1.
Shrimp cocktail
–
Prawn cocktail, also known as shrimp cocktail, is a seafood dish consisting of shelled, cooked, prawns in a cocktail sauce, served in a glass. It was the most popular hors dœuvre in Great Britain from the 1960s to the late 1980s, and was likewise ubiquitous in the United States around this time. According to the English food writer Nigel Slater, the cocktail has spent most of see-sawing from the height of fashion to the laughably passé and is now often served with a degree of irony. A dish of cooked seafood with a piquant sauce of some kind is of ancient origin, in their 1997 book The Prawn Cocktail Years, Simon Hopkinson and Lindsey Bareham note that the prawn cocktail has a direct lineage to Escoffier. The sauce is referred to as cocktail sauce, and is essentially ketchup plus horseradish. Nigel Slater says It is all in the sauce and that The true sauce is principally mayonnaise, tomato ketchup and a couple of shakes of Tabasco. The chef Heston Blumenthal states that prawn cocktail is his secret vice, Blumenthal notes that it is best to use homemade mayonnaise, and recommends adding chopped basil and tarragon. According to the chef Jamie Oliver, the cocktail is a wicked little starter. His recipe includes garlic, cucumber, mint, salad cress and crabmeat, before the 1992 British general election, the Labour Party campaigned to win the support of business and financial leaders by persuading them that they would not interfere with the market economy. The campaign was lampooned as the Prawn Cocktail Offensive, the ubiquity of the prawn cocktail has led to such products as prawn cocktail flavour crisps, which are still one of the most popular varieties of this snack food. Prawn cocktail flavour crisps were the second most popular in the UK in 2004, with a 16% market share
Shrimp cocktail
–
Prawn cocktail
Shrimp cocktail
–
An American-style shrimp cocktail made with store-bought
cocktail sauce and garnished with
endive and
dill.
Shrimp cocktail
–
A prawn cocktail
Shrimp cocktail
–
Bagoong
2.
Culinary
–
Culinary arts, in which culinary means related to cooking, is the art of the preparation, cooking and presentation of food, usually in the form of meals. Table manners are sometimes referred to as a culinary art, culinarians are required to have knowledge of food science, nutrition and diet and are responsible for preparing meals that are as pleasing to the eye as well as to the palate. After restaurants, their places of work include delicatessens and relatively large institutions such as hotels and hospitals. Below is a list of the variety of culinary arts occupations. Consulting and Design Specialists – Work with restaurant owners in developing menus, the layout and design of dining rooms, restaurant management – Manage a restaurant, cafeteria, hotel dining area, etc. Food and Beverage Controller – Purchase and source ingredients in large hotels as well as manage the stores, entrepreneurship – Deepen and invest in businesses, such as bakeries, restaurants, or specialty foods. Food and Beverage Managers – Manage all food and beverage outlets in hotels, Food Stylists and Photographers – Work with magazines, books, catalogs, and other media to make food visually appealing. Food Writers and Food Critics – Communicate with the public on food trends, chefs and restaurants through newspapers, magazines, blogs, notables in this field include Julia Child, Craig Claiborne, and James Beard. Research and Development Kitchens – Develop new products for manufacturers and may also work in test kitchens for publications, restaurant chains, grocery chains. Sales – Introduce chefs and business owners to new products and equipment relevant to food production, instructors – Teach aspects of culinary arts in high school, vocational schools, colleges, recreational programs, and for specialty businesses. Training in culinary arts is possible in most countries around the world, with institutions government funded, privately funded or commercial. Web.17 Sept.2013 History of Culinary Arts,17 Sept.2013 The Food Timeline Beal, Eileen. Choosing a career in the restaurant industry, careers and jobs in the restaurant business, jobs, management, ownership. U. S. Department of Labor – Food Service Manager Information. Culinary Art - The Culinary Institute of Bologna – Chefs, Head Cooks, and Food Preparation Chef Training Classes Information. ]U. S Department of Labor – Chefs, Head Cooks, and Food Preparation and Serving Supervisors Information
Culinary
–
Chefs training in
Paris,
France in 2005.
Culinary
–
Cooking utilizes many
foods.
3.
Fisheries
–
Generally, a fishery is an entity engaged in raising or harvesting fish which is determined by some authority to be a fishery. The definition often includes a combination of fish and fishers in a region, a fishery may involve the capture of wild fish or raising fish through fish farming or aquaculture. Directly or indirectly, the livelihood of over 500 million people in developing countries depends on fisheries, overfishing, including the taking of fish beyond sustainable levels, is reducing fish stocks and employment in many world regions. In biology – the term fish is most strictly used to any animal with a backbone that has gills throughout life and has limbs, if any. Many types of animals commonly referred to as fish are not fish in this strict sense. In fisheries – the term fish is used as a collective term, true fish – The strict biological definition of a fish, above, is sometimes called a true fish. True fish are referred to as finfish or fin fish to distinguish them from other aquatic life harvested in fisheries or aquaculture. Fisheries are harvested for their value and they can be saltwater or freshwater, wild or farmed. Examples are the salmon fishery of Alaska, the cod fishery off the Lofoten islands, capture fisheries can be broadly classified as industrial scale, small-scale or artisanal, and recreational. Close to 90% of the fishery catches come from oceans. These marine catches have remained stable since the mid-nineties. Most marine fisheries are based near the coast, however, productive wild fisheries also exist in open oceans, particularly by seamounts, and inland in lakes and rivers. Most fisheries are fisheries, but farmed fisheries are increasing. Farming can occur in areas, such as with oyster farms. There are species fisheries worldwide for finfish, mollusks, crustaceans and echinoderms, however, a very small number of species support the majority of the world’s fisheries. Some of these species are herring, cod, anchovy, tuna, flounder, mullet, squid, shrimp, salmon, crab, lobster, oyster and scallops. All except these last four provided a catch of well over a million tonnes in 1999, with herring. Many other species are harvested in smaller numbers, cullis-Suzuki S and Pauly D Failing the high seas, A global evaluation of regional fisheries management organizations Marine Policy,34 pp 1036–1042
Fisheries
–
Salmon spawn in a salmon fishery within the
Becharof Wilderness in
Southwest Alaska.
Fisheries
–
Fishermen in
Sesimbra, Portugal
Fisheries
–
Wild
Fisheries
4.
Exoskeleton
–
An exoskeleton is the external skeleton that supports and protects an animals body, in contrast to the internal skeleton of, for example, a human. In usage, some of the kinds of exoskeletons are known as shells. Examples of animals with exoskeletons include insects such as grasshoppers and cockroaches, the shells of certain sponges and the various groups of shelled molluscs, including those of snails, clams, tusk shells, chitons and nautilus, are also exoskeletons. Some animals, such as the tortoise, have both an endoskeleton and an exoskeleton, exoskeletons have a role in defense from pests and predators, support, and in providing an attachment framework for musculature. Exoskeletons contain chitin, the addition of calcium carbonate makes them harder and stronger, ingrowths of the arthropod exoskeleton known as apodemes serve as attachment sites for muscles. These structures are composed of chitin, and are six times as strong. Similar to tendons, apodemes can stretch to store energy for jumping. Many different species produce exoskeletons, which are composed of a range of materials, bone, cartilage, or dentine is used in the Ostracoderm fish and turtles. Chitin forms the exoskeleton in arthropods including insects, arachnids such as spiders, crustaceans such as crabs and lobsters, calcium carbonates constitute the shells of molluscs, brachiopods, and some tube-building polychaete worms. Silica forms the exoskeleton in the microscopic diatoms and radiolaria, one species of mollusc, the scaly-foot gastropod, even makes use of the iron sulfides greigite and pyrite. Some organisms, such as some foraminifera, agglutinate exoskeletons by sticking grains of sand, contrary to a common misconception, echinoderms do not possess an exoskeleton, as their test is always contained within a layer of living tissue. Exoskeletons have evolved many times,18 lineages evolved calcified exoskeletons alone. Further, other lineages have produced tough outer coatings analogous to an exoskeleton and this coating is constructed from bone in the armadillo, and hair in the pangolin. The armor of reptiles like turtles and Ankylosaurs is constructed of bone, crocodiles have bony scutes, since exoskeletons are rigid, they present some limits to growth. Organisms with open shells can grow by adding new material to the aperture of their shell, as is the case in snails, bivalves, a true exoskeleton, like that found in arthropods, must be shed when it is outgrown. A new exoskeleton is produced beneath the old one, as the old one is shed, the new skeleton is soft and pliable. The animal will pump itself up to expand the new shell to maximal size, when the shell has set, the empty space inside the new skeleton can be filled up as the animal eats. Failure to shed the exoskeleton once outgrown can result in the animal being suffocated within its own shell and this is the mechanism behind some insect pesticides, such as Azadirachtin
Exoskeleton
–
The discarded exoskeleton (
exuviae) of a
dragonfly nymph
Exoskeleton
–
Exoskeleton of
cicada attached to
Tridax procumbens
Exoskeleton
–
Borings in exoskeletons can provide evidence of animal behavior. In this case, boring
sponges attacked this
hard clam shell after the death of the clam, producing the trace fossil
Entobia.
