1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Williamite War in Ireland
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It is also called the Jacobite War in Ireland or the Williamite–Jacobite War in Ireland. The cause of the war was the deposition of James as King of the Three Kingdoms in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, James was supported by the mostly Catholic Jacobites in Ireland and hoped to use the country as a base to regain his Three Kingdoms. He was given support by France to this end. For this reason, the war part of a wider European conflict known as the Nine Years War. Some Protestants of the established Church in Ireland also fought on the side of King James, James was opposed in Ireland by the mostly Protestant Williamites, who were concentrated in the north of the country. William landed a force in Ireland, composed of English, Scottish, Dutch, Danish and other troops. James left Ireland after a reverse at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690, William defeated Jacobitism in Ireland and subsequent Jacobite risings were confined to Scotland and England. However, the War was to have an effect on Ireland, confirming British. The iconic Williamite victories of the Siege of Derry and the Battle of the Boyne are still celebrated by unionists in Ireland today, the war in Ireland began as a direct consequence of the Glorious Revolution in England. James II of England and Ireland, VII of Scotland, who was a Roman Catholic, attempted to introduce freedom of religion for Catholics and bypass the English Parliament to introduce unpopular laws. For many in England, this was an unpleasant reminder of the rule of Charles I, whose conflict with the Parliament led to the outbreak of the English Civil War. The breaking point in James relationship with the English political class came in June 1688 when his wife gave birth to a son. This fear led some political figures to conspire to invite William III, stadtholder of the provinces of the Dutch Republic. William had indicated that such an invitation would be a condition for a military intervention, the Dutch Republic was at the brink of war with the France of Louis XIV, then the greatest military power in Europe. William invaded England in November 1688, Williams invasion fleet was aided by favourable weather that gave him weather gage over the British fleet, allowing him to outmaneuver them and land unopposed. William landed at Brixham on 5 November 1688 with 18,000 troops, James fled to France after putting up only a token resistance. In 1689, Prince William and his wife Princess Mary Stuart became co-regents as King William III, however, while James II was unpopular in England, he had widespread popular support in Ireland. They had been defeated by 1652 and were punished by the English Commonwealth regime with land confiscations and they were largely disappointed with the failure of King Charles II to completely reverse this situation in the Act of Settlement 1662
3.
Derry
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Derry, officially Londonderry, is the second-largest city in Northern Ireland and the fourth-largest city on the island of Ireland. The name Derry is an anglicisation of the Old Irish name Daire meaning oak grove, in 1613, the city was granted a Royal Charter by King James I and gained the London prefix to reflect the funding of its construction by the London guilds. While the city is usually known colloquially as Derry, Londonderry is also commonly used. The old walled city lies on the west bank of the River Foyle, the city now covers both banks. The population of the city was 83,652 at the 2001 Census, the district administered by Derry City and Strabane District Council contains both Londonderry Port and City of Derry Airport. Derry is close to the border with County Donegal, with which it has had a link for many centuries. In 2013, Derry was the inaugural UK City of Culture, according to the citys Royal Charter of 10 April 1662, the official name is Londonderry. This was reaffirmed in a High Court decision in 2007 when Derry City Council sought guidance on the procedure for effecting a name change. The council had changed its name from Londonderry City Council to Derry City Council in 1984, the decision of the court was that it had not but it was clarified that the correct procedure to do so was via a petition to the Privy Council. Derry City Council since started this process and were involved in conducting an equality impact assessment report, then the EQIA held two consultative forums, and solicited comments from the general public on whether or not the city should have its name changed to Derry. A total of 12,136 comments were received, of which 3,108 were broadly in favour of the proposal, and 9,028 opposed to it. Despite the official name, the city is usually known as Derry, which is an anglicisation of the Irish Daire or Doire. The name derives from the settlements earliest references, Daire Calgaich, the name was changed from Derry in 1613 during the Plantation of Ulster to reflect the establishment of the city by the London guilds. In McCaffertys survey of language use in the city, only very few interviewees—all Protestants—use the official form, apart from the name of Derry City Council, the city is usually known as Londonderry in official use within the UK. In the Republic of Ireland, the city and county are almost always referred to as Derry, on maps, in the media and in conversation. Whereas official road signs in the Republic use the name Derry, usage varies among local organisations, with both names being used. Most companies within the city choose local area such as Pennyburn. Londonderry railway station is referred to as Waterside railway station within the city but is called Derry/Londonderry at other stations
4.
Kingdom of Ireland
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The Kingdom of Ireland was a client state of the Kingdom of England that existed on Ireland from 1542 until 1800. It came into being when the Parliament of Ireland passed the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, the territory of the Kingdom had previously had the status of a lordship of the Crown. The Parliament of Ireland passed the Acts of Union 1800 by which it abolished itself, the act was also passed by the Parliament of Great Britain. The act also had the effect of establishing the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on the first day of 1801 by uniting the Crowns of Ireland, in its early years, the Kingdom of Ireland had limited recognition. While some Protestant powers in Europe recognised Henry and his heir Edward as monarch of Ireland, Henrys daughter, Queen Mary I of England, was recognised as Queen of Ireland by Pope Paul IV in 1555. The papal bull Laudabiliter of Pope Adrian IV was issued in 1155 and it granted the Angevin King Henry II of England the title Dominus Hibernae. Laudabiliter authorised the king to invade Ireland, to bring the country into the European sphere, in return, Henry was required to remit a penny per hearth of the tax roll to the Pope. This was reconfirmed by Adrians successor Pope Alexander III in 1172, when Pope Clement VII excommunicated the king of England, Henry VIII, in 1533, the constitutional position of the lordship in Ireland became uncertain. Henry had broken away from the Holy See and declared himself the head of the Church in England and he had petitioned Rome to procure an annulment of his marriage to Queen Catherine. The Treason Act 1537 was passed to counteract this, following the failed revolt of Silken Thomas in 1534–35, Grey, the lord deputy, had some military successes against several clans in the late 1530s, and took their submissions. By 1540 most of Ireland seemed at peace and under the control of the kings Dublin administration, Henry was proclaimed King of Ireland by the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, an Act of the Irish Parliament. The new kingdom was not recognised by the Catholic monarchies in Europe, after the death of King Edward VI, Henrys son, the papal bull of 1555 recognised the Roman Catholic Queen Mary I as Queen of Ireland. The link of personal union of the Crown of Ireland to the Crown of England became enshrined in Catholic canon law, in this fashion, the Kingdom of Ireland was ruled by the reigning King of England. This placed the new Kingdom of Ireland in personal union with the Kingdom of England, in line with its expanded role and self-image, the administration established the Kings Inns for barristers in 1541, and the Ulster King of Arms to regulate heraldry in 1552. Proposals to establish a university in Dublin were delayed until 1592, in 1603 James VI King of Scots became James I of England, uniting the Kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland in a personal union. The political order of the kingdom was interrupted by the Wars of the Three Kingdoms starting in 1639, during the subsequent interregnum period, England, Scotland and Ireland were ruled as a republic until 1660. This period saw the rise of the loyalist Irish Catholic Confederation within the kingdom and, from 1653, the kingdoms order was restored 1660 with the restoration of Charles II. Without any public dissent, Charless reign was backdated to his fathers execution in 1649, Poynings Law was repealed in 1782 in what came to be known as the Constitution of 1782, granting Ireland legislative independence
5.
Jacobitism
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The movement took its name from Jacobus, the Renaissance Latin form of Iacomus, the original Latin form of James. Adherents rebelled against the British government on several occasions between 1688 and 1746, the strongholds of Jacobitism were parts of the Scottish Highlands and the lowland north-east of Scotland, Ireland, and parts of Northern England. Significant support also existed in Wales and South-West England, the Jacobites believed that parliamentary interference with the line of succession to the English and Scottish thrones was illegal. Catholics also hoped the Stuarts would end recusancy, in Scotland, the Jacobite cause became intertwined with the clan system. The emblem of the Jacobites is the White Cockade, White Rose Day is celebrated on 10 June, the anniversary of the birth of the Old Pretender in 1688. From the second half of the 17th century onwards, a time of political, the Commonwealth ended with the Restoration of Charles II. During his reign the Church of England was re-established, and episcopal government was restored in Scotland. The authorities attempted some accommodation with Presbyterian dissidents, introducing official Indulgences in 1669 and 1672 and this was particularly true of the followers of the Reverend Richard Cameron, soon to be known as the Cameronians. The government increasingly resorted to force in its attempts to out the Cameronians. The reigns of the last three Stuart Kings – Charles I, Charles II and James II and VII – were marked by growing Royal resistance to this developing consensual model of government. In part the Kings were inspired by the development of Royal Absolutism in contemporary Europe, exemplified particularly strongly by their neighbour and contemporary, Louis XIV of France. In part, however, the apologists of royal authority based their claims on a just assessment of the powers claimed by England, in 1685, Charles II was succeeded by his Roman Catholic brother, James II and VII. In addition to sharing his familys absolutist views of government, James attempted to introduce religious toleration of Roman Catholics, in Seventeenth-century Europe, being a religious outsider meant being a political and social outsider as well. James tried to encourage the participation in life of Roman Catholics, Protestant Dissenters. Such attempts to broaden his basis of support succeeded in antagonising members of the Anglican establishment, in England and Scotland, James attempted to impose religious toleration, which helped the Catholic minority but alarmed the religious and political establishment. Then in 1688 Jamess second wife had a boy, bringing the prospect of a Catholic dynasty, on 4 November 1688 William arrived at Torbay, England. When he landed the next day, at Brixham, James fled to France, in February 1689, the Glorious Revolution formally changed Englands monarch, but many Catholics, Episcopalians and Tory royalists still supported James as the constitutionally legitimate monarch. Forces of Cameronians as well as Clan Campbell Highlanders led by the Earl of Argyll had come to bolster Williams support, the convention set out its terms and William and Mary were proclaimed at Edinburgh on 11 April 1689, then had their coronation in London in May
6.
