the city is Azeri Turkish. Tabriz is a heavy industry hub for automobile, machine tools, refineries and petrochemical, textile. The city is famous for its handicrafts including hand-woven rugs and jewelry, local confectioneries, chocolates, dried nuts, and traditional food of Tabriz are recognized all around Iran as some of the best Iranian food. Tabriz is also a hub and a site for some of the most prestigious cultural institutes in the northwest of Iran. The city contains many historical monuments representing the transition of Iranian architecture in its long historical timelines. Most of the historical sites in the city belong to Ilkhanid, Safavid. From the early era, the city was pivotal in the development, movement. From the 19th century, it became the most important city in the country in numerous respects, as the closest Iranian hub to Europe, many aspects of the early modern modernisation in Iran started in Tabriz. During almost the entire Qajar period, it functioned as the seat for the prince as well. According to some sources, including Encyclopædia Britannica, the name Tabriz derives from tap-riz, in AD297, it became the capital of Tiridates III, king of Armenia. However, this story has an origin and no ancient source has recorded such event. This is based on accounts of Vardan, the Armenian historian in 13th century, the early history of Tabriz is not well-documented. The earliest inscription about Tabriz, referring to the city as Tarui or Tauris, is on the Assyrian King Sargon IIs epigraph in 714 BC, Tabriz has been chosen as the capital for some rulers commencing from Atropates era and his dynasty. A recent excavation at the site of the Iron Age museum, in the north of the Blue Mosque site, more likely the city has been destroyed multiple times either by natural disasters or by the invading armies
7.
Ismail I
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Ismail I, also known as Shah Ismail I was the founder of the Safavid dynasty, ruling from 1501 to 23 May 1524 as shah. Although many Iranian dynasties rose to power amidst this whole period and it also reasserted the Iranian identity in large parts of Greater Iran. One of his first actions, was the proclaimation of the Twelver sect of Shia Islam to be the religion of his newly-formed state. This extreme step, which had no principal in the history of Islamic states, was a rational one, Ismail was also a prolific poet who, under the pen name Khaṭāʾī contributed greatly to the literary development of the Azerbaijani language. He also contributed to Persian literature, though few of his Persian writings survive, Ismail was born to Martha and Shaykh Haydar on July 17,1487 in Ardabil. His father, Haydar, was the sheikh of the Safaviyya Sufi order, Ismail was the last in this line of hereditary Grand Masters of the order, prior to his ascent to a ruling dynasty. Ismail was a grandson of Emperor Alexios IV of Trebizond. His mother Martha, better known as Halima Begum, was the daughter of Uzun Hasan by his Pontic Greek wife Theodora Megale Komnene, Despina Khatun was the daughter of Emperor John IV of Trebizond. Ismail grew up bilingual, speaking Persian and Azerbaijani, not only did Ismail have Kurdish ancestors, but he also had ancestors from various other ethnic groups such as Azeri, the majority of scholars agree that his empire was an Iranian one. In 700/1301, Safi al-Din assumed the leadership of the Zahediyeh, the order was later known as the Safaviyya. One genealogy claimed that Sheikh Safi was a descendant of Ali. Ismail also proclaimed himself the Mahdi and a reincarnation of Ali, in 1494 the Aq Qoyunlu captured Ardabil, killing Ali Mirza Safavi, and forcing the 7-year old Ismail to go into hiding in Gilan, where he received education under the guidance of scholars. When Ismail reached the age of 12, he out of hiding. Ismails rise to power was made possible by the Turkoman tribes of Anatolia and Azerbaijan, Qizilbash forces passed over the Kura River in December 1500, and marched towards the Shirvanshahs state. They defeated the forces of the Shirvanshah Farrukh Yassar near Cabanı or at Gulistan, thus, Shirvan and its dependencies were now Ismails. After the conquest, Ismail had Alexander I of Kakheti send his son Demetre to Shirvan to negotiate a peace agreement. After eventually conquering Tabriz and Nakhchivan, Ismail broke the promise he had made to Constantine II, in July 1501, Ismail was enthroned as Shah of Azerbaijan, choosing Tabriz as his capital. He appointed his guardian and mentor Husayn Beg Shamlu as the vakil of the empire
8.
Safavid dynasty
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The Safavid dynasty was one of the most significant ruling dynasties of Iran, often considered the beginning of modern Iranian history. The Safavid shahs ruled over one of the so-called gunpowder empires, the Safavid dynasty had its origin in the Safaviyya Sufi order, which was established in the city of Ardabil in the Azerbaijan region. The Safavids have also left their mark down to the present era by spreading Shia Islam in Iran, as well as parts of the Caucasus, Anatolia. The Safavid Kings themselves claimed to be Seyyeds, family descendants of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, There seems now to be a consensus among scholars that the Safavid family hailed from Persian Kurdistan, and later moved to Azerbaijan, finally settling in the 11th century CE at Ardabil. Traditional pre-1501 Safavid manuscripts trace the lineage of the Safavids to the Kurdish dignitary, a massive migration of Oghuz Turks in the 11th and 12th centuries not only Turkified Azerbaijan but also Anatolia. The Azeri Turks are Shiʿites and were founders of the Safavid dynasty, by the time of the establishment of the Safavid empire, the members of the family were native Turkish-speaking and Turkicized, and some of the Shahs composed poems in their native Turkish language. Furthermore, the dynasty was from the very start thoroughly intermarried with both Pontic Greek as well as Georgian lines, Safavid history begins with the establishment of the Safaviyya by its eponymous founder Safi-ad-din Ardabili. In 700/1301, Safi al-Din assumed the leadership of the Zahediyeh, due to the great spiritual charisma of Safi al-Din, the order was later known as the Safaviyya. The Safavid order soon gained great influence in the city of Ardabil, after Safī al-Dīn, the leadership of the Safaviyya passed to Sadr al-Dīn Mūsā. The leadership of the order passed from Sadr ud-Dīn Mūsā to his son Khwādja Ali, when Shaykh Junayd, the son of Ibrāhim, assumed the leadership of the Safaviyya in 1447, the history of the Safavid movement was radically changed. Savory, Sheikh Junayd was not content with spiritual authority and he sought material power, Junayd sought refuge with the rival of Kara Koyunlu Jahan Shah, the Aq Qoyunlu Khan Uzun Hassan, and cemented his relationship by marrying Uzun Hassans sister, Khadija Begum. Junayd was killed during an incursion into the territories of the Shirvanshah and was succeeded by his son Haydar Safavi, Haydar married Martha Alamshah Begom, Uzun Hassans daughter, who gave birth to Ismail I, founder of the Safavid dynasty. Marthas mother Theodora—better known as Despina Khatun—was a Pontic Greek princess and she had been married to Uzun Hassan in exchange for protection of the Grand Komnenos from the Ottomans. After Uzun Hassans death, his son Yaqub felt threatened by the growing Safavid religious influence, Yaqub allied himself with the Shirvanshah and killed Haydar in 1488. By this time, the bulk of the Safaviyya were nomadic Oghuz Turkic-speaking clans from Asia Minor, the Qizilbash were warriors, spiritual followers of Haydar, and a source of the Safavid military and political power. After the death of Haydar, the Safaviyya gathered around his son Ali Mirza Safavi, according to official Safavid history, before passing away, Ali had designated his young brother Ismail as the spiritual leader of the Safaviyya. After the decline of the Timurid Empire, Persia was politically splintered, the demise of Tamerlanes political authority created a space in which several religious communities, particularly Shi’i ones, could come to the fore and gain prominence. Among these were a number of Sufi brotherhoods, the Hurufis, Nuqtawis, of these various movements, the Safavid Qizilbash was the most politically resilient, and due to its success Shah Isma’il I gained political prominence in 1501
9.
Suleiman the Magnificent
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Suleiman I, commonly known as Suleiman the Magnificent in the West and Kanuni in his realm, was the tenth and longest-reigning sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1520 to his death in 1566. Under his administration, the Ottoman state ruled over 15 to 25 million people, Suleiman became a prominent monarch of 16th-century Europe, presiding over the apex of the Ottoman Empires economic, military and political power. Suleiman personally led Ottoman armies in conquering the Christian strongholds of Belgrade and he annexed much of the Middle East in his conflict with the Safavids and large areas of North Africa as far west as Algeria. Under his rule, the Ottoman fleet dominated the seas from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea, at the helm of an expanding empire, Suleiman personally instituted major legislative changes relating to society, education, taxation and criminal law. His reforms, carried out in conjunction with the chief judicial official Ebussuud Efendi. He was a poet and goldsmith, he also became a great patron of culture, overseeing the Golden age of the Ottoman Empire in its artistic, literary. Breaking with Ottoman tradition, Suleiman married Hürrem Sultan, a woman from his harem, a Christian of Rusyn origin who converted to Islam, and their son Selim II succeeded Suleiman following his death in 1566 after 46 years of rule. Suleimans previous heirs apparent Mehmed and Mustafa had died, the former from smallpox and his other son Bayezid was executed in 1561 on Suleimans orders, along with his four sons, after a rebellion. Although scholars no longer believe that the empire declined after his death, in the decades after Suleiman, the empire began to experience significant political, institutional, and economic changes, in a period often referred to as the Transformation of the Ottoman Empire. Suleiman the Magnificent, as he was known in the West, was also called Suleiman the First and it is unclear when exactly the term Kanunî first came to be used as an epithet for Suleiman. It is entirely absent from sixteenth and seventeenth-century Ottoman sources, Suleiman was born in Trabzon along the east coast of the Black Sea to Şehzade Selim, probably on 6 November 1494, although this date is not known with absolute certainty. His mother was Hafsa Sultan, a convert to Islam of unknown origins, at the age of seven, Suleiman was sent to study science, history, literature, theology and military tactics in the schools of the imperial Topkapı Palace in Constantinople. As a young man, he befriended Pargalı Ibrahim, a slave who became one of his most trusted advisers. From the age of seventeen, he was appointed as the governor of first Kaffa, then Manisa, upon the death of his father, Selim I, Suleiman entered Constantinople and ascended to the throne as the tenth Ottoman Sultan. Facial hair is evident but only barely, the sultan appears friendly and in good humor. Rumor has it that Suleiman is aptly named, enjoys reading, is knowledgeable, some historians claim that in his youth Suleiman had an admiration for Alexander the Great. Upon succeeding his father, Suleiman began a series of military conquests, Suleiman encircled Belgrade and began a series of heavy bombardments from an island in the Danube. Belgrade, with a garrison of only 700 men, and receiving no aid from Hungary, the fall of Christendoms major strongholds spread fear across Europe
10.