5.
Invertebrate
–
Invertebrates are animals that neither possess nor develop a vertebral column, derived from the notochord. This includes all animals apart from the subphylum Vertebrata, familiar examples of invertebrates include insects, crabs, lobsters and their kin, snails, clams, octopuses and their kin, starfish, sea-urchins and their kin, jellyfish, and worms. The majority of species are invertebrates, one estimate puts the figure at 97%. Many invertebrate taxa have a number and variety of species than the entire subphylum of Vertebrata. Some of the invertebrates, such as the Tunicata and Cephalochordata are more closely related to the vertebrates than to other invertebrates. This makes the term invertebrate paraphyletic and hence almost meaningless for taxonomic purposes, the word invertebrate comes from the form of the Latin word vertebra, which means a joint in general, and sometimes specifically a joint from the spinal column of a vertebrate. In turn the jointed aspect of vertebra derived from the concept of turning, coupled with the prefix in-, meaning not or without. The term invertebrates is not always precise among non-biologists since it does not accurately describe a taxon in the way that Arthropoda. Each of these describes an valid taxon, phylum, subphylum or family. Invertebrata is a term of convenience, not a taxon, it has very little circumscriptional significance except within the Chordata, the Vertebrata as a subphylum comprises such a small proportion of the Metazoa that to speak of the kingdom Animalia in terms of Vertebrata and Invertebrata has limited practicality. That would at least circumscribe the Chordata, however, even the notochord would be a less fundamental criterion than aspects of embryological development and symmetry or perhaps bauplan. The following text reflects earlier scientific understanding of the term and of animals which have constituted it. According to this understanding, invertebrates do not possess a skeleton of bone and they include hugely varied body plans. Many have fluid-filled, hydrostatic skeletons, like jellyfish or worms, others have hard exoskeletons, outer shells like those of insects and crustaceans. The most familiar invertebrates include the Protozoa, Porifera, Coelenterata, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida, Echinodermata, Mollusca, Arthropoda include insects, crustaceans and arachnids. By far the largest number of described species are insects. The following table lists the number of described extant species for major invertebrate groups as estimated in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species,2014.3. The IUCN estimates that 66,178 extant vertebrate species have been described, the trait that is common to all invertebrates is the absence of a vertebral column, this creates a distinction between invertebrates and vertebrates
Invertebrate
–
The common fruit fly,
Drosophila melanogaster, has been used extensively for research
Invertebrate
–
Insects
Invertebrate
–
Molluscs
Invertebrate
–
Crustaceans
6.
Food
–
Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for an organism. It is usually of plant or animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, the substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organisms cells to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth. Historically, humans secured food through two methods, hunting and gathering and agriculture, today, the majority of the food energy required by the ever increasing population of the world is supplied by the food industry. They address issues such as sustainability, biological diversity, climate change, nutritional economics, population growth, water supply, most food has its origin in plants. Some food is obtained directly from plants, but even animals that are used as sources are raised by feeding them food derived from plants. Cereal grain is a food that provides more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop. Corn, wheat, and rice – in all of their varieties – account for 87% of all grain production worldwide, most of the grain that is produced worldwide is fed to livestock. Some foods not from animal or plant sources include various edible fungi, fungi and ambient bacteria are used in the preparation of fermented and pickled foods like leavened bread, alcoholic drinks, cheese, pickles, kombucha, and yogurt. Another example is blue-green algae such as Spirulina, inorganic substances such as salt, baking soda and cream of tartar are used to preserve or chemically alter an ingredient. Many plants and plant parts are eaten as food and around 2,000 plant species are cultivated for food, many of these plant species have several distinct cultivars. Seeds of plants are a source of food for animals, including humans, because they contain the nutrients necessary for the plants initial growth, including many healthful fats. In fact, the majority of food consumed by human beings are seed-based foods, edible seeds include cereals, legumes, and nuts. Oilseeds are often pressed to produce rich oils - sunflower, flaxseed, rapeseed, sesame, seeds are typically high in unsaturated fats and, in moderation, are considered a health food, although not all seeds are edible. Large seeds, such as those from a lemon, pose a choking hazard, fruits are the ripened ovaries of plants, including the seeds within. Many plants and animals have coevolved such that the fruits of the former are a food source to the latter. Fruits, therefore, make up a significant part of the diets of most cultures, some botanical fruits, such as tomatoes, pumpkins, and eggplants, are eaten as vegetables. Vegetables are a type of plant matter that is commonly eaten as food. These include root vegetables, bulbs, leaf vegetables, stem vegetables, animals are used as food either directly or indirectly by the products they produce
Food
–
Various foods
Food
–
Foods from plant sources
Food
–
Various raw
meats
Food
–
Tractor and
Chaser bin
7.
Mollusca
–
The molluscs compose the large phylum Mollusca of invertebrate animals. Around 85,000 extant species of molluscs are recognized, molluscs are the largest marine phylum, comprising about 23% of all the named marine organisms. Numerous molluscs also live in freshwater and terrestrial habitats and they are highly diverse, not just in size and in anatomical structure, but also in behaviour and in habitat. The phylum is divided into 9 or 10 taxonomic classes. The gastropods are by far the most numerous molluscs in terms of classified species, the three most universal features defining modern molluscs are a mantle with a significant cavity used for breathing and excretion, the presence of a radula, and the structure of the nervous system. Other than these things, molluscs express great morphological diversity, so many textbooks base their descriptions on an ancestral mollusc. This has a single, limpet-like shell on top, which is made of proteins and chitin reinforced with calcium carbonate, the underside of the animal consists of a single muscular foot. Although molluscs are coelomates, the coelom tends to be small, the main body cavity is a hemocoel through which blood circulates, their circulatory systems are mainly open. The generalized mollusc has two paired nerve cords, or three in bivalves, the brain, in species that have one, encircles the esophagus. Most molluscs have eyes, and all have sensors to detect chemicals, vibrations, the simplest type of molluscan reproductive system relies on external fertilization, but more complex variations occur. All produce eggs, from which may emerge trochophore larvae, more complex veliger larvae, good evidence exists for the appearance of gastropods, cephalopods and bivalves in the Cambrian period 541 to 485.4 million years ago. Molluscs have, for centuries, also been the source of important luxury goods, notably pearls, mother of pearl, Tyrian purple dye and their shells have also been used as money in some preindustrial societies. Mollusc species can also represent hazards or pests for human activities, the bite of the blue-ringed octopus is often fatal, and that of Octopus apollyon causes inflammation that can last for over a month. Stings from a few species of large tropical cone shells can also kill, schistosomiasis is transmitted to humans via water snail hosts, and affects about 200 million people. Snails and slugs can also be serious pests, and accidental or deliberate introduction of some snail species into new environments has seriously damaged some ecosystems. The words mollusc and mollusk are both derived from the French mollusque, which originated from the Latin molluscus, from mollis, molluscus was itself an adaptation of Aristotles τα μαλακά, the soft things, which he applied to cuttlefish. The scientific study of molluscs is accordingly called malacology, as it is now known these groups have no relation to molluscs, and very little to one another, the name Molluscoida has been abandoned. The most universal features of the structure of molluscs are a mantle with a significant cavity used for breathing and excretion
Mollusca
Mollusca
–
Cornu aspersum (formerly Helix aspersa) – a common land
snail
Mollusca
–
About 80% of all known mollusc species are
gastropods (
snails and
slugs), including this
cowry (a sea snail).
Mollusca
–
The use of
love darts by the land snail
Monachoides vicinus is a form of
sexual selection
8.
