1.
Newar people
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The Newar or Newah are the historical inhabitants of the Kathmandu Valley and its surrounding areas in Nepal, and the creators of its historic heritage and civilization. Newars form a linguistic and cultural community of primarily Indo-Aryan and Tibeto-Burman ethnicities following Hinduism and Buddhism with Nepal Bhasa as their common language, Newars have developed a division of labour and a sophisticated urban civilization not seen elsewhere in the Himalayan foothills. Newars have continued their traditions and practices, and pride themselves as the true custodians of the religion, culture. The valley and surrounding territories constituted the former Newar kingdom of the Nepal Mandala, Indo-Aryan immigrants like the Licchavis and Mallas that arrived at different periods eventually merged with the local population by adopting their language and customs. Newar rule in Nepal Mandala ended with its conquest by the Gorkha Kingdom in 1768, Newars are known for their contributions to culture, art and literature, trade, agriculture and cuisine. Today, Newars consistently rank as the most economically, politically and socially advanced community of Nepal, nepals 2011 census ranks Newars as the nations sixth-largest ethnicity/community, with 1,321,933 Newars throughout the country. The terms Nepāl, Newār, Newāl and Nepār are phonetically different forms of the same word, Nepal is the learned form and Newar is the colloquial form. The term Newar referring to inhabitant of Nepal appeared for the first time in an inscription dated 1654 in Kathmandu, italian Jesuit priest Ippolito Desideri who traveled to Nepal in 1721 has written that the natives of Nepal are called Newars. It has been suggested that Nepal may be a sanskritization of Newar, according to another explanation, the words Newar and Newari are vulgarisms arising from the mutation of P to V, and L to R. As a result of the process of dropping the last consonant and lengthening the vowel, Newā for Newār or Newāl. For about a thousand years, the Newar civilization in Central Nepal preserved a microcosm of classical North Indian culture in which Brahmanic, snellgrove and Richardson speak of the direct heritage of pre-Islamic India. The different divisions of Newars had different historical developments, the common identity of Newar was formed in the Kathmandu Valley. Until the conquest of the valley by the Gorkha Kingdom in 1769, so, the history of Newar correlates to the history of the Kathmandu Valley prior to the establishment of the modern state of Nepal. The earliest known history of Newar and the Kathmandu Valley blends with mythology recorded in historical chronicles, one such text, which recounts the creation of the valley, is the Swayambhu Purana. According to this Buddhist scripture, the Kathmandu Valley was a giant lake until the Bodhisattva Manjusri, with the aid of a sword, cut a gap in the surrounding hills. This apocryphal legend is supported by evidence of an ancient lakebed. According to the Swayambhu Purana, Manjusri then established a city called Manjupattan, now called Manjipā, a shrine dedicated to Manjusri is still present in Majipā. No historical documents have been found after this era till the advent of the Gopal era, a genealogy of kings is recorded in a chronicle called Gopalarajavamsavali
2.
Nepal
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Nepal, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a landlocked central Himalayan country in South Asia. Nepal is divided into 7 provinces and 75 districts and 744 local units including 4 metropolises,13 sub-metropolises,246 municipal councils and 481 village and it has a population of 26.4 million and is the 93rd largest country by area. Bordering China in the north and India in the south, east, Nepal does not border Bangladesh, which is located within only 27 km of its southeastern tip. It neither borders Bhutan due to the Indian state of Sikkim being located in between, Nepal has a diverse geography, including fertile plains, subalpine forested hills, and eight of the worlds ten tallest mountains, including Mount Everest, the highest point on Earth. Kathmandu is the capital and largest city. It is a nation with Nepali as the official language. The territory of Nepal has a history since the Neolithic age. The name Nepal is first recorded in texts from the Vedic Age, the era which founded Hinduism, in the middle of the first millennium BCE, Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in southern Nepal. Parts of northern Nepal were intertwined with the culture of Tibet, the Kathmandu Valley in central Nepal became known as Nepal proper because of its complex urban civilization. It was the seat of the prosperous Newar confederacy known as Nepal Mandala, the Himalayan branch of the ancient Silk Road was dominated by the valleys traders. The cosmopolitan region developed distinct traditional art and architecture, by the 18th century, the Gorkha Kingdom achieved the unification of Nepal. The Shah dynasty established the Kingdom of Nepal and later formed an alliance with the British Empire, the country was never colonized but served as a buffer state between Imperial China and Colonial India. In the 20th century, Nepal ended its isolation and forged ties with regional powers. Parliamentary democracy was introduced in 1951, but was suspended by Nepalese monarchs in 1960 and 2005. The Nepalese Civil War resulted in the proclamation of a republic in 2008, modern Nepal is a federal secular parliamentary republic. Nepal is a nation, ranking 144th on the Human Development Index in 2016. The country struggles with the transition from a monarchy to a republic and it also suffers from high levels of hunger and poverty. Despite these challenges, Nepal is making progress, with the government declaring its commitment to elevate the nation from least developed country status by 2022
3.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
4.
Newar language
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Although Nepal Bhasa literally means Nepalese language, the language is not the same as Nepali, the countrys current official language. The two languages belong to different language families, but centuries of contact have resulted in a significant body of shared vocabulary, Newar was Nepals administrative language from the 14th to the late 18th centuries. Since the beginning of the 20th century, Newar has suffered from official suppression, from 1952 to 1991, the percentage of the population in the Kathmandu Valley speaking Newar dropped from 75% to 44%, and Newar culture and language are under threat. The language has been listed as being endangered by UNESCO. The earliest occurrences of the name Nepālabhāṣā can be found in the manuscripts of a commentary to the Nāradasaṃhitā, dated 1380 AD, since then, the name has been used widely on inscriptions, manuscripts, documents and books. Conversely, the term Gorkhali in the national anthem entitled Shreeman Gambhir was changed to Nepali in 1951. On 8 September 1995, following years of lobbying to use the old name, however, the decision was not implemented, and on 13 November 1998, the Minister of Information and Communication issued another directive to use the name Nepal Bhasa instead of Newari. However, the Central Bureau of Statistics has not been doing so, Newar is spoken by over a million people in Nepal according to the 2001 census. In Nepal, Kathmandu Valley, Dolakha District, Banepa, Dhulikhel, Bandipur, Bhimphedi, Panauti, Palpa, Trishuli, Nuwakot, Bhojpur, Chitlang, Narayangarh, Chitwan. West Bengal In Tibet, Khasa With an increase in emigration, various bodies and societies of Newar-speaking people have emerged in such as the US. The exact placement of Newar within the Tibeto-Burman language family has been a source of controversies, the linguist Warren W. Glover classified Newar as a part of Bodic subdivision using Shafers terminology. Professor Van Driem classified Newar within Mahakiranti grouping but he retracted his hypothesis in 2003. Moreover, he proposed a new grouping called Maha-Newari which possibly includes Baram–Thangmi, T. R. Kansakar attributes the difficulty about the placement of Newar is due inability of scholars to connect it with the migration patterns of the Tibeto-Burman speakers. Since Newar separated from rest of the very early in history. He underscored the point that the language evolved from mixed racial/linguistic influences that do not lend easily to a neat classification. The date indicates a time when the language diverged. ɞ Van Driem labelled this branch as Parakiranti. However, he would drop this hypothesis. ʌ All languages within this branch have extensive Indo-Aryan vocabulary. It is hypothesized that either ancient IndoAryan admixture happened before Newar-Thangmi-Baram split or that Thangmi-Baram borrowed through Newari, according to the linguist Glover, Newari and the Chepang language must have diverged around 2200 BC
5.
Nepali language
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Nepali, originally known as Khas Kura, Parbate Bhasa or Gorkhali, is an Indo-Aryan language. It is the language and de facto lingua franca of Nepal. It is also spoken in parts of India, particularly by Indian Gorkha. In India, Nepali language is listed in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India having a status in the Indian state of Sikkim. Nepali developed in proximity to a number of Indo-Aryan languages, most notably the Pahari languages and Magahi, however, owing to Nepals geographical area, it has also been influenced by Tibeto-Burman languages. Nepali is mainly differentiated from Central Pahari, both in grammar and vocabulary, by Tibeto-Burman idioms owing to close contact with the language group. Nepali language shares 40% lexical similarity with the Bengali language, in the nineteenth century, the British resident at Kathmandu Brian Houghton Hodgson observed that it was, in eight-tenths of its vocabulary, substantially Hindi. Historically, the language was first called the Khas language, then Gorkhali or Gurkhali before the term Nepali was adopted, in 1920, during Rana regime in Nepal, the term Nepal which resembled the Nepal Mandala was taken from its people. Soon after that, Nepal Bhasa was renamed into Newari and Parbate/Khas language took over as Nepali language, other names include Parbatiya and Dzongkha Lhotshammikha. It is also known as the Khey language or Partya language among the Newar people and Pahari language among Madhesi, however, due to protests for identity, Newars have restored their languages name as Nepal Bhasa and voices have been raise to re-instate Parbate language in its original name. Nepali developed a significant literature within a period of a hundred years in the 19th century. This literary explosion was fueled by Adhyatma Ramayana, Sundarananda Bara, Birsikka, a collection of folk tales. The contribution of trio-laureates Lekhnath Paudyal, Laxmi Prasad Devkota, the contribution of expatriate writers outside Nepal, especially in Darjeeling and Varanasi in India, is also notable. In the past decade, there have been many contributions to Nepali literature from the Nepali diaspora in Asia, Europe, America, according to the 2011 national census,44.6 percent of the population of Nepal speaks Nepali as a first language. The Ethnologue website reports 12,300,000 speakers within Nepal, Nepali is traditionally spoken in the Hill Region of Nepal, especially in the western part of the country. Although the Newar language dominated the Kathmandu valley, Nepali is currently the most dominant, Nepali is used in government and as the everyday language of a growing portion of the local population. Nevertheless, the use of Nepali in the courts and government of Nepal is being challenged. Recognition of other languages in Nepal was one of the objectives of the Communist Party of Nepals long war
6.