Ottoman Empire
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After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror, at the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries. With Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, while the empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society, however, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of their European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian Empires. While the Empire was able to hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent. Starting before World War I, but growing increasingly common and violent during it, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks. The word Ottoman is an anglicisation of the name of Osman I. Osmans name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān, in Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye, or alternatively ʿOsmānlı Devleti. In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti, the Turkish word for Ottoman originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century, and subsequently came to be used to refer to the empires military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term Turk was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population, the term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish-speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond. In Western Europe, the two names Ottoman Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favored both in formal and informal situations and this dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–23, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. Most scholarly historians avoid the terms Turkey, Turks, and Turkish when referring to the Ottomans, as the power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum declined in the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these beyliks, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish tribal leader Osman, osmans early followers consisted both of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, many but not all converts to Islam. Osman extended the control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River and it is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, due to the scarcity of the sources which survive from this period. One school of thought which was popular during the twentieth century argued that the Ottomans achieved success by rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam, in the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. Osmans son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326 and this conquest meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387, the Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe
11.
Herat
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Herat is the third-largest city of Afghanistan. It has a population of about 436,300, and serves as the capital of Herat Province and it is linked with Kandahar and Mazar-e-Sharif via highway 1 or the ring road. It is further linked to the city of Mashhad in neighboring Iran through the town of Islam Qala. Herat dates back to the Avestan times and was known for its wine. The city has a number of sites, including the Herat Citadel. During the Middle Ages Herat became one of the important cities of Khorasan and it has been governed by various Afghan rulers since the early 18th century. In 1717, the city was invaded by the Hotaki forces until they were expelled by the Afsharids in 1736, after Nader Shahs death and Ahmad Shah Durranis rise to power in 1747, Herat became part of Afghanistan. It witnessed some political disturbances and military invasions during the half of the 19th century. Herat suffered from destruction during the Soviet war in the 1980s. Herat lies on the ancient trade routes of the Middle East, Central, the roads from Herat to Iran, Turkmenistan, and other parts of Afghanistan are still strategically important. As the gateway to Iran, it collects high amount of revenue for Afghanistan. The city has an international airport, Herat is a regional hub in western Afghanistan in close proximity to Iran and Turkmenistan. The city has high residential density clustered around the core of the city, however, vacant plots account for a higher percentage of the city than residential land use and agricultural is the largest percentage of total land use. Herat dates back to ancient times, but its exact age remains unknown, during the period of the Achaemenid Empire, the surrounding district was known as Hariva, and in classical sources the region was correspondingly known as Aria. In the Zoroastrian Avesta, the district is mentioned as Haroiva, the name of the district and its main town is derived from that of the chief river of the region, the Herey River, which traverses the district and passes some 5 km south of modern Herāt. Herey is mentioned in Sanskrit as yellow or golden color equivalent to Persian Zard meaning Gold, the naming of a region and its principal town after the main river is a common feature in this part of the world—compare the adjoining districts/rivers/towns of Arachosia and Bactria. The district Aria of the Achaemenid Empire is mentioned in the lists that are included in various royal inscriptions, for instance. Representatives from the district are depicted in reliefs, e. g. at the royal Achaemenid tombs of Naqsh-e Rustam and they are wearing Scythian-style dress and a twisted Bashlyk that covers their head, chin and neck
12.
Tahmasp I
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Tahmasp I was an influential Shah of Iran, who enjoyed the longest reign of any member of the Safavid dynasty. He was the son and successor of Ismail I and he came to the throne aged ten in 1524 and came under the control of the Qizilbash who formed the backbone of the Safavid Empire. The Qizilbash leaders fought among themselves for the right to be regents over Tahmasp, one of his most notable successors, the greatest Safavid emperor, Abbas I would fully implement and finalize this policy and the creation of this new layer in Iranian society. Tahmasps reign was marked by threats, primarily from the Safavids arch rival, the Ottomans. In 1555, however, he regularized relations with the Ottoman Empire through the Peace of Amasya, the frontier thus established ran across the mountains dividing eastern and western Georgia, through Armenia, and via the western slopes of the Zagros down to the Persian Gulf. The Ottomans, further, gave permission for Persian pilgrims to go to the places of Mecca. This peace lasted for 30 years, until it was broken in the time of Shah Mohammed Khodabanda, Tahmasp was the son of Shah Ismail I and Shah-Begi Khanum of the Turcoman Mawsillu tribe. He was only 10 years old when he succeeded his father Shah Ismail, too young to rule in his own right, Tahmasp came under the control of the Qizilbash. Some of the tribes recognised a Qizilbash leader, Div Sultan Rumlu, as regent to the shah, Div Sultan emerged victorious but his ally, Chuha Sultan Takkalu, turned against him and urged the shah to get rid of him. On 5 July 1527 as Div Sultan arrived for a meeting of the government, when it failed to kill him, the shahs supporters finished him off. Irans enemies, the Uzbeks, had taken advantage of the war to invade the north-eastern province of Khorasan. In 1528 Chuha Sultan and the shah marched with their army to control of the region. Although they defeated the Uzbeks in a battle near Jam, Tahmasp was disgusted at the cowardice Chuha Sultan had displayed during the combat, finally, in 1530/1, a quarrel broke out between members of the Takkalu and Shamlu Qizilbash factions and the Shamlus succeeded in killing Chuha Sultan. The Takkalus regained the advantage and some of them tried to kidnap the shah. Tahmasp lost patience and ordered a massacre of the Takkalu tribe. They never regained their influence in Iran, the leader of the Shamlu faction, Husayn Khan, now assumed the regency but, in 1533, Tahmasp suspected Husayn Khan was plotting to overthrow him and had him put to death. Tahmasb was now old enough and confident enough to rule in his own right, Tahmasp also responded by expressing his friendship to the Emperor. About the same time, envoys were sent to Iran by King Ferdinand, in the person of Pietro da Negro and Simon de Lillis
13.
Selim II
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Selim II, also known as Selim the Sot and as Sarı Selim, was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1566 until his death in 1574. He was a son of Suleiman the Magnificent and Haseki Hürrem Sultan, Selim was born in Constantinople, on 28 May 1524, during the reign of his father Suleiman the Magnificent. His mother was Hürrem Sultan, a slave and concubine who was born an Orthodox priests daughter, Selim had two elder brothers, Mehmed and Abdullah, one elder sister Mihrimah, and two younger brothers, Bayezid and Cihangir. He also had half-siblings including Mustafa, and Raziye, in 1545, at Konya, Selim married Nurbanu Sultan, whose background is disputed. It is said that she was originally named Cecelia Venier Baffo, or Rachel and she was the mother of Murad III, Selims successor. Hubbi Hatun, a poet of the sixteenth century, was a lady-in-waiting to him. After gaining the throne after palace intrigue and fraternal dispute, he succeeded as sultan on 7 September 1566, against Russia, Selim was less fortunate, the first encounter between the Ottoman Empire and her future northern rival gave presage of disaster to come. Early in 1570 the ambassadors of Ivan IV of Russia concluded at Constantinople a treaty which restored friendly relations between the Sultan and the Tsar, the Empires shattered fleets were soon restored and the Ottomans maintained control of the Mediterranean. In August 1574, months before Selims death, the Ottomans regained control of Tunis from Spain, during his reign, his elder sister Mihrimah Sultan acted as his Valide Sultan, because his mother Hürrem Sultan died before his reign began. However, Sultan Selim was loved by the people because of his character and his sensitive attitude. He is known for giving back to Mahidevran Gülbahar her status and her wealth and he also built the tomb of his eldest brother, Şehzade Mustafa, who was executed in 1553. Selims first and only wife, Nurbanu Sultan, was a Venetian who was the mother of his successor Murad III, as a Haseki Sultan she received 1,000 aspers a day, while lower-ranking concubines who were the mothers of princes received 40 aspers a day. Selim bestowed upon Nurbanu 110,000 ducats as a dowry, according to Leslie Peirce, Selim had four other concubines, each one the mother of a single prince. Consorts Nurbanu Sultan, mother of Murad III, Mother of Şehzade Mehmed, Mother of Şehzade Mustafa, Mother of Şehzade Suleiman, in a spate of petitions to the Sultan the two defended their respective positions. Koca Sinan proved the stronger and Lala Mustafa was dismissed from command of the Yemen campaign, to mark his continuing favour, however, Selim created for him the position of sixth vezir of the governing council of the empire. --> Finkel, Caroline, Osmans Dream, Basic Books,2005 and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Selim. Ancestry of Sultana Nur-Banu John Julius Norwich, A History of Venice, ISBN 0-679-72197-5 Media related to Selim II at Wikimedia Commons Selim II Tomb
14.
