1.
Chakhchoukha
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Chakhchoukha, chekhechoukha or chakhchoura is a dish of Algerian cuisine, eaten often on festive celebrations, especially popular in the Aurès region. The dish consists of tearing small pieces of Rougag mixed with Marqa, chakhchoukha is an originally Chaoui culinary speciality that has now extended to other parts of Algeria. The word chakhchoukha comes from tacherchert, crumbing or tearing into small pieces in the Chaouia language and this dish originated in the hearty food shepherds needed when they came back home on cold winter nights. The rougag or flat bread is made with semolina and. When eating in individual plates, about two handfuls are put in the plate and then the sauce or stew is poured on top, the marqa or stew consists of diced lamb cooked with spices, tomatoes, chopped onions and chick peas. Often potatoes, zucchini, carrots and green peppers are added to the mixture depending on the season, the area, the main spices used for the stew are dried red chillies, caraway, ras el hanout, black pepper and cumin. There is a variant of this dish in Batna and nearby towns, like Barika, MSila and Biskra, Algerian cuisine Torta de gazpacho, a similar Spanish dish both in its appearance and origin
2.
Arabic
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
3.
Poaching (cooking)
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Poaching is a type of moist-heat cooking technique that involves cooking by submerging food in a liquid, such as water, milk, stock or wine. Poaching is differentiated from the other moist heat cooking methods, such as simmering and boiling and this temperature range makes it particularly suitable for delicate food, such as eggs, poultry, fish and fruit, which might easily fall apart or dry out using other cooking methods. Poaching is often considered as a method of cooking because it does not use fat to cook or flavor the food. This moist-heat cooking method uses a sautoir or other cooking vessel, heat is transferred by conduction from the pan, to the liquid. Shallow poaching is best suited for boneless, naturally tender, single serving size, sliced or diced pieces of meat and this preparation involves smearing the inside of the pan with whole butter and adding aromatics into the pan. The items to be cooked are then placed on top of the aromatics presentation side up, cold poaching liquid is then poured in until the product is partially submerged then heated. The liquid should never be allowed to boil but kept as close to boiling as possible, a more contemporary technique of shallow poaching involves BPA free plastic bags and is very convenient for the home cook. This technique is similar to shallow poaching but the product is fully submerged, the pot used for deep poaching should hold the food, liquid, and aromatics comfortably, with enough room to allow the liquid to expand as it heats. There should also be enough space so that the surface can be skimmed if necessary throughout cooking, a tight-fitting lid may be helpful for bringing the liquid up to temperature. The poaching liquid traditionally uses a court bouillon which consists of an acid and aromatics, although any flavorful liquid can be used in poaching. The liquid should ideally be around 160–185 °F, but when poaching chicken, it is vital that the chicken reach a temperature of at least 165 °F in the core. A significant amount of flavor is transferred from the food to the cooking liquid, for maximum flavor, the cooking liquid is usually reduced and used as the base for a sauce. Poached eggs are cooked in water and vinegar, fish in white wine, poultry in stock. The liquid used for shallow poaching is typically called a cuisson, Poaching allows the proteins to denature without pulling out too much moisture out of the food. For this reason, it is important to keep the low and to keep the poaching time to a bare minimum. Typically an egg is poached just to the point where the white is no longer runny, some people say creating a whirlpool helps with poaching eggs because it really helps the egg stay together, wrapping the white around the yolk. Water is a relatively efficient conductor of heat, but it also has a fairly low limit to its maximum potential temperature, as such, it is a technique that applies itself to a broad spectrum of methods and results. It is used to food at a low temperature for extended periods
4.
Tunisia
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Tunisia, officially the Republic of Tunisia is the northernmost country in Africa, covering 165,000 square kilometres. Its northernmost point, Cape Angela, is the northernmost point on the African continent and it is bordered by Algeria to the west and southwest, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Tunisias population was estimated to be just under 11 million in 2014, Tunisias name is derived from its capital city, Tunis, which is located on Tunisias northeast coast. Geographically, Tunisia contains the end of the Atlas Mountains. Much of the rest of the land is fertile soil. Tunisia is a unitary semi-presidential representative democratic republic and it is considered to be the only full democracy in the Arab World. It has a human development index. In addition, Tunisia is also a state of the United Nations. Close relations with Europe – in particular with France and with Italy – have been forged through economic cooperation, privatisation, in ancient times, Tunisia was primarily inhabited by Berbers. Phoenician immigration began in the 12th century BC, these immigrants founded Carthage, a major mercantile power and a military rival of the Roman Republic, Carthage was defeated by the Romans in 146 BC. The Romans, who would occupy Tunisia for most of the eight hundred years, introduced Christianity. After several attempts starting in 647, the Arabs conquered the whole of Tunisia by 697, the Ottomans held sway for over three hundred years. The French colonization of Tunisia occurred in 1881, Tunisia gained independence with Habib Bourguiba and declared the Tunisian Republic in 1957. In 2011, the Tunisian Revolution resulted in the overthrow of President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, the country voted for parliament again on 26 October 2014, and for President on 23 November 2014. The word Tunisia is derived from Tunis, an urban hub. The present form of the name, with its Latinate suffix -ia, the French derivative Tunisie was adopted in some European languages with slight modifications, introducing a distinctive name to designate the country. Other languages remained untouched, such as the Russian Туни́с and Spanish Túnez, in this case, the same name is used for both country and city, as with the Arabic تونس, and only by context can one tell the difference. The name Tunis can be attributed to different origins and it is generally associated with the Berber root ⵜⵏⵙ, transcribed tns, which means to lay down or encampment
5.
Middle East
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The Middle East is a transcontinental region centered on Western Asia and Egypt. The corresponding adjective is Middle-Eastern and the noun is Middle-Easterner. The term has come into usage as a replacement of the term Near East beginning in the early 20th century. Arabs, Turks, Persians, Kurds, and Azeris constitute the largest ethnic groups in the region by population. Indigenous minorities of the Middle East include Jews, Assyrians and other Arameans, Baloch, Berbers, Copts, Druze, Lurs, Mandaeans, Samaritans, Shabaks, Tats, in the Middle East, there is also a Romani community. European ethnic groups form a diaspora in the region include Albanians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Crimean Tatars, Franco-Levantines. Among other migrant populations are Bengalis as well as other Indians, Chinese, Filipinos, Indonesians, Pakistanis, the history of the Middle East dates back to ancient times, with the importance of the region being recognized for millennia. Most of the countries border the Persian Gulf have vast reserves of crude oil. The term Middle East may have originated in the 1850s in the British India Office, however, it became more widely known when American naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan used the term in 1902 to designate the area between Arabia and India. During this time the British and Russian Empires were vying for influence in Central Asia, Mahan realized not only the strategic importance of the region, but also of its center, the Persian Gulf. Mahan first used the term in his article The Persian Gulf and International Relations, published in September 1902 in the National Review, a British journal. The Middle East, if I may adopt a term which I have not seen, will some day need its Malta, as well as its Gibraltar, it does not follow that either will be in the Persian Gulf. The British Navy should have the facility to concentrate in force if occasion arise, about Aden, India, mahans article was reprinted in The Times and followed in October by a 20-article series entitled The Middle Eastern Question, written by Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol. During this series, Sir Ignatius expanded the definition of Middle East to include regions of Asia which extend to the borders of India or command the approaches to India. After the series ended in 1903, The Times removed quotation marks from subsequent uses of the term, in the late 1930s, the British established the Middle East Command, which was based in Cairo, for its military forces in the region. After that time, the term Middle East gained broader usage in Europe, the description Middle has also led to some confusion over changing definitions. Before the First World War, Near East was used in English to refer to the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire, while Middle East referred to Iran, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Turkestan. The first official use of the term Middle East by the United States government was in the 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine, the Associated Press Stylebook says that Near East formerly referred to the farther west countries while Middle East referred to the eastern ones, but that now they are synonymous
6.
North Africa
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North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of Africa. The United Nationss definition of Northern Africa is, Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Sudan, Tunisia, the countries of Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, and Libya are often collectively referred to as the Maghreb, which is the Arabic word for sunset. Egypt lies to the northeast and encompasses part of West Asia, while Sudan is situated on the edge of the Sahel, Egypt is a transcontinental country because of the Sinai Peninsula, which geographically lies in Western Asia. North Africa also includes a number of Spanish possessions, the Canary Islands and Madeira in the North Atlantic Ocean northwest of the African mainland are included in considerations of the region. From 3500 BC, following the abrupt desertification of the Sahara due to changes in the Earths orbit. The Islamic influence in the area is significant, and North Africa is a major part of the Muslim world. Some researchers have postulated that North Africa rather than East Africa served as the point for the modern humans who first trekked out of the continent in the Out of Africa migration. The Atlas Mountains extend across much of Morocco, northern Algeria and Tunisia, are part of the mountain system that also runs through much of Southern Europe. They recede to the south and east, becoming a steppe landscape before meeting the Sahara desert, the sediments of the Sahara overlie an ancient plateau of crystalline rock, some of which is more than four billion years old. Sheltered valleys in the Atlas Mountains, the Nile Valley and Delta, a wide variety of valuable crops including cereals, rice and cotton, and woods such as cedar and cork, are grown. Typical Mediterranean crops, such as olives, figs, dates and citrus fruits, the Nile Valley is particularly fertile, and most of the population in Egypt and Sudan live close to the river. Elsewhere, irrigation is essential to improve yields on the desert margins. The inhabitants of Saharan Africa are generally divided in a manner corresponding to the principal geographic regions of North Africa, the Maghreb, the Nile valley. The edge of the Sahel, to the south of Egypt has mainly been inhabited by Nubians, Ancient Egyptians record extensive contact in their Western desert with people that appear to have been Berber or proto-Berber, as well as Nubians from the south. They have contributed to the Arabized Berber populations, the official language or one of the official languages in all of the countries in North Africa is Arabic. The people of the Maghreb and the Sahara regions speak Berber languages and several varieties of Arabic, the Arabic and Berber languages are distantly related, both being members of the Afroasiatic language family. The Tuareg Berber languages are more conservative than those of the coastal cities. Over the years, Berbers have been influenced by contact with cultures, Greeks, Phoenicians, Egyptians, Romans, Vandals, Arabs, Europeans
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Jordan
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Jordan, officially The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, is an Arab kingdom in Western Asia, on the East Bank of the Jordan River. Jordan is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the east and south, Iraq to the north-east, Syria to the north, Israel, Palestine and the Dead Sea to the west, Jordan is strategically located at the crossroads of Asia, Africa and Europe. The capital, Amman, is Jordans most populous city as well as the countrys economic, what is now Jordan has been inhabited by humans since the Paleolithic period. Three stable kingdoms emerged there at the end of the Bronze Age, Ammon, Moab, later rulers include the Nabataean Kingdom, the Roman Empire, and the Ottoman Empire. After the Great Arab Revolt against the Ottomans in 1916 during World War I, the Emirate of Transjordan was established in 1921 by the then Emir Abdullah I and became a British protectorate. In 1946, Jordan became an independent state known as The Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan. Jordan captured the West Bank, which it later lost in 1967, during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Jordan is a founding member of the Arab League and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, and is one of two Arab states to have signed a peace treaty with Israel. The country is a monarchy, but the king holds wide executive and legislative powers. Jordan is a relatively-small, semi-arid, almost-landlocked country with a population numbering at 9.5 million, Sunni Islam, practiced by around 92% of the population, is the dominant religion in Jordan. It coexists with an indigenous Christian minority, Jordan is considered to be among the safest of Arab countries in the Middle East, and has avoided long-term terrorism and instability. The kingdom is also a refuge to thousands of Iraqi Christians fleeing the Islamic State, while Jordan continues to accept refugees, the recent large influx from Syria placed substantial strain on national resources and infrastructure. Jordan is classified as a country of high human development with a middle income economy. The Jordanian economy, one of the smallest economies in the region, is attractive to foreign investors based upon a skilled workforce, the country is a major tourist destination, and also attracts medical tourism due to its well developed health sector. Nonetheless, a lack of resources, large flow of refugees. Jordan is named after the Jordan River, where Jesus is said to have been baptized, the origin of the rivers name is debated, but the most common explanation is that it derives from the word yarad, found in Hebrew, Aramaic, and other Semitic languages. Others regard the name as having an Indo-Aryan origin, combining the words yor and don, another theory is that it is from the Arabic root word wrd, as in people coming to a major source of water. The name Jordan appears in an ancient Egyptian papyrus called Papyrus Anastasi I, the lands of modern-day Jordan were historically called Transjordan, meaning beyond the Jordan River. The name was Arabized into Al-Urdunn during the Muslim conquest of the Levant, during crusader rule, it was called Oultrejordain
8.