Hinduism
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Hinduism is a religion, or a way of life, found most notably in India and Nepal. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This Hindu synthesis started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE following the Vedic period, although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, and pilgrimage to sacred sites. Hindu texts are classified into Shruti and Smriti and these texts discuss theology, philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building, among other topics. Major scriptures include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four Puruṣārthas, the proper goals or aims of human life, namely Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, karma, samsara, and the various Yogas. Hindu practices include such as puja and recitations, meditation, family-oriented rites of passage, annual festivals. Some Hindus leave their world and material possessions, then engage in lifelong Sannyasa to achieve Moksha. Hinduism prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, Hinduism is the worlds third largest religion, with over one billion followers or 15% of the global population, known as Hindus. The majority of Hindus reside in India, Nepal, Mauritius, the Caribbean, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan/Sanskrit word Sindhu, the Indo-Aryan name for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. The term Hindu in these ancient records is a geographical term, the Arabic term al-Hind referred to the people who live across the River Indus. This Arabic term was taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term Hindū. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as an alternative name of India. It was only towards the end of the 18th century that European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus. The term Hinduism, then spelled Hindooism, was introduced into the English language in the 18th-century to denote the religious, philosophical, because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult. The religion defies our desire to define and categorize it, Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and a way of life. From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism like other faiths is appropriately referred to as a religion, in India the term dharma is preferred, which is broader than the western term religion. Hindu traditionalists prefer to call it Sanatana Dharma, the study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of Hinduism, has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion. Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism, Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents
7.
Indo-Aryan peoples
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Indo-Aryan peoples are a diverse Indo-European ethnolinguistic group of speakers of Indo-Aryan languages. There are over one billion native speakers of Indo-Aryan languages, most of them native to South Asia and these migrations started approximately 1,800 BCE, after the invention of the war chariot, and also brought Indo-Aryan languages into the Levant and possibly Inner Asia. 1800–1400 BCE in the steppes around the Aral sea, present-day Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, the proto-Indo-Iranians were influenced by the Bactria-Margiana Culture, south of the Andronovo culture, from which they borrowed their distinctive religious beliefs and practices. The Indo-Aryans split off around 1800-1600 BCE from the Iranians, whereafter the Indo-Aryans migrated into the Levant, horseplay at Harappa - People Fas Harvard - Harvard University A tale of two horses - Frontline
8.
Kshatriya
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Kshatriya is one of the four varna of the Hindu society. The Sanskrit term kshatriya is used in the context of Vedic society wherein members organised themselves into four classes, brahmin, kshatriya, vaishya, traditionally, the kshatriya constituted the ruling and military elite. Their role was to protect society by fighting in wartime and governing in peacetime, the Prakrit derivative of Kshatriya is Khatri. The administrative machinery in the Rig Vedic period functioned with a chief called Rajan whose position was not hereditary. The king was elected in an assembly, which included women. The Rajan protected the tribe and cattle, was assisted by a priest, the concept of fourfold varna system was non-existent. The hymn Purusha Sukta to the Rigveda describes the history of the four varna. Since not all dark-skinned Indians was fully regulated under the varna in the vedic society, the term rajanya unlike the word kshatriya essentially denoted the status within a lineage. Whereas kshatra, means ruling, one of the ruling order, jaiswal points out the term Brahman rarely occurs in the Rig-veda with the exception of the Purusha Sukta and may not have been used for the priestly class. Based on the authority of Panini, Patanjali, Katyayana and the Mahabharata, Jayaswal believes that Rajanya was the name of a people and that the Rajanyas were, therefore. Some examples were the Andhaka and Vrsni Rajanyas who followed the system of elected rulers and this later gave rise to the idea of kingship. In the period of the Brahmanas there was ambiguity in the position of the varna, in the Panchavimsha Brahmana, the Rajanya are placed first, followed by Brahmana then Vaishya. In Shatapatha Brahmana 13.8.3.11, the Kshatriya are placed second, in Shatapatha Brahmana 1.1.4.12 the order is—Brahmana, Vaishya, Rajanya, Shudra. The order of the brahmanical tradition—Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra—became fixed from the time of dharmasutras, the kshatriya were often considered pre-eminent in Buddhist circles. Even among Hindu societies they were sometimes at rivalry with the Brahmins, the kshatriya caste constituted an aristocracy but were not always necessarily wealthy. Kings usually belonged to this caste and it was considered their duty to acquire a knowledge of weapons in addition to cultivating their aptitude for command, the science of weaponry was one of the 13 branches of learning which every educated kshatriya male was expected to study. Both the kings suite and the army were recruited from among this caste. Many kshatriya were authorised to take up a craft or trade rather than gaining their living as professional warriors and these families still retained the privileges accorded to their caste however, which included special forms of marriage which were their prerogative
9.
Nepalis
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Nepalis, also referred to as Nepalese, are the Indo-Aryan and Sino-Tibetan citizens of Nepal under the provisions of Nepali nationality law. The country is home to people of different national origins. As a result, people of Nepal do not equate their nationality with ethnicity, although citizens make up the majority of Nepalese, non-citizen residents, dual citizen, and expatriates may also claim a Nepalese identity. Nepalese are descendants of migrants from parts of India, Tibet, and parts of Burma and Yunnan, Nepal is a multicultural and multiethnic country. Kathmandu Valley, in the hill region, constitutes a small fraction of the nations area but is the most densely populated. Local legends say that a Hindu sage named Ne established himself in the valley of Kathmandu in prehistoric times and it is mentioned in Vedic texts that this region was called Nepal centuries ago. According to the Skanda Purana, a rishi called Ne or Nemuni used to live in the Himalayas, in the Pashupati Purana, he is mentioned as a saint and a protector. He is said to have practised meditation at the Bagmati and Kesavati rivers, the name of the country is also identical in origin to the name of the Newar people. The terms Nepāl, Newār, Newāl and Nepār are phonetically different forms of the same word, Nepal is the learned Sanskrit form and Newar is the colloquial Prakrit form. It has been suggested that Nepal may be a Sanskritization of Newar, according to another explanation, the words Newar and Newari are vulgarisms arising from the mutation of P to V, and L to R
10.
Nepal Mandala
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Nepal Mandala is an ancient confederation marked by cultural, religious and political boundaries which lies in present-day central Nepal. It consists of the Kathmandu Valley and surrounding areas, the rule of the indigenous Newars in Nepal Mandala ended with its conquest by the Gorkha Kingdom and the rise of the Shah dynasty in 1768. ref>Outline History of Nepal. Bhaktapur was the capital of Nepal Mandala until the 15th century when three capitals, including Kathmandu and Lalitpur, were established, the extent of Nepal Mandala has been traditionally defined by the locations of 64 Hindu and 24 Buddhist pilgrimage sites. The Hindu shrines consist of 64 Shiva lingas scattered from Brahmeswar in Nuwakot district in the west to Bhimeswar in Dolakha District in the east, the 24 Buddhist pilgrimage sites are spread from the Trishuli River in the west to Dolalghat in the east. When seen as a pattern, they form the picture of the mandala of Chakrasamvara. Nepal Mandala was conceived on the basis of the Chakrasamvara Mandala, the term mandala also means a country, and it has been used to represent traditional political formations such as federation of kingdoms. The area comprising Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur and Dolakha during the Malla period is known as Nepal Mandala. According to the Outline History of Nepal, Nepal Mandala was situated between the Khas and Simraungarh kingdoms, the Khas kingdom extended from Garhwal in the west to the Trishuli River in the east, and from Lake Mansarovar in the north to the Terai in the south. Karnatak, also called Simraungarh, was situated in the Terai, in 1661, Jesuit Fathers Johann Grueber and Albert dOrville travelled from Tibet to India through Nepal. They mentioned in their report that they passed through Cuthi, the first town in the kingdom of Necbal, and arrived in Cadmendu, from Cadmendu, a journey of five days brings one to Hedouda, a market town in the kingdom of Maranga. The town of Hedouda is known as Hetauda today, the oldest inhabitants of Nepal Mandala are Kirat, Newars who are of multiple racial strains that combined over millennia. Newar civilization is a blend of different cultures that came together in Nepal Mandala, according to sociologists, the people of Nepal gradually became known as Newar. The Buddhist text Manjushrimula Kalpa has mentioned Manadeva as being the king of Nepal Mandala, the term Nepal Mandala also appears in the popular Buddhist text Swayambhu Purana. It occurs in an inscription at Gyaneswar, Kathmandu dating from the eighth century during the reign of Licchavi king Jayadeva II. The term Nepal Mandala has been used through the centuries in stone and copper inscriptions and it is also referred to during important Buddhist ceremonies. Nepal Mandala, A Cultural Study of the Kathmandu Valley, Princeton University Press 1982, Kathmandu Valley - The Preservation of Physical Environment and Cultural Heritage - A Protective Inventory, Vol.2, Wien 1975
11.