Istanbul
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Istanbul, historically known as Constantinople and Byzantium, is the most populous city in Turkey and the countrys economic, cultural, and historic center. Istanbul is a city in Eurasia, straddling the Bosphorus strait between the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea. Its commercial and historical center lies on the European side and about a third of its population lives on the Asian side, the city is the administrative center of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality, both hosting a population of around 14.7 million residents. Istanbul is one of the worlds most populous cities and ranks as the worlds 7th-largest city proper, founded under the name of Byzantion on the Sarayburnu promontory around 660 BCE, the city developed to become one of the most significant in history. After its reestablishment as Constantinople in 330 CE, it served as a capital for almost 16 centuries, during the Roman and Byzantine, the Latin. Overlooked for the new capital Ankara during the period, the city has since regained much of its prominence. The population of the city has increased tenfold since the 1950s, as migrants from across Anatolia have moved in, arts, music, film, and cultural festivals were established at the end of the 20th century and continue to be hosted by the city today. Infrastructure improvements have produced a complex transportation network, considered a global city, Istanbul has one of the fastest-growing metropolitan economies in the world. It hosts the headquarters of many Turkish companies and media outlets and accounts for more than a quarter of the gross domestic product. Hoping to capitalize on its revitalization and rapid expansion, Istanbul has bid for the Summer Olympics five times in twenty years, the first known name of the city is Byzantium, the name given to it at its foundation by Megarean colonists around 660 BCE. The name is thought to be derived from a personal name, ancient Greek tradition refers to a legendary king of that name as the leader of the Greek colonists. Modern scholars have hypothesized that the name of Byzas was of local Thracian or Illyrian origin. He also attempted to promote the name Nova Roma and its Greek version Νέα Ῥώμη Nea Romē, the use of Constantinople to refer to the city during the Ottoman period is now considered politically incorrect, even if not historically inaccurate, by Turks. By the 19th century, the city had acquired other names used by foreigners or Turks. Europeans used Constantinople to refer to the whole of the city, pera was used to describe the area between the Golden Horn and the Bosphorus, but Turks also used the name Beyoğlu. The name İstanbul is commonly held to derive from the Medieval Greek phrase εἰς τὴν Πόλιν and this reflected its status as the only major city in the vicinity. The importance of Constantinople in the Ottoman world was reflected by its Ottoman name Der Saadet meaning the gate to Prosperity in Ottoman. An alternative view is that the name evolved directly from the name Constantinople, with the first, a Turkish folk etymology traces the name to Islam bol plenty of Islam because the city was called Islambol or Islambul as the capital of the Islamic Ottoman Empire
15.
Edmond James de Rothschild
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Baron Edmond Benjamin James de Rothschild was a French member of the Rothschild banking family. A strong supporter of Zionism, his large donations lent significant support to the movement during its early years and he grew up in the world of the Second Republic and the Second Empire and was a soldier Garde Mobile in the first Franco-Prussian War. Edmond de Rothschild inherited Château Rothschild, Boulogne-Billancourt and owned the Château Rothschild dArmainvilliers in Gretz-Armainvilliers in the Seine-et-Marne département, included in this gift were more than one hundred engravings and drawings by Rembrandt. A portion of his art collection was bequeathed to his son James A. de Rothschild and is now part of the National Trust collection at Waddesdon Manor, however, in 1882 Edmond cut back on his purchases of art and began to buy land in Southern Syria. He became a proponent of the Zionist movement, financing the first site at Rishon LeZion. In his goal for the establishment of a Jewish homeland, he promoted industrialization, in 1924, he established the Palestine Jewish Colonization Association, which acquired more than 125,000 acres of land and set up business ventures. Edmond de Rothschild also played a role in Israels wine industry. Under the supervision of his administrators in Ottoman Palestine, farm colonies and vineyards were established and it is estimated that Rothschild spent over $50 million in supporting the settlements and backed research in electricity by engineers and financed development of an electric generating station. Jews and Arabs lived amicably on Rothschilds land, with no Arab grievances, according to historian Albert M. Hyamson, Rothschild recognised that the overriding interest of the Jews of Palestine was the confidence and the friendship of their Arab neighbours. The interests of the Arab cultivators of the land he bought were never overlooked and he suggested in 1931 to Judah Magnes that We must hold them down with a strong hand. In a 1934 letter to the League of Nations, Edmond de Rothschild stated that the struggle to put an end to the Wandering Jew, could not have as its result, in 1934, Baron de Rothschild died at Château Rothschild, Boulogne-Billancourt. His wife died a year later on 29 December 1935 and they were interred in Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris until April 1954 when their remains were transported to Israel aboard a naval frigate. At the port of Haifa, the ship was met with sirens, for his Jewish philanthropy Baron Edmond became known as HaNadiv HaYadua, and in his memory his son bequeathed the funds to construct the building for the Knesset. Israels 1982/5742 Independence Day coin is dedicated to the memory of Edmond de Rothschild, from 1982 until 1986, the Bank of Israel used his portrait on the 500 Israeli sheqel note. Rothschild Boulevard in Tel Aviv is named after him, as well as various localities throughout Israel which he assisted in founding, Rishon LeZion, the city which he helped to found named one of the central streets Rothschild Street, and in 1996 Rothschild Mall was built. Also named after him is the Parc Edmond de Rothschild in Boulogne-Billancourt, Edmond de Rothschild, lhomme qui racheta la terre sainte. Aharonson, Ran. Rothschild and Early Jewish Colonization in Palestine, two Rothschilds and the Land of Israel
16.
Metropolitan Museum of Art
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The Metropolitan Museum of Art, colloquially the Met, is located in New York City and is the largest art museum in the United States, and is among the most visited art museums in the world. Its permanent collection contains two million works, divided among seventeen curatorial departments. The main building, on the edge of Central Park along Manhattans Museum Mile, is by area one of the worlds largest art galleries. A much smaller second location, The Cloisters at Fort Tryon Park in Upper Manhattan, contains a collection of art, architecture. On March 18,2016, the museum opened the Met Breuer museum at Madison Avenue in the Upper East Side, it extends the museums modern, the Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, Indian, and Islamic art. The museum is home to collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, as well as antique weapons. Several notable interiors, ranging from first-century Rome through modern American design, are installed in its galleries, the Metropolitan Museum of Art was founded in 1870. The founders included businessmen and financiers, as well as leading artists and thinkers of the day and it opened on February 20,1872, and was originally located at 681 Fifth Avenue. The Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, the museum is also home to encyclopedic collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, and antique weapons and armor from around the world. A number of interiors, ranging from 1st century Rome through modern American design, are permanently installed in the Mets galleries. In addition to its permanent exhibitions, the Met organizes and hosts traveling shows throughout the year. The director of the museum is Thomas P. Campbell, a long-time curator and it was announced on February 28th,2017 that Campbell will be stepping down as the Mets director and CEO, effective June. On March 1st,2017 the BBC reported that Daniel Weiss shall be the acting CEO until a replacement is found, Beginning in the late 19th century, the Met started to acquire ancient art and artifacts from the Near East. From a few tablets and seals, the Mets collection of Near Eastern art has grown to more than 7,000 pieces. The highlights of the include a set of monumental stone lamassu, or guardian figures. The Mets Department of Arms and Armor is one of the museums most popular collections. Among the collections 14,000 objects are many pieces made for and used by kings and princes, including armor belonging to Henry VIII of England, Henry II of France, Rockefeller donated his more than 3, 000-piece collection to the museum. The Mets Asian department holds a collection of Asian art, of more than 35,000 pieces, the collection dates back almost to the founding of the museum, many of the philanthropists who made the earliest gifts to the museum included Asian art in their collections
17.
National Museum of Iran
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The National Museum of Iran is located in Tehran, Iran. It is an institution formed of two complexes, including the Museum of Ancient Iran which was inaugurated in 1937, and the Museum of the Islamic Era which was inaugurated in 1972. It hosts historical monuments dating back through preserved ancient and medieval Iranian antiquities, including vessels, metal objects, textile remains. There are a number of departments in the museum, including Paleolithic and Osteological departments. The brick building of the Museum of Ancient Iran was designed by the French architect Andre Godard in the early 20th century and it was influenced by Sassanid vaults, particularly the Eyvān-e-Kasrā at Ctesiphon. With an area of approximately 11000 square meters, its construction began in 1935 and was completed two years by Abbas Ali Memar and Morad Tabrizi. The complex was inaugurated in 1937. The later constructed Museum of the Islamic Era was built with white travertine on the grounds of the Museum of Ancient Iran. It has gone quite a few hasty interior changes, and was still being remodeled when the 1979 Revolution swept the country. This was followed by modern arts, and the repeated gutting and remodeling of the interior. The older building consists of three halls, the Museum of the Islamic Era consists of three floors. It contains various pieces of pottery, textiles, texts, artworks, astrolabes, plans are underway for the construction of another building, as the current ones lack the capacity and standards for preserving all of the excavated treasures. The collection amounts to 300,000 artifacts, the oldest artifacts in the museum are from Kashafrud, Darband and Ganj Par, sites that date back to the Lower Paleolithic period. Mousterian stone tools made by Neanderthals are also on display in the first hall of the Museum of Ancient Iran, the most important Upper Paleolithic tools are from the Yafteh Cave, dating back about 30, 000-35,000 years. There are also 9,000 year-old human and animal figurines from Sarab Hill in Kermanshah Province, the temporary exhibition galleries are featured two or three times annually, and they are usually run for about one to two months. One of the most successful exhibitions, titled Evidence for Two Hundred Thousand Years of Human-Animal Bonds in Iran, ran from August to October 2014. The exhibition was mainly about the relation and coexistence of past human societies and various species in Iran
18.