Israel
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Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in the Middle East, on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea. The country contains geographically diverse features within its small area. Israels economy and technology center is Tel Aviv, while its seat of government and proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, in 1947, the United Nations adopted a Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine, next year, the Jewish Agency declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied territories including the West Bank, Golan Heights and it extended its laws to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, but not the West Bank. Israels occupation of the Palestinian territories is the worlds longest military occupation in modern times, efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have not resulted in peace. However, peace treaties between Israel and both Egypt and Jordan have successfully been signed, the population of Israel, as defined by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, was estimated in 2017 to be 8,671,100 people. It is the worlds only Jewish-majority state, with 74. 8% being designated as Jewish, the countrys second largest group of citizens are Arabs, at 20. 8%. The great majority of Israeli Arabs are Sunni Muslims, including significant numbers of semi-settled Negev Bedouins, other minorities include Arameans, Armenians, Assyrians, Black Hebrew Israelites, Circassians, Maronites and Samaritans. Israel also hosts a significant population of foreign workers and asylum seekers from Africa and Asia, including illegal migrants from Sudan, Eritrea. In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as a Jewish, Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage. The prime minister is head of government and the Knesset is the legislature, Israel is a developed country and an OECD member, with the 35th-largest economy in the world by nominal gross domestic product as of 2016. The country benefits from a skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentage of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. The country has the highest standard of living in the Middle East and the third highest in Asia, in the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term Israeli to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett. The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have historically used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel. The name Israel in these phrases refers to the patriarch Jacob who, jacobs twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Children of Israel. The earliest known artifact to mention the word Israel as a collective is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt. The area is known as the Holy Land, being holy for all Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam
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Dead Sea
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The Dead Sea, is a salt lake bordered by Jordan to the east and Israel and Palestine to the west. Its surface and shores are 430.5 metres below sea level, the Dead Sea is 304 m deep, the deepest hypersaline lake in the world. With 34. 2% salinity, it is 9.6 times as salty as the ocean and this salinity makes for a harsh environment in which plants and animals cannot flourish, hence its name. The Dead Sea is 50 kilometres long and 15 kilometres wide at its widest point and it lies in the Jordan Rift Valley and its main tributary is the Jordan River. The Dead Sea has attracted visitors from around the Mediterranean basin for thousands of years and it was one of the worlds first health resorts, and it has been the supplier of a wide variety of products, from asphalt for Egyptian mummification to potash for fertilizers. People also use the salt and the minerals from the Dead Sea to create cosmetics, the Dead Sea water has a density of 1.24 kg/litre, which makes swimming similar to floating. The Dead Sea is receding at an alarming rate, multiple canals and pipelines were proposed to reduce its recession, which had begun causing many problems. The Red Sea–Dead Sea Water Conveyance project, carried out by Jordan, will provide water to neighboring countries, the first phase of the project is scheduled to begin in 2018 and be completed in 2021. In Hebrew, the Dead Sea is Yām ha-Melaḥ, meaning sea of salt, the Bible uses this term alongside two others, the Sea of the Arabah, and the Eastern Sea. The designation Dead Sea never appears in the Bible, in prose sometimes the term Yām ha-Māvet is used, due to the scarcity of aquatic life there. In Arabic the Dead Sea is called al-Bahr al-Mayyit, or less commonly baḥrᵘ lūṭᵃ, another historic name in Arabic was the Sea of Zoʼar, after a nearby town in biblical times. The Greeks called it Lake Asphaltites, the Dead Sea is an endorheic lake located in the Jordan Rift Valley, a geographic feature formed by the Dead Sea Transform. This left lateral-moving transform fault lies along the plate boundary between the African Plate and the Arabian Plate. It runs between the East Anatolian Fault zone in Turkey and the end of the Red Sea Rift offshore of the southern tip of Sinai. It is here that the Upper Jordan River/Sea of Galilee/Lower Jordan River water system comes to an end. The Jordan River is the major water source flowing into the Dead Sea, although there are small perennial springs under and around the Dead Sea, forming pools. The Mujib River, biblical Arnon, is one the larger sources of the Dead Sea other than the Jordan. The Wadi Mujib valley,420 m below the sea level in the southern of Jordan valley, is a biosphere reserve, other more substantial sources are Wadi Darajeh /Nahal Dragot, and Nahal Arugot
10.
Varieties of Arabic
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There are many varieties of Arabic in existence. Arabic is a Semitic language within the Afroasiatic family that originated on the Arabian Peninsula, the largest divisions occur between the spoken languages of different regions. Some varieties of Arabic in North Africa, for example, are incomprehensible to an Arabic speaker from the Levant or the Persian Gulf, within these broad regions further and considerable geographic distinctions exist, within countries, across country borders, even between cities and villages. The regionally prevalent variety is learned as the speakers first language while the language is subsequently learned in school. Many Arabic dialects, North African Arabic in particular also have significant vowel shifts, unlike other dialects, in Moroccan Arabic first person singular verbs begin with a n-. Further substantial differences exist between Bedouin and sedentary speech, the countryside and major cities, ethnicities, religious groups, social classes, men and women, and the young and these differences are to some degree bridgeable. Arabic is characterized by a number of varieties, however. An important factor in the mixing or changing of Arabic is the concept of a prestige dialect and this refers to the level of respect accorded to a language or dialect within a speech community. The formal Arabic language carries a considerable prestige in most Arabic-speaking communities and this is not the only source of prestige, though. Many studies have shown that for most speakers, there is a variety of vernacular Arabic. In Egypt, for non-Cairenes, the dialect is Cairo Arabic. For Jordanian women from Bedouin or rural background, it may be the urban dialects of the big cities, especially including the capital Amman. Moreover, in contexts, a dialect relatively different from formal Arabic may carry more prestige than a dialect closer to the formal language—this is the case in Bahrain. Language mixes and changes in different ways, Arabic speakers often use more than one variety of Arabic within a conversation or even a sentence. This process is referred to as code-switching, for example, a woman on a TV program could appeal to the authority of the formal language by using elements of it in her speech in order to prevent other speakers from cutting her off. Another process at work is leveling, the elimination of very localised dialectical features in favour of more general ones. This can affect all linguistic levels—semantic, syntactic, phonological, etc and this process of accommodation sometimes appeals to the formal language, but often does not. Moreover, given the prevalence of movies and TV shows in Egyptian Arabic, the greatest variations between kinds of Arabic are those between regional language groups
11.