Nepal Bhasa language
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Although Nepal Bhasa literally means Nepalese language, the language is not the same as Nepali, the countrys current official language. The two languages belong to different language families, but centuries of contact have resulted in a significant body of shared vocabulary, Newar was Nepals administrative language from the 14th to the late 18th centuries. Since the beginning of the 20th century, Newar has suffered from official suppression, from 1952 to 1991, the percentage of the population in the Kathmandu Valley speaking Newar dropped from 75% to 44%, and Newar culture and language are under threat. The language has been listed as being endangered by UNESCO. The earliest occurrences of the name Nepālabhāṣā can be found in the manuscripts of a commentary to the Nāradasaṃhitā, dated 1380 AD, since then, the name has been used widely on inscriptions, manuscripts, documents and books. Conversely, the term Gorkhali in the national anthem entitled Shreeman Gambhir was changed to Nepali in 1951. On 8 September 1995, following years of lobbying to use the old name, however, the decision was not implemented, and on 13 November 1998, the Minister of Information and Communication issued another directive to use the name Nepal Bhasa instead of Newari. However, the Central Bureau of Statistics has not been doing so, Newar is spoken by over a million people in Nepal according to the 2001 census. In Nepal, Kathmandu Valley, Dolakha District, Banepa, Dhulikhel, Bandipur, Bhimphedi, Panauti, Palpa, Trishuli, Nuwakot, Bhojpur, Chitlang, Narayangarh, Chitwan. West Bengal In Tibet, Khasa With an increase in emigration, various bodies and societies of Newar-speaking people have emerged in such as the US. The exact placement of Newar within the Tibeto-Burman language family has been a source of controversies, the linguist Warren W. Glover classified Newar as a part of Bodic subdivision using Shafers terminology. Professor Van Driem classified Newar within Mahakiranti grouping but he retracted his hypothesis in 2003. Moreover, he proposed a new grouping called Maha-Newari which possibly includes Baram–Thangmi, T. R. Kansakar attributes the difficulty about the placement of Newar is due inability of scholars to connect it with the migration patterns of the Tibeto-Burman speakers. Since Newar separated from rest of the very early in history. He underscored the point that the language evolved from mixed racial/linguistic influences that do not lend easily to a neat classification. The date indicates a time when the language diverged. ɞ Van Driem labelled this branch as Parakiranti. However, he would drop this hypothesis. ʌ All languages within this branch have extensive Indo-Aryan vocabulary. It is hypothesized that either ancient IndoAryan admixture happened before Newar-Thangmi-Baram split or that Thangmi-Baram borrowed through Newari, according to the linguist Glover, Newari and the Chepang language must have diverged around 2200 BC
12.
Sanskrit
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Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, a philosophical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and a literary language and lingua franca of ancient and medieval South Asia. As a result of transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia and parts of Central Asia, as one of the oldest Indo-European languages for which substantial written documentation exists, Sanskrit holds a prominent position in Indo-European studies. The body of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific, technical, philosophical, the compositions of Sanskrit were orally transmitted for much of its early history by methods of memorization of exceptional complexity, rigor, and fidelity. Thereafter, variants and derivatives of the Brahmi script came to be used, Sanskrit is today one of the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which mandates the Indian government to develop the language. It continues to be used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns. The Sanskrit verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- may be translated as refined, elaborated, as a term for refined or elaborated speech, the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit in the Manusmṛti and the Mahabharata. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved, Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the fourth century BCE. Sanskrit, as defined by Pāṇini, evolved out of the earlier Vedic form, the present form of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced back to as early as the second millennium BCE. Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical or Pāṇinian Sanskrit as separate dialects, although they are quite similar, they differ in a number of essential points of phonology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, a collection of hymns, incantations and theological and religio-philosophical discussions in the Brahmanas. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita to be the earliest, for nearly 2000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia. A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of Indian epic poetry—the Ramayana, the deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian. Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa, meaning of the ṛṣis, in some contexts, there are also more prakritisms than in Classical Sanskrit proper. There were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit, paścimottarī, madhyadeśī, pūrvi, the predecessors of the first three dialects are attested in Vedic Brāhmaṇas, of which the first one was regarded as the purest. In the 2001 Census of India,14,035 Indians reported Sanskrit to be their first language, in India, Sanskrit is among the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. The state of Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its official language. In October 2012 social activist Hemant Goswami filed a petition in the Punjab. More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since Indias independence in 1947, much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages
13.
Hindu
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Hindu refers to any person who regards themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously adhering to aspects of Hinduism. It has historically used as a geographical, cultural, or religious identifier for people indigenous to South Asia. The historical meaning of the term Hindu has evolved with time, by the 16th century, the term began to refer to residents of India who were not Turks or Muslims. The historical development of Hindu self-identity within the Indian population, in a religious or cultural sense, is unclear, competing theories state that Hindu identity developed in the British colonial era, or that it developed post-8th century CE after the Islamic invasion and medieval Hindu-Muslim wars. A sense of Hindu identity and the term Hindu appears in texts dated between the 13th and 18th century in Sanskrit and regional languages. The 14th- and 18th-century Indian poets such as Vidyapati, Kabir and Eknath used the phrase Hindu dharma, the Christian friar Sebastiao Manrique used the term Hindu in religious context in 1649. In the 18th century, the European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus, in contrast to Mohamedans for Mughals, scholars state that the custom of distinguishing between Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs is a modern phenomenon. Hindoo is a spelling variant, whose use today may be considered derogatory. At more than 1.03 billion, Hindus are the third largest group after Christians. The vast majority of Hindus, approximately 966 million, live in India, according to Indias 2011 census. After India, the next 9 countries with the largest Hindu populations are, in decreasing order, Nepal, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, United States, Malaysia, United Kingdom and Myanmar. These together accounted for 99% of the worlds Hindu population, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan and Sanskrit word Sindhu, which means a large body of water, covering river, ocean. It was used as the name of the Indus river and also referred to its tributaries, the Punjab region, called Sapta Sindhava in the Vedas, is called Hapta Hindu in Zend Avesta. The 6th-century BCE inscription of Darius I mentions the province of Hidush, the people of India were referred to as Hinduvān and hindavī was used as the adjective for Indian in the 8th century text Chachnama. The term Hindu in these ancient records is an ethno-geographical term, the Arabic equivalent Al-Hind likewise referred to the country of India. Among the earliest known records of Hindu with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by the Buddhist scholar Xuanzang, Xuanzang uses the transliterated term In-tu whose connotation overflows in the religious according to Arvind Sharma. The Hindu community occurs as the amorphous Other of the Muslim community in the court chronicles, wilfred Cantwell Smith notes that Hindu retained its geographical reference initially, Indian, indigenous, local, virtually native. Slowly, the Indian groups themselves started using the term, differentiating themselves, the poet Vidyapatis poem Kirtilata contrasts the cultures of Hindus and Turks in a city and concludes The Hindus and the Turks live close together, Each makes fun of the others religion
14.
Unification of Nepal
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Before Shah dynasty took over Nepal, Nepal was limited to Kathmandu valley and surrounding territories which consist many kingdoms. After conquering the valley in the century, King Prithvi Narayan Shah moved his ruling state to Nepal from Gorkha. He then started his campaign with the banner of Nepal than Gorkha. With this conquer, Nepal was expanded covering more area forming the shape of modern Nepal, King Prithvi Narayan Shah was born in the Shah dynasty of Gorkha on 11 January 1723 After the death of Narabhupal Shah on 25 Chaitra he became the king of Gorkha. He ascended to the throne of Gorkha kingdom on 3 April 1743 and he was interested in politics and diplomacy and had interests in both visiting and conquering other countries since his days as prince. He decided to enlarge his kingdom, which was confined to the small Gorkha region of present-day Nepal and had an area of just 2,500 square km. He defeated major principalities in wars and unified them under his rule starting from the 1740s, while he was successful at conquering the Kathmandu valley and the Sen kingdoms further east, his efforts were limited in the west of his homeland. He then attacked and absorbed dozens of small principalities and gave a new name Nepal to his Gorkha kingdom. Kalu Pandey employed a strategy involving a blockade of the Kathmandu Valley, in the next two years he captured Mahadevpokhari, Pharping, Chitlang, Dharmasthali, Naldrum, Siranchok and Shivapuri. He then focused his attention on Kirtipur and Makawanpur, two palaces which were also strategic military targets, Kirtipur was in an elevated position with a fort surrounded by walls and jungles, an ideal place to make inroads into the valley. Shah thought that if he could take over Kirtipur, occupying the rest of the valley would be much easier, on 4 December 1757 he made his first attack on Kirtipur. In this war he lost his strong general Kalu pandey which was a loss for gorkha. Kalu Pandey had told him that it was not the time to attack Kritpur. His body was buried in Kirtipur, Prithvi Narayan Shah himself was nearly killed in the battle. As a result, the Gorkha army, having lost a great deal of morale, was defeated and it is said that as revenge for his two earlier defeats, The Gorkha army was repelled again in August 1765. After two defeats, the Gorkha army changed its strategy again and surrounded Kirtipur during the harvest season, the Gorkha army also took over the nearby Balaju fort. After several months of blockade, the people of Kirtipur could not even get water to drink and were forced to surrender to the Gorkha army on 17 March 1766. This time the Gorkha army took over Kirtipur without a fight, Prithvi Narayan Shah had his army cut off the noses and lips of all the people of Kirtipur
15.