Mir Sayyid Ali
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Mir Sayyid Ali was a Persian illustrator and painter of miniatures. Born in Tabriz, Mir Seyyed Ali was the son of artist Mir Musavvir, historian and chronicler Qazi Ahmed said that the son was more talented than his father, but the impact of Mir Musavvir did influence his work. Modern research suggests that Mir Sayyid Ali took part in the illustration of the famous Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp created in 1525–48 for Shah Tahmasp I, two miniatures in it are attributed to Seyed Alis. Of the 14 miniatures his brush is credited with four, among them Layla and Majnun, in the 1540s, the Shah Tahmasp became increasingly orthodox and grew to reject artistic representations of living creatures. He lost interest in the former book miniature, and eventually issued an edict banning secular images throughout the Persian Empire, artists of his court, including Mir Sayyid Ali, dispersed in all directions. Most took refuge at the court of Shah Tahmasps nephew, Sultan Ibrahim Mirza, followed by countless feasts on which Tahmasp persuaded Sunni Humayun to go to the Shiite faith. These artists were Abd al-Samad and Mir Musavvir, however, for some reason instead of Mir Musavvir, the service went to his son Mir Sayyid Ali. Humayun did not immediately regain his possessions in the Indian subcontinent, while this struggle took place, it was in a Kabul court. Mir Sayyid Ali arrived there in 1549, lived and worked there for as long as the summer of 1555 Humayuns army defeated in a battle the troops of Sikandar Shah, the Delhi gate was open, and his father Humayun regained the throne. The period of the life in Kabul today carries very few works. However, the Portrait of a young writer belongs to the best Persian portrait miniatures, experts from the Los Angeles Museum believe that this may be a self-portrait of the artist. The emperor Humayun was succeeded by Akbar, who was a more passionate lover of portrait miniatures than his father. Mir Sayyid Ali, along with Abd al-Samad from childhood had taught the art of drawing to the future sultan, and between established warm relations. The order, which was implemented from 1562 to 1577, was made by Emperor Akbar, the book was divided into fourteen volumes, each of which contained one hundred illustrations, in total -1,400 miniatures. About 140 miniatures of the work have survived, which are scattered in various museums, one of the most remarkable works in this manuscript is a miniature Elijah the prophet rescues drowning Nur ad-Dahr, which is credited with a hand Mir Sayyid Ali. Along with the portrait of his father, Mir Musavvir, Mir Seyyed Ali remained faithful to the end of the Persian tradition and sultan Akbar, where he worked for an international group of artists who advocated the principles of Persian painting. In his works, one can see the influence of his fathers and his work earned him numerous awards and praise. Vizier of Emperor Akbar I, Abul-Fazl, in his History of Akbar speaks of him the most enthusiastic manner
19.
Aqa Mirak
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Aqa Mirak was a Persian illustrator and painter. Aqa Mirak was a painter, purveyor and companion to the Safavid shah Tahmasp I and was known in contemporary circles. Initially living in Tabriz, he traveled and lived in Mashhad between 1555 and 1565, and Qazvin from 1565 until his death. Qazi Ahmad wrote that Aqa Mirak had no peer in artistic design and was a painter, very clever, enamoured of his art, a bon vivant, an intimate. A manuscript of the Khamsa done between 1539 and 1543 has four illustrations bearing attributions to Aqa Mirak. Dickson and Welch have attributed other paintings to Aqa Mirak in the copy of the Shahnama made for Tahmasp. Works ascribed to a period in the 1520s have tautly composed landscapes inhabited by a few large-scale figures. A transitional period in the early 1530s was followed by works produced from the late 1530s to c. 1555, in which the compositions are complex and the coloring more subtle. In the view of Dickson and Welch, at the end of his life the artist returned to his style in two paintings for Ibrahim Mirzas copy of Jamis Haft Awrang produced between 1556 and 1565
20.
Dust Muhammad
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Dust Muhammad was a Persian painter of miniatures, calligrapher and art historian, active from about 1510 to 1564, who later worked in India. Dust Muhammad was born in Herat in the late 15th century and he was a disciple of Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād, working with teachers in Herat. Prince Bahram Mirza first spotted his talent and invited him to work in his studio, by early 1520 Doust Muhammad with Behzad moved from Herat to Tabriz. After the death of his teacher, the painter Behzad, he left the Tahmasp court, according to some researchers, by nature Doust Muhammad was a nomad and he could no longer sit in the same spot. In the late 1530s he worked at the court of the ruler of Kabul, Kamran Mirza, in 1555, and at the invitation of the Emperor, he traveled to India. By about 1550 he created a miniature on a sheet, created by order of the Mughal emperor - The Emperor Humayun. The interior is styled Turkmen Sultan Muhammad, a lot of it taking the form of grotesque mountain elephant, the emperor Humayun sitting on some stone likeness of the throne, and in the distance under the trees playing three boys, one of whom the future Emperor Akbar I. The exact date of his death is unknown, Dust Muhammad learned the art of calligraphy from a master Shadishaha Qasim, a student of the famous calligrapher of Herat Sultan Ali Mashhadi. From the pen of Dust Muhammad came out excellent artistic calligraphic manuscripts, some of them are presented in the Russian National Library in St. Petersburg. For a long time Doust Muhammad was the head of the Safavid royal court of Prince Bahram Mirza, a patron of the arts. Dust Muhammad also worked for his brother Bahram Mirza - Shah Tahmasp I, Dust Muhammad in the first chapter is known as the author of an essay on Persian painting. He wrote a treatise on calligraphers and artists and this work is extant in the muraqqa of calligraphic designs and miniatures, known as the Album of Bahram Mirza, which is stored in the library of the Topkapı Palace Museum in Istanbul. The first nineteen sheets album as a preface is a treatise Dust Muhammad, written by beautiful handwriting, in addition to the Treaty on the album are three more works Dust Muhammad - two miniatures with the caption Master Dust and calligraphic passage, signed Douste-Muhammad Musavvir. Despite the confusion of mythical and historical names, the history of painting the picture painted by Dust Muhammad, is of considerable interest. His writing provides a clear allusion to the existence of a religious ban images of living beings, in his treatise Dust Muhammad does not touch any problems the art of painting, nor any of its equipment. The value of work lies in the extensive knowledge of the life. Persian Painting Five Royal Manuscripts of the Sixteenth Century, - Cambridge, Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University. Dickson M. B. / Welch S. C
21.
Abd al-Samad
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He is referred to as of Shiraz, in modern Iran. Samads career under the Mughals, from about 1550 to 1595, is well documented. From about 1572 he headed the imperial workshop of the Emperor Akbar, Mirza Alis name first appears in a famous manuscript of the Khamsa of Nizami, now British Library Oriental 2265, which is dated March 1543. According to Stuart Cary Welch, there are three other mentions of him in contemporary records. These say that he was the son of another leading artist of the workshop, Sultan Muhammed, and so grew up in the milieu of the court atelier. Kamal of Tabriz is recorded as a pupil of his,2265 are among the main sources for attributing Persian miniatures of the period. Six painters are named, and although the inscriptions are additions rather than signatures, Mirza Alis name is inscribed on two miniatures, both courtyard scenes, and his fathers on one, to which Welch adds two more un-inscribed miniatures. Blair finds they display the artists increasing spirituality and mannerism, according to Mughal records, Samad became a master in the court workshop of Shah Tahmasp I of Persia. He was also a calligrapher, something not mentioned in connection with Mirza Ali, no works are generally attributed to him before about 1544–45, although Welch attributes a miniature in the much earlier Shah Tahmasp Shahnameh to him. Brend finds this painting unsatisfactory and the work of an inexperienced painter, Samad first met the exiled Mughal emperor Humayun in Tabriz in 1544. Samad probably worked on the large painting of the Princes of the House of Timur. In 1552 a group of miniatures including work by the two Persians was included in a diplomatic gift to the ruler of Kashgar, as Humayun worked to assemble support to regain his throne. Some of his works from this period are in a muraqqa or album in the library of the Golestan Palace in Tehran, still showing a thoroughly Safavid style. One of these miniatures depicts Akbar giving a miniature painting to his father Humayun, and includes Samads name on a portfolio and they were retained by the fourteen-year-old Akbar who within a few years set about greatly expanding his court workshop. Both artists probably worked on the Tutinama, the first major commission completed in the new reign, but Mir Sayyid Ali was initially given the supervision of Akbars huge commission of the 1400 large illustrations for the Hamzanama, which was to be fourteen years in the making. In about 1572 Samad replaced Mir Sayyid Ali as head of the imperial workshop, at this point the commission was seven years old and only four of the volumes were complete. Under Samads direction the remaining ten volumes were completed in seven years. It is uncertain whether Samad painted any of them himself, and it is likely that the increased central control that became evident by the Lahore period can be attributed to this artist
22.
Timurid Empire
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The empire was founded by Timur, a warlord of Turco-Mongol lineage who established the empire between 1370 and his death in 1405. He envisioned himself as the restorer of the Mongol Empire of Genghis Khan. In the 16th century, Babur, a Timurid prince from Ferghana, invaded Kabulistan and established a kingdom there. Timur conquered large parts of Central Asia, primarily Transoxiana and Khorasan, from 1363 onwards with various alliances, acting officially in the name of Suurgatmish, the Chagatai khan, he subjugated Transoxania and Khwarazm in the years that followed. The western Chagatai khans were continually dominated by Timurid princes in the 15th and 16th centuries, Timur began a campaign westwards in 1380, invading the various successor states of the Ilkhanate. By 1389, he had removed the Kartids from Herat and advanced into mainland Persia where he enjoyed many successes and this included the capture of Isfahan in 1387, the removal of the Muzaffarids from Shiraz in 1393, and the expulsion of the Jalayirids from Baghdad. In 1394–95, he triumphed over the Golden Horde, following his campaign in Georgia. Tokhtamysh, the khan of the Golden Horde, was a rival to Timur in the region. He also subjugated Multan and Dipalpur in modern-day Pakistan in 1398, Timur gave the north Indian territories to a non-family member, Khizr Khan, whose Sayyid dynasty replaced the defeated Tughlaq dynasty of the Sultanate of Delhi. Delhi became a vassal of the Timurids but obtained independence in the following the death of Timur. In 1400–1401 he conquered Aleppo, Damascus and eastern Anatolia, in 1401 he destroyed Baghdad and this made Timur the most preeminent Muslim ruler of the time, as the Ottoman Empire plunged into civil war. Meanwhile, he transformed Samarkand into a capital and seat of his realm. Timur appointed his sons and grandsons to the governorships of the different parts of his empire. After his death in 1405, the family fell into disputes and civil wars. Due to the fact that the Persian cities were desolated by wars, the cost of Timurs conquests amount to the deaths of possibly 17 million people. Shahrukh Mirza, fourth ruler of the Timurids, dealt with Kara Koyunlu, but, Jahan Shah drove the Timurids to eastern Iran after 1447 and also briefly occupied Herat in 1458. After the death of Jahan Shah, Uzun Hasan, bey of the Ak Koyunlu, by 1500, the divided and wartorn Timurid Empire had lost control of most of its territory, and in the following years was effectively pushed back on all fronts. Persia, the Caucasus, Mesopotamia, and Eastern Anatolia fell quickly to the Shiite Safavid dynasty, secured by Shah Ismail I in the following decade
23.