Tunisian Arabic
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Tunisian Arabic, or Tunisian, is a set of dialects of Maghrebi Arabic spoken in Tunisia. It is known by its 11 million speakers as Tounsi Tunisian or Derja everyday language to distinguish it from Modern Standard Arabic, as part of a dialect continuum, Tunisian merges into Algerian Arabic and Libyan Arabic at the borders of the country. Tunisian Arabics morphology, syntax, pronunciation, and vocabulary are different from Modern Standard Arabic or Classical Arabic. Like other Maghrebi dialects, it has a vocabulary that is mostly Arabic with a significant Berber substratum, However, Tunisian has also a significant Latin component, as well as many loanwords from French, Turkish, Italian and the languages of Spain. Tunisian Arabic is mostly intelligible to speakers of other Maghrebi dialects but is hard to understand or is unintelligible for speakers of Middle Eastern Arabic. Multilingualism within Tunisia and in the Tunisian diaspora makes it common for Tunisians to code-switch, mixing Tunisian with French, English, Standard Arabic or other languages in daily speech. Within some circles, Tunisian Arabic has thereby integrated new French and English words, notably in technical fields, or replaced old French, moreover, Tunisian Arabic is closely related to Maltese, which is a separate language that descended from tunisian and siculo-arabic. Tunisian Arabic is one of the Arabic languages within the Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family and it is a variety of Maghrebi Arabic like Moroccan and Algerian Arabic, which are mostly unintelligible to Modern Standard or Mashriqi Arabic speakers. It is also considered to be a mostly Hilalian dialects because it was affected by the immigration of Banu Hilal in the 11th century, as were the other Maghrebi varieties. As a part of the Arabic dialect continuum, it is reported that Tunisian Arabic is partly mutually intelligible with Algerian Arabic, Libyan Arabic, However, it is slightly intelligible or even not intelligible with Moroccan, Egyptian, Levantine, Mesopotamian, or Gulf Arabic. During classical antiquity, Tunisias population spoke Berber languages related to the Numidian language, indeed, migrants from Phoenicia settled Tunisia during the 12th to the 2nd century BC, founded ancient Carthage and progressively mixed with the local population. From the eighth century BC, most of Tunisias inhabitants spoke the Punic language, also, already at that time, in the regions near to Punic settlements, the Berber that was used evolved considerably. In the urban centers such as Dougga, Bulla Regia, Thuburnica or Chemtou, Berber lost its Maghrebi phonology but kept the essential of its vocabulary. The word Africa, which gave its name to the continent, also during this period and up to the third century BC, the Tifinagh alphabet developed from the Phoenician alphabet. After the arrival of Romans, following the fall of Carthage in 146 BC, the population spoke mainly Punic. From Roman period until the Arab conquest, Latin, Greek and Numidian further influenced the language and this also progressively gave birth to African Romance, a Latin dialect, influenced by Tunisias other languages and used along with them. However, it may be that the existence of Punic facilitated the spread of Arabic in the region, the people of several urban cities were progressively influenced by Arabic. By the 11th century, through contact of local languages such as African Romance or Berber with Classical Arabic, the new dialects were also significantly influenced by other historical languages
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Arab cuisine
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Arab cuisine is defined as the various regional cuisines spanning the Arab world, from the Maghreb to the Mashriq or Levant and the Persian Gulf. The cuisines are often old and resemble and culture of great trading in spices, herbs. The three main regions, also known as the Maghreb, the Mashriq, and the Khaleej have many similarities and these kitchens have been influenced by the climate, cultivating possibilities, as well as trading possibilities. The kitchens of the Maghreb and Levant are relatively young kitchens which were developed over the past centuries, the kitchen from the Khaleej region is a very old kitchen. The kitchens can be divided into the urban and rural kitchens, the Arabian cuisine uses specific and sometimes unique foods and spices. Some of those foods are, Meat, lamb and chicken are the most used, with beef, other poultry is used in some regions, and fish is used in coastal areas like the Mediterranean sea, Atlantic Ocean or the Red sea. Dairy products, dairy products are used, especially yogurt, Buttermilk. Butter and cream are used extensively. Herbs and spices, The amounts and types used generally varies from region to region, Some of the included herbs and spices are sesame, saffron, Black pepper, Allspice, turmeric, garlic, cumin, cinnamon, Parsley, Coriander and sumac. Spice mixtures include baharat, Ras el hanout, Zaatar, Harissa, beverages, hot beverages are served more than cold, coffee being on the top of the list in the Middle-eastern countries and tea on top of the Maghreb countries. In Jordan, Some part of Syria, Morocco and Algeria tea is more important as a beverage. Other Arabian drinks include Andalucian Horchata and Maghrebi avocado smoothie, grains, rice is the staple and is used for most dishes, wheat is the main source for bread. Bulgur and semolina are also used extensively, legumes, lentils are widely used in all colours, as well as fava beans, chickpeas, scarlet runner beans, green peas, lupini beans, white beans and brown beans. Vegetables, Arabian cuisine favors vegetables such as carrots, eggplant, zucchini, artichokes, okra, onions, potatoes are also eaten as vegetables in Arabian culture. Fruits, Arabian cuisine favors fruits such as Pomegranate, Dates, Figs, oranges, citruses, watermelons, Cantaloupe, Honeydew melon, nuts, almonds, peanuts, pine nuts, pistachios, and walnuts are often included in dishes or eaten as snacks. Greens, parsley, Coriander and mint are popular as seasonings in many dishes, while spinach, dressings and sauces, the most popular dressings include various combinations of olive oil, lemon juice, parsley or garlic, as well as tahini. Labaneh is often seasoned with mint, onion, or garlic, the Bedouins of the Arabian Peninsula, Middle-East and North-Africa relied on a diet of dates, dried fruit, nuts, wheat, barley, rice, and meat. The meat came from animals such as cows, sheep
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Libyan cuisine
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Libyan cuisine is the cooking traditions, practices, foods and dishes associated with the country of Libya. The cuisine derives much from the traditions of the Mediterranean, North Africa, one of the most popular Libyan dishes is a thick highly spiced soup, known simply as Shorba Arabiya, or Arabian soup. Shorba Arabiya contains many of the ingredients from many other Libyan dishes, including onions, tomatoes, lamb, chili peppers, cayenne pepper, saffron, chickpeas, mint, cilantro, pork consumption is forbidden, in accordance with Sharia, the religious laws of Islam. Tripoli is Libyas capital, and the there is particularly influenced by Italian cuisine. Pasta is common, and many dishes are available. Southern Libyan cuisine is more traditionally Arab and Berber, common fruits and vegetables include figs, dates, oranges, apricots and olives. The sauce around the dough is made by frying chopped onions with lamb meat, turmeric, salt, cayenne pepper, black pepper, fenugreek, sweet paprika, finally, eggs are boiled and arranged around the dome. The dish is served with lemon and fresh or pickled chili peppers. Batata mubattana is another dish that consists of fried potato pieces filled with spiced minced meat and covered with egg. Additional common foods and dishes include, Asida is a made up of a cooked wheat flour lump of dough, sometimes with added butter. Breads, including flatbreads Bureek, turnovers Couscous, a North African dish of semolina Ghreyba, main ingredients include chili peppers, such as birds eye chili and serrano peppers, and spices such as garlic paste, coriander, red chili powder, caraway and olive oil. Shakshouka is prepared using aged mutton or lamb jerky as the base of the meal. Regular American/British coffee is available in Libya, and is known as Nescafé, soft drinks and bottled water are also consumed. The Maghrebi mint tea is also a popular drink, all alcoholic drinks have been banned in Libya since 1969, in accordance with Sharia, the religious laws of Islam. Culture of Libya Arab culture List of African cuisines
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Tunisian cuisine
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Tunisian cuisine, the cuisine of Tunisia, is a blend of Mediterranean and desert dwellers culinary traditions. Many of the styles and utensils began to take shape when the ancient tribes were nomads. Nomadic people were limited in their cooking implements by what pots, a tagine in Tunisia, is very different from the Moroccan dish. It is a type of a pie dish, made out of eggs, meat and vegetables, pork is not traditionally used since its consumption is forbidden in the Sharia, the religious laws of Islam. The openness to trade and tourism also brought international cuisines, like the Chinese, Indian, Japanese cuisine, moreover, the intensification of commercial exchanges with Europe and the rest of the world, makes available products until then, unknown or unusual. Like all countries in the Mediterranean basin, Tunisia offers a sun cuisine, based mainly on olive oil, spices, tomatoes, seafood, unlike other North African cuisine, Tunisian food is quite spicy. Westernised harissa almost always uses red chilies because of the trouble obtaining black cumin which is different from standard cumin. Other common spices include cumin or cumin seeds, garlic, caraway seeds, coriander seeds, a recipe for the sauce includes red chili peppers and garlic, flavoured with coriander, cumin, olive oil and often tomatoes. There is an old tale that says a husband can judge his wifes affections by the amount of hot peppers she uses when preparing his food. If the food becomes bland then a man may believe that his no longer loves him. However, when the food is prepared for guests the hot peppers are often toned down to suit the more delicate palate of the visitor. Like harissa or chili peppers, the tomato is also an ingredient integral to the cuisine of Tunisia, Tuna, eggs, olives and various varieties of pasta, cereals, herbs and spices are also ingredients which feature prominently in Tunisian cooking. Tunisian culinary ingredients include the typical elements, Condiments and flavorings, harissa, rose water, orange blossom water, jasmine water. Farm animals, lamb, veal, beef, camel and chicken, fish and seafood, tuna, squid, octopus, anchovies, eel, sardines, mackerel, red snapper, sea bream, sea snails and sea bass. Fruits, lemon, oranges, figs, dates, olives, apricots, pomegranates, herbs, parsley, cilantro, mint, basil, rosemary, oregano, bay leaves and thyme. Nuts, hazelnuts, almonds, chestnuts, pine nuts and peanuts, spices, garlic, anise, saffron, cinnamon, caraway, coriander, cumin, fennel, fenugreek, ginger, white pepper, black pepper, red pepper and cloves. Vegetables, onions, bell peppers, carrots, chickpeas, tomatoes, capers, celery, turnips, potatoes, chili peppers, cucumbers, Tunisians also produce grapes, wheat, barley and orchard fruits, which made into wines, beers, brandy, and apple ciders. Scented waters with dark rose or blossom petals, similar to agua fresca with flowers, have been called scents from heaven
15.