Malla (Nepal)
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The Malla Dynasty was a ruling dynasty of Nepal c. They have claimed Kshatriya status themselves, the Mallas means wrestlers in Sanskrit. The first of the Malla kings came to power in Kathmandu Valley around 1200, the Malla period was a golden one that stretched over 600 years, though it was peppered with fighting over the valuable trade routes to Tibet. The Mallas were noted for their patronisation of the Maithili language which was afforded a status to that of Sanskrit in the Malla court. Maithil Brahmin priests were invited to Kathmandu and many Maithil families settled in Kathmandu during Malla rule, beginning in the early twelfth century, leading notables in Nepal began to appear with names ending in the term malla, indicating a person of great strength and power. Arimalla was the first king to be so called, and the practice of adopting such a name was followed regularly by rulers in Nepal until the eighteenth century. This long Malla period witnessed the continued importance of the Kathmandu Valley as a political, cultural, other areas also began to emerge as significant centers in their own right, increasingly connected to the Kathmandu Valley. The time of the earlier Malla kings was not one of consolidation, in the twelfth century, Muslim Turks set up a powerful kingdom in India at Delhi, and in the thirteenth century they expanded their control over most of northern India. During this process, all of the kingdoms in India underwent a major reshuffling. This process resulted in an increasing militarization of Nepals neighbors and sections of Nepal as well and these Khas kings expanded into parts of western Tibet and sent raiding expeditions into the Kathmandu Valley between 1275 and 1335. In 1312 the Khas king, Ripumalla, visited Lumbini and had his own inscription carved on Ashokas pillar and he then entered the Kathmandu Valley to worship publicly at Matsyendranath, Pashupatinath, and Swayambhunath. These acts were all public announcements of his overlordship in Nepal, the first Malla rulers had to cope with several disasters. In 1255, one-third of the population of Kathmandu were killed when the valley suffered an earthquake with the right below the city. A devastating Muslim invasion by Sultan Shams-ud-din of Bengal in 1345-46, during the reign of Jayaraja Deva, left plundered Hindu, the invasion however did not leave a lasting cultural effect. In India the damage was widespread and many Hindus were driven into the hills and mountains of Nepal. In fact, none of the buildings in the valley proper dates from before this raid. He is said to have destroyed the Lichchhavi palaces of Managriha and he also damaged all the temples in the Kathmandu valley except the Changu Narayan Temple, which he could not locate as it lies some hills away from Kathmandu. He returned after 3 days of looting and burning, apart from this, the earlier Malla years were largely stable
16.
Shah dynasty
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The Shah dynasty was the ruling dynasty of the Kingdom of Gorkha until 1768 and of the Kingdom of Nepal from 1768 to 28 May 2008. According to legends, one of the earliest Shah rulers was Rishi-raj Rana-ji and he was made ruler of Chittorgarh and received the title of Bhattarak. The lunar dynasty remained in power for thirteen generations, then, the Muslim Yavanas took power. The Bhattarak had to abdicate and could retain his caste family name. The rajas were titled Rana-ji for four generations and Rana-ji Rava for a further seventeen generations, akbar, the Mughal emperor, wished to marry the daughter of Fatte Sinha Rana-ji Rava. Akbar was refused because he was of an unsatisfactory caste, many rajput, including Fatte Sinha Rana-ji Rava, were killed. The survivors of the war were led by Udaybam Rana-ji Rava, manmath Rana-ji Rava went to Ujjain. His son went to Ridi in the hills and in 1417 AD, to Sargha. The new ruler of Khium had sons, Kancha and Micha, plans for the boys to marry the daughters of the Raghibanshi Rajputs were made. Kancha, the son went to Dhor. He conquered Mangart and reigned over Garhon, Sathum and Birkot, Micha, the younger son, went to Nuwakot in the far west and became ruler there. From Micha, a dynasty of seven rajas commenced in Nuwakot, kumandan, the eldest son of Jagdeva, became ruler of Kaski. He was favoured and became Sah and succeeded his father, kalu, the second son was sent to Dura Danda in Lamjung at the peoples request to become their king. Kalu was killed by the Sekhant tribe, in the 1500s, another son, Yasobramha, became the ruler of Lamjung. The descendants of Yasobramha conquered the Ghale people of neighbouring Ligligkot, Dravya Shah was the first Shah king of Gorkha. Previously, the local Ghale people had chosen their king from the winners of a running race. Dravya Shah was not a physically robust man but he tricked his way to the win and he was backed by the Bhattarai, Aryal, Adhikari, Pant and Acharya clans who were Brahmin. By 1570, when Dravya Shah died, the race was
17.
Vaishya
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Vaishya is one of the four varnas of the Hindu social order. Hindu religious texts assigned Vaishyas to traditional roles in agriculture and cattle-rearing, the Vaishyas, along with members of the Brahmin and Kshatriya varnas, claim dvija status after sacrament of initiation as in Hindu theology. Indian traders were widely credited for the spread of Indian culture to regions as far as southeast Asia, historically, Vaishyas have been involved in roles other than their traditional pastoralism, trade and commerce. According to historian Ram Sharan Sharma, the Gupta Empire was a Vaishya dynasty that may have appeared as a reaction against oppressive rulers, media related to Vaishya at Wikimedia Commons Introduction to caste system of India All India Vaish Federation
18.
Kathmandu Valley
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The Kathmandu Valley, located in Nepal, lies at the crossroads of ancient civilizations of Asia, and has at least 130 important monuments, including several pilgrimage sites for Hindus and Buddhists. There are seven World Heritage Sites within the valley, historically, the valley and adjoining areas made up a confederation known as the Nepal Mandala. Until the 15th century, Bhaktapur was its capital, when two other capitals, Kathmandu and Lalitpur, were established. After the annexation of the valley by the Gorkha Kingdom, and subsequent conversion of the valley as the capital of their empire, the Kathmandu Valley is the most developed and populated place in Nepal. The majority of offices and headquarters are located in the valley and it is popular with tourists for its unique architecture, and rich culture that includes the highest number of jatras in Nepal. The valley itself was referred to as Nepal Proper by British historians, thousands of people died and tens of thousands of buildings and structures collapsed in Kathmandu Valley in the April 2015 Nepal earthquake. The city of Kathmandu is named after a structure in Durbar Square called by the Sanskrit name Kāsṣtha mandapa Wooden shelter and it was destroyed in the 2015 earthquake. This unique temple, also known as the Maru Sattal, was built in 1596 by King Lakshminarasimha Malla, the entire structure contained no iron nails or supports and was made entirely from wood. Legend has it that the used for this two-story pagoda was obtained from a single tree. The Kathmandu Valley may have been inhabited as early as 300 BCE, the earliest known inscription is dated 185 CE. The oldest firmly dated building in the valley is almost 1,992 years old. As with the tales of the Buddhas visit, there is no evidence supporting Ashoks visit, the Licchavis, whose earliest inscriptions date to 464, were the next rulers of the valley and had close ties with the Gupta Empire of India. His victory in the Battle of Kirtipur was the beginning of his conquest of the valley, the Newars are the indigenous inhabitants and the creators of the historic civilization of the valley. The language is known as Nepal Bhasa. They are understood to be the descendants of the various ethnic, scholars have also described the Newars as a nation. They have developed a division of labour and an urban civilization not seen elsewhere in the Himalayan foothills. They are known for their contributions to art, sculpture, architecture, culture, literature, music, industry, trade, agriculture and cuisine, newa architecture consists of the pagoda, stupa, shikhara, chaitya and other styles. The valleys trademark is the pagoda which may have originated in this area and spread to India, China, Indochina
19.
Dangol
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The Dangol or Dongol clan are ethnic Newa people from Kathmandu Valley, predominantly found in Kathmandu, Nepal. They belong to the Jyapu subcaste within the Newar family and are highly urbanized, in the olden times, they were farmers known for the knowledge on measurement of land and calculation. Also, they have some distinct culture and customs a bit different from other Jyapus, male members of Dangol undergo Keta-puja ceremony and female Dangols marry the sun and the fruit Bel when they are young. This is done in order to protect the girl from being a widow, if the womans husband dies, she is still technically married to the sun and can hence not be called a widow. Sarbottam Dangol Tirtha Ram Dangol Newar caste system Maharjan
20.
Shaivism
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Shaivism is one of the major traditions within Hinduism that reveres Shiva as the Supreme Being or its metaphysical concept of Brahman. The followers of Shaivism are called Shaivas or Saivas, like much of Hinduism, the Shaiva have many sub-traditions, ranging from devotional dualistic theism such as Shaiva Siddhanta to yoga-oriented monistic non-theism such as Kashmiri Shaivism. It considers both the Vedas and the Agama texts as important sources of theology, Shaivism has ancient roots, traceable in the Vedic literature of 2nd millennium BCE, but this is in the form of the Vedic deity Rudra. In the early centuries of the era is the first clear evidence of Pāśupata Shaivism. Both devotional and monistic Shaivism became popular in the 1st millennium CE and it arrived in Southeast Asia shortly thereafter, leading to thousands of Shaiva temples on the islands of Indonesia as well as Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving with Buddhism in these regions. In the contemporary era, Shaivism is one of the aspects of Hinduism. Shaivism theology ranges from Shiva being the creator, preserver, destroyer to being the same as the Atman within oneself and it is closely related to Shaktism, and some Shaiva worship in Shiva and Shakti temples. It is the Hindu tradition that most accepts ascetic life and emphasizes yoga, Shaivism is one of the largest traditions within Hinduism. Shiva literally means kind, friendly, gracious, or auspicious, as a proper name, it means The Auspicious One. The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda, as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities, the term Shiva also connotes liberation, final emancipation and the auspicious one, this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature. The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics, the Sanskrit word śaiva or Shaiva means relating to the god Shiva, while the related beliefs, practices, history, literature and sub-traditions constitute Shaivism. The reverence for Shiva is one of the traditions, found widely across India, Sri Lanka. While Shiva is revered broadly, Hinduism itself is a complex religion, Shaivism is a major tradition within Hinduism, with a theology that is predominantly related to the Hindu god Shiva. Shaivism has many different sub-traditions with regional variations and differences in philosophy, Shaivism has a vast literature with different philosophical schools, ranging from nondualism, dualism, and mixed schools. The origins of Shaivism are unclear and a matter of debate among scholars, some trace the origins to the Indus Valley civilization, which reached its peak around 2500–2000 BCE. Archeological discoveries show seals that suggest a deity that appears like Shiva. Of these is the Pashupati seal, which scholars interpreted as someone seated in a meditating yoga pose surrounded by animals. This Pashupati seal has been interpreted by scholars as a prototype of Shiva
21.