Williamite
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Not to be confused with the mineral willemite. A Williamite is a follower of King William III of England who deposed King James II in the Glorious Revolution, William, the Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic, replaced James with the support of English Whigs. One of Williams aims was to ensure Englands entry into his League of Augsburg against France in the Nine Years War, for Williamites in England, Scotland and Ireland, William was seen as the guarantor of civil and religious liberty and the Protestant monarchy against Catholic absolutism. The term Williamite is also used to refer to Williams multi-national army in Ireland during the Williamite War in Ireland. In Ireland itself, William was supported by Protestant settlers and opposed by the native, after early setbacks, Williamite forces won a series of victories during the war defending Derry and capturing Carrickfergus in 1689. Subsequent battles at the Battle of the Boyne and Battle of Aughrim led to a victory at Limerick by 1691. William himself led his forces at the Boyne in 1690, which was commemorated in paintings such as Benjamin Wests The Battle of the Boyne. He is still depicted in the iconography of the Orange Order, whose name comes from Williams dynasty, such compact houses do not fit easily within the conventions of English baroque architecture. The Williamite Purple Star is up to the present part of the flag of the Orange Order in Northern Ireland
7.
James II of England
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James II and VII was King of England and Ireland as James II and King of Scotland as James VII, from 6 February 1685 until he was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. He was the last Roman Catholic monarch of England, Scotland and Ireland, the second surviving son of Charles I, he ascended the throne upon the death of his brother, Charles II. Members of Britains Protestant political elite increasingly suspected him of being pro-French and pro-Catholic and he was replaced by his eldest, Protestant daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange. James made one attempt to recover his crowns from William. After the defeat of the Jacobite forces by the Williamites at the Battle of the Boyne in July 1690 and he lived out the rest of his life as a pretender at a court sponsored by his cousin and ally, King Louis XIV. James, the surviving son of King Charles I and his wife. Later that same year, he was baptised by William Laud and he was educated by private tutors, along with his brother, the future King Charles II, and the two sons of the Duke of Buckingham, George and Francis Villiers. At the age of three, James was appointed Lord High Admiral, the position was honorary, but would become a substantive office after the Restoration. He was designated Duke of York at birth, invested with the Order of the Garter in 1642, as the Kings disputes with the English Parliament grew into the English Civil War, James stayed in Oxford, a Royalist stronghold. When the city surrendered after the siege of Oxford in 1646, in 1648, he escaped from the Palace, aided by Joseph Bampfield, and from there he went to The Hague in disguise. When Charles I was executed by the rebels in 1649, monarchists proclaimed Jamess older brother as Charles II of England, Charles II was recognised as king by the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of Ireland, and was crowned King of Scotland at Scone in 1651. Although he was proclaimed King in Jersey, Charles was unable to secure the crown of England and consequently fled to France, like his brother, James sought refuge in France, serving in the French army under Turenne against the Fronde, and later against their Spanish allies. In the French army James had his first true experience of battle where, according to one observer, he ventures himself, in the meantime, Charles was attempting to reclaim his throne, but France, although hosting the exiles, had allied itself with Oliver Cromwell. In 1656, Charles turned instead to Spain – an enemy of France – for support, in consequence, James was expelled from France and forced to leave Turennes army. James quarrelled with his brother over the choice of Spain over France. In 1659, the French and Spanish made peace, James, doubtful of his brothers chances of regaining the throne, considered taking a Spanish offer to be an admiral in their navy. Ultimately, he declined the position, by the year the situation in England had changed. After Richard Cromwells resignation as Lord Protector in 1659 and the subsequent collapse of the Commonwealth in 1660, although James was the heir presumptive, it seemed unlikely that he would inherit the Crown, as Charles was still a young man capable of fathering children
8.
Conrad von Rosen
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Conrad von Rosen was a soldier from Livonia, noted for his long service in the French Army. He took part in the War of the Two Kings in Ireland on the Jacobite side, in 1689 he commanded the Irish Army during the unsuccessful Siege of Derry. He was born of Baltic German heritage in Straupe, then part of Swedish-controlled Livonia, in 1646 he became a mercenary and joined the French Army, where he married the daughter of his Colonel. He served throughout the wars of Louis XIV, rising steadily through the ranks. Von Rosen was one of a number of experienced French commanders sent to Ireland with James II in 1689, in June von Rosen arrived at Derry to take command of the siege of Derry. He immediately adopted a much more hard-line towards the defenders than his predecessor Richard Hamilton, von Rosen began bombarding the city in a more intense fashion, while also aiming to force the defenders to submit through starvation. The garrison responded by threatening to hang Jacobite prisoners who had taken during the siege. Hamilton quietly appealed the matter to King James, who ordered von Rosen to cease such activities, James was furious over the matter and described the General as a bloody Muscovite. After the failure to take Derry the Jacobites withdrew southwards, when the Williamite Army was encamped at Dundalk, he dramatically reversed his advice and suggested that the Jacobite army should launch an immediate attack. King James and his Lord Lieutenant Richard Talbot rejected this as they felt any assault on the position of the enemy would be suicidal. Von Rosen then announced that he would leave Ireland and he sailed home with another French figure the Comte dAvaux. Battles for the Three Kingdoms, The Campaigns for England, Scotland and Ireland, the Williamite War in Ireland, 1688–1691
9.
George Walker (soldier)
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George Walker was an English soldier and Anglican priest. He was joint Governor of Londonderry during the Siege in 1689 and he was killed at the Battle of the Boyne while going to the aid of the wounded Duke of Schomberg. George Walker II was born in Wighill, Yorkshire, England, the son of George Walker, rector of Kilmore and Chancellor of Armagh, Walker was educated at Glasgow University. He married Isabella Barclay, by whom he had several sons, (George III 1669-1699, James 1670-1700, John 1671-1726, Gervase 1672-1693, Robert 1674-1705, Thomas 1677-1712, Mary 1679, Charity 1681-1728, Elizabeth 1683. There are many descendants of George Walker living in Ireland, Great Britain and he became rector of the Parish of Donagmore in 1674. He was also rector of the Parishes of Lessan and Desertlyn. A Doctor of Divinity, Walker was joint Governor of Londonderry along with Robert Lundy during the Siege of Londonderry in 1689 and received the thanks of the House of Commons for his work. The Walker Plinth on the Walls of Londonderry which was completed in 1828, remains in his memory and he was originally buried at the battlefield but at the insistence of his widow, his body was later exhumed and buried inside the church at Castlecaufield, County Tyrone. His body was later rediscovered and re-interred next to that of his wife, wrong - This statue in Brooke Park pictured opposite is not of George Walker its of Robert Ferguson, who became an MP and later Mayor of Derry. Media related to The Siege of Londonderry in 1689 by WALKER at Wikimedia Commons National Portrait Gallery George Walker Genealogy Page Walker, phrenological Notice of the Skull of Walker by the Ulster Archeological Society
10.
Battle of Bantry Bay
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The Battle of Bantry Bay was a naval engagement fought on 11 May 1689 during the Nine Years War. The English fleet was commanded by Arthur Herbert, 1st Earl of Torrington, apart from the inshore operations at La Rochelle in 1627–28, the Battle of Bantry Bay was the first time English and French navies had met in fleet action since 1545. But although the French failed to follow up their success with strategic gain. Following the Glorious Revolution in 1688, James II of England lost his throne to William, the new William III reigned jointly with his wife Mary. James fled to France and was given succour by his co-religionist, Louis XIV, while in France, James built up an army to support his Lord Deputy in Ireland, the Earl of Tyrconnell. James had already sent financial help, but it was not until March 1689 that he was ready to sail in person to lead the campaign. After landing in Kinsale with 100 French officers and about 2,500 mixed troops, James, James hoped to quickly establish control over Ireland before pressing on to Scotland or England, but this was impossible while Protestant strongholds in northern Ireland remained outside his control. The newly appointed commander-in-chief of the English main fleet, Arthur Herbert, did not go to sea until the beginning of April, Herberts fleet of 19 ships sailed on 4 April, it was off Cork by 12 April, seeking to intercept enemy vessels. As the French approached southern Ireland Herberts squadron had made offloading supplies at Kinsale impossible, the following morning on 11 May, as the French were landing 1,500 men with money, arms and ammunition, Admiral Herbert’s fleet came into view. The French weighed anchor, and a battle ensued in the confined waters of the bay. Initially the two opposed each other in parallel lines but Château-Renault, enjoying the weather gage, drove Herbert from the bay into the open sea. The ensuing battle – which in total lasted four hours – was somewhat inconclusive, when the French broke off the action late in the afternoon in order to return to the anchorage, Herberts ships were too damaged to follow, and he had suffered many casualties. The fleets withdrew, Château-Renault returned to Brest on 18 May, Herbert sailed for the Scilly Isles, before reaching Spithead, via Plymouth, on 22 May. For both the French and English however, the battle was equally unsatisfactory, William was also unsatisfied with the outcome, nevertheless, the King created Herbert Earl of Torrington, mainly in recognition of his work the previous year during the Glorious Revolution. Moreover, the King knighted two of Herbert’s captains, John Ashby who had led the van, and Cloudesley Shovell, and ordered a gratuity of ten shillings a head for the seaman. In response, the Scottish parliament commissioned two small cruisers, the Pelican and the Janet to oppose the French squadron, but, on 20 July, they were both taken by Duquesne in the North Channel. The Allies now began to build up their strength in the Channel. After rendezvousing with victuallers, the Anglo-Dutch squadrons patrolled south of Kinsale to prevent further French supplies reaching Ireland, with Schombergs reinforcements, the Williamite army opposing James in Ireland now amounted to some 40,000 troops
11.