Turkmens
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The Turkmens are a Turkic people located primarily in Central Asia, in the state of Turkmenistan, as well as in Iran, Afghanistan, North Caucasus, and northern Pakistan. They speak the Turkmen language, which is classified as a part of the Eastern Oghuz branch of the Turkic languages, examples of other Oghuz languages are Turkish, Azerbaijani, Qashqai, Gagauz, Khorasani, and Salar. Originally, all Turkic tribes that were not part of the Turkic dynastic mythological system were designated Turkmens, only later did this word come to refer to a specific ethnonym. The etymology of the term derives from Türk plus the Sogdian affix of similarity -myn, -men, a prominent Turkic scholar, Mahmud Kashgari, also mentions the etymology Türk manand. The language and ethnicity of the Turkmen were much influenced by their migration to the west, Kashgari calls the Karluks Turkmen as well, but the first time the etymology Turkmen was used was by Makdisi in the second half of the 10th century AD. Like Kashgari, he wrote that the Karluks and Oghuz Turks were called Turkmen, some modern scholars have proposed that the element -man/-men acts as an intensifier, and have translated the word as pure Turk or most Turk-like of the Turks. During the Ottoman period these nomads were known by the names of Türkmen and these names were generally used to describe their nomadic way of life, rather than their ethnic origins. However, these terms were used interchangeably by foreigners. At the same time, various other exonym words were used for these nomads, such as Konar-göçer, Göçebe, Göçer-yörük, Göçerler, the most common one among these was Konar-göçer – nomadic Turcoman Turks. All of these words are found in Ottoman archival documents and carry only the meaning of nomad, Oghuz tribes had moved westward from the Altay mountains in the 7th century AD, through the Siberian steppes, and settled in this region. They also penetrated as far west as the Volga basin and the Balkans and these early Turkmens are believed to have mixed with native Sogdian peoples and lived as pastoral nomads until the Russian conquest of the 19th century. Signs of advanced settlements have been found throughout Turkmenistan including the Djeitun settlement where neolithic buildings have been excavated and dated to the 7th millennium BCE, by 2000 BCE, various Indo-European peoples began to settle throughout the region, as indicated by the finds at the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex. Notable early tribes included the nomadic Dahae, Massagetae and Scythians, the Parni, a Dahae tribe came to dominate the region, and established the Parthian Empire, which also later fractured as a result of invasions from the north. Ephthalites, Huns, and Göktürks came in a parade of invasions. Finally, the Sassanid Empire based in Persia ruled the area prior to the coming of the Muslim Arabs during the Umayyad Caliphate by 716 CE, the majority of the inhabitants were converted to Islam as the region grew in prominence. Next came the Oghuz Turks, who imparted their language upon the local population, a tribe of the Oghuz, the Seljuks, established a Turko-Iranian culture that culminated in the Khwarezmid Empire by the 12th century. Mongol hordes led by Genghis Khan conquered the area between 1219 and 1221 and devastated many of the cities led to a rapid decline of the remaining Iranian urban population. The Turkmen largely survived the Mongol period due to their lifestyle and became traders along the Caspian
24.
Kara Koyunlu
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The Kara Koyunlu Turkomans at one point established their capital in Herat in eastern Iran. They were vassals of the Jalairid Sultanate in Baghdad and Tabriz from about 1375, however, they rebelled against the Jalairids, and secured their independence from the dynasty with the conquest of Tabriz by Qara Yusuf. In 1400, Timur defeated the Kara Koyunlu, and Qara Yusuf fled to Egypt and he gathered an army and by 1406 had taken back Tabriz. In 1410, the Kara Koyunlu captured Baghdad, the installation of a subsidiary Black Sheep line there hastened the downfall of the Jalairids they had once served. Jahan Shah made peace with the Timurid Shahrukh Mirza, however, when Shahrukh Mirza died in 1447, the Black Sheep Turkomans annexed portions of Iraq and the eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula as well as Timurid-controlled western Iran. Though much territory was gained during his rule, Jahān Shāhs reign was troubled by his rebellious sons and the almost autonomous rulers of Baghdad, by 1468, at their height under Uzun Hassan, Aq Qoyunlu defeated the Qara Qoyunlu and conquered Iraq, Azerbaijan, and western Iran. Armenia fell under the control of the Kara Koyunlu in 1410, the principal Armenian sources available in this period come from the historian Tovma Metsopetsi and several colophons to contemporary manuscripts. According to Tovma, although the Kara Koyunlu levied heavy taxes against the Armenians and this peaceful period was, however, shattered with the rise of Qara Iskander, who reportedly made Armenia a desert and subjected it to devastation and plunder, to slaughter, and captivity. Iskander did attempt to reconcile with the Armenians by appointing an Armenian from a family, Rustum. When the Timurids launched their final incursion into the region, they convinced Jihanshah, Iskanders brother, Jihanshah pursued a policy of persecution against the Armenians in Syunik and colophons to Armenian manuscripts record the sacking of the Tatev monastery by his forces. For all this, Jihanshah continued to attack Armenian towns and take Armenian captives as the country saw further devastation in the years of Jihanshahs failed struggles with the Aq Qoyunlu. One of the most prominent monuments built by Black Sheep dynasty remains today in the vicinity of the Armenian capital, turkmenistan and Armenia both contribute to the restoration and preservation of this medieval piece of architecture. List of rulers of Kara Koyunlu Turkmen invasions of Georgia List of Shia Muslim dynasties Elgood, firearms of the Islamic World, In the Tared Rajab Museum, Kuwait. Armenia from the fall of the Cilician Kingdom to the emigration under Shah Abbas. The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume I, The Dynastic Periods, minorsky, V. Jihān-Shāh Qara-Qoyunlu and His Poetry. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, ԺԵ դարի հայերեն ձեռագրերի հիշատակարաններ, մաս1. The Oxford Dynasties of the World,2002, Sanjian, Avedis K. Colophons of Armenian manuscripts, 1301-1480, A Source for Middle Eastern History, Selected, Translated, and Annotated by Avedis K. Sanjian
25.
Aq Qoyunlu
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The Ağ Qoyunlu Turkomans first acquired land in 1402, when Timur granted them all of Diyar Bakr in present-day Turkey. For a long time, the Ağ Qoyunlu were unable to expand their territory, however, this changed with the rule of Uzun Hassan, who defeated the Black Sheep Turkoman leader Jahān Shāh in 1467. After the defeat of a Timurid leader, Abu Said, Uzun Hassan was able to take Baghdad along with territories around the Persian Gulf and he expanded into Iran as far east as Khorasan. However, around this time, the Ottoman Empire sought to expand eastwards, as early as 1464, Uzun Hassan had requested military aid from one of the Ottoman Empires strongest enemies, Venice. Despite Venetian promises, this aid never arrived and, as a result, Uzun Hassan was defeated by the Ottomans at the Battle of Otlukbeli in 1473, though this did not destroy the Ağ Qoyunlu. When Uzun Hassan died early in 1478, he was succeeded by his son Khalil Mirza, Yaqub, who reigned from 1478 to 1490, sustained the dynasty for a while longer. However, during the first four years of his there were seven pretenders to the throne who had to be put down. Following Yaqubs death, civil war erupted, the Ağ Qoyunlus destroyed themselves from within. The early Safavids, who were followers of the Safaviyya religious order, the Safavids and the Ağ Qoyunlu met in battle in the city of Nakhchivan in 1501 and the Safavid leader Ismail I forced the Ağ Qoyunlu to withdraw. In his retreat from the Safavids, the Ağ Qoyunlu leader Alwand destroyed an autonomous state of the Ağ Qoyunlu in Mardin, the last Ağ Qoyunlu leader, Murad, brother of Alwand, was also defeated by the same Safavid leader. Though Murād briefly established himself in Baghdad in 1501, he withdrew back to Diyar Bakr. The leaders of Ağ Qoyunlu were from the Begundur or Bayandur clan of the Oghuz Turks and were considered descendants of the founding father of the Oghuz, Oghuz Khan. The Bayandurs behaved like statesmen rather than warlords and gained the support of the merchant, with the conquest of Iran, not only did the Ağ Qoyunlu center of power shift eastward, but Iranian influences were soon brought to bear on their method of government and their culture. Uzun Hassan also held the title Padishah-i Irān Padishah of Iran, amidst the struggle for power between Uzun Hassans grandsons Baysungur and Rustam, their cousin Ahmed Bey appeared on the stage. Beyazid agreed to this idea, and by May 1497 Ahmad Bey faced Rustam near Araxes, list of rulers of Aq Qoyunlu Turkmen invasions of Georgia Diarbakriya, the most important primary source about the dynasty. The Aqquyunlu, Clan, Confederation, Empire University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, ISBN 0-87480-565-1
26.