Thamel
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Thamel is a commercial neighbourhood in Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal. Thamel has been the centre of the tourist industry in Kathmandu for over four decades, starting from the days when many artists came to Nepal. Even though Thamel has been referred to as a ghetto by some, Thamel is distinguished by its narrow alleys crowded with various shops and vendors. Commonly sold goods include food, fresh vegetables/fruits, pastries, trekking gear, walking gear, music, DVDs, handicrafts, souvenirs, woolens, travel agencies, small grocery stores, budget hotels and restaurants also line the streets. Cars, cycle rickshaws, two-wheelers and taxis ply these narrow streets alongside hundreds of pedestrians, there are many restaurants in Thamel that serve traditional and continental cuisine, although prices are significantly higher than in non-tourist areas. Thamel also acts as the camp for mountaineers. It boasts a range of mountaineering gear shops, foreign money exchange booths, mobile phone shops, pubs, clubs. Thamel is home to a range of the Nepalese population. On Wednesday,28 September 2011, Thamel was declared a full Wi-Fi zone and it is the first Wi-Fi zone of Nepal. Hippie Trail Thamel Tourism Development Council
22.
Indrachok, Kathmandu
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Indrachok is one of the ceremonial and market squares on the artery passing through the historic section of Kathmandu, Nepal. The intersection of Indrachok, along with Maru, Kathmandu Durbar Square, Makhan, Jana Baha, Asan and Naxal, six streets meet at Indrachok and link the square to Kathmandus major localities. Its temples and bazaar draw streams of pilgrims and shoppers, the square is named after Indra, lord of heaven in Hindu mythology. Indrachok is a venue and major festival pageants and chariot processions pass through the square. During Indra Jatra, the chariots of Kumari, Ganesh and Bhairav are pulled through here, the chariot procession of Jana Baha Dyah Jatra also passes through the square. The large temple of Akash Bhairav on the side of the square is the symbol of Indrachok. The temple houses a large mask of Akash Bhairav, which means god of the sky, a Shiva Temple stands on the northern side of the square. The original pagoda structure was destroyed during the Great earthquake of 1934. Raki Bazaar, an alley lined with small shops selling glass beads, is situated on the eastern side of the square. The ancestors of the merchants here are believed to have come from Iraq during the period. Shukra Path is the road leading south from the square to New Road. It is lined with identical white-washed stucco houses and was built after the 1934 earthquake, named after martyr Shukra Raj Shastri, it is a fancy shopping street and a Kathmandu landmark. A small temple of Ganesh stands at the corner of the square. The street leads to Makhan and Durbar Square
23.
Buddhism
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Buddhism is a religion and dharma that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. Buddhism originated in India sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, from where it spread through much of Asia, two major extant branches of Buddhism are generally recognized by scholars, Theravada and Mahayana. Buddhism is the worlds fourth-largest religion, with over 500 million followers or 7% of the global population, Buddhist schools vary on the exact nature of the path to liberation, the importance and canonicity of various teachings and scriptures, and especially their respective practices. In Theravada the ultimate goal is the attainment of the state of Nirvana, achieved by practicing the Noble Eightfold Path, thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suffering. Theravada has a following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana, which includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Shingon, rather than Nirvana, Mahayana instead aspires to Buddhahood via the bodhisattva path, a state wherein one remains in the cycle of rebirth to help other beings reach awakening. Vajrayana, a body of teachings attributed to Indian siddhas, may be viewed as a branch or merely a part of Mahayana. Tibetan Buddhism, which preserves the Vajrayana teachings of eighth century India, is practiced in regions surrounding the Himalayas, Tibetan Buddhism aspires to Buddhahood or rainbow body. Buddhism is an Indian religion attributed to the teachings of Buddha, the details of Buddhas life are mentioned in many early Buddhist texts but are inconsistent, his social background and life details are difficult to prove, the precise dates uncertain. Some hagiographic legends state that his father was a king named Suddhodana, his mother queen Maya, and he was born in Lumbini gardens. Some of the stories about Buddha, his life, his teachings, Buddha was moved by the innate suffering of humanity. He meditated on this alone for a period of time, in various ways including asceticism, on the nature of suffering. He famously sat in meditation under a Ficus religiosa tree now called the Bodhi Tree in the town of Bodh Gaya in Gangetic plains region of South Asia. He reached enlightenment, discovering what Buddhists call the Middle Way, as an enlightened being, he attracted followers and founded a Sangha. Now, as the Buddha, he spent the rest of his teaching the Dharma he had discovered. Dukkha is a concept of Buddhism and part of its Four Noble Truths doctrine. It can be translated as incapable of satisfying, the unsatisfactory nature, the Four Truths express the basic orientation of Buddhism, we crave and cling to impermanent states and things, which is dukkha, incapable of satisfying and painful. This keeps us caught in saṃsāra, the cycle of repeated rebirth, dukkha
24.
Viharas
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Vihara is the Sanskrit and Pali term for a Buddhist monastery. It originally meant a place in which to walk. The northern Indian state of Bihar derives its name from the word vihara, the word vihara has also been borrowed in Malay where it is spelled biara, and denotes a monastery or other non-Muslim place of worship. In Thailand and China, vihara has a meaning. It is called a Wihan in Thai, and a Vihear in Khmer, in Burmese, wihara, means monastery, but the native Burmese word kyaung is preferred. During the rainy season they stayed in temporary shelters and these dwellings were simple wooden constructions or thatched bamboo huts. However, as it was considered an act of not only to feed a monk but also to shelter him. They were located near settlements, close enough for begging alms from the population, trade-routes were therefore ideal locations for a vihara and donations from wealthy traders increased their economic strength. From the first century CE onwards viharas also developed into educational institutions, in the second century BCE a standard plan for a vihara was established. It could be structural, which was more common in the south of India. It consisted of a quadrangular court, flanked by small cells. The front wall was pierced by a door, the side facing it in later periods often incorporated a shrine for the image of the Buddha, the cells were fitted with rock-cut platforms for beds and pillows. The unwanted rock was excavated, leaving the cave structure. This basic layout was similar to that of the communal space of an ashrama ringed with huts in the early decades of Buddhism. As permanent monasteries became established, the name Vihara was kept, some Viharas became extremely important institutions, some of them evolving into major Buddhist Universities with thousands of students, such as Nalanda. Life in Viharas was codified early on and it is the object of a part of the Pali canon, the Vinaya Pitaka or basket of monastic discipline. Buddhist Vihara or monastery is an important form of institution associated with Buddhism and it may be defined as a residence for monks, a centre for religious work and meditation and a centre of Buddhist learning. Reference to five kinds of dwellings namely, Vihara, Addayoga, Pasada, Hammiya, of these only the Vihara and Guha have survived
25.
Pashupatinath Temple
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One of the major Festivals of the temple is Maha Shivaratri on which day over 800,000 devotees visit here. The twelve Jyotirlinga are the body and the Jyotirlinga at Pashupatinath in Kathmandu is the head over this body, the temple is one of the 275 Tamil Paadal Petra Sthalams on the continent. Kotirudra Samhita, Chapter 11 on the Shivalingas of the North, the temple was erected anew in the 15th century by Lichhavi King Shupuspa after the previous building was consumed by termites. Over time, countless further temples have been erected around this two -storied temple and these include the Vaishnava temple complex with a Ram temple from the 14th century and the Guhyeshwari Temple mentioned in an 11th-century manuscript. Pashupatinath Temple is the oldest Hindu temple in Kathmandu and it is not known for certain when Pashupatinath Temple was built. But according to Nepal Mahatmaya and Himvatkhanda, the deity here gained great fame there as Pashupati, the Lord of all Pashus, Pashupatinath Temples existence dates back to 400 B. C. The richly-ornamented pagoda houses the sacred linga or holy symbol of Lord Shiva, there are many legends describing as to how the temple of Lord Pashupatinath came to existence here. Some of them are narrated below, - Legend says that Lord Shiva once took the form of an antelope, the gods later caught up with him, and grabbing him by the horn, forced him to resume his divine form. The broken horn was worshipped as a linga but overtime it was buried, centuries later an astonished herdsmen found one of his cows showering the earth with milk. Digging deep at the site, he discovered the divine linga of Pashupatinath, another chronicle states that Pashupatinath Temple was in the form of Linga shaped Devalaya before Supuspa Deva constructed a five storey temple of Pashupatinath in this place. As the time passed, the need for repairing and renovating this temple arose and it is learnt that this temple was reconstructed by a medieval King named Shivadeva. It was renovated by Ananta Malla adding a roof to it, thousands of pilgrims from all over the world come to pay homage to this temple, that is also known as The Temple of Living Beings. There are several stories involving the origins of Pashupatinath. One story goes, in brief, that Shiva and Parvati came to the Kathmandu Valley, Shiva was so impressed by its beauty and the surrounding forest that he and Parvati changed themselves into deers and walked into the forest. Many spots in the Kathmandu Valley have been identified as places where Shiva went during his time as a deer, after a while the people and gods began to search for Shiva. Finally, after complications, they found him in the forest. More complications ensued, but ultimately Lord Shiva announced that, since he had lived by the Bagmati river in a form, he would now be known as Pashupatinath. It is said that came here and beheld the lingam that appeared there would not be reborn as an animal
26.