Crustacean
–
Crustaceans form a large, diverse arthropod taxon which includes such familiar animals as crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, woodlice and barnacles. In other words, some crustaceans are more related to insects. The 67,000 described species range in size from Stygotantulus stocki at 0.1 mm, to the Japanese spider crab with a leg span of up to 3.8 m, like other arthropods, crustaceans have an exoskeleton, which they moult to grow. Most crustaceans are free-living aquatic animals, but some are terrestrial, some are parasitic, the group has an extensive fossil record, reaching back to the Cambrian, and includes living fossils such as Triops cancriformis, which has existed apparently unchanged since the Triassic period. More than 10 million tons of crustaceans are produced by fishery or farming for human consumption, krill and copepods are not as widely fished, but may be the animals with the greatest biomass on the planet, and form a vital part of the food chain. The scientific study of crustaceans is known as carcinology, and a scientist who works in carcinology is a carcinologist, the body of a crustacean is composed of segments, which are grouped into three regions, the cephalon or head, the thorax, and the pleon or abdomen. The head and thorax may be fused together to form a cephalothorax, the crustacean body is protected by the hard exoskeleton, which must be moulted for the animal to grow. The shell around each somite can be divided into a dorsal tergum, ventral sternum, various parts of the exoskeleton may be fused together. The abdomen bears pleopods, and ends in a telson, which bears the anus, the number and variety of appendages in different crustaceans may be partly responsible for the groups success. It is unclear whether the condition is a derived state which evolved in crustaceans. Trilobites, for instance, also possessed biramous appendages, the main body cavity is an open circulatory system, where blood is pumped into the haemocoel by a heart located near the dorsum. Malacostraca have haemocyanin as the pigment, while copepods, ostracods, barnacles. The alimentary canal consists of a tube that often has a gizzard-like gastric mill for grinding food and a pair of digestive glands that absorb food. Structures that function as kidneys are located near the antennae, a brain exists in the form of ganglia close to the antennae, and a collection of major ganglia is found below the gut. In many decapods, the first pair of pleopods are specialised in the male for sperm transfer, many terrestrial crustaceans mate seasonally and return to the sea to release the eggs. Others, such as woodlice, lay their eggs on land, in most decapods, the females retain the eggs until they hatch into free-swimming larvae. Marine crustaceans are as ubiquitous in the oceans as insects are on land, some branchiurans are able to withstand rapid changes of salinity and will also switch hosts from marine to non-marine species. Krill are the layer and the most important part of the food chain in Antarctic animal communities
Crustacean
Crustacean
–
A shed
carapace of a
lady crab, part of the hard
exoskeleton
Crustacean
–
Body structure of a typical crustacean – krill
Crustacean
–
Eggs of
Potamon fluviatile, a freshwater crab
9.
Echinoderm
–
Echinoderm is the common name given to any member of the phylum Echinodermata of marine animals. The adults are recognizable by their symmetry, and include such well-known animals as sea stars, sea urchins, sand dollars. Echinoderms are found at every ocean depth, from the zone to the abyssal zone. The phylum contains about 7000 living species, making it the second-largest grouping of deuterostomes, echinoderms are also the largest phylum that has no freshwater or terrestrial representatives. Aside from the hard-to-classify Arkarua, the first definitive members of the phylum appeared near the start of the Cambrian, the echinoderms are important both ecologically and geologically. Ecologically, there are few other groupings so abundant in the desert of the deep sea. Most echinoderms are able to regenerate tissue, organs, limbs, geologically, the value of echinoderms is in their ossified skeletons, which are major contributors to many limestone formations, and can provide valuable clues as to the geological environment. They were the most used species in regenerative research in the 19th and 20th centuries, further, it is held by some scientists that the radiation of echinoderms was responsible for the Mesozoic Marine Revolution. Along with the chordates and hemichordates, echinoderms are deuterostomes, one of the two divisions of the bilaterians, the other being the protostomes. During the early development of the embryo, in deuterostomes, the blastopore becomes the anus whereas in the protostomes, in deuterostomes, the mouth develops at a later stage, at the opposite end of the blastula from the blastopore, and a gut forms connecting the two. There are a total of about 7,000 extant species of echinoderm as well as about 13,000 extinct species and they are found in habitats ranging from shallow intertidal areas to abyssal depths. These consist of the Crinoidea and the extinct blastoids and Paracrinoids, a fifth class of Eleutherozoa consisting of just three species, the Concentricycloidea, were recently merged into the Asteroidea. The fossil record includes a number of other classes which do not appear to fall into any extant crown group. All echinoderms are marine and nearly all are benthic, the oldest known echinoderm fossil may be Arkarua from the Precambrian of Australia. It is a fossil with radial ridges on the rim. However, no stereom or internal structure showing a water system is present. The first universally accepted echinoderms appear in the Lower Cambrian period, asterozoans appeared in the Ordovician, echinoderms left behind an extensive fossil record. It is hypothesised that the ancestor of all echinoderms was a simple, motile, bilaterally symmetrical animal with a mouth, gut and this ancestral stock adopted an attached mode of life and suspension feeding, and developed radial symmetry as this was more advantageous for such an existence
Echinoderm
Echinoderm
–
The Ordovician cystoid
Echinosphaerites from northeastern Estonia
Echinoderm
–
Fossil
crinoid crowns
Echinoderm
–
A brittle star,
Ophionereis reticulata
10.
Seawater
–
Seawater, or salt water, is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the oceans has a salinity of about 3. 5% This means that every kilogram of seawater has approximately 35 grams of dissolved salts. Average density at the surface is 1.025 kg/l, seawater is denser than both fresh water and pure water because the dissolved salts increase the mass by a larger proportion than the volume. The freezing point of seawater decreases as salt concentration increases, at typical salinity, it freezes at about −2 °C. The coldest seawater ever recorded was in 2010, in a stream under an Antarctic glacier, seawater pH is typically limited to a range between 7.5 and 8.4. However, there is no universally accepted reference pH-scale for seawater, although the vast majority of seawater has a salinity of between 31 g/kg and 38 g/kg, seawater is not uniformly saline throughout the world. Where mixing occurs with fresh water runoff from river mouths, near melting glaciers or vast amounts precipitation, the most saline open sea is the Red Sea, where high rates of evaporation, low precipitation and low river run-off, and confined circulation result in unusually salty water. The salinity in isolated bodies of water can be considerably greater still, historically, several salinity scales were used to approximate the absolute salinity of seawater. A popular scale was the Practical Salinity Scale where salinity was measured in practical salinity units, the current standard for salinity is the Reference Salinity scale with the salinity expressed in units of g/kg. The density of surface seawater ranges from about 1020 to 1029 kg/m3, depending on the temperature, at a temperature of 25 °C, salinity of 35 g/kg and 1 atm pressure, the density of seawater is 1023.6 kg/m3. Deep in the ocean, under pressure, seawater can reach a density of 1050 kg/m3 or higher. The density of seawater also changes with salinity, brines generated by seawater desalination plants can have salinities up to 120 g/kg. The density of typical seawater brine of 120 g/kg salinity at 25 °C, seawater pH is limited to the range 7.5 to 8.4. The speed of sound in seawater is about 1,500 m/s, and varies with temperature, salinity. The thermal conductivity of seawater is 0.6 W/mK at 25 °C, the thermal conductivity decreases with increasing salinity and increases with increasing temperature. Seawater contains more dissolved ions than all types of freshwater, however, the ratios of solutes differ dramatically. Bicarbonate ions also constitute 48% of river water solutes but only 0. 14% of all seawater ions, differences like these are due to the varying residence times of seawater solutes, sodium and chlorine have very long residence times, while calcium tends to precipitate much more quickly. The most abundant dissolved ions in seawater are sodium, chloride, magnesium, sulfate and its osmolarity is about 1000 mOsm/l
Seawater
–
Seawater in the
Strait of Malacca
11.
Freshwater
–
Fresh water is generally characterized by having low concentrations of dissolved salts and other total dissolved solids. The term specifically excludes seawater and brackish water although it does include mineral-rich waters such as chalybeate springs, the term sweet water has been used to describe fresh water in contrast to salt water. The term fresh water does not have the meaning as potable water. Much of the fresh water and ground water is unsuitable for drinking without some form of purification because of the presence of chemical or biological contaminants. It may also be in contact with the underlying underground water. The majority of water on Earth is in ice caps. The source of almost all water is precipitation from the atmosphere, in the form of mist, rain. Fresh water falling as mist, rain or snow contains materials dissolved from the atmosphere and material from the sea, in some cases this acid rain results in pollution of lakes and rivers. In coastal areas fresh water may contain significant concentrations of salts derived from the sea if windy conditions have lifted drops of seawater into the rain-bearing clouds. This can give rise to elevated concentrations of sodium, chloride, magnesium, significant quantities of iron may be transported in this way including the well-documented transfer of iron-rich rainfall falling in Brazil derived from sand-storms in the Sahara in north Africa. Water is an issue for the survival of all living organisms. Some can use water but many organisms including the great majority of higher plants. Out of all the water on Earth, saline water in oceans, seas and saline groundwater make up about 97% of it. Freshwater lakes contain about 87% of this surface water, including 29% in the African Great Lakes, 20% in Lake Baikal in Russia, 21% in the North American Great Lakes. Swamps have most of the balance only a small amount in rivers. In areas with no water on the ground surface, fresh water derived from precipitation may, because of its lower density. Most of the fresh water is frozen in ice sheets. Many areas suffer from lack of distribution of water, such as deserts
Freshwater
–
Earth seen from
Apollo 17 — the
Antarctic ice sheet at the bottom of the photograph contains 61% of the fresh water, or 1.7% of the total water, on Earth.
Freshwater
–
The surface of a fresh water lake.
Freshwater
–
Water fountain found in a small
Swiss village. They are used as a drinking water source for people and cattle. Almost every Alpine village has such a water source.
Freshwater
–
Air
12.