Rostam
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For the historical general who fought at the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah for the Sasanian Empire, also mentioned in the Shahnameh, see Rostam Farrokhzād. Rostam or Rustam is the most celebrated legendary hero in Shahnameh, in Shahnameh, Rostam and his predecessors are Marzbans of Sistan. Rostam was eventually killed by Shaghad, his half-brother and he was son of Zal and Rudaba. Rostam was always represented as the mightiest of Iranian paladins, and he was immortalized by the 10th-century Persian poet Ferdowsi in the Shahnameh, or Epic of Kings, which contains pre-Islamic Iranian folklore and history. He wore a suit named Babr-e Bayan in battles. In Ferdowsis Shahnameh, Rostam is a native of the Zabulistan a historical region roughly corresponding to todays Zabul Province in southern Afghanistan and his mother Rudaba was a princess of Kabul. Rostam is the champion of champions and is involved in numerous stories, in Shahnameh, Rostam - like his grandfather Sam - works as both a faithful military general as well as king-maker for the Kayanian dynasty of Persia. As a young child, he slays the white elephant of the king Manuchehr with just one blow of the mace owned by his grandfather Sam. He then tames his legendary stallion, Rakhsh, the etymology of the name Rostam is from Raodh+Takhma, where Raodh means growth, reaped, developed and Takhma means brave. In the Avesta, the form is *Raosta-takhma and in Pahlavi *Rodastahm, mehrdad Bahar regards the etymology of the name to be Ruta-staxma, i. e. the river that descends, and argues that Rostam could have been an ancient god of the river Helmand. Rostams mother was Rudaba, the princess of Kabul, who was known for her peerless beauty, Zal was one of Persias most powerful warriors and a great general who conquered many rebellious tribes and ruled over Zabulistan. Zal was known for his wisdom and was unparalleled in riding and fighting on horseback and he once demonstrated his skills to Emperor Menuchihr, to seek his approval to marry his lover Rudaba. In Persian mythology, Rudabas labor of Rostam was prolonged due to the size of her baby. Zal, her lover and husband, was certain that his wife would die in labor, Rudaba was near death when Zal decided to summon the Simurgh. The Simurgh appeared and instructed him upon how to perform a Rostamzad, thus saving Rudaba, after Zals father, Sam came to know of his grandchilds birth, he rushed to see Rostam and was overjoyed. Rostam was brought up and trained by Zal in warfare, when Rostam single handedly slew a mad elephant, his father sent him on his first military assignment. Rostams task was to conquer the fortress on the summit of Mt Sipand where his grandfather, Nariman. Rostam breached the fortress, defeated the enemy, ransacked its treasury and reported his success to his father, Zal and grandfather and he passes through a heros journey to save his sovereign, Kay Kavus who is captured by the demons of Mazandaran
27.
Rakhsh
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Rakhsh is the stallion of protagonist Rostam in the Persian national epic, Shahnameh of Ferdowsi. The color of Rakhsh is described as rose leaves that have been scattered upon a ground and it is first noticed by Rostam amongst the flocks of horses brought over from Zabulistan. In this first encounter Rakhsh is described as a mighty colt with the chest and shoulders of a lion and he is highly intelligent and his loyalty is legendary. No one but Rostam ever rides Rakhsh, and Rakhsh recognizes no one, also, he is the only horse ever that Rostam could ride, since his great strength and weight would kill other horses. Due to divine favor protecting Rostam, Rakhsh lives a long life. Rostam and Rakhsh both die by the treason of Rostams half-brother, Shaghad
28.
British Museum
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The British Museum is dedicated to human history, art and culture, and is located in the Bloomsbury area of London. The British Museum was established in 1753, largely based on the collections of the physician, the museum first opened to the public on 15 January 1759, in Montagu House, on the site of the current building. Although today principally a museum of art objects and antiquities. Its foundations lie in the will of the Irish-born British physician, on 7 June 1753, King George II gave his formal assent to the Act of Parliament which established the British Museum. They were joined in 1757 by the Old Royal Library, now the Royal manuscripts, together these four foundation collections included many of the most treasured books now in the British Library including the Lindisfarne Gospels and the sole surviving copy of Beowulf. The British Museum was the first of a new kind of museum – national, belonging to neither church nor king, freely open to the public, sloanes collection, while including a vast miscellany of objects, tended to reflect his scientific interests. The addition of the Cotton and Harley manuscripts introduced a literary, the body of trustees decided on a converted 17th-century mansion, Montagu House, as a location for the museum, which it bought from the Montagu family for £20,000. The Trustees rejected Buckingham House, on the now occupied by Buckingham Palace, on the grounds of cost. With the acquisition of Montagu House the first exhibition galleries and reading room for scholars opened on 15 January 1759. During the few years after its foundation the British Museum received several gifts, including the Thomason Collection of Civil War Tracts. A list of donations to the Museum, dated 31 January 1784, in the early 19th century the foundations for the extensive collection of sculpture began to be laid and Greek, Roman and Egyptian artefacts dominated the antiquities displays. Gifts and purchases from Henry Salt, British consul general in Egypt, beginning with the Colossal bust of Ramesses II in 1818, many Greek sculptures followed, notably the first purpose-built exhibition space, the Charles Towneley collection, much of it Roman Sculpture, in 1805. In 1816 these masterpieces of art, were acquired by The British Museum by Act of Parliament. The collections were supplemented by the Bassae frieze from Phigaleia, Greece in 1815, the Ancient Near Eastern collection also had its beginnings in 1825 with the purchase of Assyrian and Babylonian antiquities from the widow of Claudius James Rich. The neoclassical architect, Sir Robert Smirke, was asked to draw up plans for an extension to the Museum. For the reception of the Royal Library, and a Picture Gallery over it, and put forward plans for todays quadrangular building, much of which can be seen today. The dilapidated Old Montagu House was demolished and work on the Kings Library Gallery began in 1823, the extension, the East Wing, was completed by 1831. The Museum became a site as Sir Robert Smirkes grand neo-classical building gradually arose
29.
Zahhak
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Zahhāk or Zahāk or Bivar Asp is an evil figure in Iranian mythology, evident in ancient Iranian folklore as Aži Dahāka, the name by which he also appears in the texts of the Avesta. In Middle Persian he is called Dahāg or Bēvar-Asp, the latter meaning 10,000 horses, in Zoroastrianism, Zahak is considered the son of Angra Mainyu, the foe of Ahura Mazda. Aži is the Avestan word for serpent or dragon and it is cognate to the Vedic Sanskrit word ahi, snake, and without a sinister implication. Azi and Ahi are distantly related to Greek ophis, Latin anguis, Russian and Old Church Slavonic уж, the original meaning of dahāka is uncertain. Among the meanings suggested are stinging, burning, man or manlike, in Persian mythology, Dahāka is treated as a proper noun, and is the source of the Ḍaḥḥāk of the Shāhnāme. Despite the negative aspect of Aži Dahāka in mythology, dragons have been used on banners of war throughout the history of Iranian peoples. The Azhdarchid group of pterosaurs are named from a Persian word for dragon that ultimately comes from Aži Dahāka, Aži Dahāka is the most significant and long-lasting of the ažis of the Avesta, the earliest religious texts of Zoroastrianism. He is described as a monster with three mouths, six eyes, and three heads, cunning, strong and demonic, but in other respects Aži Dahāka has human qualities, and is never a mere animal. Aži Dahāka appears in several of the Avestan myths and is mentioned parenthetically in many places in Zoroastrian literature. In a post-Avestan Zoroastrian text, the Dēnkard, Aži Dahāka is possessed of all sins and evil counsels. The name Dahāg is punningly interpreted as meaning having ten sins and his mother is Wadag, herself described as a great sinner, who committed incest with her son. Based on the similarity between Baβri and Old Persian Bābiru, later Zoroastrians localized Aži Dahāka in Mesopotamia, though the identification is open to doubt and this could be India and Azi Dahaka could be Adi Sesha. Aži Dahāka asked these two yazatas for power to depopulate the world, being representatives of the Good, they refused. In one Avestan text, Aži Dahāka has a brother named Spitiyura, together they attack the hero Yima and cut him in half with a saw, but are then beaten back by the yazata Ātar, the divine spirit of Fire. According to the texts, following the death of Jam ī Xšēd. Dahāg is said to have ruled for a thousand years, starting from 100 years after Jam lost his Khvarenah and he is described as a sorcerer who ruled with the aid of demons, the daevas. The Avesta identifies the person who finally disposed of Aži Dahāka as Θraētaona son of Aθβiya, in Middle Persian called Frēdōn. The Avesta has little to say about the nature of defeat of Aži Dahāka, other than that it enabled him to liberate Arənavāci and Savaŋhavāci
30.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
31.
Ferdowsi
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Abu ʾl-Qasim Ferdowsi Tusi, or Ferdowsi was a Persian poet and the author of Shahnameh, which is the worlds longest epic poem created by a single poet, and the national epic of Greater Iran. Ferdowsi is celebrated as the most influential figure in Persian literature and he was called The Lord of the Word and The Savior of Persian Language. Except for his kunya and his laqab, nothing is known with any certainty about his full name, from an early period on, he has been referred to by different additional names and titles, the most common one being حکیم / Ḥakīm. Based on this, his name is given in Persian sources as حکیم ابوالقاسم فردوسی توسی / Ḥakīm Abul-Qāsim Firdowsī Țusī. Due to the transliteration from Persian into English, different spellings of his name are used in English works, including Firdawsi, Firdusi, Firdosi, Firdausi. The Encyclopaedia of Islam uses the spelling Firdawsī, based on the transliteration method of the German Oriental Society. The Encyclopædia Iranica, which uses a version of the same method. In both cases, the -ow and -aw are to be pronounced as a diphthong, reflecting the original Arabic, the modern Tajik transliteration of his name in Cyrillic script is Ҳаким Абулқосим Фирдавсӣ Тӯсӣ. Little is known about Ferdowsis early life, the poet had a wife, who was probably literate and came from the same dehqan class. He had a son, who died aged 37, and was mourned by the poet in an elegy which he inserted into the Shahnameh, Ferdowsi belonged to the class of dehqans. The dehqans were intensely patriotic and saw it as their task to preserve the traditions of Iran. By the late 9th century, the power of the caliphate had weakened, Ferdowsi grew up in Tus, a city under the control of one of these dynasties, the Samanids, who claimed descent from the Sassanid general Bahram Chobin. Abu Mansur Muhammad, a dehqan and governor of Tus, had ordered his minister Abu Mansur Mamari to invite several local scholars to compile a prose Shahnameh, although it no longer survives, Ferdowsi used it as one of the sources of his epic. Samanid rulers were patrons of such important Persian poets as Rudaki, Ferdowsi followed in the footsteps of these writers. Details about Ferdowsis education are lacking, judging by the Shahnameh, there is no evidence he knew either Arabic or Pahlavi. Although New Persian was permeated by Arabic vocabulary by Ferdowsis time and this may have been a deliberate strategy by the poet. It is possible that Ferdowsi wrote some poems which have not survived. He began work on the Shahnameh around 977, intending it as a continuation of the work of his fellow poet Daqiqi, like Daqiqi, Ferdowsi employed the prose Shahnameh of ʿAbd-al-Razzāq as a source
32.