Cuisine of Algeria
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The cuisine of Algeria is a distinct fusion of Berber, Al-Andalous, Mediterranean and Ottoman cuisine. Algerian cuisine differs slightly from region to region, every region has its own cuisine, including Kabylie, Algiers and Constantine. Algerian Cuisine is influenced by various cultures such as Berber, Arabic, most of the Algerian dishes are centered around, lamb or beef, olive oil, fresh vegetables and fresh herbs. Traditionally, no Algerian meal is complete without bread, normally a long French baguette or more traditionally a flat semolina bread, pork consumption is forbidden to devout Muslim inhabitants of Algeria in accordance with Sharia, religious laws of Islam. Algeria, like other Maghreb countries, produces a range of Mediterranean fruits and vegetables. Mediterranean seafood and fish are eaten and produced by the little inshore fishing. Algerians consume an amount of meat, as it is found in almost every dish. Vegetables that are used include potatoes, carrots, onions, tomatoes, zucchini, garlic, cabbages. Vegetables are often used in stews and soups or simply fried or boiled, the Kesra, traditional Algerian flatbread, is the base of Algerian cuisine and eaten at many meals. A popular Algerian meal is merguez, an originally Amazigh or Berber sausage, spices used in Algerian cuisine are dried red chillies of different kinds, caraway, Arabian ras el hanout, black pepper and cumin, among others. Algerians also use tagines, handmade in Algeria, frequently Algerian food is cooked in clay vessels, much like Maghrib cuisine. Algerian cuisine represents the north of the Sahara desert and west of the Nile. Algerian chefs take a lot of pride in cooking skills and methods, there are many different types of Algerian salads, influenced by the French and Turkish, which may include beetroot or anchovies. There are also dishes of Spanish origin in Algeria, like the Gaspacho Oranais, common pastries include makroudh, nougat and Baclava. Halwa are cookies eaten during the month of Ramadan and some pastries are prepared for occasions like for Eid-al-fitr. Algerians are the second greatest consumers of honey per capita in the world, mint tea is generally drunk in the morning and for ceremonies with pastries. Algerians are heavy coffee consumers and Turkish coffee is very popular, fruit juice and soft drinks are very common and are often drunk daily. Arab cuisine Berber cuisine Mediterranean cuisine North African cuisine List of African cuisines Algerian Recipes and Culture on Global Table Adventure
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Moroccan cuisine
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Moroccan cuisine is influenced by Moroccos interactions and exchanges with other cultures and nations over the centuries. Moroccan cuisine is typically a mix of Mediterranean, Arabic, Andalusian, Morocco produces a large range of Mediterranean fruits and vegetables and even some tropical ones. Common meats include beef, goat, mutton and lamb, chicken and seafood, characteristic flavorings include lemon pickle, argan oil, cold-pressed, unrefined olive oil and dried fruits. Spices are used extensively in Moroccan food, helba fenugreek,27 spices are combined to form the celebrated Moroccan spice mixture ras el hanout. Common herbs in Moroccan cuisine include naanaa, maadnous, quesbour, fliyo, merdedouch, kerouiya, ellouiza, a typical lunch meal begins with a series of hot and cold salads, followed by a tagine or Dwaz. Bread is eaten with every meal, often, for a formal meal, a lamb or chicken dish is next, or couscous topped with meat and vegetables on a Friday. A cup of mint tea usually ends the meal. Moroccans either eat with fork, knife and spoon or with their hands using bread as a utensil depending on the dish served, the consumption of pork and alcohol is not common due to religious restrictions. The main Moroccan dish most people are familiar with is couscous, beef is the most commonly eaten red meat in Morocco, usually eaten in a tagine with a wide selection of vegetables. Chicken is also commonly used in tagines, or roasted. Lamb is also consumed, and since Moroccan sheep breeds store most of their fat in their tails, Moroccan lamb does not have the pungent flavour that Western lamb. Since Morocco lies on two coasts, the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, Moroccan cuisine has ample seafood dishes, European pilchard is caught in large but declining quantities. Other fish species include mackerel, anchovy, sardinella, and horse mackerel, bissara is a broad bean-based soup that is also consumed during the colder months of the year. A big part of the meal is bread. Bread in Morocco is principally made from wheat semolina known as khobz. Bakeries are very common throughout Morocco and fresh bread is a staple in every city, town, the most common is whole grain coarse ground or white flour bread or baguettes. There are also a number of breads and pulled unleavened pan-fried breads. In addition, there are dried salted meats and salted preserved meats such as kliia/khlia and gdid, which are used to flavor tagines or used in el ghraif, salads include both raw and cooked vegetables, served either hot or cold
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Egyptian cuisine
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Egyptian cuisine makes heavy use of legumes, vegetables and fruits since Egypts rich Nile valley and delta produce large quantities of these crops in high quality. Bread made from a simple recipe forms the backbone of Egyptian cuisine and it is consumed at almost all Egyptian meals, a working-class or rural Egyptian meal might consist of little more than bread and beans. The local bread is a form of hearty, thick, glutenous pita bread called Eish Masri or Eish Baladi or Baladee rather than the Arabic خبز ḫubz, the word comes from the Semitic root ع-ي-ش ʕ-Ī-Š with the meaning to live, be alive. The word ʿayš itself has the meaning of life, way of living, livelihood, subsistence in Modern Standard and Classical Arabic, folklore holds that this synonymity indicates the centrality of bread to Egyptian life. In modern Egypt, the government subsidizes bread, dating back to a Nasser-era policy, in 2008, a major food crisis caused ever-longer bread lines at government-subsidized bakeries where there would normally be none, occasional fights broke out over bread, leading to fear of rioting. On a culinary level, bread is used as gamosa. Egyptians use bread to scoop up food, sauces, and dips and to wrap kebabs, falafel, most pita breads are baked at high temperatures, causing the flattened rounds of dough to puff up dramatically. When removed from the oven, the layers of baked dough remain separated inside the deflated pita, aish Merahrah is an Egyptian flat bread made with 5-10% ground fenugreek seeds added to maize flour. It is part of the diet of the Egyptian countryside. The loaves are flat and wide, and usually about 50 cm in diameter and this bread can be kept for days in an airtight container. Egyptian cuisine shares similarities with food of the Eastern Mediterranean region, such as rice-stuffed vegetables, grape leaves, shawarma, kebab, ta‘miya, baba ghannoug, some consider kushari - a mixture of rice, lentils, and macaroni - to be the national dish. Ful medames is one of the most popular dishes. Fava bean is used in making falafel, which originated in Egypt. Cow brain and liver is eaten in Egypt, ancient Egyptians are known to have used a lot of garlic and onions in their everyday dishes. Fresh garlic mashed with herbs is used in spicy tomato salad. Garlic fried with coriander is added to molokhiya, a green soup made from finely chopped jute leaves, sometimes with chicken or rabbit. Fried onions can be added to kushari. Other dishes include, Egyptian desserts resemble other Eastern Mediterranean desserts, basbousa, sometimes called harissa, is a spicy dish made from semolina and soaked in a sugar syrup
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Saudi Arabian cuisine
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Saudi Arabian cuisine encompasses the cuisines and foods of Saudi Arabia. The Arabian people have consumed the same type of food for thousands of years, some of the common food items in Saudi Arabian cuisine include wheat, rice, lamb, chicken, yogurt, potatoes and dates. Shawarma and Falafel are two common dishes which are originally Levantine and Egyptian dishes respectively and these two dishes are examples of the influence of foreign residents in Saudis food. Additional foods and dishes include, Traditional coffeehouses used to be ubiquitous, according to the Saudi Arabian Cultural Mission, serving Gahwah in Saudi Arabia is a sign of hospitality and generosity. Traditionally, the beans were roasted, cooled and ground in front of the guests using a mortar. The host would then add cardamom pods to the beans during the grinding process. Once the coffee is brewed, it is poured for guests, today, Gahwah is not prepared in front of the guests, instead it is elegantly served in a Dallah and poured into small cups called Finjan. Drinking tea is also a custom in Saudi Arabia. It is used in casual and formal meetings. The tea can be black and various herbal flavourings may be added. Sheep, goat and camels milk are used by the Bedouin. Apart from the taste it has health benefits. Milk products such as Cheese, Butter, Yoghurt, etc. are also made from it, Yoghurt is normally made into a drink called Laban. It may be taken either Sweet mixed with Vimto or Salted and Smoked, sobia is a cold drink usually made in the Hijaz but now available all over Saudi Arabia especially during Ramadan. Its made from a fermented mixture of Barley/Brown bread, Date palm sap, Herbs. It may be white or colored depending on the flavor. Its also found to have health benefits, Islamic dietary laws forbid the eating of pork and the drinking of alcoholic beverages. This law is enforced throughout Saudi Arabia, according to Islamic law, animals must be butchered in a halal way and blessed before they can be eaten
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Levantine cuisine
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Levantine cuisine is the traditional cuisine of the Levant, known in Arabic as the Bilad ash-Sham and Mashriq. It is found in the states of Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, and parts of southern Turkey near Adana, Gaziantep. In the broader family of Mediterranean cuisine, Cypriot cuisine also has strong Levantine influences, perhaps the most distinctive aspect of Levantine cuisine is meze including tabbouleh, hummus and baba ghanoush. Jean Bottéro, The Oldest Cuisine in the World, Cooking in Mesopotamia, University of Chicago Press,2004, ISBN0226067343
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Israeli cuisine
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Israeli cuisine comprises local dishes by people native to Israel and dishes brought to Israel by Jews from the Diaspora. Since before the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, and particularly since the late 1970s, Israeli cuisine has adopted, and continues to adapt, elements of various styles of Jewish cuisine, particularly the Mizrahi, Sephardic and Ashkenazi styles of cooking. Israel’s culinary traditions comprise foods and cooking methods that span three years of history. Over that time, these traditions have been shaped by influences from Asia, Africa and Europe, biblical and archaeological records provide insight into the culinary life of the region as far back as 968 BCE, in the days of the kings of ancient Israel. During the Second Temple period, Hellenistic and Roman culture heavily influenced cuisine, particularly of the priests, elaborate meals were served that included piquant entrées and alcoholic drinks, fish, beef, meat, pickled and fresh vegetables, olives, and tart or sweet fruits. The food of the ancient Israelites was based on products that still play important roles in modern Israeli cuisine. These were known as the seven species, olives, figs, dates, pomegranates, wheat, barley, the diet, based on locally grown produce, was enhanced by imported spices, readily available due to the country’s position at the crossroads of east-west trade routes. The Jewish community that lived in Ottoman Syria prior to Zionist immigration that began in 1881 was known as the Old Yishuv, Sephardim also established communities in the Old Yishuv. Particularly in Jerusalem, they continued to develop their style, influenced by Ottoman cuisine. This cuisine included pies like sambousak, pastels and burekas, vegetable gratins and stuffed vegetables, and rice and bulgur pilafs, beginning with the First Aliyah in 1881, Jews began immigrating to the area from Eastern Europe in larger numbers, particularly from Poland and Russia. The State of Israel faced enormous military and economic challenges in its years. In this decade, over one million Jewish immigrants, mainly from Arab countries and these adaptations remain as a legacy of that time. Substitutes, such as the wheat-based rice substitute, ptitim, were introduced, additional flavor and nutrition was provided from inexpensive canned tomato paste and puree, hummus, tahina, and mayonnaise in tubes. Meat was scarce, and it was not until the late 1950s that herds of cattle were introduced into the agricultural economy. Khubeza, a variety of the mallow plant, became an important food source during the War of Independence. During the siege of Jerusalem, when convoys of food could not reach the city, Jerusalemites went out to the fields to pick khubeza leaves, which are high in iron and vitamins. The Jerusalem radio station, Kol Hamagen, broadcast instructions for cooking it that were picked up in Jordan convinced the Arabs that the Jews were dying of starvation, in the past decade, food writers in Israel have encouraged the population to prepare khubeza on Israel Independence Day. Local chefs have begun to serve khubeza and other wild plants gathered from the fields in upscale restaurants, the dish from the Independence war is called Ktzitzot Khubeza and still eaten by Israelis today