Cardisoma guanhumi
–
The species varies in colour from dark blue to brown or pale grey, and may grow to 11 centimetres in width and weigh over 500 grams. The carapace of C. guanhumi can reach sizes up to around 11 cm, as with many crab species, males possess dimorphic claws, the larger claw can grow up to around 15 cm in length, eventually becoming larger than the carapace itself. The eyes are stalked and their colour ranges from a blue to a pale grey. Juveniles generally have a carapace with orange coloured legs. Females usually appear light gray or white, adult colours are usually present between 80 g and 180 g. Individuals of the species can weigh over 500 g, Cardisoma guanhumi is found throughout estuarine and other coastal regions of the Caribbean, and along the Atlantic coast of Central and South America. In the United States it can be found in areas of the Gulf of Mexico. Cardisoma guanhumi is omnivorous, collecting and eating leaves and fruits close to its burrow whilst also eating insects, like many crabs, this species is cannibalistic. They move in the shade during the day and will eschew moving in prolonged direct sunlight to feed at night instead, Cardisoma guanhumi finds its food using light and sound detectors. Experiments show that crabs can be out of their burrows to investigate the sound of falling fruit. Predatory behavior is released in these crabs by detection of small moving objects, crabs in the genus Cardisoma are able to detect small vibrations on the ground within the range of 10–1500 Hz and 70 dB. Visual acuity increases with body size due to an increase in both the number and diameter of ommatidia, the reproductive cycle is closely linked to seasonal weather patterns and lunar phase. Heavy rains in the spring initiate migrations, when this occurs, C. guanhumi begins to gain weight, as more food is consumed and gathered for the first few weeks of the migratory period. Males mate with females during this time. Fertilization is internal, and throughout July and August most females carry the eggs externally, after approximately 2 weeks the eggs will hatch and must be released into saltwater for the larvae to survive. Several spawns per year may occur with spawning season varying with location within the range, in Florida, spawning season lasts from June to December and reaches its peak in October and November. In the Bahamas the season extends from July to September, while in Venezuela spawning lasts from July to November, eggs hatch into free swimming larvae with 5 zoeal stages and 1 postlarval or megalopa stage. Typical development time from hatching to the first crabs stage is 42 days under conditions, however
Cardisoma guanhumi
–
Cardisoma guanhumi
Cardisoma guanhumi
–
A group of blue land crabs
Cardisoma guanhumi
–
Guarding the burrow
Cardisoma guanhumi
–
A juvenile blue land crab showing a different coloring
13.
Caribbean
–
The Caribbean is a region that consists of the Caribbean Sea, its islands and the surrounding coasts. The region is southeast of the Gulf of Mexico and the North American mainland, east of Central America, situated largely on the Caribbean Plate, the region comprises more than 700 islands, islets, reefs and cays. These islands generally form island arcs that delineate the eastern and northern edges of the Caribbean Sea, in a wider sense, the mainland countries of Belize, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana are often included due to their political and cultural ties with the region. Geopolitically, the Caribbean islands are usually regarded as a subregion of North America and are organized into 30 territories including sovereign states, overseas departments, and dependencies. From December 15,1954, to October 10,2010, there was a known as the Netherlands Antilles composed of five states. The West Indies cricket team continues to represent many of those nations, the region takes its name from that of the Caribs, an ethnic group present in the Lesser Antilles and parts of adjacent South America at the time of the Spanish conquest. The two most prevalent pronunciations of Caribbean are KARR-ə-BEE-ən, with the accent on the third syllable. The former pronunciation is the older of the two, although the variant has been established for over 75 years. It has been suggested that speakers of British English prefer KARR-ə-BEE-ən while North American speakers more typically use kə-RIB-ee-ən, usage is split within Caribbean English itself. The word Caribbean has multiple uses and its principal ones are geographical and political. The Caribbean can also be expanded to include territories with strong cultural and historical connections to slavery, European colonisation, the United Nations geoscheme for the Americas accords the Caribbean as a distinct region within the Americas. Physiographically, the Caribbean region is mainly a chain of islands surrounding the Caribbean Sea, to the north, the region is bordered by the Gulf of Mexico, the Straits of Florida and the Northern Atlantic Ocean, which lies to the east and northeast. To the south lies the coastline of the continent of South America, politically, the Caribbean may be centred on socio-economic groupings found in the region. For example, the known as the Caribbean Community contains the Co-operative Republic of Guyana. Bermuda and the Turks and Caicos Islands, which are in the Atlantic Ocean, are members of the Caribbean Community. The Commonwealth of the Bahamas is also in the Atlantic and is a member of the Caribbean Community. According to the ACS, the population of its member states is 227 million people. The geography and climate in the Caribbean region varies, Some islands in the region have relatively flat terrain of non-volcanic origin and these islands include Aruba, Barbados, Bonaire, the Cayman Islands, Saint Croix, the Bahamas, and Antigua
Caribbean
–
Cayo de Agua in
Los Roques archipelago,
Venezuela.
Caribbean
–
Caribbean
Caribbean
–
Puerto Rico 's south shore, from the mountains of Jayuya
Caribbean
–
Puerto Cruz beach in
Margarita Island,
Venezuela
14.
Fish
–
A fish is any member of a group of animals that consist of all gill-bearing aquatic craniate animals that lack limbs with digits. They form a group to the tunicates, together forming the olfactores. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous, tetrapods emerged within lobe-finned fishes, so cladistically they are fish as well. However, traditionally fish are rendered obsolete or paraphyletic by excluding the tetrapods, because in this manner the term fish is defined negatively as a paraphyletic group, it is not considered a formal taxonomic grouping in systematic biology. The traditional term pisces is considered a typological, but not a phylogenetic classification, the earliest organisms that can be classified as fish were soft-bodied chordates that first appeared during the Cambrian period. Although they lacked a true spine, they possessed notochords which allowed them to be more agile than their invertebrate counterparts, fish would continue to evolve through the Paleozoic era, diversifying into a wide variety of forms. Many fish of the Paleozoic developed external armor that protected them from predators, the first fish with jaws appeared in the Silurian period, after which many became formidable marine predators rather than just the prey of arthropods. Fish are abundant in most bodies of water and they can be found in nearly all aquatic environments, from high mountain streams to the abyssal and even hadal depths of the deepest oceans. With 33,100 described species, fish exhibit greater species diversity than any group of vertebrates. Fish are an important resource for humans worldwide, especially as food, commercial and subsistence fishers hunt fish in wild fisheries or farm them in ponds or in cages in the ocean. They are also caught by fishers, kept as pets, raised by fishkeepers. Fish have had a role in culture through the ages, serving as deities, religious symbols, fish do not represent a monophyletic group, and therefore the evolution of fish is not studied as a single event. Early fish from the record are represented by a group of small, jawless. Jawless fish lineages are mostly extinct, an extant clade, the lampreys may approximate ancient pre-jawed fish. The first jaws are found in Placodermi fossils, the diversity of jawed vertebrates may indicate the evolutionary advantage of a jawed mouth. It is unclear if the advantage of a hinged jaw is greater biting force, improved respiration, fish may have evolved from a creature similar to a coral-like sea squirt, whose larvae resemble primitive fish in important ways. The first ancestors of fish may have kept the form into adulthood. Fish are a group, that is, any clade containing all fish also contains the tetrapods
Fish
–
Giant grouper swimming among
schools of other fish
Fish
Fish
–
Leedsichthys (left) the largest known fish.
Fish
–
Dunkleosteus was a gigantic, 10 meter (33 feet) long
prehistoric fish.
15.
Arthropoda
–
An arthropod is an invertebrate animal having an exoskeleton, a segmented body, and jointed appendages. Arthropods form the phylum Arthropoda, which includes the insects, arachnids, myriapods, arthropods are characterized by their jointed limbs and cuticle made of chitin, often mineralised with calcium carbonate. The arthropod body plan consists of segments, each with a pair of appendages, the rigid cuticle inhibits growth, so arthropods replace it periodically by moulting. Their versatility has enabled them to become the most species-rich members of all guilds in most environments. They have over a million described species, making up more than 80% of all described living species, some of which. Arthropods range in size from the microscopic crustacean Stygotantulus up to the Japanese spider crab, arthropods primary internal cavity is a hemocoel, which accommodates their internal organs, and through which their haemolymph – analogue of blood – circulates, they have open circulatory systems. Like their exteriors, the organs of arthropods are generally built of repeated segments. Their nervous system is ladder-like, with paired ventral nerve cords running through all segments and their heads are formed by fusion of varying numbers of segments, and their brains are formed by fusion of the ganglia of these segments and encircle the esophagus. The respiratory and excretory systems of arthropods vary, depending as much on their environment as on the subphylum to which they belong, arthropods also have a wide range of chemical and mechanical sensors, mostly based on modifications of the many setae that project through their cuticles. Aquatic species use internal or external fertilization. Almost all arthropods lay eggs, but scorpions give birth to live young after the eggs have hatched inside the mother, arthropod hatchlings vary from miniature adults to grubs and caterpillars that lack jointed limbs and eventually undergo a total metamorphosis to produce the adult form. The level of care for hatchlings varies from nonexistent to the prolonged care provided by scorpions. The evolutionary ancestry of arthropods dates back to the Cambrian period, the group is generally regarded as monophyletic, and many analyses support the placement of arthropods with cycloneuralians in a superphylum Ecdysozoa. Overall however, the relationships of Metazoa are not yet well resolved. Likewise, the relationships between various groups are still actively debated. Arthropods contribute to the food supply both directly as food, and more importantly indirectly as pollinators of crops. Some species are known to spread disease to humans, livestock. The word arthropod comes from the Greek ἄρθρον árthron, joint, and πούς pous, i. e. foot or leg, arthropods are invertebrates with segmented bodies and jointed limbs
Arthropoda
Arthropoda
–
Head
Arthropoda
–
Cicada climbing out of its exoskeleton while attached to tree
Arthropoda
–
Head of a
wasp with three ocelli (centre), and
compound eyes at the left and right
16.