Ferdowsi University of Mashhad
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Ferdowsi University of Mashhad is a university in Northeastern Iran named after the great epic poet Ferdowsi who is the author of Shahnameh. The FUM campus is in Mashhad, the city of the Razavi Khorasan province, which is most famous and revered for housing the tomb of Imam Reza. FUM offers 180 bachelors, masters, and Ph. D. programs to 26,000 international and local, the university has been described as a good and big campus with weak connection to other institutions. And a world ranking of 1091, the university was established in 1949 and used the title Razavi University and then Mashhad University. The mission of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad is to educate the citizens and citizen-leaders for our society based on principles of Islam. FUM has a few mosques, the most prominent of which is the mosque of Imam Reza, Mashhad University of that time was renamed Ferdowsi University in 1974. After emerging regional health organizations in the universities of medical sciences in 1994, the Faculty has 83 academic members,4500 undergraduate and 500 graduate students. The departments offer B. A. M. A. moreover, the Department of Persian Language and Literature is designated by the Iranian Ministry of Science, Research and Technology, as a Center of Excellence in Ferdowsi Studies. Founded in 1987, the Faculty of Economics and Business Administration currently has 53 faculty members and 2146 students, the programs offered at the Bachelors and Masters levels are Economic Science, Law, Accounting, Political Science, and Management. The Research Center for the Economy of Eastern Iran and Neighboring Countries was established in 2006 for the purpose of conducting research into the economy of Iran, the Center has 11 economics specialists actively engaged in multifarious research projects. The school offers programs at the Bachelors, Masters, and Ph. D. levels, established in 1961, the School of Sciences has 97 faculty members,1862 undergraduates,325 Masters students, and 81 Ph. D. students. The faculty comprises four departments, Biology, Chemistry, Geology, of these, the Department of Geology is introduced as a Center of Excellence in Fossilology by the Iranian Ministry of Sciences, Research and Technology. Founded in 1996, the School of Mathematical Sciences has three departments, Applied Mathematics, Pure Mathematics and Statistics, the school has 45 academic members and approximately 1300 students. Currently, there are 170 graduate enrollees, the School of Mathematical Sciences offers three programs specializing in Pure Mathematics, Applied Mathematics and Statistics at the Bachelors, Masters and Ph. D. levels. Both the Departments of Mathematics and Statistics were awarded as Centers of Excellence by the Ministry of Science, Research, established in 1973, the School of Agriculture has 101 faculty members and 1622 students. D. The Dept. of Agronomy is considered as a Center of Excellence in Special Crops, established in 1973, the FUM School of Education and Psychology is home to 30 faculty members and about 1300 students. Founded in 1991, the School of Veterinary Medicine has 37 faculty members and consists of the departments of Basic Sciences, Patho-biology, Clinical Sciences, there are 400 enrollees majoring in the B. Sc. Doctor of Veterinary Medicine, Doctor of Veterinary Science, and Ph. D. levels, Academic members of the faculty are actively engaged in education and research in areas as diverse as clinical practice, domestic animal health and diseases, food safety, biology and public health
33.
Tomb of Ferdowsi
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Tomb of Ferdowsi is a tomb complex composed of a white marble base, and a decorative edifice erected in honor of this Persian poet located in Tus, Iran, in Razavi Khorasan province. It was built in the early 1930s, under the Reza Shah, the construction of the mausoleum as well as its aesthetic design is a reflection of the cultural, and geo-political status of Iran at the time. This article delves into the architecture of the tomb and its influences, Ferdowsi, the influential Persian poet and author of the Persian epic, Shahnameh died in 1020 A. D. in the Tus, Iran, Iran in the same city that he was born in. For all his literary contribution Ferdowsi was not recognized during his life and it was only after his death that his poems won him admiration. In the beginning years of twentieth century Iran started to realize his critical role in defining identity of Iran, the now existing design of the structure also owes mainly to Karim Taherzadeh who replaced the old dome-shape design by Lurzadeh into the modern cubical design that is now present. Ferdowsis tomb is built in style of the Achaemenid architecture specially emulating the tomb of Cyrus the Great, there is a clear link between this choice of architectural style and the politics of Iran at the time. Four years before Reza Shah even came to power in 1922, keikhosrow Shahrokh, Irans Zoroastrian representative to the Iranian parliament was particularly active in revival of Achaemenid and Sassanid architecture in Iran in the 1930s. The basic structure of the tomb is rectangular with a garden surrounding the structure. In the center of the created by the legs of the garden surrounding it, is an edifice made of primarily white marble. The edifice can be divided into a chamber that lies at the base. The body of the poet is actually interred in the center of the wide chamber underneath the overlying four pillars cube. There are twelve steps leading from the lowest point of the wide chamber all the way to the level of the cube, the wide base has a total height of 16 m. The edifice has equal dimensions of 30 m on each side, cyruss tomb also has a rectangular structure seating atop a rectangular, gradually elevating base. This resemblance is intentional as the designer of this intended to revoke the original Achaemenid style of architecture. In fact every other facet of the edifice has a Zoroastrian symbol known as Faravahar, there are multiple applications of this in the Achaemenid architecture mainly in Persepolis in Fars province today. The Society for National Heritage of Iran heavily relied on the use of Faravahar as this was the representation of ancient Iran since Achaemenid times. Each frieze column has a box, followed by a two horn bull sign which is much similar if not the exact imitation of the Persepolis column design. The columns are ornated with fluting 3/4 of the way down with the last portion spared, the overall effect is intended to create a grand gesture
34.
Ghazni
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Ghaznī or Ghaznai, also historically known as Ghaznīn or Ghazna, is a city in Afghanistan with a population of nearly 150,000 people. It is located in the central-east part of the country, situated on a plateau at 7,280 feet above sea level, the city serves as the capital of Ghazni Province. It is linked by a highway with Kandahar to the southwest, Kabul to the northeast, the foundation stone of Ghazni Airport was laid in April 2012 which now serves Ghazni and other nearby eastern Afghan provinces. Similar to many other Afghanistani cities, Ghazni as ancient city has withstood numerous military invasions, during the pre-Islamic period, the area was inhabited by various tribes who practiced different religions including Buddhism and Hinduism. Arab Muslims introduced Islam to Ghazni in the 7th century, they were followed by the 9th century Islamic conquest of the Saffarids from Zarang in the west, sabuktigin made Ghazni the capital of the Ghaznavid Empire in the 10th century. The city was destroyed by one of the Ghurid rulers, and it fell to a number of regional powers, including the Timurids and the Delhi Sultanate, until it became part of the Hotaki dynasty, which was followed by the Durrani Empire or modern Afghanistan. During the First Anglo-Afghan War in the 19th century, Ghazni was partially destroyed by British-Indian forces, the city is currently being rebuilt by the Government of Afghanistan in remembrance of the Ghaznavid and Timurid era when it served as a major center of Islamic civilisation. The Afghan National Security Forces have established bases and check-points to deal with the Taliban insurgency, Ghazni is a trading and transit hub in central Afghanistan. Agriculture is the dominant land use at 28%, in terms of built-up land area, vacant plots slightly outweigh residential area. Districts 3 and 4 also have large institutional areas, the city of Ghazni has a population of 143,379 with 4 Police districts and total land area of 3,330 Hectares. There are 15,931 total number of dwellings in Ghazni city, Ghazni was founded some time in antiquity as a small market town and is mentioned by Ptolemy. In the 6th century BC, the city was conquered by the Achaemenid king Cyrus II, the city was subsequently incorporated into the empire of Alexander the Great in 329 BC, and called Alexandria in Opiana. Ghazni was a thriving Buddhist centre up until the 7th century, in 683 AD, Arab armies brought Islam to the region, but many refused to accept the new religion. Yaqub Saffari from Zaranj conquered the city in the late 9th century and it later became the dazzling capital of the Ghaznavid Empire, which encompassed much of northern India, Persia and Central Asia. Many iconoclastic campaigns were launched from Ghazni into India, resulting in the destruction of ancient temples, libraries and palaces, the Ghaznavids took Islam to India and returned with fabulous riches taken from Indian princes and temples. Although the city was sacked in 1151 by the Ghorid Alauddin, it became their secondary capital in 1173. Between 1215 and 1221, Ghazni was ruled by the Khwarezmid Empire, in the first decades of the 11th century, Ghazni was the most important centre of Persian literature. This was the result of the policy of the Sultan Mahmud, who assembled a circle of scholars, philosophers
35.