Siege of Carrickfergus (1689)
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The Siege of Carrickfergus took place in August 1689 when a force of Williamite troops under Marshal Schomberg landed and laid siege to the Jacobite garrison of Carrickfergus in Ireland. After a week the Jacobites surrendered, and were allowed to march out with the honours of war, Carrickfergus was a traditional stronghold of the Crown in Ulster, commanded by the Norman-era Carrickfergus Castle. During 1689 with its Irish Army garrison, it became a refuge for Catholic inhabitants of the region to flee to as the rebellion against James IIs rule grew. In February 1689 local Protestant forces made an attempt to storm the town. After the Break of Dromore on 14 March, Richard Hamiltons royal forces had swept through Eastern Ulster bringing all of County Down and Antrim under their control. Carrickfergus and its area were securely under Jacobite rule as Hamilton advanced to lay siege to Derry. What had initially seemed as though it would be a quick victory began to drag out through the summer, meanwhile, a series of relief forces were being prepared in England. Percy Kirke led an expedition to Derry, where the siege was broken on 28 July. In the face of this defeat, Jacobite forces began to withdraw from Derry. A second major wave of reinforcements was assembled at Chester under the veteran Huguenot commander Frederick Schomberg, while it was originally suggested that they might head for Cork, it was decided that they should be landed in Ulster. By the time the expedition sailed from Hoylake on 12 August 1689 and it meant that Schomberg could now act offensively. By 13 August the expedition was in sight of the Mountains of Mourne and they were accompanied into Bangor Bay by George Rooke who had led a Royal Navy force to clear Belfast Lough of French shipping. The same afternoon Schomberg began disembarking his men and he kept them at the alert in case the Jacobite garrisons of nearby Belfast, Bangor and Carrickfergus should attack, but there was no opposition as the troops were brought ashore. The artillery and supply ships arrived separately a few days later, by the end of August, a total of six cavalry and nine infantry regiments had been landed safely at Carrickfergus. The landing added to a series of setbacks for the Jacobites including their failures at Derry and Enniskillen, faced with strong Williamite forces in both the north-west and north-east, the Jacobite commander in the north Thomas Maxwell ordered a withdrawal towards Newry. At Carrickfergus he left a garrison consisted of Charles MacCarthy Mores infantry regiment. The garrison were charged with delaying Schombergs army for as long as possible, the Jacobites abandoned Belfast which was swiftly occupied by Henry Whartons English regiment. As Schomberg wanted to march on Dublin before the set in
12.
Battle of the Boyne
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The battle took place across the River Boyne near the town of Drogheda in the east of Ireland, and resulted in a victory for William. This turned the tide in Jamess failed attempt to regain the British crown, the battle took place on 1 July 1690O. S. Williams forces defeated Jamess army, which consisted mostly of raw recruits, although the Williamite War in Ireland continued until October 1691, James fled to France after the Boyne, never to return. The symbolic importance of this battle has made it one of the battles in the history of the British Isles. Its commemoration today is principally by the Protestant Orange Institution, which records the first commemorative parades as having held in 1791. It is regarded as a moment in the struggle between Irish Protestant and Catholic interests. The previous year William had sent the Duke of Schomberg to take charge of the Irish campaign and he was a 75-year-old professional soldier who had accompanied William during the Glorious Revolution. Under his command, affairs had remained static and very little had been accomplished, William, dissatisfied with the state of affairs in Ireland, decided to take charge in person. In an Irish context, the war was a sectarian and ethnic conflict, for the Jacobites, the war was fought for Irish sovereignty, religious tolerance for Catholicism, and land ownership. The Catholic upper classes had lost almost all their lands after Cromwells conquest, as well as the right to public office, practice their religion. They saw the Catholic King James as a means of redressing these grievances, to these ends, under Richard Talbot, 1st Earl of Tyrconnel, they had raised an army to restore James after the Glorious Revolution. By 1690, they controlled all of Ireland except for the province of Ulster, most of James IIs troops at the Boyne were Irish Catholics, however, there were also Scots-Irish Presbyterians fighting for James II. Conversely, for the Williamites, the war was about maintaining Protestant, in particular, they dreaded a repeat of the Irish Rebellion of 1641, which had been marked by widespread killing. For these reasons, Protestants fought en masse for William of Orange, Jamess supporters controlled much of Ireland and the Irish Parliament. James also enjoyed the support of his cousin, Louis XIV, Louis sent 6,000 French troops to Ireland to support the Irish Jacobites. William was already Stadtholder of the Netherlands and was able to call on Dutch, James was a seasoned officer who had proven his bravery when fighting for his brother – King Charles II – in Europe, notably at the Battle of the Dunes. William, although a seasoned commander, was one of historys great generals and had yet to win a major battle. Many of his battles ended in stalemates, prompting at least one historian to argue that William lacked an ability to manage armies in the thick of conflict
13.
Siege of Limerick (1690)
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Limerick, a city in western Ireland, was besieged twice in the Williamite War in Ireland, 1689-1691. On the first of these occasions, in August to September 1691, the Williamites, under William III, tried to take Limerick by storm, but were driven off and had to retire into their winter quarters. Following the successful defence of Derry and the Siege of Carrickfergus and their defeat at the Battle of the Boyne on July 1,1690 saw their forces make a disorderly retreat from the eastern part of the country, abandoning the capital Dublin in the process. James II himself had fled Ireland for France, judging his military prospects there to be hopeless, the main Jacobite army had retreated to Limerick after their defeat at the Boyne. The principal reason why many Jacobite officers were reluctant to surrender was the surrender terms published by William in Dublin after his victory at the Boyne. These terms offered a pardon only to the Jacobite rank and file, the Jacobite’s French commander, Lauzun, also wanted to surrender, expressing his dismay at the state of Limerick’s fortifications, saying that they could be knocked down by roasted apples. There were however sufficient Jacobite troops to defend Limerick, a total of 14,500 Jacobite infantry were billeted in Limerick itself and another 2,500 cavalry in Clare under Sarsfield. Moreover, the morale of the soldiers was high, despite the defeat at the Boyne. This was due to the circulation of an ancient Irish prophecy that the Irish would win a victory over the English outside Limerick. This may seem bizarre, but such prophecies were an important part of Irish popular culture at the time, Williamites mocked such superstition in songs such as Lillibullero. Lauzuns deputy Marquis de Boisseleau backed the hardliners in their attempts to defend the city, William of Orange and his army reached Limerick on August 7,1690, with 25,000 men and occupied Ireton’s fort and Cromwell’s fort outside the city. However he had with him only his artillery, as his siege cannon were still making their way from Dublin with a light escort. This siege train was intercepted by Sarsfield’s cavalry, at Ballyneety in county Limerick and this meant that William had to wait another ten days before he could start bombarding Limerick in earnest, while another siege train was brought up from Waterford. By this time it was late August, winter was approaching and William wanted to finish the war in Ireland so he could return to the Netherlands and get on with the main business of the War of the Grand Alliance against the French. For this reason, he decided on an all out assault on Limerick and his siege guns blasted a breach in the walls of the Irish town section of the city and William launched his assault on 27 August. The Danish grenadiers, and the eight regiments who followed them into the breach, suffered terribly from musketry, Jacobite soldiers without arms and the civilian population lined the walls and threw stones and bottles at the attackers. A regiment of Jacobite dragoons also made a sortie and attacked the Williamites in the breach from the outside, after three and a half hours of fighting, William finally called off the assault. Williams men had suffered about 3,000 casualties, including many of their best Dutch, Danish, German, the Jacobites lost only 400 men in the battle
14.