Cephalopods
–
A cephalopod is any member of the molluscan class Cephalopoda. These exclusively marine animals are characterized by bilateral body symmetry, a prominent head, fishermen sometimes call them inkfish, referring to their common ability to squirt ink. The study of cephalopods is a branch of known as teuthology. Cephalopods became dominant during the Ordovician period, represented by primitive nautiloids, the class now contains two, only distantly related, extant subclasses, Coleoidea, which includes octopuses, squid, and cuttlefish, and Nautiloidea, represented by Nautilus and Allonautilus. In the Coleoidea, the shell has been internalized or is absent, whereas in the Nautiloidea. About 800 living species of cephalopods have been identified, two important extinct taxa are the Ammonoidea and Belemnoidea. There are over 800 extant species of cephalopod, although new species continue to be described, an estimated 11,000 extinct taxa have been described, although the soft-bodied nature of cephalopods means they are not easily fossilised. Cephalopods are found in all the oceans of Earth, none of them can tolerate freshwater, but the brief squid, Lolliguncula brevis, found in Chesapeake Bay, is a notable partial exception in that it tolerates brackish water. Cephalopods are thought to be unable to live in due to multiple biochemical constraints. Cephalopods occupy most of the depth of the ocean, from the plain to the sea surface. Their diversity is greatest near the equator and decreases towards the poles, Cephalopods are widely regarded as the most intelligent of the invertebrates, and have well developed senses and large brains. The nervous system of cephalopods is the most complex of the invertebrates, the brain is protected in a cartilaginous cranium. Cephalopods have also known to climb out of their aquaria, maneuver a distance of the lab floor, enter another aquarium to feed on the crabs. Cephalopods are social creatures, when isolated from their own kind, some cephalopods are able to fly through the air for distances of up to 50 m. While cephalopods are not particularly aerodynamic, they achieve these impressive ranges by jet-propulsion, the animals spread their fins and tentacles to form wings and actively control lift force with body posture. Cephalopods have advanced vision, can detect gravity with statocysts, and have a variety of sense organs. Octopuses use their arms to explore their environment and can use them for depth perception, most cephalopods rely on vision to detect predators and prey, and to communicate with one another. Consequently, cephalopod vision is acute, training experiments have shown that the octopus can distinguish the brightness, size, shape
Cephalopods
Cephalopods
–
Left: A pair of
Sepia officinalis in shallow water Right:
Benthoctopus sp. on the
Davidson Seamount at 2,422 m depth
Cephalopods
Cephalopods
–
Left: An octopus opening a container with a screw cap Right:
Hawaiian bobtail squid, Euprymna scolopes, burying itself in the sand, leaving only the eyes exposed
17.
Bivalves
–
Bivalves as a group have no head and they lack some usual molluscan organs like the radula and the odontophore. They include the clams, oysters, cockles, mussels, scallops, the gills have evolved into ctenidia, specialised organs for feeding and breathing. Most bivalves bury themselves in sediment where they are safe from predation. Others lie on the sea floor or attach themselves to rocks or other hard surfaces, some bivalves, such as the scallops and file shells, can swim. The shipworms bore into wood, clay, or stone and live inside these substances, the shell of a bivalve is composed of calcium carbonate, and consists of two, usually similar, parts called valves. These are joined together along one edge by a ligament that, usually in conjunction with interlocking teeth on each of the valves. This arrangement allows the shell to be opened and closed without the two halves detaching, the shell is typically bilaterally symmetrical, with the hinge lying in the sagittal plane. Adult shell sizes of bivalves vary from fractions of a millimetre to over a metre in length, Bivalves have long been a part of the diet of coastal and riparian human populations. Oysters were cultured in ponds by the Romans, and mariculture has more become a important source of bivalves for food. Modern knowledge of molluscan reproductive cycles has led to the development of hatcheries, a better understanding of the potential hazards of eating raw or undercooked shellfish has led to improved storage and processing. Pearl oysters are the most common source of natural pearls, the shells of bivalves are used in craftwork, and the manufacture of jewellery and buttons. Bivalves have also used in the biocontrol of pollution. Bivalves appear in the record first in the early Cambrian more than 500 million years ago. The total number of living species is about 9,200 and these species are placed within 1,260 genera and 106 families. Marine bivalves represent about 8,000 species, combined in four subclasses and 99 families with 1,100 genera, the largest recent marine families are the Veneridae, with more than 680 species and the Tellinidae and Lucinidae, each with over 500 species. The freshwater bivalves include seven families, the largest of which are the Unionidae, the taxonomic term Bivalvia was first used by Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae in 1758 to refer to animals having shells composed of two valves. More recently, the class was known as Pelecypoda, meaning axe-foot, the name bivalve is derived from the Latin bis, meaning two, and valvae, meaning leaves of a door. Bivalves vary greatly in overall shape, some, such as the cockles, have shells that are nearly globular, cockles can jump by bending and straightening their foot
Bivalves
Bivalves
–
Empty shell of the
giant clam (Tridacna gigas)
Bivalves
–
Empty shells of the
sword razor (Ensis ensis)
Bivalves
–
Anadara, a bivalve with
taxodont dentition from the
Pliocene of
Cyprus
18.
Mollusc
–
The molluscs compose the large phylum Mollusca of invertebrate animals. Around 85,000 extant species of molluscs are recognized, molluscs are the largest marine phylum, comprising about 23% of all the named marine organisms. Numerous molluscs also live in freshwater and terrestrial habitats and they are highly diverse, not just in size and in anatomical structure, but also in behaviour and in habitat. The phylum is divided into 9 or 10 taxonomic classes. The gastropods are by far the most numerous molluscs in terms of classified species, the three most universal features defining modern molluscs are a mantle with a significant cavity used for breathing and excretion, the presence of a radula, and the structure of the nervous system. Other than these things, molluscs express great morphological diversity, so many textbooks base their descriptions on an ancestral mollusc. This has a single, limpet-like shell on top, which is made of proteins and chitin reinforced with calcium carbonate, the underside of the animal consists of a single muscular foot. Although molluscs are coelomates, the coelom tends to be small, the main body cavity is a hemocoel through which blood circulates, their circulatory systems are mainly open. The generalized mollusc has two paired nerve cords, or three in bivalves, the brain, in species that have one, encircles the esophagus. Most molluscs have eyes, and all have sensors to detect chemicals, vibrations, the simplest type of molluscan reproductive system relies on external fertilization, but more complex variations occur. All produce eggs, from which may emerge trochophore larvae, more complex veliger larvae, good evidence exists for the appearance of gastropods, cephalopods and bivalves in the Cambrian period 541 to 485.4 million years ago. Molluscs have, for centuries, also been the source of important luxury goods, notably pearls, mother of pearl, Tyrian purple dye and their shells have also been used as money in some preindustrial societies. Mollusc species can also represent hazards or pests for human activities, the bite of the blue-ringed octopus is often fatal, and that of Octopus apollyon causes inflammation that can last for over a month. Stings from a few species of large tropical cone shells can also kill, schistosomiasis is transmitted to humans via water snail hosts, and affects about 200 million people. Snails and slugs can also be serious pests, and accidental or deliberate introduction of some snail species into new environments has seriously damaged some ecosystems. The words mollusc and mollusk are both derived from the French mollusque, which originated from the Latin molluscus, from mollis, molluscus was itself an adaptation of Aristotles τα μαλακά, the soft things, which he applied to cuttlefish. The scientific study of molluscs is accordingly called malacology, as it is now known these groups have no relation to molluscs, and very little to one another, the name Molluscoida has been abandoned. The most universal features of the structure of molluscs are a mantle with a significant cavity used for breathing and excretion
Mollusc
Mollusc
–
Cornu aspersum (formerly Helix aspersa) – a common land
snail
Mollusc
–
About 80% of all known mollusc species are
gastropods (
snails and
slugs), including this
cowry (a sea snail).
Mollusc
–
The use of
love darts by the land snail
Monachoides vicinus is a form of
sexual selection
19.