Turan
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Tūrān literally means the land of the Tur, and is a region in Central Asia. The term is of Iranian origin and may refer to a prehistoric human settlement. The original Turanians were an Iranian tribe of the Avestan age, in ancient Iranian mythology, Tūr or Turaj is the son of the emperor Fereydun. According to the account in the Shahnameh the nomadic tribes who inhabited these lands were ruled by Tūr, in that sense, the Turanians could be members of two Iranian peoples both descending from Fereydun, but with different geographical domains and often at war with each other. Turan, therefore, comprised five areas, the Kopet Dag region, the Atrek valley, a later association of the original Turanians with Turkic peoples is based primarily on the subsequent Turkification of Central Asia, including the above areas. According to C. E. Bosworth, however, there was no relationship between the ancient Turkic cultures and the Turanians of the Shahnameh. The oldest existing mention of Turan is in the Farvardin yashts, according to Prof. Gherardo Gnoli, the Avesta contains the names of various tribes who lived in proximity to each other, the Airyas, Tuiryas, Sairimas, Sainus and Dahis. In the hymns of the Avesta, the adjective Tūrya is attached to various enemies of Zoroastrism like Fraŋrasyan, the word occurs only once in the Gathas, but 20 times in the later parts of the Avesta. The Tuiryas as they were called in Avesta play an important role in the Avesta than the Sairimas, Sainus. Zoroaster himself hailed from the Airya people but he preached his message to other neighboring tribes. Thus in the Avesta, some of the Tuiryas believed in the message of Zoroaster while others rejected the religion, similar to the ancient homeland of Zoroaster, the precise geography and location of Turan is unknown. In post-Avestan traditions they were thought to inhabit the north of the Oxus. Their presence accompanied by incessant wars with the Iranians, helped to define the latter as a nation, proud of their land. The common names of Turanians in Avesta and Shahnameh include Frarasyan, Aghraethra, Biderafsh, the continuation of nomadic invasions on the north-eastern borders in historical times kept the memory of the Turanians alive. After the 6th century the Turks, who had been pushed westward by other tribes, the identification of the Turanians with the Turks was a late development, possibly made in the early 7th century, the Turks first came into contact with the Iranians only in the 6th century. The denizens of Turan were held to include the Turks, in the first four centuries of Islam essentially those nomadizing beyond the Jaxartes, the terms Turk and Turanian became used interchangeably during the Islamic era. The Shahnameh, or the Book of Kings, the compilation of Iranian mythical heritage, other authors, including Tabari, Hakim Iranshah and many other texts follow like. By the 10th century, the myth of Afrasiyab was adopted by the Qarakhanid dynasty, during the Safavid era, following the common geographical convention of the Shahnameh, the term Turan was used to refer to the domain of the Uzbek empire in conflict with the Safavids
36.
Tus, Iran
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Tus, also spelled as Tous, Toos or Tūs, is an ancient city in Razavi Khorasan Province in Iran near Mashhad. To the ancient Greeks, it was known as Susia and it was captured by Alexander the Great in 330 BCE. It was also known as Tusa, Tus was taken by the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik and remained under Umayyad control until 747, when a subordinate of Abu Muslim Khorasani defeated the Umayyad governor during the Abbasid Revolution. In 809, the Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid fell ill and died in Tus and his grave is located in the region. Tus was almost entirely destroyed by the Mongol conquests between 1220 and 1259, the most famous person who has emerged from that area was the theologian, jurist, philosopher and mystic al-Ghazali. Another is the poet Ferdowsi, author of the Persian epic Shahnameh, whose mausoleum, built in 1934 in time for the millennium of his birth, dominates the town. Al-Tusi – a descriptor used for individuals associated with Tus Tus citadel Media related to Tus, Iran at Wikimedia Commons Livius. org, Susia
37.
Zabulistan
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Zabulistan, originally known as Zavolistan, is a historical region roughly corresponding to todays Zabul Province in southern Afghanistan. Zabulistan translates to land of Zabul or land of the Zabuls, the name Zabuls is probably a transliteration of Zunbils, a Hindu and Buddhist dynasty that ruled the area during the Islamic conquest of Afghanistan. Babur, founder of the Mughal dynasty in the 16th century, according to Persian mythology, city of Zabol in eastern Iran, was the birthplace of Iranian hero Rostam. From the 7th century to 11th century, the region was ruled by Shahi kings, later, it was conquered by the Ghaznavids of Ghazni. With Makran and Baluchistan and much of Sindh this area can be reckoned to belong to the cultural and political frontier zone between India and Persia. It is clear however that in the seventh to the centuries the Zunbils. The Arab geographers, in effect commonly speak of that king of Al Hind, the early Arab governors of Sistan had at times penetrated as far as Ghazna and Kabul, but these had been little more than slave and plunder raids. There was fierce resistance from the rulers of these regions, above all from the line of Zunbils who ruled in Zamindavar. The region of southern Afghanistan was first invaded by Muslim Arabs from Zaranj in what is now Nimruz Province, from there they marched toward Bost, Kandahar, Zabulistan, and reached Kabul. In 683 Kabul revolted and defeated the Muslim army, but two years later Zabuls army was routed by the Arabs. We are told that it was only in 870 AD that Zabulistan was finally conquered by one Yakub who was the ruler of the neighbouring Iranian province of Siestan. The king was killed and his subjects were made Muslims, the early Arab governors of Sistan had at times penetrated as far as Ghazana and Kabul, but these had been little more than slave and plunder raids. Various scholars have recorded the importance of Sakawand as a centre of Pagan pilgrimage. It is related that, Amru Lais conferred the governorship of Zabulistan on Fardghan, there was a large place of worship of the God Zhun in the country, which was called Sakawand, and people used to come on pilgrimage to the Idols of that place. When Fardaghan arrived in Zabulistan he led his army against it, took the temples broke the idols in pieces, some of the plunder he distributed among the troops, the rest he sent to Amru Lais. Fardaghan, the governor of Zabulistan region around Ghazni under Amr ibn Layth, plundered Sakawand, a place of pilgrimage to God Zhun, which was within the kingdom of the Shahis. The activities of the Saffarid brothers on the Indian frontier attracted special attention in the Caliphate thanks to the care they took to send exotic presents from the plunder to the Abbasid court. Yaqub, for instance, at one time sent fifty gold, another set of Idols lavishly decorated with jewels and silver, sent by himAmr in 896 from Sakawand, caused a sensation in Baghdad on account of their strangeness
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Firdeusi Institute
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The ceremony of launching was held on 29 October 2010, initiating the functioning of the first research institute for Persian studies in Albania, at University level. The Institute name “Firdeusi” comes the greatest Persian poets, thinkers and writers, Abul-Kasim Hasan Pur-Ali Tusi Ferdowsi, the choice came also as a tribute to the “Ferdowsi Shahnameh Millenium” proclaimed by UNESCO in 2010. The Institute Logo has been inspired by the name and is interwoven with calligraphy elements from the Persian language. Logo represents a book, being a metaphor of the scientific character of the Institute. Iranian studies in Albania although not academically pursued, have always enjoyed Albanian people interest, another key factor in the popularisation of Persian culture among Albanians is the expansion of Islam in the territories lived in by Albanians during the 16th and 17th centuries. Meanwhile, during the 19th century, the Persian language was used among Albanian intellectuals. Naim and Sami Frashëri were among the most prominent scholars of oriental and these represented the cornerstone of Persian literature and culture in Albania
39.
Abolhassan Sadighi
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Abolhassan Sadighi was an Iranian sculptor and painter and was known as Master Sadighi. He was a student of Ghaffari, Abolhassan Sadighi was born in Oudlajan neighborhood of Tehran on 1897. His father, Mirza Bagher Khan Sadigoddoleh, was from the residents of Nur, Mazandaran, his mother, Malakeh Khanum, was one of Qajar princesses and known as Shajan. But they had moved to Tehran years before the birth of Sadighi and settled in Oudlajan which was, at the time, when he was seven, Sadighi went to Agdasiyyeh school which was one of the new schools and was founded by Saeed-ol-Olama Larijani. After three years of studying, he achieved a diploma on 1920 and started teaching students as a mentor at the same school. His outstanding protégé, Ali-Akbar Sanati, writes, headlines in creating art so much that according to the deceased Esmail Khan Ashtiani, Lord Kamal-ol-molk often called him Mirza Abolhassan Khan the Rival for humor and encouragement. After he formed several plaster statues and earned the necessary skills in two to three years, he one day asked Ghaffari to make it possible for him to form a stone statue. Ghaffari initially disagreed and believed Sadighis tools and experience insufficient, but eventually approved it, Sadighi began making Vénus de Milos statue after seeing a picture of it and finally it was finally completed on 1925. During that period, he formed many statues including, Ferdowsis plaster statue, half-trunk and full stature statues of Farahani, Abolgasem, Elias the peddler,1927 is the year Ghaffari quitted from all of his posts and moved to Hoseynabad, Nishabur. During departure from Tehran, he suggested to Sadighi to go to Europe and pass his complementary education there, giving Sadighi the money he had saved from the salary coming from Ahmad. By the departure of the mentor, the protégés and teachers scattered and one later on 1928, Sadighi went from Tehran to Astara and from there to Baku and Moscow. Sadighi, who was in Europe between the two wars, spent most of his time painting. He painted 160 pictures in that period, having gained a lot of experience, Sadighi returned to Iran on March 1934. On May 1934, he married his cousin Qodratossadat Mirfedersky, having gained permission from Ghaffari, who was in a self-imposed exile, and by the help of his friend and old classmate, Ali-Mohammad Heydaryan, he established the School of Fine Arts again. After Ghaffaris death in 1940, the school was closed for unknown reasons, but after a while, another school called Beautiful Arts was founded under the Ministry of Culture. After a while, Sadighi accepted to start teaching at that school, after the foundation of Tehran University, the school continued with the same name under it and the leadership of stone-cutting academy was given to Sadighi. On 1950, Sadighi joined the National Works Board, during that time, he painted portraits of Iranian science and literature celebrities and formed remarkable statues of the celebrities. Portraits of Sadi, Abu-Ali Sina, Ferdowsi and Hafez is the result of that period, eventually he retired from Tehran University on 1961, but devoted all his time and energy to sculpture
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