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Cast-iron cookware
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Cast iron cookware are valued for their heat retention properties, and can be produced and formed with a relatively low level of technology. Seasoning is used to protect bare cast iron from rust and to create a non-stick surface. Types of bare cast iron cookware include panini presses, waffle irons, crepe makers, dutch ovens, frying pans, deep fryers, tetsubin, woks, potjies, karahi, flattop grills, bare cast iron vessels have been used for cooking for over two thousand years. Cast iron cauldrons and cooking pots were valued as items for their durability and their ability to retain heat. In Europe, before the introduction of the stove in the middle of the 19th century, meals were cooked in the hearth or fireplace. This meant that all cooking vessels had to be designed to be suspended on, or in, Cast iron pots were made with handles to allow them to be hung over a fire, or with legs so that they could stand up in the fireplace. Cooking pots and pans with legless, flat bottoms were designed when cooking stoves became popular, Cast iron cookware was especially popular among homemakers and housekeepers during the first half of the 20th century. Most American households had at least one cast iron cooking pan, the Lodge Manufacturing company is currently the only major manufacturer of cast iron cookware in the United States, as most other cookware suppliers use pots and pans made in Asia or Europe. The 20th century also saw the introduction and popularization of enamel-coated cast iron cookware, Cast iron fell out of favor in the 1960s and 1970s, as teflon-coated aluminum non-stick cookware was introduced and quickly became the item of choice in many kitchens. Today, a selection of cookware can be purchased from kitchen suppliers. Because cast iron skillets can develop a non-stick surface, they are also a choice for egg dishes. Other uses of cast iron pans include baking, for instance for making cornbread, cobblers, most bare cast iron pots and pans are cast as a single piece of metal, including the handle. This allows them to be used on both the stovetop and in the oven, likewise, cast iron skillets can double as baking dishes. This differs from other cooking pots, which have varying components that may be damaged by the excessive temperatures of 400 °F or more. An American Dietetic Association study found that cast iron cookware can leach significant amounts of iron into food. The amounts of iron absorbed varied greatly depending on the food, its acidity, its content, how long it was cooked. The iron in spaghetti sauce increased 2,109 percent, while other foods increased less dramatically, for example, people with hemochromatosis should avoid using cast iron cookware because of the iron leaching effect into the food. A seasoned pan has a stick-resistant coating created by polymerized oils, seasoning is a process by which a layer of animal fat or vegetable oil is applied and cooked onto cast iron or carbon steel cookware
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Tajine
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Tajine or tagine is a North African Berber dish which is named after the earthenware pot in which it is cooked. The traditional method of cooking is to place the tagine over coals, and typically the dish includes meat, chicken or fish, because this meal takes a long time to prepare, preparation of the lunch tagine begins as soon as breakfast is over. There are several theories on the origin of the word tajine, from Persian tah-chin ته چین meaning laid at the bottom, referring to the way it is cooked. Tahchin is a Persian food made with rice and meat, from Persian tayān تیان meaning skillet or large pan. This word is Arabicized as ṭājin and ṭayjin and ṭajīn. from Ancient Greek, τάγηνον, the cover is designed to return all condensation to the bottom. Tajine is traditionally cooked over hot charcoal leaving a space between the coals and the tajine pot to avoid having the temperature rise too quickly. Large bricks of charcoal are used, specifically for their ability to stay hot for hours, other methods are to use a tajine in a slow oven or on a gas or electric stove top, on the lowest heat necessary to keep the stew simmering gently. A diffuser, a circular utensil placed between the tajine and the flame, is used to distribute the stoves heat. European manufacturers have created tajines with heavy cast-iron bottoms that can be heated on a stove to a high temperature. Tajine cooking may be replicated by using a slow cooker or similar item, many ceramic tajines are decorative items as well as functional cooking vessels. Some tajines, however, are intended only to be used as serving dishes. Moroccan tajine dishes are slow-cooked savory stews, typically made with sliced meat, spices, nuts, and dried fruits are also used. Common spices include ginger, cumin, turmeric, cinnamon, paprika and chili are used in vegetable tajines. The sweet and sour combination is common in dishes like lamb with dates and spices. Tajines are generally served with bread, because the domed or cone-shaped lid of the tajine pot traps steam and returns the condensed liquid to the pot, a minimal amount of water is needed to cook meats and vegetables. This method of cooking is practical in areas where water supplies are limited or where water is not yet available. What Tunisians refer to as a tajine is very different from the Moroccan dish, tunisian tajine is more like an Italian frittata or an eggah. Then something starchy is added to thicken the juices, common thickeners include cannellini beans, chickpeas, breadcrumbs or cubed potatoes
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Levant
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The Levant is an approximate historical geographical term referring to a large area in the Eastern Mediterranean. The term Levant entered English in the late 15th century from French and it derives from the Italian Levante, meaning rising, implying the rising of the sun in the east. As such, it is equivalent to the Arabic term Mashriq. Eventually the term was restricted to the Muslim countries of Syria-Palestine, in 1581, England set up the Levant Company to monopolize commerce with the Ottoman Empire. The name Levant States was used to refer to the French mandate over Syria and this is probably the reason why the term Levant has come to be used synonymously with Syria-Palestine. Some scholars misunderstood the term thinking that it derives from the name of Lebanon, today the term is typically used in conjunction with prehistoric or ancient historical references. It does not include Anatolia, the Caucasus Mountains, or any part of the Arabian Peninsula proper, the Sinai Peninsula is sometimes included. The Levant has been described as the crossroads of western Asia, the eastern Mediterranean, and northeast Africa, the populations of the Levant share not only the geographic position, but cuisine, some customs, and a very long history. They are often referred to as Levantines, the term Levant, which appeared in English in 1497, originally meant the East in general or Mediterranean lands east of Italy. It is borrowed from the French levant rising, referring to the rising of the sun in the east, the phrase is ultimately from the Latin word levare, meaning lift, raise. Similar etymologies are found in Greek Ἀνατολή, in Germanic Morgenland, in Italian, in Hungarian Kelet, in Spanish and Catalan Levante and Llevant, most notably, Orient and its Latin source oriens meaning east, is literally rising, deriving from Latin orior rise. The notion of the Levant has undergone a process of historical evolution in usage, meaning. While the term Levantine originally referred to the European residents of the eastern Mediterranean region, it came to refer to regional native. The English Levant Company was founded in 1581 to trade with the Ottoman Empire, at this time, the Far East was known as the Upper Levant. In early 19th-century travel writing, the term sometimes incorporated certain Mediterranean provinces of the Ottoman empire, in 19th-century archaeology, it referred to overlapping cultures in this region during and after prehistoric times, intending to reference the place instead of any one culture. The French mandate of Syria and Lebanon was called the Levant states, today, Levant is the term typically used by archaeologists and historians with reference to the history of the region. Scholars have adopted the term Levant to identify the region due to it being a wider, yet relevant, archaeologists seeking a neutral orientation that is neither biblical nor national have used terms such as Levantine archaeology and archaeology of the Southern Levant. Two academic journals were launched, Journal of Levantine Studies, published by the Van Leer Jerusalem Institute and The Levantine Review
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History of the Jews in Tunisia
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The history of the Jews in Tunisia goes back to the Punic era. As of 2011,700 Jews were living in Tunis and 1,000 on the island of Djerba, the community formerly used its own dialect of Arabic. The vast majority of Tunisian Jews have relocated to Israel and have switched to using Hebrew as their home language. Tunisian Jews living in France typically use French as their first language, a tradition among the descendants of the first Jewish settlers was that their ancestors settled in that part of North Africa long before the destruction of the First Temple in the 6th century BCE. After the fall of the Second Temple, many exiled Jews settled in Tunis and engaged in agriculture, cattle-raising and they were divided into clans governed by their respective heads, and had to pay the Romans a capitation tax of 2 shekels. After the overthrow of the Vandals by Belisarius in 534, Justinian I issued his edict of persecution in which the Jews were classed with the Arians and the Pagans. As elsewhere in the Roman Empire, the Jews of Roman Africa were romanized after hundreds of years of subjection and would have adopted Latinized names, worn the toga, and spoken Latin. Al-Qayrawani relates that at the time of the conquest of Hippo Zaritus by Hasan ibn al-Numan in 698 the governor of that district was a Jew. When Tunis came under the dominion of the Arabs, or of the Arabian caliphate of Baghdad, the victorious Idris avenged this defection by attacking the Jews in their cities. The Jews were required to pay a capitation-tax and provide a number of virgins annually for Idris harem. The Jewish tribe Ubaid Allah preferred to migrate to the east rather than to submit to Idris, according to a tradition, in 793 Imam Idris was poisoned at the command of caliph Harun al-Rashid, and circa 800 the Aghlabite dynasty was established. Under the rule of this dynasty, which lasted until 909, as of old, Bizerta had a Jewish governor, and the political influence of the Jews made itself felt in the administration of the country. Especially prosperous at that time was the community of Kairwan, which was established soon after the foundation of city by Uqba bin Nafi in the year 670. A period of reaction set in with the accession of the Zirite Al-Muizz, the accession of the Almohad dynasty to the throne of the Maghreb provinces in 1146 proved disastrous to the Jews of Tunis. Accordingly, Jews as well as Christians were compelled either to embrace Islam or to leave the country, abd al-Mumins successors pursued the same course, and their severe measures resulted either in emigration or in forcible conversions. Soon becoming suspicious of the sincerity of the new converts, the Almohadis compelled them to wear a special garb, under the Hafsid dynasty, which was established in 1236 as a breakaway from the Almohad dynasty, the condition of the Jews greatly improved. Besides Kairwan, there were at that time important communities in Mehdia, Kalaa, the island of Djerba, considered at first as foreigners, the Jews were not permitted to settle in the interior of Tunis, but had to live in a building called a funduk. This quarter, called the Hira, constituted until 1857 the ghetto of Tunis, in the 14th and 15th centuries, the Jews of Tunis were treated more cruelly than those elsewhere in the Maghreb