Species
–
In biology, a species is the basic unit of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is defined as the largest group of organisms in which two individuals can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. While this definition is often adequate, looked at more closely it is problematic, for example, with hybridisation, in a species complex of hundreds of similar microspecies, or in a ring species, the boundaries between closely related species become unclear. Other ways of defining species include similarity of DNA, morphology, all species are given a two-part name, a binomial. The first part of a binomial is the genus to which the species belongs, the second part is called the specific name or the specific epithet. For example, Boa constrictor is one of four species of the Boa genus, Species were seen from the time of Aristotle until the 18th century as fixed kinds that could be arranged in a hierarchy, the great chain of being. In the 19th century, biologists grasped that species could evolve given sufficient time, Charles Darwins 1859 book The Origin of Species explained how species could arise by natural selection. Genes can sometimes be exchanged between species by horizontal transfer, and species may become extinct for a variety of reasons. In his biology, Aristotle used the term γένος to mean a kind, such as a bird or fish, a kind was distinguished by its attributes, for instance, a bird has feathers, a beak, wings, a hard-shelled egg, and warm blood. A form was distinguished by being shared by all its members, Aristotle believed all kinds and forms to be distinct and unchanging. His approach remained influential until the Renaissance, when observers in the Early Modern period began to develop systems of organization for living things, they placed each kind of animal or plant into a context. Many of these early delineation schemes would now be considered whimsical, animals likewise that differ specifically preserve their distinct species permanently, one species never springs from the seed of another nor vice versa. In the 18th century, the Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus classified organisms according to shared physical characteristics and he established the idea of a taxonomic hierarchy of classification based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships. At the time, however, it was widely believed that there was no organic connection between species, no matter how similar they appeared. However, whether or not it was supposed to be fixed, by the 19th century, naturalists understood that species could change form over time, and that the history of the planet provided enough time for major changes. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, in his 1809 Zoological Philosophy, described the transmutation of species, proposing that a species could change over time, in 1859, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace provided a compelling account of evolution and the formation of new species. Darwin argued that it was populations that evolved, not individuals and this required a new definition of species. Darwin concluded that species are what appear to be, ideas
Species
–
John Ray
Species
–
Carl Linnaeus believed in the fixity of species.
20.
Clam
–
Clam is a common name for several kinds of bivalve molluscs. The word is applied only to those that live as infauna. In particular, edible infaunal bivalves are often called clams, clams have two shells of equal size connected by two adductor muscles and have a powerful burrowing foot. Clams in the culinary sense do not live attached to a substrate, in culinary usage, clams are commonly eaten marine bivalves, as in clam digging and the resulting soup, clam chowder. Many edible clams such as palourde clams are oval or triangular, however, razor clams have an elongated parallel-sided shell, some clams have life cycles of only one year, while at least one may be over 500 years old. All clams have two shells or valves joined near a hinge with a flexible ligament, and all are filter feeders. A clams shell consists of two valves, which are connected by a joint and a ligament that can be external or internal. The ligament provides tension to bring the valves apart, while one or two muscles can contract to close the valves. Clams also have kidneys, a heart, a mouth, a stomach, a nervous system, in culinary use, within the eastern coast of the United States, the term clam most often refers to the hard clam Mercenaria mercenaria. It may also refer to a few other common species, such as the soft-shell clam, Mya arenaria. Another species commercially exploited on the Atlantic Coast of the United States is the surf clam Spisula solidissima, scallops are also used for food. Clams can be raw, steamed, boiled, baked or fried. They can also be made into clam chowder or they can be cooked using hot rocks, in Japan, clams are often an ingredient of mixed seafood dishes. They can also be made into hot pot, miso soup or Tsukudani, the more commonly used varieties of clams in Japanese cooking are the Shijimi, the Asari and the Hamaguri. In Italy, clams are often an ingredient of mixed seafood dishes or are eaten together with pasta, the more commonly used varieties of clams in Italian cooking are the Vongola, the Cozza and the Tellina. Clams are eaten more in the regions of India, especially in the Konkan, Kerala, Bengal. In Kerala clams are used to make curries and fried with coconut, in Malabar region it is known as elambakka and in middle kerala it is known as kakka. Clams curry made with coconut is a delicious dish from malabar especially in Telicherry region
Clam
–
Clam
Clam
–
Littleneck clams, small
hard clams, species
Mercenaria mercenaria
Clam
–
A clam dish
Clam
–
Clams simmering in a white
wine sauce
21.
Mussel
–
Mussel is the common name used for members of several families of bivalve molluscs, from saltwater and freshwater habitats. These groups have in common a shell whose outline is elongated and asymmetrical compared with other edible clams, a few species have colonised hydrothermal vents associated with deep ocean ridges. In most marine mussels the shell is longer than it is wide, the external colour of the shell is often dark blue, blackish, or brown, while the interior is silvery and somewhat nacreous. The common name mussel is also used for many freshwater bivalves, freshwater mussel species inhabit lakes, ponds, rivers, creeks, canals, and they are classified in a different subclass of bivalves, despite some very superficial similarities in appearance. They are classified with the Heterodonta, the group which includes most of the bivalves commonly referred to as clams. The mussels external shell is composed of two hinged halves or valves, the valves are joined together on the outside by a ligament, and are closed when necessary by strong internal muscles. Mussel shells carry out a variety of functions, including support for soft tissues, protection from predators, the periostracum is composed of a protein called conchin, and its function is to protect the prismatic layer from abrasion and dissolution by acids. Like most bivalves, mussels have an organ called a foot. In freshwater mussels, the foot is large, muscular, and it is used to pull the animal through the substrate in which it lies partially buried. It does this by repeatedly advancing the foot through the substrate, expanding the end so it serves as an anchor and it also serves as a fleshy anchor when the animal is stationary. In marine mussels, the foot is smaller, tongue-like in shape, in this pit, a viscous secretion is exuded, entering the groove and hardening gradually upon contact with sea water. This forms extremely tough, strong, elastic, byssal threads that secure the mussel to its substrate allowing it to remain sessile in areas of high flow, in cooking, the byssus of the mussel is known as the beard and is removed before the mussels are prepared. Both marine and freshwater mussels are filter feeders, they feed on plankton, a mussel draws water in through its incurrent siphon. The water is brought into the branchial chamber by the actions of the cilia located on the gills for ciliary-mucus feeding. The wastewater exits through the excurrent siphon, the labial palps finally funnel the food into the mouth, where digestion begins. Marine mussels are usually found clumping together on wave-washed rocks, each attached to the rock by its byssus, the clumping habit helps hold the mussels firm against the force of the waves. At low tide mussels in the middle of a clump will undergo less water loss because of capture by the other mussels. Both marine and freshwater mussels are gonochoristic, with male and female individuals
Mussel
–
Mussel
Mussel
–
Marine
blue mussel,
Mytilus edulis, showing some of the inner anatomy. The white posterior adductor muscle is visible in the upper image, and has been cut in the lower image to allow the valves to open fully.
Mussel
–
A Mytilus with its byssus clearly showing, at
Ocean Beach,
San Francisco,
California
Mussel
–
A
starfish consuming a mussel in
Northern California
22.
Oyster
–
Oyster is the common name for a number of different families of salt-water bivalve molluscs that live in marine or brackish habitats. In some species the valves are highly calcified, and many are somewhat irregular in shape, many, but not all, oysters are in the superfamily Ostreoidea. Some kinds of oysters are consumed by humans, cooked or raw. Some kinds of oysters are harvested for the pearl produced within the mantle. Windowpane oysters are harvested for their translucent shells, which are used to various kinds of decorative objects. True oysters are members of the family Ostreidae and this family includes the edible oysters, which mainly belong to the genera Ostrea, Crassostrea, Ostreola, and Saccostrea. Examples include the Belon oyster, eastern oyster, Olympia oyster, Pacific oyster, almost all shell-bearing mollusks can secrete pearls, yet most are not very valuable. Pearl oysters are not closely related to oysters, being members of a distinct family. Both cultured pearls and natural pearls can be extracted from pearl oysters, though other molluscs, such as the freshwater mussels, the largest pearl-bearing oyster is the marine Pinctada maxima, which is roughly the size of a dinner plate. Not all individual oysters produce pearls naturally, in fact, in a harvest of two and a half tons of oysters, only three to four oysters produce what commercial buyers consider to be absolute perfect pearls. In nature, pearl oysters produce pearls by covering a minute invasive object with nacre, over the years, the irritating object is covered with enough layers of nacre to become a pearl. The many different types, colours and shapes of pearls depend on the pigment of the nacre. Pearl farmers can culture a pearl by placing a nucleus, usually a piece of polished mussel shell, in three to seven years, the oyster can produce a perfect pearl. These pearls are not as valuable as natural pearls, but look exactly the same, in fact, since the beginning of the 20th century, when several researchers discovered how to produce artificial pearls, the cultured pearl market has far outgrown the natural pearl market. A number of molluscs also have common names that include the word oyster, usually because they either taste like or look somewhat like true oysters. Examples include, Thorny oysters in the genus Spondylus Pilgrim oyster, another term for a scallop, because of its good flavor, it commands high prices. Oysters are filter feeders, drawing water in over their gills through the beating of cilia. Suspended plankton and particles are trapped in the mucus of a gill, and from there are transported to the mouth, where they are eaten, digested, Oysters feed most actively at temperatures above 10 °C
Oyster
–
Crassostrea gigas from the Marennes-Oléron basin in
France
Oyster
–
Removing a
pearl from a pearl oyster
Oyster
–
Crassostrea gigas, opened
Oyster
–
Oyster reef at about mid-tide off fishing pier at
Hunting Island State Park, South Carolina
23.