Siege of Athlone
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Athlone was besieged twice during the Williamite War in Ireland. The town is situated in the centre of Ireland on the River Shannon, for this reason, it was of key strategic importance. The Williamites first besieged Athlone in 1690, not long after their victory in the Battle of the Boyne, during this siege, they were commanded by William of Orange. An assault was made on the part of Athlone on 20 June, which caused the Jacobites to retreat across the Shannon to the west bank of the river. The Jacobites garrison at the half of Athlone led by Clifford, initially held off the Williamite assault by fierce fighting. The Williamites tried to lay planks over the partially wrecked structure, several attempts by the Williamites to storm the bridge were repulsed with heavy losses. The Williamite bombardment of the western, Connacht, side of the town was intense, one survivor described the scene, with the balls and bombs flying so thick, that spot was hell on earth. However, Ginkel identified another crossing upriver and sent an elite force,2,000 strong, to cross there. The grenadiers manned the towns west-facing ramparts and held off Jacobite counter-attacks until the main Williamite force could be brought up, after this, the Jacobite garrison, who had been awaiting reinforcement from the main Jacobite force advancing from Limerick, hastily abandoned their positions in Athlone. Ginkel and the Williamites went on to march on Limerick, on the march they were confronted by the main Jacobite army at the Battle of Aughrim and the Williamites inflicted a crushing defeat on them — effectively ending Jacobite resistance in Ireland
15.
Battle of Aughrim
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The Battle of Aughrim was the decisive battle of the Williamite War in Ireland. It was fought between the Jacobites and the forces of William III on 12 July 1691, near the village of Aughrim, the battle was one of the more bloody recorded fought on Irish soil – over 7,000 people were killed. It meant the end of Jacobitism in Ireland, although the city of Limerick held out until the autumn of 1691. The Jacobite position in the summer of 1691 was a defensive one, from this position, the Jacobites hoped to receive military aid from Louis XIV of France via the port towns and eventually be in a position to re-take the rest of Ireland. Godert de Ginkell, the Williamites Dutch general, had breached this line of defence by crossing the Shannon at Athlone - taking the town after a bloody siege. Ginkel marched through Ballinasloe, on the road towards Limerick and Galway. Both armies were about 20,000 men strong, the soldiers of St Ruth’s army were mostly Irish Catholic, while Ginkels were English, Scottish, Danish, Dutch and French Huguenot and Irish Protestants. The Jacobite position at Aughrim was quite strong, St Ruth had drawn up his infantry along the crest of a ridge known as Kilcommadan Hill. The left of the position was bounded by a bog, through there was only one causeway, overlooked by Aughrim village. On the other, open, flank, St Ruth placed his best infantry under his second-in-command, the chevalier de Tessé, the battle started with Ginkel trying to assault the open flank of the Jacobite position with cavalry and infantry. This attack ground to a halt after determined Jacobite counter-attacks and the Williamites halted, the French Huguenot forces committed here found themselves in low ground exposed to Jacobite fire and took a great number of casualties. Contemporaneous accounts speak of the grass being slippery with blood, to this day, this area on the south flank of the battle is known locally as the Bloody Hollow. In the centre, the Williamite infantry under Hugh Mackay tried a frontal assault on the Jacobite infantry on Kilcommadan Hill. The Williamite troops, mainly English and Scots, had to each line of trenches. The Williamite infantry attempted three assaults, the first of which penetrated furthest, eventually, the final Williamite assault was driven back with heavy losses by cavalry and pursued into the bog, where more of them were killed or drowned. In the rout, the pursuing Jacobites manage to spike a battery of Williamite guns and this left Ginkel with only one option, to try to force a way through the causeway on the Jacobite left. This should have been a position, with the attackers concentrated into a narrow lane. However, the Irish troops there were short on ammunition, Mackay directed this fourth assault, consisting mainly of cavalry, in two groups - one along the causeway and one parallel to the south
16.
Siege of Limerick (1691)
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Limerick in western Ireland was besieged twice during the Williamite War in Ireland. The city, held by Jacobite forces was able to beat off a Williamite assault in 1690, however, after a second siege in August-October 1691, it surrendered on favourable terms. By the time of the siege, the military situation had turned against the Jacobites. The main Jacobite army was smashed at the Battle of Aughrim in July 1691, losing 4,000 men killed, including their commander, the Marquis de St Ruth and thousands more taken prisoner and deserted. The Jacobite army retreated from Galway with all the honours of war to Limerick, on the other hand, the defences of Limerick had been considerably strengthened since 1690. The Williamite general Godert de Ginkell surrounded the city and bombarded it, a surprise Williamite attack drove the Irish defenders from the earthworks defending Thomond bridge, sending its Irish defenders reeling back towards Limerick. The French defenders of the gate of the city refused to open it for the fleeing Irish. After this point, Patrick Sarsfield ousted the Chevalier de Tessé and the Marquis dUsson, the French commanders in Limerick, Limerick capitulated under these favourable terms in October 1691. Sarsfield left Ireland with 10,000 soldiers and 4,000 women and children to enter the French service and this journey has become known as the Flight of the Wild Geese. S. McGarry, Irish Brigades Abroad, Dublin 2013, piers Waudchope, Patrick Sarsfield and the Williamite War, Dublin 1992. Webpage on the Williamite sieges - including good maps and photos
17.
Irish language
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Irish, also referred to as Gaelic or Irish Gaelic, is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish people. Irish is spoken as a first language by a minority of Irish people. Irish enjoys constitutional status as the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland and it is also among the official languages of the European Union. The public body Foras na Gaeilge is responsible for the promotion of the language throughout the island of Ireland and it has the oldest vernacular literature in Western Europe. The fate of the language was influenced by the power of the English state in Ireland. Elizabethan officials viewed the use of Irish unfavourably, as being a threat to all things English in Ireland and its decline began under English rule in the 17th century. In the latter part of the 19th century, there was a decrease in the number of speakers. Irish-speaking areas were hit especially hard, by the end of British rule, the language was spoken by less than 15% of the national population. Since then, Irish speakers have been in the minority, efforts have been made by the state, individuals and organisations to preserve, promote and revive the language, but with mixed results. Around the turn of the 21st century, estimates of native speakers ranged from 20,000 to 80,000 people. In the 2011 Census, these numbers had increased to 94,000 and 1.3 million, there are several thousand Irish speakers in Northern Ireland. It has been estimated that the active Irish-language scene probably comprises 5 to 10 per cent of Irelands population, there has been a significant increase in the number of urban Irish speakers, particularly in Dublin. In Gaeltacht areas, however, there has been a decline of the use of Irish. Údarás na Gaeltachta predicted that, by 2025, Irish will no longer be the language in any of the designated Gaeltacht areas. Survey data suggest that most Irish people think highly of Irish as a marker of identity. It has also argued that newer urban groups of Irish speakers are a disruptive force in this respect. In An Caighdeán Oifigiúil the name of the language is Gaeilge, before the spelling reform of 1948, this form was spelled Gaedhilge, originally this was the genitive of Gaedhealg, the form used in Classical Irish. Older spellings of this include Gaoidhealg in Classical Irish and Goídelc in Old Irish, the modern spelling results from the deletion of the silent dh in the middle of Gaedhilge, whereas Goidelic languages, used to refer to the language family including Irish, comes from Old Irish
18.
Apprentice Boys of Derry
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The Apprentice Boys of Derry is a Protestant fraternal society with a worldwide membership of over 10,000, founded in 1814 and based in the city of Derry, Northern Ireland. There are clubs and branches in Ulster and elsewhere in Ireland, Scotland, England and Toronto, Canada. The society aims to commemorate the 1689 Siege of Derry when Catholic James II of England and Ireland and VII of Scotland laid siege to the walled city, the 2014 Shutting of the Gates parade was described as the biggest in years and was violence-free. Retaliatory action passed to the Duke of Tyrconnel who assembled a large, the deposed King James II, who had travelled from France to Ireland in March, took charge with the aid of two French generals. Arriving at the gates of Derry on 18 April 1689, he was greeted by a cry of No Surrender, the ships approach was covered against the Jacobite besiegers by cannon fire from the frigate HMS Dartmouth, under Captain John Leake. The Mountjoy rammed and broke the boom at Culmore fort. Three days later, the besieging forces burned their camps and departed and it was reported that some 4,000 people had died of starvation or injury. Many had been forced to eat dogs, horses and rats, the Apprentice Boys hold two main annual celebrations. The Relief Parade in Derry is the largest of all the parades in Northern Ireland, in some areas of the city bonfires similar to those held on 11 July are erected and burned. During the December celebrations it is traditional to burn or hang an effigy of Robert Lundy, before the Troubles the effigy was often hung from, and then burnt in front of, the pillar commemorating George Walker. This was on the walls overlooking the Irish nationalist Bogside area. According to the Parades Commission, the Apprentice Boys held 231 parades in Northern Ireland in 2007, of these,116 were Relief of Derry parades, and 115 were Closing of the Gates parades. The main December parade in Derry was expected to include 1500 marchers and 28 bands, in 2009/201032 marches took place in Glasgow, Scotland. The first celebrations of the relief of Derry took place on Sunday 28 July 1689, the first organised celebrations took place on Sunday 8 August 1689 when a thanksgiving service was held in St Columbs Cathedral. Subsequent celebrations have followed that precedent, on 1 August 1714, ex-Governor and siege hero Colonel Mitchelburne hoisted the Crimson Flag on the Cathedral steeple and formed the first club known as the Apprentice Boys. The formal arrangements for the August and December commemorations were organised by the garrison based in Derry. The inquiry recommended that both Apprentice Boys parades be banned, for similar reasons they also recommended the banning of Orange Order parades. New clubs were formed over the following years, in December 1861 the various clubs agreed to associate together under a governing body known as the General Committee
19.