Commensalism
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Commensalism, in ecology, is a class of relationships between two organisms where one organism benefits from the other without affecting it. Originally, the term was used to describe the use of food by second animals, like the carcass eaters that follow hunting animals. Commensalism, in biology, is a relation between individuals of two species in one species obtains food or other benefits from the other without either harming or benefiting the latter. The commensal may obtain nutrients, shelter, support, or locomotion from the host species, both remora and pilot fish feed on the leftovers of their hosts’ meals. Numerous birds feed on the turned up by grazing mammals. The commensal pathway was traveled by animals that fed on refuse around human habitats or by animals that preyed on other animals drawn to human camps and those animals established a commensal relationship with humans in which the animals benefited but the humans received little benefit or harm. Those animals that were most capable of taking advantage of the associated with human camps would have been the tamer. Later, these animals developed closer social or economic bonds with humans, commensal pathway animals include dogs, cats, fowl, and possibly pigs. The dog is an example of a domestic animal that likely traveled a commensal pathway into domestication. This process may have begun during the initial stage of dog domestication. One study has identified the remains of a population of extinct Pleistocene Beringian wolves with unique mitochondrial signatures, whether the relationship between humans and some types of gut flora is commensal or mutualistic is still unanswered. For example, epiphytes are nutritional pirates that may intercept substantial amounts of nutrients that would go to the host plant. Large numbers of epiphytes can also cause tree limbs to break or shade the host plant, similarly, phoretic mites may hinder their host by making flight more difficult, which may affect its aerial hunting ability or cause it to expend extra energy while carrying these passengers. Like all ecological interactions, commensalisms vary in strength and duration from intimate, long-lived symbioses to brief, phoresy is one animal attached to another exclusively for transport, mainly arthropods, examples of which are mites on insects, pseudoscorpions on mammals or beetles, and millipedes on birds. Phoresy can be obligate or facultative. Inquilinism is the use of an organism for permanent housing. Examples are epiphytic plants grow on trees, or birds that live in holes in trees. Metabiosis is a more indirect dependency, in one organism creates or prepares a suitable environment for a second
27.
Aristocracy
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Aristocracy is a form of government that places power in the hands of a small, privileged ruling class. The term derives from the Greek aristokratia, meaning rule of the best, at the time of the words origins in Ancient Greece, the Greeks conceived it as rule by the best qualified citizens—and often contrasted it favourably with monarchy, rule by an individual. In later times, aristocracy was usually seen as rule by a group, the aristocratic class. The Greeks did not like the concept of monarchy, and as their democratic system fell, in Ancient Rome, the Republic consisted of an aristocracy—as well as consuls, a senate, and a tribal assembly. In the Middle Ages and early modern era, aristocracies primarily consisted of an aristocratic class, privileged by birth. Since the French Revolution, aristocracy has generally been contrasted with democracy, however, this distinction is often oversimplified. In exchange feudal aid is received from tenants or vassals, oaths of military allegiance, however an oligarchy, nobility or royalty had the right to set taxes, assemble or raise armies and command loyalty by virtue of traditional authority. In the 1651 book Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes describes an aristocracy as a commonwealth in which the representative of the citizens is an assembly by part and it is a system in which only a small part of the population represents the government. Modern depictions of aristocracy tend to regard it not as the ancient Greek concept of rule by the best, history, John Cannon, Oxford University Press,1997, ISBN 978-0-19-866176-4 Aristocracy in the Modern World, Ellis Wasson, Palgrave Macmillan,2006
28.
Lalitpur, Nepal
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Lalitpur is also known as Manigal. It is best known for its cultural heritage, particularly its tradition of arts and crafts. It is called city of festival and feast, fine ancient art, making of metallic, at the time of the 2011 Nepal census it had a population of 226,728 in 54,748 individual households. The city received extensive damage from an earthquake on 25 April 2015, Lalitpur is on the elevated tract of land in Kathmandu Valley on the south side of the Bagmati River, which separates it from the city of Kathmandu on the northern and western side. The Nakkhu Khola acts as the boundary on the southern side and it was developed on relatively thin layers of deposited clay and gravel in the central part of a dried ancient lake known as the Nagdaha. The city has an area of 15.43 square kilometres and is divided into 29 municipal wards, Climate is characterized by relatively high temperatures and evenly distributed precipitation throughout the year. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is Cfa, Lalitpur is believed to have been founded in the third century BC by the Kirat dynasty and later expanded by Licchavis in the sixth century. It was further expanded by the Mallas during the medieval period, there are many legends about its name. One of them was called Lalit, a farmer who carried God Rato Machhindranath to the all the way from Assam. The purpose of bringing the God Rato Machhindranath to the valley was to overcome the worst drought there, there was a strong belief that the God Rato Machhindranath would bring rain in the valley. It was due to Lalits effort that the God Rato Machhindranath was settled in Lalitpur, many believe that the name of the town is kept after his name Lalit and pur meaning township. In May, a festival honoring the deity known as Bunga Dyah Jatra is held in Patan. It is the longest and one of the most important religious celebrations in Patan, during the month-long festival, an image of Rato Machhendanath is placed on a tall chariot and pulled through the city streets in stages. Lalitpur said to have founded by King Veer Deva in 299 AD. Several historical records including many other legends indicate that Patan is the oldest of all the cities of Kathmandu Valley, according to a very old Kirat chronicle, Patan was founded by Kirat rulers long before the Licchavi rulers came into the political scene in Kathmandu Valley. According to that chronicle, the earliest known capital of Kirat rulers was Thankot, Kathmandu, the present capital was most possibly removed from Thankot to Patan after the Kirati King Yalamber came into power sometimes around second century AD. One of the most used and typical Newar names of Lalitpur is Yala and it is said that King Yalamber or Yellung Hang named this city after himself, and ever since this ancient city was known as Yala. In 1768, Lalitpur was annexed to the Gorkha Kingdom by Prithvi Narayan Shah without any battle, the city was initially designed in the shape of the Buddhist Dharma-Chakra
29.
Kayastha
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Kayastha is a caste or community of Hindus originating in India. Kayasthas are considered to be members of the caste, and have traditionally acted as keepers of public records and accounts, writers. In modern times, Kayasthas have attained success in politics, as well as in the arts, Kayasthas have therefore also been mentioned as a mixed caste, combining Brahman-Shudra and sometimes Kshatriya as well. Originally the professions of Kayastha and Vaidya were not restricted and could be followed by people of different varnas including the brahmanas. So there is every probability that a number of families were mixed up with members of other varnas in forming the present Kayastha. Brahmanical religious texts refer to Kayasthas as a responsible for writing secular documents. According to the chronicle known as the Rajatarangini, written by Kalhana in the 12th century AD, Kayasthas served as prime ministers. Prior to the 13th century AD, during the rule of Hindu kings and they may also have been described as Karanas, since the two groups performed similar functions. According to Abu al-Fazl, Emperor Akbars prime minister, Kayasthas were rulers of the Pala Empire, after the Muslim conquest of India, Kayasthas mastered Persian, which became the official language of the Mughal courts. Some converted to Islam and formed the Muslim Kayasth community in northern India and he also translated the Bhagavata Purana from Sanskrit into Persian. In Bengal, Kayasthas had been the dominant landholding caste prior to the Muslim conquest, indeed, Muslim rulers had from a very early time confirmed the Kayasthas in their ancient role as landholders and political intermediaries. Bengali Kayasthas served as governors, prime ministers and treasury officials under Mughal rule, as a result of their exalted status amongst Muslim sultans, many Bengali Kayasthas became zamindars and jagirdars. According to Abu al-Fazl, most of the Hindu zamindars in Bengal were Kayasthas, maharaja Pratapaditya, the King of Jessore who declared independence from Mughal rule in the early 17th century, was a Kayastha. During the British Raj, Kayasthas continued to proliferate in public administration, qualifying for the highest executive, Bengali Kayasthas took on the role occupied by merchant castes in other parts of India and profited from business contacts with the British. In 1911, for example, Kayasthas and Brahmins owned 40% of all the Indian-owned mills, the Kayastha are found mostly in central, eastern and northern India, and particularly in Bengal. Today, there are an estimated 800,000 Kayasthas in India, Kayasthas that have risen to prominence since independence include the countrys first president, Rajendra Prasad, and its second prime minister, Lal Bahadur Shastri. Kayastha presently feel isolated in aligning themselves with different political parties to political and economical advantages and are now demanding 33 percent reservation in Government jobs. The exact varna status of Kayasthas has been a subject of debate, according to multiple accounts, they are a literate and educated class of Kshatriyas, and have been referred to as a twice-born caste
30.