Periwinkle (mollusc)
–
The common periwinkle or winkle is a species of small edible sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusc that has gills and an operculum, and is classified within the family Littorinidae, the periwinkles. This is a robust intertidal species with a dark and sometimes banded shell and it is native to the rocky shores of the northeastern, and introduced to the northwestern, Atlantic Ocean. There is another known as small periwinkle or Melarhaphe neritoides that looks similar. The shell is ovate, thick, and sharply pointed except when eroded. The shell contains six to seven whorls with fine threads. The color is variable from grayish to gray-brown, often with dark spiral bands, the base of the columella is white. The white outer lip is sometimes checkered with brown patches, the inside of the shell has a chocolate-brown color. The width of the ranges from 10 to 12 mm at maturity. Shell height can reach up to 30 mm,43 mm or 52 mm, as a result of its robust nature, Littorina littorea can be highly variable in phenotype with several different morphs present. Its phenotypic variations may be indicative of an event, as opposed to phenotypic plasticity. This is of importance to evolutionary biology, as it presents the possible opportunity to view a transitional phase in the evolutionary life of an organism. Measuring the shell from the end of the aperture to the apex reveals the length of the snail, turning the shell over with the aperture flat on a surface and measuring vertically reveals the height of the snail. These measurements can be using a caliper. Common periwinkles are native to the coasts of the Atlantic Ocean, including northern Spain, France, England, Scotland, Ireland, Scandinavia. There have been more than 14000 observations made available as a dataset at the Global Biodiversity Information Facility - Littorina Littorea, more distribution information can also be found at Ocean Biographic Information System - Littorina Littorea. The NBN Gateway - Littorina Littorea has a distribution map over the UK. Common periwinkles have been introduced to the Atlantic coast of North America and this species is also found on the west coast of the United States, from Washington to California. The first recorded sighting in the East was in 1840 in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and it is now abundant on rocky shores from New Jersey northward to Newfoundland
Periwinkle (mollusc)
–
Common periwinkle
Periwinkle (mollusc)
Periwinkle (mollusc)
–
Remains of an ancient meal. Winkle shells from
Cantabrian Lower Magdalenian layer (15 000 before present) in the
Altamira cave
Periwinkle (mollusc)
–
Marine
gastropods
24.
Scallop
–
Scallop is a common name that is primarily applied to any one of numerous species of saltwater clams or marine bivalve mollusks in the taxonomic family Pectinidae, the scallops. However, the common name scallop is also applied to species in other closely related families within the superfamily Pectinoidea. Scallops are a family of bivalves which are found in all of the worlds oceans. They are one of few groups of bivalves to be primarily free-living, with many species capable of rapidly swimming short distances. Scallops have a nervous system, and unlike most other bivalves all scallops have a ring of numerous simple eyes situated around the edge of their mantles. Many species of scallop are highly prized as a food source, the word scallop is also applied to the meat of these bivalves when it is sold as seafood. Owing to their distribution, scallop shells are a common sight on beaches and are often brightly coloured. Scallops inhabit all the oceans of the world, with the largest number of living in the Indo-Pacific region. Most species live in shallow waters from the low tide line to 100 meters. Although some species live in very narrow environments, most are opportunistic. Scallops can be living within, upon, or under either rocks, coral, rubble, sea grass, kelp, sand. Most scallops begin their lives as byssally attached juveniles, an ability that some retain throughout their lives while others grow into freeliving adults. There is very little variation in the arrangement of organs and systems within the scallop family. The shell of a scallop consists of two sides or valves, a valve and a right one, divided by a plane of symmetry. Most species of scallop rest on their right valve, and consequently this valve is often deeper and these ears may be of similar size and shape, or the anterior ear may be somewhat larger. As is the case in almost all bivalves, a series of lines and/ or growth rings originate at the center of the hinge and these growth rings increase in size downwards until they reach the curved ventral edge of the shell. The shell of most scallops is streamlined to facilitate ease of movement during swimming at some point in the cycle, while also providing protection from predators. Scallops with ridged valves have the advantage of the architectural strength provided by these ridges called ribs, although the ribs are somewhat costly in terms of weight and mass
Scallop
Scallop
–
The characteristic fan shape of a scallop shell (
Pecten albicans). Scallops can swim with brief bursts of speed by clapping their shells together.
Scallop
–
Live
Placopecten magellanicus, the Atlantic deep-sea scallop. Bordering the edge of its mantle are over 100
simple eyes
Scallop
–
A live opened scallop showing the internal anatomy: The pale orange circular part is the adductor muscle; the darker orange curved part is the "coral", a culinary term for the ovary or
roe.
25.
Shrimp
–
The SHRIMP is primarily used for geological and geochemical applications. The most common application of the instrument is in uranium-thorium-lead geochronology, although the SHRIMP can be used to some other isotopic. The instrument was built from 1975 and 1977 with testing and redesigning from 1978, the first successful geological applications occurred in 1980. The first major impact was the discovery of Hadean zircon grains at Mt. Narryer in Western Australia. These results and the SHRIMP analytical method itself were initially questioned, sHRIMP-I also pioneered ion microprobe studies of titanium, hafnium and sulfur isotopic systems. Growing interest from companies and other academic research groups, notably Prof. Refined ion optic designs in the mid-1990s prompted development and construction of the SHRIMP-RG with improved mass resolution, further advances in design have also led to multiple ion collection systems, negative-ion stable isotope measurements and on-going work in developing a dedicated instrument for light stable isotopes. Fifteen SHRIMP instruments have now been installed around the world and SHRIMP results have been reported in more than 2000 peer reviewed scientific papers, other significant milestones include the first U/Pb ages for lunar zircon and Martian apatite dating. More recent uses include the determination of Ordovician sea surface temperature, in a typical U-Pb geochronology analytical mode, a beam of 1− primary ions are produced from a high-purity oxygen gas discharge in the hollow Ni cathode of a duoplasmatron. The ions are extracted from the plasma and accelerated at 10 kV, the primary column uses Köhler illumination to produce a uniform ion density across the target spot. The spot diameter can vary from ~5 µm to over 30 µm as required, typical ion beam density on the sample is ~10 pA/µm2 and an analysis of 15–20 minutes creates an ablation pit of less than 1 µm. The primary beam is 45° incident to the plane of the surface with secondary ions extracted at 90°. Three quadrupole lenses focus the secondary ions onto a source slit, a Schwarzschild objective lens provides reflected-light direct microscopic viewing of the sample during analysis. The secondary ions are filtered and focussed according to their energy by a 1272 mm radius 90° electrostatic sector. The electromagnet has a 1000 mm radius through 72. 5° to focus the secondary ions according to their mass/charge ratio according to the principles of the Lorentz force. Essentially, the path of a massive ion will have a greater curvature through the magnetic field than the path of a more massive ion. Thus, altering the current in the electromagnet focuses a particular mass species at the detector, the ions pass through a collector slit in the focal plane of the magnetic sector and the collector assembly can be moved along an axis to optimise the focus of a given isotopic species. In typical U-Pb zircon analysis, a secondary electron multiplier is used for ion counting
Shrimp
26.
Lobster
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Lobsters comprise a family of large marine crustaceans. They have long bodies with muscular tails, and live in crevices or burrows on the sea floor, three of their five pairs of legs have claws, including the first pair, which are usually much larger than the others. Highly prized as seafood, lobsters are economically important, and are one of the most profitable commodities in coastal areas they populate. Commercially important species include two species of Homarus from the northern Atlantic Ocean, and scampi – the Northern Hemisphere genus Nephrops, although several other groups of crustaceans have the word lobster in their names, the unqualified term lobster generally refers to the clawed lobsters of the family Nephropidae. Clawed lobsters are not closely related to spiny lobsters or slipper lobsters, the closest living relatives of clawed lobsters are the reef lobsters and the three families of freshwater crayfish. Lobsters are invertebrates with a protective exoskeleton. Like most arthropods, lobsters must moult to grow, which leaves them vulnerable, during the moulting process, several species change colour. Lobsters have 10 walking legs, the front three pairs bear claws, the first of which are larger than the others, although lobsters are largely bilaterally symmetrical like most other arthropods, some genera possess unequal, specialised claws. Lobster anatomy includes the cephalothorax which fuses the head and the thorax, the lobsters head bears antennae, antennules, mandibles, the first and second maxillae, and the first, second, and third maxillipeds. Because lobsters live in murky environments at the bottom of the ocean, the lobster eye has a reflective structure above a convex retina. In contrast, most complex eyes use refractive ray concentrators and a concave retina, the abdomen includes swimmerets and its tail is composed of uropods and the telson. Lobsters, like snails and spiders, have blue blood due to the presence of hemocyanin which contains copper, in contrast, vertebrates and many other animals have red blood from iron-rich hemoglobin. Lobsters possess a green hepatopancreas, called the tomalley by chefs, Lobsters of the family Nephropidae are similar in overall form to a number of other related groups. The distinctions from fossil families such as the Chilenophoberidae are based on the pattern of grooves on the carapace, Lobsters live up to an estimated 45 to 50 years in the wild, although determining age is difficult. Research suggests that lobsters may not slow down, weaken or lose fertility with age, and this longevity may be due to telomerase, an enzyme that repairs long repetitive sections of DNA sequences at the ends of chromosomes, referred to as telomeres. Telomerase is expressed by most vertebrates during embryonic stages, but is absent from adult stages of life. However, unlike most vertebrates, lobsters express telomerase as adults through most tissue, Lobster longevity is limited by their size. Lobsters, like many other crustaceans, grow throughout life and are able to add new muscle cells at each moult
Lobster
Lobster
–
Lobsters awaiting purchase in
Trenton in
Hancock County,
Maine
Lobster
–
Steamed whole lobster, with claws cracked and tail split
Lobster
–
Lobsters in a tank at a fish market
27.