Glorious Revolution
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The crisis facing the king came to a head in 1688, with the birth of the kings son, James Francis Edward Stuart, on 10 June. This changed the line of succession by displacing the heiress presumptive with young James Francis Edward as heir apparent. The establishment of a Roman Catholic dynasty in the kingdoms now seemed likely, stadtholder William, the de facto head of state of the Dutch United Provinces, feared a Catholic Anglo–French alliance and had already been planning a military intervention in England. After consolidating political and financial support, William crossed the North Sea and English Channel with an invasion fleet in November 1688. After only two minor clashes between the two opposing armies in England, and anti-Catholic riots in several towns, Jamess regime collapsed, however, this was followed by the protracted Williamite War in Ireland and Dundees rising in Scotland. In Englands distant American colonies, the led to the collapse of the Dominion of New England. By threatening to withdraw his troops, William in February 1689 convinced a newly chosen Convention Parliament to make him, the Revolution permanently ended any chance of Catholicism becoming re-established in England. The Revolution led to limited tolerance for Nonconformist Protestants, although it would be some time before they had political rights. Internationally, the Revolution was related to the War of the Grand Alliance on mainland Europe and it has been seen as the last successful invasion of England. It ended all attempts by England in the Anglo-Dutch Wars of the 17th century to subdue the Dutch Republic by military force, the expression Glorious Revolution was first used by John Hampden in late 1689, and is an expression that is still used by the British Parliament. The Glorious Revolution is also termed the Bloodless Revolution, albeit inaccurately. Jamess greatest political problem was his Catholicism, which left him alienated from both parties in England. The low church Whigs had failed in their attempt to pass the Exclusion Bill to exclude James from the throne between 1679 and 1681, and Jamess supporters were the high church Anglican Tories. In Scotland, his supporters in the Parliament of Scotland stepped up attempts to force the Covenanters to renounce their faith, when James inherited the English throne in 1685, he had much support in the Loyal Parliament, which was composed mostly of Tories. His Catholicism was of concern to many, but the fact that he had no son, Jamess attempt to relax the Penal Laws alienated his natural supporters, however, because the Tories viewed this as tantamount to disestablishment of the Church of England. The majority of Irish people backed James II for this reason, by allying himself with the Catholics, Dissenters, and Nonconformists, James hoped to build a coalition that would advance Catholic emancipation. In May 1686, James decided to obtain from the English courts of the law a ruling that affirmed his power to dispense with Acts of Parliament. He dismissed judges who disagreed with him on this matter as well as the Solicitor General Heneage Finch, eleven out of the twelve judges ruled in favour of dispensing power
20.
Roman Catholic
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The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
21.
Parliament of England
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The Parliament of England was the legislature of the Kingdom of England. Over the centuries, the English Parliament progressively limited the power of the English monarchy which arguably culminated in the English Civil War, the Act of Union 1707 merged the English Parliament with the Parliament of Scotland to form the Parliament of Great Britain. When the Parliament of Ireland was abolished in 1801, its members were merged into what was now called the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Under a monarchical system of government, monarchs usually must consult, early kings of England had no standing army or police, and so depended on the support of powerful subjects. The monarchy had agents in every part of the country, however, under the feudal system that evolved in England following the Norman Conquest of 1066, the laws of the Crown could not have been upheld without the support of the nobility and the clergy. The former had economic and military bases of their own through major ownership of land. The Church was virtually a law unto itself in this period as it had its own system of law courts. In order to seek consultation and consent from the nobility and the clergy on major decisions. A typical Great Council would consist of archbishops, bishops, abbots, barons and earls, when this system of consultation and consent broke down, it often became impossible for government to function effectively. The most prominent instances of prior to the reign of Henry III are the disagreements between Thomas Becket and Henry II and between King John and the barons. Becket, who served as Archbishop of Canterbury between 1162 and 1170, was murdered following a long running dispute with Henry II over the jurisdiction of the Church. John, who was king from 1199 to 1216, aroused such hostility from many leading noblemen that they forced him to agree to Magna Carta in 1215, johns refusal to adhere to this charter led to civil war. The Great Council evolved into the Parliament of England, the term itself came into use during the early 13th century, deriving from the Latin and French words for discussion and speaking. The word first appears in documents in the 1230s. As a result of the work by historians G. O. Sayles and H. G. Richardson, during the 13th and 14th centuries, the kings began to call Knights of the Shire to meet when the monarch saw it as necessary. A notable example of this was in 1254 when sheriffs of counties were instructed to send Knights of the Shire to parliament to advise the king on finance, initially, parliaments were mostly summoned when the king needed to raise money through taxes. Following the Magna Carta this became a convention and this was due in no small part to the fact that King John died in 1216 and was succeeded by his young son Henry III. Leading peers and clergy governed on Henrys behalf until he came of age, among other things, they made sure that Magna Carta would be reaffirmed by the young king
22.
Protestantism
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Protestantism is a form of Christianity which originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical. Although there were earlier breaks from or attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church—notably by Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Protestants reject the notion of papal supremacy and deny the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The Five solae summarize the reformers basic differences in theological beliefs, in the 16th century, Lutheranism spread from Germany into Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic states, and Iceland. Reformed churches were founded in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Switzerland and France by such reformers as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, the political separation of the Church of England from Rome under King Henry VIII brought England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement. Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, some Protestant denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of families, Adventism, Anglicanism, Baptist churches, Reformed churches, Lutheranism, Methodism. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, the edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. During the Reformation, the term was used outside of the German politics. The word evangelical, which refers to the gospel, was more widely used for those involved in the religious movement. Nowadays, this word is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran and Calvinist traditions in Europe, above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German-speaking area, such as the EKD. In continental Europe, an Evangelical is either a Lutheran or a Calvinist, the German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal, which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to Evangelical Protestant churches, and it traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. Protestantism as a term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian traditions, i. e. Roman Catholicism. Initially, Protestant became a term to mean any adherent to the Reformation movement in Germany and was taken up by Lutherans. Even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or Evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ, French and Swiss Protestants preferred the word reformed, which became a popular, neutral and alternative name for Calvinists
23.
Mary II of England
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Mary II was joint monarch of England, Scotland, and Ireland with her husband and first cousin, William of Orange, from 1689 until her death. William became sole ruler upon her death in 1694, popular histories usually refer to their joint reign as that of William and Mary. Mary wielded less power than William when he was in England, ceding most of her authority to him and she did, however, act alone when William was engaged in military campaigns abroad, proving herself to be a powerful, firm, and effective ruler. Mary, born at St Jamess Palace in London on 30 April 1662, was the eldest daughter of James, Duke of York, and his first wife, Anne Hyde. She was baptised into the Anglican faith in the Chapel Royal at St Jamess and her godparents included her fathers cousin, Prince Rupert of the Rhine. Although her mother bore eight children, all except Mary and her younger sister Anne died very young, consequently, for most of her childhood, Mary was second in line to the throne after her father. The Duke of York converted to Roman Catholicism in 1668 or 1669, Marys education, from private tutors, was largely restricted to music, dance, drawing, French, and religious instruction. Her mother died in 1671, and her father remarried in 1673, taking as his second wife Mary of Modena, from about the age of nine until her marriage, Mary wrote passionate letters to an older girl, Frances Apsley, the daughter of courtier Sir Allen Apsley. In time, Frances became uncomfortable with the correspondence, and replied more formally, at the age of fifteen, Mary became betrothed to her cousin, the Protestant Stadtholder of Holland, William of Orange. William was the son of the Kings late sister, Mary, Princess Royal, and thus fourth in the line of succession after James, Mary, and Anne. The Duke of York agreed to the marriage, after pressure from chief minister Lord Danby and the King, when James told Mary that she was to marry her cousin, she wept all that afternoon and all the following day. William and a tearful Mary were married in St Jamess Palace by Bishop Henry Compton on 4 November 1677, Mary accompanied her husband on a rough sea crossing back to the Netherlands later that month, after a delay of two weeks caused by bad weather. On 14 December, they made an entry to The Hague in a grand procession. Marys animated and personable nature made her popular with the Dutch people and she was devoted to her husband, but he was often away on campaigns, which led to Marys family supposing him to be cold and neglectful. She suffered further bouts of illness that may have been miscarriages in mid-1678, early 1679 and her childlessness would be the greatest source of unhappiness in her life. From May 1684, the Kings illegitimate son, James Scott, Duke of Monmouth, lived in the Netherlands, Monmouth was viewed as a rival to the Duke of York, and as a potential Protestant heir who could supplant James in the line of succession. William, however, did not consider him a viable alternative, upon the death of Charles II without legitimate issue in February 1685, the Duke of York became king as James II in England and Ireland and James VII in Scotland. Mary was playing cards when her husband informed her of her fathers accession, to Williams relief, Monmouth was defeated, captured and executed, but both he and Mary were dismayed by Jamess subsequent actions
24.