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Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries
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A number of small-scale Jewish exoduses began in many Middle Eastern countries early in the 20th century with the only substantial aliyah coming from Yemen and Syria. Prior to the creation of Israel in 1948, approximately 800,000 Jews were living in lands that now make up the Arab world, a further 200,000 lived in Pahlavi Iran and the Republic of Turkey. The first large-scale exoduses took place in the late 1940s and early 1950s, primarily from Iraq, Yemen, in these cases over 90% of the Jewish population left, despite the necessity of leaving their property behind. Two hundred and sixty thousand Jews from Arab countries immigrated to Israel between 1948 and 1951, accounting for 56% of the immigration to the newly founded state. Later waves peaked at different times in different regions over the subsequent decades, the peak of the exodus from Egypt occurred in 1956 following the Suez Crisis. The exodus from the other North African Arab countries peaked in the 1960s, Six hundred thousand Jews from Arab and Muslim countries had reached Israel by 1972. In total, of the 900,000 Jews who left Arab and other Muslim countries,600,000 settled in the new state of Israel, and 300,000 immigrated to France and the United States. In 2009, only 26,000 Jews remained in Arab countries, the history of the exodus has been politicized, given its proposed relevance to the historical narrative of the Arab–Israeli conflict. At the time of the Muslim conquests of the 7th century, ancient Jewish communities had existed in parts of the Middle East. Jews under Islamic rule were given the status of dhimmi, along with certain other pre-Islamic religious groups, as such, these groups were accorded certain rights as People of the Book. During waves of persecution in Medieval Europe, many Jews found refuge in Muslim lands, though in times and places, Jews fled persecution in Muslim lands. The French began the conquest of Algeria in 1830, the decree began a wave of Pied-Noir-led anti-Jewish protests, which the Muslim community did not participate in, to the disappointment of the European agitators. Though there were cases of Muslim-led anti-Jewish riots, such as in Constantine in 1934 when 34 Jews were killed. Neighbouring Husainid Tunisia began to come under European influence in the late 1860s, around a third of Tunisian Jews took French citizenship during the protectorate. Morocco, which had remained independent during the 19th century, became a French protectorate in 1912, French penetration into Morocco between 1906 and 1912 created significant Morocco Muslim resentment, resulting in nationwide protests and military unrest. During the period a number of anti-European or anti-French protests extended to include anti-Jewish manifestations, such as in Casablanca, Oujda and Fes in 1907-08, the Alliance Israelite Universelle, founded in France in 1860, set up schools in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia as early as 1863. During World War II, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya came under Nazi or Vichy French occupation, in Libya, the Axis powers established labor camps to which many Jews were forcibly deported. In other areas Nazi propaganda targeted Arab populations to incite them against British or French rule, national Socialist propaganda contributed to the transfer of racial antisemitism to the Arab world and is likely to have unsettled Jewish communities
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History of the Jews in Algeria
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The History of the Jews in Algeria refers to the history of the Jewish community of Algeria, which dates to the 1st century CE. Following Algerian independence in 1962, most Algerias Jews, having been granted French citizenship in 1870, the vast majority moved to France, and the rest moved to Israel. Those who remained resided mostly in Algiers, while some settled in Blida, Constantine, in the 1990s, the trials of Algerian Civil War led most of the remaining Jews to emigrate. In 1994, the rebel Armed Islamic Groups 1994 declaration of war on all non-Muslims in the country was an event for Jews remaining in Algeria. That year, the Algerian Jews abandoned their last synagogue, the Great Synagogue of Algiers, today, most Jews in France are of North African origin, and consequently, most of the recent immigration from France to Israel consists of Jews of North African origin. There is evidence of Jewish settlements in Algeria since at least the Roman period, epitaphs have been found in archeological excavations that attest to Jews in the first centuries of the common era. Berber lands were said to welcome Christians and Jews very early from the Roman Empire, the destruction of the second temple in Jerusalem by Titus in 70, and thereafter by the Kitos wars in 117 AD reinforced Jewish settlement in North Africa and the Mediterranean. Early descriptions of the Rustamid capital, Tahert, note that Jews were found there, centuries later, the Geniza Letters mention many Algerian Jewish families. They escaped to the Maghreb and settled in the Byzantine Empire and it is debated whether Jews influenced the Berber population, making converts among them. In that century, Islamic armies conquered the whole Maghreb and Iberian peninsula, the Jewish population was placed under the Muslim domination in constant cultural exchanges with Al Andalus and the Near East. Later many Sephardic Jews were forced to take refuge in Algeria from the persecutions in Spain of Catalonia, Valencia and Balearic Islands in 1391, together with the Moriscos, they thronged to the ports of North Africa, and mingled with native Jewish people. In the 16th century there were large Jewish communities in such as Oran, Bejaïa. Jews were also present in the cities of the such as Tlemcen and Constantine and as far spread as Touggourt. Some Jews in Oran preserved Ladino language—which was a uniquely conservative dialect of Spanish—until the 19th century, Jewish merchants did well financially in late Ottoman Algiers. The French attack on Algeria was provoked by the Deys demands that the French government pay its large outstanding debts to two Jewish merchants. Between the 16th and 17th centuries, richer Jews from Livorno in Italy started settling in Algeria, commercial trading and exchanges between Europe and the Ottoman Empire reinforced the Jewish community. Later again in the 19th century, many Sephardic Jews from Tetouan settled in Algeria, creating new communities, in 1830, the Algerian Jewish population was between 15,000 and 17,000, mostly congregated in the coastal area. Some 6,500 Jews lived in Algiers, where they made up 20% of the population,2,000 in Oran,3,000 in Constantine, after their conquest, the French government rapidly restructured the Ottoman millet system
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Moroccan Jews
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Moroccan Jews are the Jews who live or lived in the area of North Africa known as Morocco. The first Jews migrated to this area after the destruction of the First Temple in Jerusalem and this second immigration wave deeply modified Moroccan jewry, who largely embraced the Andalusian Sephardic liturgy, making the Moroccan Jews switch to a mostly Sephardic identity. At its peak in the 1940s, Moroccos Jewish population exceeded 250,000, the vast majority of Moroccan Jews now live in Israel, where they constitute the second-largest Jewish community. Other communities are found in France, Canada, Spain, the United States and South America, mainly in Venezuela, Brazil, Moroccan Jews constitute an ancient community, immigrating to the region as early as 70 CE. Until the 1950s the majority of Moroccos Jews were still living in Morocco, after Israels independence in 1948, and due to domestic strife in the 1950s, the next several decades saw waves of Jewish emigration to Israel, France and Canada. Moroccan Jews emigrated for a variety of reasons, some have emigrated to Israel for religious reasons, some faced persecution, and others left for better economic prospects than they faced in post-colonial Morocco. With every Arab-Israeli war, tensions between Arabs and Jews would rise, sparking more Jewish emigration, by the time of the Yom Kippur War in 1973, the majority of Moroccos Jewish population had emigrated. A small community of around 2, 000-2,500 Jews live in Morocco today, however, in a rapidly increasing trend, young men from the community are emigrating to Israel and France. As a protectorate of France, parts of Morocco were heavily influenced by French culture, traditionally, the Jews were classified as being French-Moroccan or Spanish-Moroccan depending on where in Morocco they lived, and remnants of these classifications can be felt today. These differences are reflected in language, foods, last names, early photographs of Moroccan Jewish families, taken in the early 20th century by German explorer and photographer, Hermann Burchardt, are now held at the Ethnological Museum of Berlin. Morocco, In 2012 it was estimated that 2, 000-2,500 Jews still lived in Morocco, other towns are said to have smaller, aging populations. Israel, The 1950s saw large waves of Jewish emigration from Morocco to Israel, many Moroccan Jews were transferred to peripheral development towns while others settled in larger, established cities. Today, Jews of Moroccan descent can be found all across Israel, France, Large communities in France include Paris, Marseille, Strasbourg, Lyon and Nice. Argentina, Mainly in Buenos Aires and Rosario, Brazil, Amazonian Jews mainly in Belem, Manaus and Rio de Janeiro, with small communities scattered throughout the Amazon region. In 2009 made 200 years of the first wave of immigration to Amazon region, Canada, In the 1950s Canada began extending visas to Jews from Morocco. Large communities developed in Montreal and Toronto, moroccans were attracted to Canada because of its high quality of life and to Montreal in particular because of the French language. Toronto is known for its significant Moroccan population originating from such as Tangiers. In recent past, however, an emergence of French-Moroccan musical liturgy, Gibraltar, The Jewish community in Gibraltar originates from Tangiers and Tetouan
28.
Claudia Roden
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Claudia Roden is a cookbook writer and cultural anthropologist based in the United Kingdom. She was born in 1936 in Cairo, Egypt, after completing her formal education in Paris, she moved to London to study at Saint Martins School of Art. She is best known as the author of Middle Eastern cookbooks including A Book of Middle Eastern Food, The New Book of Middle Eastern Food and Arabesque—Sumptuous Food from Morocco, Turkey and she has also been a food writer and a cooking show presenter on the BBC. She now lives in Hampstead Garden Suburb, London, Roden is a Patron of London-based HIV charity The Food Chain. She is co-chair with Paul Levy of the Oxford Symposium on Food and she is an Honorary Fellow of the School of Oriental and African Studies of the University of London. In 1999 Roden was honoured with a Prince Claus Award from the Prince Claus Fund, jewish Women, A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia 20 March 2009. Full text retrieved January 5,2010 Claudia Roden interview by Máirtín Mac Con Iomaire Take the Spice Route - article by Roden Capsule biography at Penguin Books Capsule biography at the BBC
29.