Crayfish
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Some species are found in brooks and streams where there is running fresh water, while others thrive in swamps, ditches, and rice paddies. Most crayfish cannot tolerate polluted water, although species such as Procambarus clarkii are hardier. Crayfish feed on living and dead animals and plants, the name crayfish comes from the Old French word escrevisse. The word has been modified to crayfish by association with fish, the largely American variant crawfish is similarly derived. Some kinds of crayfish are known locally as lobsters, crawdads, mudbugs, the study of crayfish is called astacology. Exceptions include western rock lobster found on the west coast of Australia, the Tasmanian giant freshwater crayfish found only in Tasmania, in Singapore, the term crayfish typically refers to Thenus orientalis, a seawater crustacean from the slipper lobster family. True crayfish are not native to Singapore, but are found as pets, or as an invasive species in the many water catchment areas. The body of a crustacean, such as a crab, lobster. Each segment may possess one pair of appendages, although in various groups these may be reduced or missing, on average, crayfish grow to 17.5 centimetres in length, but some grow larger. Walking legs have a claw at the end. There are three families of crayfish, two in the Northern Hemisphere and one in the Southern Hemisphere, the Southern Hemisphere family Parastacidae lives in South America, Madagascar and Australasia, and is distinguished by the lack of the first pair of pleopods. Of the other two families, members of the Astacidae live in western Eurasia and western North America and members of the family Cambaridae live in eastern Asia, Madagascar has an endemic genus, Astacoides, containing seven species. Europe is home to seven species of crayfish in the genera Astacus and Austropotamobius, cambaroides is native to Japan and eastern mainland Asia. The greatest diversity of species is found in southeastern North America, with over 330 species in nine genera. A further genus of crayfish is found in the Pacific Northwest. Many crayfish are found in lowland areas where the water is abundant in calcium. Crayfish were introduced purposely into a few Arizona reservoirs and other bodies of water decades ago and they have since dispersed beyond those original sites. Australia has over 100 species in a dozen genera, in Australia, many of the better-known crayfish are of the genus Cherax, and include the marron from Western Australia, red-claw crayfish, common yabby and western yabby
Crayfish
Crayfish
–
Astacidae:
Austropotamobius pallipes
Crayfish
–
Cambaridae:
Procambarus alleni
Crayfish
–
Parastacidae:
Cherax sp.
28.
Crab
–
Crabs are decapod crustaceans of the infraorder Brachyura, which typically have a very short projecting tail, usually entirely hidden under the thorax. They live in all the oceans, in fresh water. Many other animals with similar names – such as crabs, king crabs, porcelain crabs, horseshoe crabs. Crabs are generally covered with an exoskeleton, composed primarily of calcium carbonate. Crabs are found in all of the oceans, while many crabs live in fresh water and on land. Crabs vary in size from the pea crab, a few wide, to the Japanese spider crab. About 850 species of crab are freshwater, terrestrial or semi-terrestrial species and they were previously thought to be a monophyletic group, but are now believed to represent at least two distinct lineages, one in the Old World and one in the New World. The earliest unambiguous crab fossils date from the Jurassic, although Carboniferous Imocaris, known only from its carapace, the radiation of crabs in the Cretaceous and afterward may be linked either to the break-up of Gondwana or to the concurrent radiation of bony fish, crabs main predators. Crabs often show marked sexual dimorphism, males often have larger claws, a tendency which is particularly pronounced in the fiddler crabs of the genus Uca. In fiddler crabs, males have one claw which is greatly enlarged, another conspicuous difference is the form of the pleon, in most male crabs, this is narrow and triangular in form, while females have a broader, rounded abdomen. This is because female crabs brood fertilised eggs on their pleopods, crabs attract a mate through chemical, visual, acoustic, or vibratory means. Pheromones are used by most fully aquatic crabs, while terrestrial and semiterrestrial crabs often use visual signals, the vast number of brachyuran crabs have internal fertilisation and mate belly-to-belly. For many aquatic species, mating takes place just after the female has moulted and is still soft, females can store the sperm for a long time before using it to fertilise their eggs. When fertilisation has taken place, the eggs are released onto the abdomen, below the tail flap. In this location, they are protected during embryonic development, females carrying eggs are called berried since the eggs resemble round berries. When development is complete, the releases the newly hatched larvae into the water. The release is timed with the tides. The free-swimming tiny zoea larvae can float and take advantage of water currents and they have a spine, which probably reduces the rate of predation by larger animals
Crab
Crab
–
Gecarcinus quadratus, a
land crab from
Central and
South America
Crab
–
Crab (Pachygrapsus marmoratus) on Istrian coast,
Adriatic Sea.
Crab
–
Female crab
Xantho poressa at spawning time in the
Black Sea, carrying eggs under her abdomen.
29.
Sea urchin
–
Sea urchins or urchins, archaically called sea hedgehogs, are small, spiny, globular animals that, with their close kin, such as sand dollars, constitute the class Echinoidea of the echinoderm phylum. About 950 species of echinoids inhabit all oceans from the intertidal to 5,000 metres deep, the shell, or test, of sea urchins is round and spiny, typically from 3 to 10 cm across. Common colors include black and dull shades of green, olive, brown, purple, blue, Sea urchins move slowly, feeding primarily on algae. Sea otters, starfish, wolf eels, triggerfish, and other predators hunt and their roe is a delicacy in many cuisines. The name urchin is an old word for hedgehog, which sea urchins resemble, Sea urchins are members of the phylum Echinodermata, which also includes sea stars, sea cucumbers, brittle stars, and crinoids. Like other echinoderms, they have five-fold symmetry and move by means of hundreds of tiny, transparent, the symmetry is not obvious in the living animal, but is easily visible in the dried test. The irregular sea urchins are an infra-class inside the Euechinoidea, called Irregularia, irregular echinoids include, flattened sand dollars, sea biscuits, and heart urchins. Together with sea cucumbers, they make up the subphylum Echinozoa, Sea cucumbers and the irregular echinoids have secondarily evolved diverse shapes. Urchins typically range in size from 6 to 12 cm, although the largest species can reach up to 36 cm, like other echinoderms, sea urchin early larvae have bilateral symmetry, but they develop five-fold symmetry as they mature. This is most apparent in the sea urchins, which have roughly spherical bodies with five equally sized parts radiating out from their central axes. Several sea urchins, however, including the sand dollars, are oval in shape, with front and rear ends. In these urchins, the surface of the body is slightly domed. This irregular body form has evolved to allow the animals to burrow through sand or other soft materials, Sea urchins tube feet arise from the five ambulacral grooves. Tube feet are moved by a vascular system, which works through hydraulic pressure, allowing the sea urchin to pump water into and out of the tube feet. The lower half of a sea urchins body is referred to as the surface, because it contains the mouth. The internal organs are enclosed in a shell or test composed of fused plates of calcium carbonate covered by a thin dermis and epidermis. The test is rigid, and divides into five ambulacral grooves separated by five interambulacral areas, each of these areas consists of two rows of plates, so the sea urchin test includes 20 rows of plates in total. The plates are covered in rounded tubercles, to which the spines are attached, the inner surface of the test is lined by peritoneum
Sea urchin
Sea urchin
–
There is a wide diversity of shapes in sea urchins. This "slate-pencil sea urchin" (
Heterocentrotus mamillatus), despite its big, wide spines, is a regular sea urchin and not a cidaroid: its spines are not covered with algae.
Sea urchin
–
Paracentrotus lividus, a regular sea urchin (
Euechinoidea, infraclass
Carinacea).
Sea urchin
–
A
sand dollar, an irregular sea urchin (
Irregularia).
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