William III of England
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It is a coincidence that his regnal number was the same for both Orange and England. As King of Scotland, he is known as William II and he is informally known by sections of the population in Northern Ireland and Scotland as King Billy. William inherited the principality of Orange from his father, William II and his mother Mary, Princess Royal, was the daughter of King Charles I of England. In 1677, he married his fifteen-year-old first cousin, Mary, a Protestant, William participated in several wars against the powerful Catholic king of France, Louis XIV, in coalition with Protestant and Catholic powers in Europe. Many Protestants heralded him as a champion of their faith, in 1685, his Catholic father-in-law, James, Duke of York, became king of England, Ireland and Scotland. Jamess reign was unpopular with the Protestant majority in Britain, William, supported by a group of influential British political and religious leaders, invaded England in what became known as the Glorious Revolution. On 5 November 1688, he landed at the southern English port of Brixham, James was deposed and William and Mary became joint sovereigns in his place. They reigned together until her death on 28 December 1694, after which William ruled as sole monarch, Williams reputation as a staunch Protestant enabled him to take the British crowns when many were fearful of a revival of Catholicism under James. Williams victory at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690 is still commemorated by the Orange Order and his reign in Britain marked the beginning of the transition from the personal rule of the Stuarts to the more Parliament-centred rule of the House of Hanover. William III was born in The Hague in the Dutch Republic on 4 November 1650, baptised William Henry, he was the only child of stadtholder William II, Prince of Orange, and Mary, Princess Royal. Mary was the eldest daughter of King Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland, eight days before William was born, his father died of smallpox, thus William was the Sovereign Prince of Orange from the moment of his birth. Immediately, a conflict ensued between his mother the Princess Royal and William IIs mother, Amalia of Solms-Braunfels, over the name to be given to the infant. Mary wanted to name him Charles after her brother, but her mother-in-law insisted on giving him the name William or Willem to bolster his prospects of becoming stadtholder. William II had appointed his wife as his sons guardian in his will, however, Williams mother showed little personal interest in her son, sometimes being absent for years, and had always deliberately kept herself apart from Dutch society. Williams education was first laid in the hands of several Dutch governesses, some of English descent, including Walburg Howard, from April 1656, the prince received daily instruction in the Reformed religion from the Calvinist preacher Cornelis Trigland, a follower of the Contra-Remonstrant theologian Gisbertus Voetius. The ideal education for William was described in Discours sur la nourriture de S. H. Monseigneur le Prince dOrange, in these lessons, the prince was taught that he was predestined to become an instrument of Divine Providence, fulfilling the historical destiny of the House of Orange. From early 1659, William spent seven years at the University of Leiden for a formal education, under the guidance of ethics professor Hendrik Bornius. While residing in the Prinsenhof at Delft, William had a personal retinue including Hans Willem Bentinck, and a new governor, Frederick Nassau de Zuylenstein
25.
Richard Talbot, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell
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Richard Talbot, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell PC was an Irish royalist and Jacobite soldier. He served as James IIs Lord Lieutenant during the Williamite War in Ireland and his administration saw a major purge of Protestant officers from the Irish Army which had previously largely barred Catholics. Like most Old English families in Ireland, the Talbots had adopted the customs of the Irish and had, like the Irish and his eldest brother was Sir Robert Talbot, 2nd Baronet. He married Katherine Baynton in 1669 and they had two daughters, Katherine and Charlotte. Talbot later married Frances Jennings, sister of Sarah Jennings and he was also known by the nickname Lying Dick Talbot. During the Irish Confederate Wars that followed the Irish Rebellion of 1641 and he was taken prisoner by the Parliamentarians after the battle of Dungans Hill in 1647, but was ransomed back to his own side. In 1649, he survived the Cromwellian Sack of Drogheda. Shortly after this, he fled Ireland, to join his fellow defeated Royalists in France, Talbot had been introduced to Charles II and James, Duke of York, when they were exiles in Flanders, as a result of the English Civil War. Talbot then lived like many other royalist refugees, partly by casual military service and he was arrested in London in November 1655 and was examined by Cromwell. Once more he escaped, but it was said by his enemies that he was bribed by Cromwell, after the Restoration he continued to have a place in the household of the Duke of York. He was arrested for supposed complicity in the Popish Plot agitation in 1678, after the accession of James II in 1685, he was created Baron of Talbotstown, Viscount Baltinglass and Earl of Tyrconnell, and sent as commander in chief of the forces in Ireland. In this capacity and as Lord Deputy of Ireland he placed Catholics in positions of control in the state and the militia, consequently, the entire Roman Catholic population sided with James II in the Glorious Revolution. Thus, in 1689, when James landed at Dublin with his French officers and his role in the Revolution was satirised in the contemporary folk song, Lillibullero. After James came to Ireland, he created him Duke of Tyrconnell and Marquess of Tyrconnell, by early 1689 there was growing dissent amongst Protestants across Ireland. In County Cork, the town of Bandon rose up but were defeated by Justin MacCarthy. A second comfortable victory at the Battle of Cladyford followed and this initial success was checked when the Catholic forces besieged Derry and attacked Enniskillen. After they were relieved by Percy Kirkes forces, the Jacobites were forced to withdraw, the situation worsened after Marshal Schombergs large Williamite expedition reached Belfast Lough and captured Carrickfergus. Schomberg then marched south to a Dundalk where he threatened to advance on Dublin, after a lengthy stalemate the two armies withdrew into winter quarters
26.
Parliament of Ireland
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The Parliament of Ireland was a legislature that existed in Dublin from 1297 until 1800. It comprised two chambers, the House of Commons and the House of Lords, the House of Lords consisted of members of the Irish peerage and the bishops, while the Commons was directly elected, albeit on a very restricted franchise. The main purpose of parliament was to approve taxes that were levied by. Those who would pay the bulk of taxation, the clergy, merchants and landowners, in 1541 the parliament voted to create the Kingdom of Ireland. However, this Irish Parliament was a meeting of Irish nobles and bishops, later, in the 15th century, Irish parliaments began to invite representatives of the people. Among its most famous meeting places were Dublin Castle, the Bluecoat School, Chichester House and, its permanent home. The Irish Parliament was formally founded in 1297 by the Justiciar, John Wogan, to represent the Irish, in 1292 a less formal assembly of unelected nobles and merchants had raised £10,000, known as the lay subsidy. This tax was a fifteenth of the net worth of the chattels of wealthier citizens, the poor, the Parliament arose from and for citizens of the Lordship of Ireland, based on Norman laws and English practices. Magna Carta was extended in 1217 in the Great Charter of Ireland, alongside this reduced control grew a Gaelic resurgence that was political as well as cultural. In turn this resulted in numbers of the Anglo-Irish Old English nobility joining the independent Gaelic nobles in asserting their feudal independence. Eventually the crowns power shrank to a fortified enclave around Dublin known as the Pale. The Parliament thereafter became essentially the forum for the Pale community until the 16th century, the role of the Parliament changed after 1541, when Henry VIII declared the Kingdom of Ireland and embarked on the Tudor conquest of Ireland. Initially in 1537, the Irish Parliament approved both the Act of Supremacy, acknowledging Henry VIII as head of the Church and the dissolution of the monasteries, the Plantation of Ulster allowed English and Scottish Protestant candidates in as representatives of the newly formed boroughs in planted areas. Initially this gave Protestants a majority of 132-100 in the House of Commons, in the House of Lords the Catholic majority continued until the 1689 Patriot Parliament, with the exception of the Commonwealth period. Following the death of Cromwell and the end of the Protectorate, then, during the reign of James II of England, who had converted to Roman Catholicism, Irish Catholics briefly recovered their pre-eminent position as the crown now favoured their community. When James was overthrown in England, he turned to his Catholic supporters in the Irish Parliament for support, nonetheless, the franchise was still available to wealthier Catholics. Until 1728, Catholics voted in House of Commons elections and held seats in the Lords, for no particular reason, beyond a general pressure for Catholics to conform, they were barred from voting in the election for the first parliament in the reign of George II. Privileges were also limited to supporters of the Church of Ireland
27.