Hummus
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Hummus is a Levantine and Egyptian food dip or spread made from cooked, mashed chickpeas or other beans, blended with tahini, olive oil, lemon juice, salt and garlic. Today, it is throughout the Middle East, North Africa. It can be found in most grocery stores in North America, Hummus comes from the Arabic word meaning chickpeas, and the complete name of the prepared spread in Arabic is ḥummuṣ bi ṭaḥīna which means chickpeas with tahini. Spelling of the word in English can be inconsistent, Hummus is the most common spelling in both American and British English. The spelling houmous is however common enough in British English to be listed as a less common spelling in some UK dictionaries but not, for example. Some US dictionaries also list other spellings such as humus, hommus, and hommos, the earliest known recipes for a dish similar to hummus bi tahina are recorded in cookbooks written in Cairo in the 13th century. Hummus has been connected to the Ayyubid Sultan, Saladin, and it is also served by rolling it out and letting it sit overnight, which presumably gives it a very different texture from hummus bi tahina. Indeed, its basic ingredients—chickpeas, sesame, lemon, and garlic—have been eaten in the region for millennia, as an appetizer and dip, hummus is scooped with flatbread, such as pita. It is also served as part of a meze or as an accompaniment to falafel, grilled chicken, outside the Middle East, it is sometimes served with tortilla chips or crackers. Hummus ful is topped with a made from fava beans boiled until soft. Hummus masubha/mashawsha is a mixture of paste, warm chickpeas. Hummus is a dip in Israel and Egypt where it is eaten with pita bread. Hummus is a part of everyday meals in Israel. A significant reason for the popularity of hummus in Israel is that it is made from ingredients that, following Kashrut and it is seen as almost equally popular among Israeli Jews and Israeli Arabs. Though not a traditional Jewish food, it is popular in Israel to be found in numerous hummus-only restaurants across the country and is regarded as a national food. One of the fancier hummus versions available is hummus masabacha, made with lemon-spiked tahini garnished with whole chick peas, a sprinkling of paprika, for Palestinians and Jordanians, hummus has long been a staple food, often served warm, with bread for breakfast, lunch or dinner. All of the ingredients in hummus are easily found in Palestinian gardens, farms and markets, in Palestine, hummus is usually garnished, with olive oil, nana mint leaves, paprika, and parsley. A related dish popular in Palestine and Jordan is laban ma hummus, One author calls hummus, One of the most popular and best-known of all Syrian dishes and a must on any mezzeh table
30.
Falafel
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Falafel is a deep-fried ball, doughnut or patty made from ground chickpeas, fava beans, or both. The falafel balls are topped with salads, pickled vegetables, hot sauce, Falafel balls may also be eaten alone as a snack or served as part of a meze. Falafel is a food eaten throughout the Middle East. The fritters are now found around the world as a replacement for meat, the word Falāfil is the plural of Filfil, meaning pepper. Thus in origin, falafel would be rollers, little balls, a Coptic Egyptian origin has recently been proposed via the unattested phrase *pha la phel, meaning of many beans. The Arabic word falāfil has been globalized into many other languages, in English, it is first attested in 1941. Falafel is known as taʿamiya in Egypt, the word falafel can refer to the fritters themselves or to sandwiches filled with them. The origin of falafel is unknown and controversial, a common theory is that the dish originated in Egypt, possibly eaten by Copts as a replacement for meat during Lent. As Alexandria is a city, it was possible to export the dish. The dish later migrated northwards to the Levant, where replaced the fava beans. It has been speculated that its history may go back to Pharaonic Egypt, Falafel grew to become a common form of street food or fast food in Egypt and the Middle East. The croquettes are regularly eaten as part of meze, during Ramadan, falafel balls are sometimes eaten as part of the iftar, the meal that breaks the daily fast after sunset. Falafel became so popular that McDonalds for a time served a McFalafel in its breakfast menu all over Egypt, Falafel is still popular with the Copts, who cook large volumes during religious holidays. Debates over the origin of falafel have sometimes devolved into political discussions about the relationship between Arabs and Israelis, in modern times, falafel has been considered a national dish of Egypt, Palestine, and of Israel. Resentment exists amongst many Palestinians for what they see as the appropriation of their dish by Israelis, additionally, the Lebanese Industrialists Association has raised assertions of copyright infringement against Israel concerning falafel. Falafel plays an role in Israeli cuisine and is widely considered to be the national dish of the country. While falafel is not a specifically Jewish dish, it was eaten by Mizrahi Jews in their countries of origin, later, it was adopted by early Jewish immigrants to Palestine. Due to its being entirely plant based, it is considered pareve under Jewish dietary laws, according to Jonathan Kis-Lev, falafel and hummus are often used as symbols for peace, as well as tools for bridging Israelis and Palestinians
31.
Ottoman Empire
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After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror, at the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries. With Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, while the empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society, however, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of their European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian Empires. While the Empire was able to hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent. Starting before World War I, but growing increasingly common and violent during it, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks. The word Ottoman is an anglicisation of the name of Osman I. Osmans name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān, in Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye, or alternatively ʿOsmānlı Devleti. In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti, the Turkish word for Ottoman originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century, and subsequently came to be used to refer to the empires military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term Turk was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population, the term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish-speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond. In Western Europe, the two names Ottoman Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favored both in formal and informal situations and this dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–23, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. Most scholarly historians avoid the terms Turkey, Turks, and Turkish when referring to the Ottomans, as the power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum declined in the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these beyliks, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish tribal leader Osman, osmans early followers consisted both of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, many but not all converts to Islam. Osman extended the control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River and it is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, due to the scarcity of the sources which survive from this period. One school of thought which was popular during the twentieth century argued that the Ottomans achieved success by rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam, in the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. Osmans son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326 and this conquest meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387, the Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe
32.
Yemen
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Yemen, officially known as the Republic of Yemen, is an Arab country in Western Asia, occupying South Arabia, the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula. Yemen is the second-largest country in the peninsula, occupying 527,970 km2, the coastline stretches for about 2,000 km. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the north, the Red Sea to the west, the Gulf of Aden and Arabian Sea to the south, although Yemens constitutionally stated capital is the city of Sanaa, the city has been under rebel control since February 2015. Because of this, Yemens capital has been relocated to the port city of Aden. Yemens territory includes more than 200 islands, the largest of these is Socotra, Yemen was the home of the Sabaeans, a trading state that flourished for over a thousand years and probably also included parts of modern-day Ethiopia and Eritrea. In 275 AD, the region came under the rule of the later Jewish-influenced Himyarite Kingdom, Christianity arrived in the fourth century, whereas Judaism and local paganism were already established. Islam spread quickly in the century and Yemenite troops were crucial in the expansion of the early Islamic conquests. Administration of Yemen has long been notoriously difficult, several dynasties emerged from the ninth to 16th centuries, the Rasulid dynasty being the strongest and most prosperous. The country was divided between the Ottoman and British empires in the twentieth century. The Zaydi Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen was established after World War I in North Yemen before the creation of the Yemen Arab Republic in 1962, South Yemen remained a British protectorate known as the Aden Protectorate until 1967 when it became an independent state and later, a Marxist state. The two Yemeni states united to form the modern republic of Yemen in 1990, Yemen is a developing country, and the poorest country in the Middle East. Under the rule of President Ali Abdullah Saleh, Yemen was described as a kleptocracy, according to the 2009 international corruption Perception Index by Transparency International, Yemen ranked 164 out of 182 countries surveyed. President Saleh stepped down and the powers of the presidency were transferred to Vice President Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi, the transitional process was disrupted by conflicts between the Houthis and al-Islah, as well as the al-Qaeda insurgency. In September 2014, the Houthis took over Sanaa, later declaring themselves in control of the government in a coup détat, since then, a Saudi-led intervention has taken place, however, it could not stop the civil war. Instead, the Saudis and the others have destroyed some hospitals, schools and homes, Yemen was mentioned in Old South Arabian inscriptions as Yamnat. In Arabic literature, the term includes much greater territory than that of the republic of Yemen. It stretches from the northern Asir Region in southwestern Saudi Arabia to Dhofar Governorate in southern Oman, one etymology derives Yemen from yumn, meaning felicity, as much of the country is fertile. The Romans called it Arabia Felix, as opposed to Arabia Deserta, al-Yaman significantly plays on the notion of the land to the right, when in Mecca facing the dawn, complementary to Al-Sham, the Land to the Left, referring to the Levant
33.
Zhug
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Zhug, skhug or sahawiq is a Middle Eastern hot sauce originating in Yemeni cuisine. Brought to Israel by Yemenite Jews, the condiment is now a staple of Israeli cuisine and it is also very popular in the Arabian Peninsula. In the Gulf region it is also called daqqus and its color may be red or green depending on the type of peppers used in its preparation. The respective varieties are called skhug adom and skhug yarok in Israel, in Israel, sahawiq is also sometimes referred to by the generic term harif. It is a condiment at Israeli falafel and shawarma stands. Traditional Yemenite cooks prepare sahawiq using two stones, a stone used as a work surface and a smaller one for crushing the ingredients. Other alternatives are a mortar and pestle or a food processor, the Jews of Yemen ascribed medicinal properties to chili pepper. According to Yemenite Jewish folklore, the Jews of Yemen survived a famine, subsisting on tomatoes, hilbeh. According to another legend, an epidemic struck Yemen but the Jews were spared due to their extensive use of these foods. The chili pepper plant was believed to help the body withstand illness, improve vitality and aid digestion, as well as prevent and eliminate intestinal parasites
34.
Huevos rancheros
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Huevos rancheros is a popular breakfast dish consisting of eggs served in the style of the traditional large mid-morning fare on rural Mexican farms. The basic dish is composed of fried eggs served upon lightly fried corn tortillas topped with a tomato-chili sauce, refried beans, Mexican-style rice, and slices of avocado or guacamole are common accompaniments. As the popularity of the dish spread beyond Mexico, variations using wheat flour instead of corn. Non-Mexican additions such as cheese, sour cream, and lettuce also have become common beyond the native range. Huevos divorciados, are two eggs served in the same style as huevos rancheros but with a different sauce for each egg – usually a salsa roja. Somewhat similar dishes are huevos motuleños of Yucatan and New Mexican enchiladas montadas, ISBN 0-87131-333-2 Paddleford, Clementine, How America Eats, Charles Scribners Sons Huevos Rancheros Recipe
35.
Menemen (food)
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Menemen is a traditional Turkish dish which includes eggs, tomato, green peppers, and spices such as ground black pepper, ground red pepper, salt and oregano. Onion, garlic, Beyaz peynir and Turkish charcuterie products such as sucuk or pastırma may be added and it is cooked with olive oil or sunflower oil. The dish is similar to shakshouka, menemen is commonly eaten for breakfast and served with bread. The addition of onions is mostly when menemen is not eaten at breakfast, onions are sauteed with the heated butter or oil, then the green peppers. Once the onions become soft and lighter in colour, the tomatoes, tomatoes should become very soft and also change colour. Finally the eggs and spices are added, mixed with the other ingredients, the eggs should be fully cooked but not dry. In restaurants, menemen is usually cooked to order and served in the single-serving metal pans they are cooked in, huevos rancheros List of egg dishes Piperade Scrambled eggs Shakshouka
36.