Ayurveda
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Ayurveda, or Ayurveda medicine, is a system of medicine with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent. Globalized and modernized practices derived from Ayurveda traditions are a type of complementary or alternative medicine, in the Western world, Ayurveda therapies and practices have been integrated in general wellness applications and as well in some cases in medical use. The main classical Ayurveda texts begin with accounts of the transmission of knowledge from the Gods to sages. In Sushruta Samhita, Sushruta wrote that Dhanvantari, Hindu god of Ayurveda, incarnated himself as a king of Varanasi and taught medicine to a group of physicians, Ayurveda therapies have varied and evolved over more than two millennia. Therapies are typically based on complex compounds, minerals and metal substances. Ancient Ayurveda texts also taught surgical techniques, including rhinoplasty, kidney stone extractions, sutures, other researchers consider it a protoscience, or trans-science system instead. Close to 21% of Ayurveda U. S. and Indian-manufactured patent medicines sold through the Internet were found to contain levels of heavy metals, specifically lead, mercury. The public health implications of such metallic contaminants in India are unknown, some scholars assert that Ayurveda originated in prehistoric times, and that some of the concepts of Ayurveda have existed from the time of the Indus Valley Civilization or even earlier. Humoral balance is emphasized, and suppressing natural urges is considered unhealthy, Ayurveda names three elemental substances, the doshas, and states that a balance of the doshas results in health, while imbalance results in disease. Ayurveda has eight components, which are derived from classical Sanskrit literature. Ayurveda practitioners had developed various medicinal preparations and surgical procedures by the medieval period, the earliest classical Sanskrit works on Ayurveda describe medical science as being divided into eight components. This characterization of the art, the medicine that has eight components, is first found in the Sanskrit epic the Mahābhārata. The central theoretical ideas of Ayurveda developed in the mid-first millennium BCE, balance is emphasized, and suppressing natural urges is considered unhealthy and claimed to lead to illness. For example, to suppress sneezing is said to give rise to shoulder pain. However, people are also cautioned to stay within the limits of reasonable balance, for example, emphasis is placed on moderation of food intake, sleep, and sexual intercourse. Ayurveda names seven basic tissues, which are plasma, blood, muscles, fat, bone, marrow, like the medicine of classical antiquity, Ayurveda has historically divided bodily substances into five classical elements eliminates toxic elements from the body. Panchakarma includes Vamana, Virechana, Basti, Nasya and Raktamokshana and it is preceded by Poorvakarma as a preparatory step, and is followed by Paschatkarma and Peyadikarma. Based on the World Health Assembly resolution on traditional medicine, the WHO has established a traditional medicine strategy, the first previous global strategy was published in 2002 and dealt especially with herbal medicines
31.
Licchavi (kingdom)
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Licchavi was an ancient kingdom in Nepal, which existed in the Kathmandu Valley from approximately 400 to 750 CE. The Licchavi clan originated from Vaishali in modern northern Bihar and conquered Kathmandu and this was likely through Mithila, a region now situated mainly in India with a small part in Nepal. A table of the evolution of certain Gupta characters used in Licchavi inscriptions prepared by Gautamavajra Vajrācārya can be found online. It is believed that a branch of the Lichhavi clan, having lost their fortune in Bihar, came to Kathmandu. In the Buddhist Pali canon, the Licchavi are mentioned in a number of discourses, most notably the Licchavi Sutta, the popular Ratana Sutta, the Mahayana Vimalakirti Sutra also spoke of the city of Vaisali as where the lay Licchavi bodhisattva Vimalakirti was residing. The earliest known record of the kingdom is an inscription of Manadeva 1. It mentions three preceding rulers, suggesting that the Licchavi dynasty began in the late 4th century, the Licchavi were ruled by a Maharaja, who was aided by a prime minister, in charge of the military and of other ministers. Nobles, known as samanta influenced the court whilst simultaneously managing their own landholdings, at one point, between approximately 605 and 641, a prime minister called Amsuvarman actually assumed the throne. The population provided land taxes and conscript labour to support the government, most local administration was performed by village heads or leading families. The economy was agricultural, relying on rice and other grains as staples, villages were grouped into dranga for administration. Lands were owned by the family, nobles, temples or groups of Brahmans. Trade was also important, with many settlements positioned along trading routes. Tibet and India were both trading partners, settlements already filled the entire valley during the Licchavi period. Further settlement was made east toward Banepa, west toward Tisting, the following list was adapted from The Licchavi Kings, by Tamot & Alsop, and is approximate only, especially with respect to dates
32.
Brahmin
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Brahmin is a varna in Hinduism specialising as priests of sacred learning across generations. However, Indian texts suggest that Brahmins were often agriculturalists in medieval India, the Gautama Dharmasutra states in verse 10.3 that it is obligatory on a Brahmin to learn and teach the Vedas. The text forbids a Brahmin from engaging in the trade of animals for slaughter, meat, medicines, the Apastamba Dharmasutra asserts in verse 1.20.10 that trade is generally not sanctioned for Brahmins, but in the times of adversity he may do so. The chapter 1.20 of Apastamba, states Olivelle, forbids the trade of the following under any circumstances, human beings, meat, skins, weapons, barren cows, sesame seeds, pepper, and merits. The 1st millennium CE Dharmasastras, that followed the Dharmasutras contain similar recommendations on occupations for a Brahmin, both in prosperous or normal times, and in the times of adversity. The widely studied Manusmriti, for example, states, Except during a time of adversity and he should gather wealth just sufficient for his subsistence through irreproachable activities that are specific to him, without fatiguing his body. –4. 2–4.3 He must never follow a worldly occupation for the sake of livelihood, one who seeks happiness should become supremely content and self controlled, for happiness is rooted in contentment and its opposite is the root of unhappiness. –4. 11–4.12 The Manusmriti recommends that a Brahmins occupation must never involve forbidden activities such as producing or trading poison, weapons, meat, trapping birds and others. It also lists six occupations that it deems proper for a Brahmin, teaching, studying, offering yajna, officiating at yajna, giving gifts, of these, states Manusmriti, three which provide a Brahmin with a livelihood are teaching, officiating at yajna, and accepting gifts. The text states that teaching is best, and ranks the accepting of gifts as the lowest of the six, in the times of adversity, Manusmriti recommends that a Brahmin may live by engaging in the occupations of the warrior class, or agriculture or cattle herding or trade. Of these, Manusmriti in verses 10. 83–10, the term Brahmin in Indian texts has signified someone who is good and virtuous, not just someone of priestly class. Both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature, states Patrick Olivelle, repeatedly define Brahmin not in terms of family of birth and these virtues and characteristics mirror the values cherished in Hinduism during the Sannyasa stage of life, or the life of renunciation for spiritual pursuits. Brahmins, states Olivelle, were the class from which most ascetics came. The earliest inferred reference to Brahmin as a social class is in the Rigveda, occurs once. Ancient texts describing community-oriented Vedic yajna rituals mention four to five priests, the hotar, the adhvaryu, the udgatar, the functions associated with the priests were, The Hotri recites invocations and litanies drawn from the Rigveda. The Adhvaryu is the assistant and is in charge of the physical details of the ritual like measuring the ground. The Udgatri is the chanter of hymns set to melodies and music drawn from the Samaveda, the udgatar, like the hotar, chants the introductory, accompanying and benediction hymns. The Brahmin recites from the Atharvaveda, the Ritvij is the chief operating priest
33.
Tantra
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Tantra is the esoteric traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism that co-developed most likely about the middle of 1st millennium CE. The term tantra, in the Indian traditions, also means any systematic broadly applicable text, theory, system, method, instrument, in Hinduism, the tantra tradition is most often associated with its goddess tradition called Shaktism, followed by Shaivism and Vaishnavism. In Buddhism, the Vajrayana tradition is known for its extensive tantra ideas, Tantric Hindu and Buddhist traditions have influenced other religious traditions such as Jainism, Sikhism, the Tibetan Bön tradition, Daoism, and the Japanese Shintō tradition. Tantra as genre of literature in Hinduism have been influential to its arts, icons, Hindu puja, temples and iconography are tantric in nature. The Hindu texts that describe these topics are called Tantras, Āgamas or Samhitās, in Buddhism, its tantra-genre literature has influenced the artworks in Tibet, historic cave temples of India, and imagery in southeast Asia. Tantra literally means loom, warp, weave, the connotation of the word tantra to mean an esoteric practice or religious ritualism is a colonial era European invention. The term is based on the metaphor of weaving, states Ron Barrett and it implies interweaving of traditions and teachings as threads into a text, technique or practice. The word appears in the hymns of the Rigveda such as in 10.71 and it is found in many other Vedic era texts, such as in section 10.7.42 of the Atharvaveda and many Brahmanas. In these and post-Vedic texts, the meaning of Tantra is that which is principal or essential part, main point, model, framework. The term “Tantra” after about 500 BCE, in Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism is a bibliographic category, the same Buddhist texts are sometimes referred to as tantra or sutra, for example, Vairocabhisambodhi-tantra is also referred to as Vairocabhisambodhi-sutra. The various contextual meaning of the word Tantra varies with the Indian text, the earliest definitions and expositions on Tantra come from the ancient texts of Panini, Patanjali and the literature of the language-focussed, ritual-oriented Mimamsa school of Hindu philosophy. The word tantra, states Patanjali, means principal, main, Patanjali also offers a semantic definition of Tantra, stating that it is structural rules, standard procedures, centralized guide or knowledge in any field that applies to many elements. The ancient Mimamsa school of Hinduism uses the term tantra extensively, for example, When an action or a thing, once complete, becomes beneficial in several matters to one person, or to many people, that is known as Tantra. For example, a lamp placed amidst many priests, in contrast, that which benefits by its repetition is called Āvāpa, such as massaging with oil. Medieval texts present their own definitions of Tantra, in modern era scholarship, Tantra has been studied as an esoteric practice and ritualistic religion, sometimes referred to as Tantrism. There is wide gap between what Tantra means to its followers, and what Tantra has been represented or perceived as since colonial era writers began commenting on Tantra, many definitions of Tantra have been proposed ever since, and there is no universally accepted definition of Tantra. André Padoux in his review of Tantra definitions offers two, then rejects both, another definition, more common among observers and non-practitioners, is some set of mechanistic rituals, omitting entirely the ideological side. According to David N. Lorenzen, two different kinds of definitions of Tantra exist, a definition and a broad definition
34.