Cromwellian conquest of Ireland
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Cromwell invaded Ireland with his New Model Army on behalf of Englands Rump Parliament in August 1649. Following the Irish Rebellion of 1641, most of Ireland came under the control of the Irish Catholic Confederation, in early 1649, the Confederates allied with the English Royalists, who had been defeated by the Parliamentarians in the English Civil War. By May 1652, Cromwells Parliamentarian army had defeated the Confederate and Royalist coalition in Ireland, however, guerrilla warfare continued for a further year. Cromwell passed a series of Penal Laws against Roman Catholics and confiscated large amounts of their land, the Parliamentarian reconquest of Ireland was brutal, and Cromwell is still a hated figure in Ireland. The extent to which Cromwell, who was in command for the first year of the campaign, was responsible for the atrocities is debated to this day. Some historians argue that the actions of Cromwell were within the rules of war, or were exaggerated or distorted by later propagandists. The impact of the war on the Irish population was unquestionably severe, the war resulted in famine, which was worsened by an outbreak of bubonic plague. Estimates of the drop in the Irish population resulting from the Parliamentarian campaign range from 15 to 83 percent, the Parliamentarians also transported about 50,000 people as indentured labourers. The English Rump Parliament, victorious in the English Civil War, an alliance was signed in 1649 between the Irish Confederate Catholics, Charles II and the English Royalists. This allowed for Royalist troops to be sent to Ireland and put the Irish Confederate Catholic troops under the command of Royalist officers led by James Butler and their aim was to invade England and restore the monarchy there. This was a threat which the new English Commonwealth could not afford to ignore, even if the Confederates had not allied themselves with the Royalists, it is likely that the English Parliament would have eventually tried to reconquer Ireland. They had sent Parliamentary forces to Ireland throughout the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and they viewed Ireland as part of the territory governed by right by the Kingdom of England and only temporarily out of its control since the Irish Rebellion of 1641. In addition many Parliamentarians wished to punish the Irish for atrocities against English Protestant settlers during the 1641 Uprising, some Irish towns had acted as bases from which privateers had attacked English shipping during the 1640s. Parliament had raised loans of £10 million under the Adventurers Act to subdue Ireland since 1642, to repay these creditors, it would be necessary to conquer Ireland and confiscate such land. Army mutinies at Banbury and Bishopsgate in April and May 1649 were unsettling, Cromwell and many of his army were Puritans who considered all Roman Catholics to be heretics, and so for them the conquest was partly a crusade. The Irish Confederates had been supplied with arms and money by the Papacy and had welcomed the papal legate Pierfrancesco Scarampi and later the Papal Nuncio Giovanni Battista Rinuccini in 1643–49. By the end of the period, known as Confederate Ireland, in 1649 the only remaining Parliamentarian outpost in Ireland was in Dublin, under the command of Colonel Michael Jones. A combined Royalist and Confederate force under the Marquess of Ormonde gathered at Rathmines, south of Dublin, to take the city, Jones, however, launched a surprise attack on the Royalists while they were deploying on 2 August, putting them to flight
28.
Viceroy
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A viceroy /ˈvaɪs. rɔɪ/ is a regal official who runs a country, colony, city, province, or sub-national state, in the name of and as the representative of the monarch of the territory. The term derives from the Latin prefix vice-, meaning in the place of, a viceroys territory may be called a viceroyalty, though this term is not always applied. The adjectival form is viceregal, less often viceroyal, the term vicereine is sometimes used to indicate a female viceroy suo jure, although viceroy can serve as a gender-neutral term. Vicereine is more used to indicate a viceroys wife. The title was used by the Crown of Aragon, where beginning in the 14th century, it referred to the Spanish governors of Sardinia. In Europe, until the 18th century, the Habsburg crown appointed viceroys of Aragon, Valencia, Catalonia, Navarre, Portugal, Sardinia, Sicily, with the ascension of the House of Bourbon to the Spanish throne, the historic Aragonese viceroyalties were replaced by new captaincies general. At the end of War of the Spanish Succession, the Spanish monarchy was shorn of its Italian possessions and these Italian territories, however, continued to have viceroys under their new rulers for some time, Sardinia would have a viceroy until 1848. These large administrative territories became known as Viceroyalties, New viceroyalties were created for New Granada in 1717 and the Río de la Plata in 1776. These units gathered the local provinces which could be governed by either a crown official, audiencias primarily functioned as superior judicial tribunals, but unlike their European counterparts, the New World audiencias were granted by law both administrative and legislative powers. The Bourbon Reforms introduced the new office of the intendant, which was appointed directly by the crown and had broad fiscal and administrative powers in political and military issues. The government started six years after the discovery of sea route to India by Vasco da Gama, in 1505, however the post was centered by governor Afonso de Albuquerque, who became plenipotentiary, and remained so. The duration in office was three years, possibly longer, given the power represented, of the thirty-four governors of India in the 16th century. After the end of the Iberian Union in 1640, the governors of Brazil that were members of the Portuguese high nobility started to use the title of Viceroy. Brazil became a permanent Viceroyalty in 1763, when the capital of the State of Brazil was transferred from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro, the designation Viceroy, although it was most frequently used in ordinary parlance, had no statutory authority, and was never employed by Parliament. The Governor-General continued to be the representative of the Crown. The viceroys reported directly to the Secretary of State for India in London and were advised by the Council of India, alongside the Commander-in-Chief, India, the viceroy was the public face of the British presence in India, attending to many ceremonial functions as well as political affairs. During the offices history, the Governors-General of India were based in two cities, Calcutta during the 19th century and New Delhi during the 20th century, additionally, whilst Calcutta was the capital of British India, the viceroys spent the summer months at Simla. The two historic residences of the viceroys still stand, the Viceroys House in New Delhi and Government House in Calcutta and they are used today as the official residences of the President of India and the Governor of West Bengal, respectively
29.
Ulster
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Ulster is a province in the north of the island of Ireland. In ancient Ireland, it was one of the fifths ruled by a rí ruirech, the definition of the province was fluid from early to medieval times. It took a shape in the reign of King James I of England when all the counties of Ireland were eventually shired. This process of evolving conquest had been under way since the Norman invasion of Ireland, particularly as advanced by the Cambro-Norman magnates Hugh de Lacy, Ulster was a central topic role in the parliamentary debates that eventually resulted in the Government of Ireland Act 1920. Under the terms of the Act, Ireland was divided into two territories, Southern Ireland and Northern Ireland, with the passing through the province. While these six counties and two boroughs were all in the province of Ulster, three other counties of the province – Cavan, Donegal and Monaghan – were assigned to the Irish Free State. Ulster has no function for local government purposes in either country. However, for the purposes of ISO-3166-2, Ulster is used to refer to the three counties of Cavan, Donegal and Monaghan only, which are given country sub-division code IE-U. It has also suggested to have derived from Uladh plus the Norse suffix ster. The Irish name, Cúige Uladh, means the province of the Ulaid, the Ulaidh were a group of tribes who dwelt in the region. Ulaidh has historically been anglicised as Ulagh or Ullagh and Latinised as Ulidia or Ultonia, the latter two have yielded the terms Ulidian and Ultonian. Words that have used in English are Ullish and Ulsterman/Ulsterwoman. Northern Ireland is often referred to as Ulster, despite including only six of Ulsters nine counties and this usage is most common amongst people in Northern Ireland who are unionist, although it is also used by the media throughout the United Kingdom. Most Irish nationalists object to the use of Ulster in this context, Ulster has a population of just over 2 million people and an area of 21,552 square kilometres. About 62% of the area of Ulster is in the UK while the remaining 38% is in the Republic of Ireland. Ulsters biggest city, Belfast, has an population of over half a million inhabitants, making it the second-largest city on the island of Ireland. Three Ulster counties – Cavan, Donegal and Monaghan – form part of the Republic of Ireland, about half of Ulsters population lives in counties Antrim and Down. 8% to 42. 7%. While the traditional counties continue to demarcate areas of government in the Republic of Ireland
30.
Plantation of Ulster
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The Plantation of Ulster was the organised colonisation of Ulster – a province of Ireland – by people from Great Britain during the reign of King James I. Most of the came from Scotland and England. Small private plantation by wealthy landowners began in 1606, while the plantation began in 1609. Most of counties Antrim and Down were privately colonised, colonising Ulster with loyal settlers was seen as a way to prevent further rebellion, as it had been the region most resistant to English control during the preceding century. King James wanted the Plantation to be an enterprise that would settle Protestants in Ulster. The Lord Deputy of Ireland, Arthur Chichester, also saw the Plantation as a scheme to anglicise the Irish, accordingly, the colonists were required to be English-speaking and Protestant. Some of the undertakers and colonists however were Catholic and it has suggested that a significant number of the Scots spoke Gaelic. The Scottish colonists were mostly Presbyterian and the English mostly members of the Church of England, the Plantation of Ulster was the biggest of the Plantations of Ireland. Prior to its conquest in the Nine Years War of the 1590s, Ulster had been the most Gaelic part of Ireland, the area was underdeveloped by mainland European standards of the time, and it possessed few towns or villages. Throughout the 16th century, Ulster was viewed by the English as being underpopulated and undeveloped, an early attempt at plantation of the north of Ireland in the 1570s on the east coast of Ulster by Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex, had failed. Many of the Gaelic Irish lived by creaghting and, as a result, the wars fought among Gaelic clans and between the Gaelic and English undoubtedly contributed to depopulation. By 1600 Ulsters total adult population according to Perceval-Maxwell was only 25,000 to 40,000 people. The 16th century English conquest of Ireland was made piece by piece starting in the reign of Henry VIII, during these wars the force of the semi-independent chieftains was broken. The Nine Years War of 1594–1603 provided the background to the Plantation. A confederation of northern Gaelic Chieftains, led by Hugh ONeill, the terms of surrender granted to the rebels were generous, with the principal condition that lands formerly contested by feudal right and Brehon law be held under English law. This would have included grants of land to native Irish lords who had sided with the English during the war. However, the plan was interrupted by the rebellion in 1608 of Sir Cahir ODoherty of Inishowen, the brief rebellion was suppressed by Sir Richard Wingfield at the Battle of Kilmacrennan. After ODohertys death his lands in Inishowen were granted out by the state and this episode prompted Chichester to expand his plans to expropriate the legal titles of all native landowners in the province
31.