Doubleday (publisher)
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Doubleday is an American publishing company founded as Doubleday & McClure Company in 1897 that by 1947 was the largest in the United States. It published the work of mostly U. S. authors under a number of imprints, in 2009 Doubleday was merged with Knopf Publishing Group to form the Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. The firm was founded as Doubleday & McClure Company in 1897 by Frank Nelson Doubleday, one of their first bestsellers was The Days Work by Rudyard Kipling. Other authors published by the company in its early years include W. Somerset Maugham, theodore Roosevelt, Jr. later served as a vice-president of the company. In 1900, the company became Doubleday, Page & Company when Walter Hines Page joined as a new partner, in 1922, the founders son, Nelson Doubleday, joined the firm. In 1910, Doubleday, Page, and Co. moved its operations, the Doubleday company purchased much of the land on the east side of Franklin Avenue, and estate homes were built for many of its executives on Fourth Street. In 1916, company co-founder and Garden City resident Walter Hines Page was named Ambassador to Great Britain, in 1927, Doubleday merged with the George H. Doran Company, creating Doubleday, Doran, then the largest publishing business in the English-speaking world. In 1946, the company became Doubleday and Company, Nelson Doubleday, Jr. resigned as president, but continued as chairman of the board until his death on January 11,1949. Douglas Black took over and was president from 1946 to 1963, by 1947, Doubleday was the largest publisher in the US, with annual sales of over 30 million books. In 1980, the company bought the New York Mets baseball team and it defeated the Boston Red Sox to win the World Series in 1986 in a classic 7-game contest. The company had offices in London and Paris and wholly owned subsidiaries in Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, with joint ventures in the UK and the Netherlands. Doubleday sold the company to Bertelsmann in 1986, and teamed up with minority owner Fred Wilpon to buy the Mets in his own name. In 1988, portions of the firm part of the Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group. In late 2008 and early 2009, the Doubleday imprint was merged with Knopf Publishing Group to form the Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, image Books, Catholic Books—still a Doubleday unit as part of Doubleday Religious Publishing Nan A. Talese/Doubleday, a literary imprint established in 1990. Talese, the publisher and editorial director, is a senior vice president of Doubleday
37.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
38.
The Sydney Morning Herald
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The Sydney Morning Herald is a daily compact newspaper published by Fairfax Media in Sydney, Australia. Founded in 1831 as the Sydney Herald, the SMH is the oldest continuously published newspaper in Australia, the newspaper is published six days a week. It is available at outlets in Sydney, regional New South Wales, Canberra, the Sydney Morning Herald includes a variety of supplements, including the magazines Good Weekend, and Sunday Life. By February 2016, average circulation had fallen to 104,000, similarWeb rates the site as the fifth most visited news website in Australia and as the 42nd newspapers website globally, attracting more than 15 million visitors per month. In 1931 a Centenary Supplement was published, the original four-page weekly had a print run of 750. In 1840, the newspaper began to publish daily, in 1841, an Englishman named John Fairfax purchased the operation, renaming it The Sydney Morning Herald the following year. Fairfax, whose family were to control the newspaper for almost 150 years, based his editorial policies upon principles of candour, honesty and we have no wish to mislead, no interest to gratify by unsparing abuse or indiscriminate approbation. During the decade 1890, Donald Murray worked there, the SMH was late to the trend of printing news rather than just advertising on the front page, doing so from 15 April 1944. Of the countrys metropolitan dailies, only The West Australian was later in making the switch, in 1949, the newspaper launched a Sunday edition, The Sunday Herald. Four years later, this was merged with the newly acquired Sun newspaper to create The Sun-Herald, in 1995, the company launched the newspapers web edition smh. com. au. The site has grown to include interactive and multimedia features beyond the content in the print edition. Around the same time, the organisation moved from Jones Street to new offices at Darling Park and built a new printing press at Chullora, the SMH has since moved with other Sydney Fairfax divisions to a building at Darling Island. In May 2007, Fairfax Media announced it would be moving from a format to the smaller compact or tabloid-size, in the footsteps of The Times. Fairfax Media dumped these plans later in the year, however, in June 2012, Fairfax Media again announced it planned to shift both broadsheet newspapers to tabloid size, in March 2013. Fairfax also announced it would cut staff across the group by 1,900 over three years and erect paywalls around the papers websites. The subscription type is to be a model, limiting readers to a number of free stories per month, with a payment required for further access. In July 2013 it was announced that the SMHs news director, Darren Goodsir, would become Editor-in-Chief, on 22 February 2014, the final Saturday edition was produced in broadsheet format with this too converted to compact format on 1 March 2014. Ahead of the decommissioning of the plant at Chullora in June 2014
39.
The Jewish Chronicle
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The Jewish Chronicle is a London-based Jewish weekly newspaper. Founded in 1841, it is the oldest continuously published Jewish newspaper in the world, the newspaper is published every Friday providing news, views, social, cultural and sports reports, as well as editorials and a spectrum of readers opinions on the letter page. It is independent and owned by the Kessler Foundation, a charitable trust in the United Kingdom which has control of the newspaper. In 1881 the leaders of the Jewish community in London were being criticised for not campaigning against the pogroms that were taking place in the Russian Empire, public meetings were then held across the country and Jewish and Christian leaders in Britain spoke out against the atrocities. The average number of copies sold per week is estimated to be in the region of 32,000, the newspapers website includes paid-for searchable archives of all editions from the first issue to the present, making it valuable for Anglo-Jewish genealogists and historians. The website was launched in 2000 and has won three successive Weekly Newspaper on the Web awards, the JC sponsors the Jewish Sunday league system in London, known as the Maccabi Football League. The newspaper has seen as a firm and influential champion of Zionism. In 2014 the paper published an advertisement for the Disasters Emergency Committees Gaza appeal, the editorial stated that Almost alone in the British media the JC has stressed Israels right to defend herself and sought to explain why Israel was faced with no choice but to take action in Gaza. In 1981, the published an interview with then Prime Minister. Thatcher was questioned regarding the state of Israel and how Conservative policy affected the Jewish community, in September 1999, it was the first non-Israeli newspaper to conduct an interview with Ehud Barak during his term as Prime Minister of Israel. In December 2007, the published an interview with the Labour Party donor. In July 2013, The Jewish Chronicle hosted an audience with UKIP leader Nigel Farage, Farage was interviewed by editor Stephen Pollard, and took questions from the audience. An apology was published in the newspaper on 31 May and on its website on 30 May
40.
Brik
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Brik is a Tunisian dish consisting of thin pastry around a filling, commonly deep fried. The best-known version is the egg brik, an egg in a triangular pastry pocket with chopped onion, tuna, harissa. With a slightly different shape, but with identical ingredients and method of preparation, brik pastry is made by slapping a sticky lump of dough onto a hot non-stick surface in overlapping circles to produce the desired size and cooked for a short amount of time. The brik dough sheets are referred to as malsouka or Warka, typical fillings include tuna, ground meat, raw egg, chicken, or anchovies garnished with harissa, capers, or cheese
41.
Couscous
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Couscous is a North African Berber dish of small steamed balls of semolina, usually served with a stew spooned on top. Couscous is a food throughout the North African cuisines of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Mauritania and Libya. The original name may be derived from the Berber word Seksu, meaning well rolled, well formed, numerous different names and pronunciations for couscous exist around the world. Couscous is /ˈkʊskʊs/ or /ˈkuːskuːs/ in the United Kingdom and only the latter in the United States, the origin of couscous is uncertain. It may have been invented by the Berbers, lucie Bolens affirms that Berbers were preparing couscous as early as 238 to 149 BC, describing primitive couscous pots found in tombs dating back to the reign of the Berber King Massinissa. Nevertheless, Charles Perry states that couscous originated between the end of the Zirid dynasty and the rise of the Almohadian dynasty between the eleventh and the thirteenth centuries, to this day, couscous is known as the North Africa national dish. Couscous was known to the Nasrid royalty in Granada as well, and in the 13th century a Syrian historian from Aleppo includes four references for couscous. Today, in Egypt and the Middle East, couscous is known and it is also common in Western Africa whence it has spread into Central Africa. It is the dish of the Maghreb countries. Couscous reached Turkey from Syria to in the 16th century and is eaten in most of the Turkish southern provinces, in Rome Bartolomeo Scappis culinary guide of 1570 describes a Moorish dish, succussu. One of the earliest references to couscous in France is in Brittany, but it made an earlier appearance in Provence, where the traveler Jean-Jacques Bouchard wrote of eating it in Toulon in 1630. Couscous was originally made from millet, historians have different opinions as to when wheat began to replace the use of millet. The conversion seems to have occurred sometime in the 20th century, Couscous seems to have a North African origin. Archaeological evidence dating back to the 10th century, consisting of kitchen utensils needed to prepare this dish, has found in this part of the world. Ibn Battuta statement of from it kuskusu and porridge are made This quotation contains what may be the earliest mention of couscous in Western Africa, Ibn Battuta was the greatest traveler and travel writer of his era. His Rihlah documents a lifetime of travels and employment in every Muslim society and he traveled to Western Africa in the early 1350s, his writings of that journey are an important source for modern historians studying medieval Africa. This quotation comes from the translation in Ibn Battuta in Black Africa by Said Hamdun and he buys from them what he likes, but not rice, as eating the rice is harmful to white men and the fûnî is better than it. Even today in the region of Youkounkoun of Guinea and Senegal, millet couscous was never as popular as hard wheat couscous because it took longer to cook and didn’t taste as good
42.
Harira
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Harira is a traditional soup of the Maghreb region. It is popular as a starter but is eaten on its own as a light snack. There are many variations and it is served during Ramadan. The word Harira is derived from the Arabic word Harir meaning silky because of its consistency, lemon juice can also be added at serving time as well as salt and turmeric. It is usually served with hard-boiled eggs sprinkled with salt and cumin, dates and other dried fruits like figs, traditional honey sweets. List of African dishes Moroccan cuisine List of soups Berber cuisine Media related to Harira at Wikimedia Commons Recipe for harira by Robert Carrier at the BBCs Good Food Guide