Upanayana
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Upanayana is one of the traditional saṃskāras that marked the acceptance of a student by a guru and an individuals entrance to a school in Hinduism. The tradition is widely discussed in ancient Sanskrit texts of India, the sacred thread is received by the boy during this ceremony, that he continues wearing across his chest thereafter. The upanayana was restricted in many medieval Indian texts to the three of the four varnas of society — brahmins, kshatriyas and vaishyas. However, Vedic period texts such as the Baudhāyana Grihyasutra encouraged all members of society to undergo the upanayana, women were encouraged to undergo upanayana in ancient India before they started Vedic studies or before their wedding. Upanayana literally means the act of leading to or near and it is an important and widely discussed samskara in ancient Sanskrit text. The rite of passage symbolizes the leading or drawing towards the self of a child, in a school and it is a ceremony in which a guru accepts and draws a child towards knowledge and initiates the second birth that is of the young mind and spirit. Upanayana is the rite of passage for the start of education of writing, numbers, reading, Vedangas, arts. The Upanayana rite of passage was also important to the teacher, Upanayana was an elaborate ceremony, that included rituals involving the family, the child and the teacher. A boy receives during this ceremony a sacred thread called Yajñopaveetam that he wears, the Yajñopavita ceremony announced that the child had entered into formal education. In the modern era, the Upanayana rite of passage is open to anyone at any age, the education of a student was not limited to ritual and philosophical speculations found in the Vedas and the Upanishads. They extended to many arts and crafts, which had their own, aitareya Brahmana, Agamas and Puranas literature of Hinduism describe these as Shilpa Sastras. They extend to all aspects of culture, such as the sculptor, the potter, the perfumer, the wheelwright, the painter, the weaver, the architect, the dancer. Ancient Indian texts assert that the number of the arts is unlimited, the training of these began from childhood and included studies about dharma, culture, reading, writing, mathematics, geometry, colors, tools, as well as traditions. The rites of passage during apprentice education varied in the respective guilds, in Hindu traditions, a human being is born at least twice — once at physical birth and second at intellectual birth through teachers care. The first is marked through the Jatakarman sanskara ritual, the second is marked through Upanayanam or Vidyarambha rites of passage, many medieval era texts discuss Upanayana in the context of three varnas — Brahmins, Kshtreyas and Vaishyas. Several texts such as Sushruta Sutrasthana, however, also include Sudras entering schools, the ceremony was typically performed at age eight among the Brahmins, at age 11 among the Kshatriyas, and age 12 among Vaishyas. Apastamba Gryha Sutra, in verse 1.1.1.27, places an age limit of 24 for the Upanayana ceremony. In some regions, in times, boys and girls undergo the tradition of Upanayana initiation when they start their formal schooling
35.
Raja
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Raja, is a title for a Monarch or princely ruler in South and Southeast Asia. The female form Rani applies equally to the wife of a Raja, usually as queen consort and occasionally as regent. The title has a history in the Indian subcontinent and South East Asia, being attested from the Rigveda, where a rājan- is a ruler, see for example the dāśarājñá. Sanskrit rājan- is cognate to Latin rēx King, Gaulish rīx, Gaelic rí, etc. originally denoting heads of petty kingdoms and it is believed to be ultimately derived from the Proto-Indo-European *h3rēǵs, a vrddhi formation to the root *h3reǵ- to straighten, to order, to rule. The Sanskrit n-stem is secondary in the title, apparently adapted from the female counterpart rājñī which also has an -n- suffix in related languages. Cognates of the word Raja in other Indo-European languages include English reign, rather common, practically equivalent variants in Rajasthani, Marathi and Hindi, used as equivalent royal style in parts of India include Rana, Rao, Raol, Rawal and rawat and Yuvraj prince heir. Maharaja, or great king, is literally a title for more significant rulers in India, hence during the British raj, precedence was rather determined by the gun salute. Raja රජ means King in Sri Lanka, Rajamanthri is the Prince lineage of Kings generation in Sri Lanka. Rajamanthri title is aristocracy of the Kandiyan Kingdom මහනුවර in Sri Lanka, badan Singh was styled Raja Mahendra and founded the city and state Bharatpur, which his dynasty ruled as Maharajas. Raja Sahib was the style in Bansda until its upgrade from c.1829 to higher counterpart Maharaja Sahib. Raja-i Rajgan was notably the royal style of, the former Rajas of Jind from * until their 1911 upgrade to Maharaja, the former Rajas of Kapurthala from 1861 until their 1911 upgrade to Maharaja. Two consecutive rulers of Patiala, the first of which was originally styled Maharaja, Raja Bahadur, and remained the rulers of Raigarh. as 1763 upgrade from the family title Raja Sar Desai in Maratha state Savantvadi. e. Third prince in line for succession, there were many more Rajas among the feudatory states, such as jagirs. In Pakistan, Raja is still used by Muslim Rajput clans as hereditary titles, Raja is also used as a given name by Hindus and Sikhs. Most notably Raja is used in Hazara division of Pakistan for the descendants of a Turkic dynasty and these Rajas ruled that part of Pakistan for decades and they still possess huge land in Hazara division of Pakistan and actively participate in the politics of the region. In Sinhalese, the title Raja means King of Sri Lanka, Rajamanthri is the Prince lineage of Kings generation especially Rajamanthri is aristocracy of the Kingdom of Kandy in Sri Lanka history. Indonesian has the word raja for king, leaders of local tribes and old Hindu kingdoms had that title before Indonesia became an independent nation. Various traditional princely states in Indonesia still style their ruler Raja, in the Malay language, the word raja also means king
36.
Raghuvanshi
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And a respected caste among all Kshatriya community. It has been mentioned in Ramayana and Mahabharata the hero of Ramayana Lord Rama was also a raghuwanshi, Raghuvanshi is believed to be a lineage of kings tracing its ancestry to Surya. Raghuvanshi kings like Mandhata, Harishchandra, Sagara, Bhagiratha, Dilīpa, Raghu, Aja, Dasaratha, the clan founder was Vivasvan or Vaivaswat Manu who was also known as Arka-tanaya or son of Arka, is supposed to have lived coeval with the origin of the world. The name Vivaswan literally means master of the rays, the sun, the first historically significant king of this dynasty was Vivaswans grandson Ikshvaku. The dynasty is known as the Ikshvaku dynasty. Raja Prithu was the son of Ikshvaku, because of the greatness of Raja Prithu, the whole planet was known as Prithvi. Kalidasas famous work, Raghuvansh narrates the epic of the Raghuvanshi in 19 sargas, BOT is called as Raghuvanshi Rajput they live in Northern India. The gotra of BOT rajput is Kashyap, several legendary kings came from the Ikshvaku dynasty and after King Raghu, his descendants are known as Raghuvanshi. Mandhata, who is said to have ruled the earth during the Vedic period. Aja, Son of King Raghu Dasaratha, Son of Aja and father of Rama, Lakshman, Bharath, ram - He is considered the seventh Avatar of the god Vishnu. He is worshiped by every Hindu, many Hindus include his name in either their first or last name. Ramas story before he became king of Ayodhya is recounted in the Ramayana, after he ascended the throne, he performed the Ashwamedha Yajna. Bharata, his brother, won the country of Gandhara. Lava and Kusha - They were the sons of Rama. Lava ruled south Kosala while Kusha ruled north Kosala, including Ayodhya, Kusha married Nagkanya Kumuddhati, sister of Kumuda. After Kusha the following kings of the dynasty ruled Ayodhya. In the fourth century BC, emperor Mahapadma Nanda of the Nanda Dynasty forced Sumitra to leave Ayodhya and he went to Rohtas with his sons. The descendants of King Raghu are known as Raghuvanshi, valmiki Ramayana mention about Raghukula, a clan of the King Raghu not Rama
37.
Uray (caste group)
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Urāy is a Newar Buddhist merchant caste of Kathmandu in Nepal. They are a prominent community in the business and cultural life of Kathmandu, Urays have played key roles in the development of trade, industry, art, architecture, literature and Buddhism in Nepal and the Himalayan region. The name Uray is said to have derived from the Sanskrit term upāsaka which means devout layman. The Uray follow Newar Buddhism and speak the Newar language as their mother tongue and they are believers in non-violence in personal relations and ritual practices. An early reference to the Uray is contained in a 17th-century journal kept at the Buddhist monastic courtyard of Jana Baha, dated Nepal Sambat 763, the journal entry states that King Laxmi Narsingh Malla has asked all the Urays to attend a religious service at Asan. Urays are also known for their history as traders on the Silk Road, operating out of business houses in Lhasa, Tibet and Kolkata, India, they were key players in the traditional Tibet trade for centuries. These merchants were known as the Lhasa Newar, the Uray are divided into nine subcastes who use the following surnames. Each group is associated with a traditional occupation according to the division of labor instituted in the past, tuladhar Sthapit Tamrakar Kansakar Sikhrākār Bania Sindurākār Shilākār Selālik Samyak is the greatest Newar Buddhist festival. The ceremony in Kathmandu is held once every 12 years and is spread cver three days, on the occasion, large images of Dīpankara Buddha are exhibited at Kathmandu Durbar Square and Swayambhu. Alms are distributed to priests during the ceremony which is attended by the king, during Samyak, each Uray group performs a task that has been assigned by tradition. Gunlā Bājan is Buddhist devotional music played during the month of Gunlā which is considered holy by Newar Buddhists, Gunla is the 10th month in the Nepal Era calendar and corresponds to August. All Uray groups have a Gunla Bajan band which makes a pilgrimage to Swayambhu during the sacred month. Each Uray group has its own lineage deity known as Digu Dyah, every year, members gather at the shrine, which is usually located on an open field on the outskirts of the city, and make offerings to the deity. The ritual is known as Depujā, Urays have two types of funeral societies, Sī Guthi and Sanān Guthi. The Si Guthi performs the cremation too while the Sanan Guthi only takes part in the procession. The Udaaya Museum containing miniature dioramas illustrating the traditional occupations and cultural performances of the nine subcastes has opened and it also contains historical and contemporary photographs and tools used by the artisans. The museum is located in a house at Asan, Kathmandu. Gunla Bajan music Kumha Pyakhan dance Traditional Newar clothing Newar Buddhism
Nepal, 
India