Enniskillen
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Enniskillen is a town and civil parish in County Fermanagh, Northern Ireland. It is located almost exactly in the centre of the county and it had a population of 13,599 at the 2001 census. It was the seat of government for the former Fermanagh District Council. The towns name comes from the Irish, Inis Ceithleann and this refers to Cethlenn, a figure in Irish mythology who may have been a goddess. It has been anglicised many ways over the centuries – Iniskellen, Iniskellin, Iniskillin, Iniskillen, Inishkellen, Inishkellin, Inishkillin, Inishkillen, the towns oldest building is Enniskillen Castle, built by Hugh the Hospitable who died in 1428. An earthwork, the Skonce on the shore of Lough Erne, the castle was the stronghold of the junior branch of the Maguires. The first watergate was built around 1580 by Cú Chonnacht Maguire, the strategic position of the castle made its capture important for the English in 1593, to support their plans for the control of Ulster, this was achieved by a Captain Dowdall in February 1594. Maguire then laid siege to it, and defeated a force at the Battle of the Ford of the Biscuits at Drumane Bridge on the Arney River. Although the defenders were relieved, Maguire gained possession of the castle from 1595 to 1598, the Maguires were supplanted by William Cole, originally from Devon, who was appointed by James I to build an English settlement there. Captain Cole was installed as Constable and strengthened the castle wall, the first Protestant parish church was erected on the hilltop in 1627. The Royal Free School of Fermanagh was moved onto the island in 1643, the first bridges were drawbridges, permanent bridges were not installed before 1688. By 1689 the town had grown significantly, Enniskillen and Derry were the two garrisons in Ulster that were not wholly loyal to James II, and it was the last town to fall before the siege of Derry. As a direct result of conflict, Enniskillen developed not only as a market town but also as a garrison. The current site of Fermanagh College was the former Enniskillen Gaol, many people were tried and hanged here in the square during the times of public execution. Part of the old Gaol is still used by the college, Enniskillen is the site of the foundation of two British Army regiments, Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers The Inniskillings The towns name continues to form part of the title to The Royal Irish Regiment. Enniskillen was the site of events during The Troubles, the most notable being the Remembrance Day bombing in which 11 people were killed. The Irish singer/songwriter Tommy Makem wrote a song about the town, covered by The Clancy Brothers and Tommy Makem. The Chieftains sing a song that mentions Enniskillen titled North Amerikay, the recording reached No.1 in the UK Charts, Ireland and several other countries in 1989
32.
Alexander MacDonnell, 3rd Earl of Antrim
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Alexander MacDonnell, 3rd Earl of Antrim was a Roman Catholic peer and military commander in Ireland. He was the son of Randal MacDonnell, 1st Earl of Antrim and his wife, when the first Earl died in 1636 his estate was divided, with the larger share and Dunluce Castle going to the elder brother Randal while Alexander inherited Glenarm Castle and nearby lands. After coming of age, MacDonnell spend three years abroad in Europe before returning to Ireland just before the outbreak of the Irish Rebellion of 1641, MacDonnell was commander of a regiment of Irish against Cromwell in 1641, and soon took his place among the Irish leadership. Unlike his brother, Randal, he urged a conciliatory approach to the English under Oliver Cromwell and he remained in command of a regiment until the Confederation surrendered to Cromwell in 1652. His lands were confiscated and distributed amongst Cromwellian soldiers, by 1656, MacDonnell was living in England, and at Restoration was restored to his lands. In 1680, MacDonnell was appointed custos rotulorum for Antrim, and he was invested as a Privy Counsellor and Lord-Lieutenant of Antrim shortly after the accession of King James II, as the King followed a policy of replacing Protestants with Catholics across Ireland. At the outbreak of the Glorious Revolution, MacDonnell adhered to James, on Jamess defeat, MacDonnells lands and titles were, again, declared forfeit. In 1697 he was restored to his title, MacDonnells residence was at Glenarm Castle on the County Antrim coast. He married, firstly, Lady Elizabeth Annesley, daughter of Arthur Annesley and he married, secondly, Helena Burke, daughter of Sir John Burke of Derrymaclachtney, after 1672. They had one son, Randal, and one daughter, Mary, civil War and Restoration in the Three Stuart Kingdoms, The Career of Randal MacDonnell, Marquis of Antrim. An Historical Account of the MacDonnells of Antrim
33.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
34.
Louis XIV of France
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Louis XIV, known as Louis the Great or the Sun King, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1643 until his death in 1715. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of any monarch of a country in European history. In the age of absolutism in Europe, Louis XIVs France was a leader in the centralization of power. Louis began his rule of France in 1661, after the death of his chief minister. By these means he became one of the most powerful French monarchs, under his rule, the Edict of Nantes, which granted rights to Huguenots, was abolished. The revocation effectively forced Huguenots to emigrate or convert in a wave of dragonnades, which managed to virtually destroy the French Protestant minority. During Louis reign, France was the leading European power, and it fought three wars, the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg. There were also two lesser conflicts, the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions, warfare defined Louis XIVs foreign policies, and his personality shaped his approach. Impelled by a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique, in peacetime he concentrated on preparing for the next war. He taught his diplomats their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the French military, Louis XIV was born on 5 September 1638 in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, to Louis XIII and Anne of Austria. He was named Louis Dieudonné and bore the title of French heirs apparent. At the time of his birth, his parents had married for 23 years. His mother had experienced four stillbirths between 1619 and 1631, leading contemporaries thus regarded him as a divine gift and his birth a miracle of God. Sensing imminent death, Louis XIII decided to put his affairs in order in the spring of 1643, in defiance of custom, which would have made Queen Anne the sole Regent of France, the king decreed that a regency council would rule on his sons behalf. His lack of faith in Queen Annes political abilities was his primary rationale and he did, however, make the concession of appointing her head of the council. Louis relationship with his mother was uncommonly affectionate for the time, contemporaries and eyewitnesses claimed that the Queen would spend all her time with Louis. Both were greatly interested in food and theatre, and it is likely that Louis developed these interests through his close relationship with his mother. This long-lasting and loving relationship can be evidenced by excerpts in Louis journal entries, such as, but attachments formed later by shared qualities of the spirit are far more difficult to break than those formed merely by blood
35.
Kinsale
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Kinsale is a historic port and fishing town in County Cork, Ireland, which also has significant military history. Kinsale is in the Cork South–West constituency, which has five seats, Kinsale is a popular holiday resort for Irish and overseas tourists. Leisure activities include yachting, sea angling, and golf, the town also has several art galleries and a school of English. The town is compact with a quaint air of antiquity in the narrow streets, there is a large yachting marina close to the town centre. The town is known for its restaurants, and holds an annual Gourmet Festival, chef Keith Floyd was previously a resident of Kinsale. The towns Community School has been awarded the Best School in the Republic of Ireland twice, including at the BT Young Scientist Exhibition in 2014. Prominent historical buildings in the town include St. Multoses church of 1190, St. John the Baptist of 1839, the Market House of c.1600, Charles Fort, a partly restored star fort of 1677, is in nearby Summercove. On 8 October 2005, Kinsale became Irelands second Fair Trade Town, in 1333, under a charter granted by King Edward III of England, the Corporation of Kinsale was established to undertake local government in the town. It returned two members to the Irish House of Commons prior to its abolition in 1800, in its history, Kinsale has also important occasional links with Spain. In 1518 Archduke Ferdinand, later Emperor Ferdinand I, paid a visit to the town. In 1601 a Spanish military expedition - the last of the Armadas - landed in Kinsale, shortly after the battle, Jamess Fort was built to protect the harbour. Charles Fort, located at Summer Cove and dating from 1677 in the reign of Charles II, is a bastion-fort that guards the entrance to Kinsale harbour. It was built to protect the area and specifically the harbour from use by the French, Jamess Fort, which dates from the reign of James I, is located on the other side of the cove, on the Castlepark peninsula. An underwater chain used to be strung between the two forts across the mouth during times of war to scuttle enemy shipping by ripping the bottoms out of incoming vessels. Kinsales naval significance declined after the Royal Navy moved its centre from Kinsale to Cork harbour in 1805 during the Napoleonic Wars in the period of Frances First Empire. A statue in the harbour commemorates the effort, the Lusitania memorial is at Casement Square in Cobh, to the east of Cork city. The station, inconveniently located for the town and harbour, was on Barrack Hill, bus Éireann provides Kinsales primary means of public transport. Buses regularly operate from Kinsale to Cork City, with most of these stopping at Cork Airport on the way, Kinsale and Bandon are linked by public transport with a bus service provided by East Cork Rural Transport
36.
Dublin
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Dublin is the capital and largest city of Ireland. Dublin is in the province of Leinster on Irelands east coast, the city has an urban area population of 1,345,402. The population of the Greater Dublin Area, as of 2016, was 1,904,806 people, founded as a Viking settlement, the Kingdom of Dublin became Irelands principal city following the Norman invasion. The city expanded rapidly from the 17th century and was briefly the second largest city in the British Empire before the Acts of Union in 1800, following the partition of Ireland in 1922, Dublin became the capital of the Irish Free State, later renamed Ireland. Dublin is administered by a City Council, the city is listed by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network as a global city, with a ranking of Alpha-, which places it amongst the top thirty cities in the world. It is a historical and contemporary centre for education, the arts, administration, economy, the name Dublin comes from the Irish word Dubhlinn, early Classical Irish Dubhlind/Duibhlind, dubh /d̪uβ/, alt. /d̪uw/, alt /d̪u, / meaning black, dark, and lind /lʲiɲ pool and this tidal pool was located where the River Poddle entered the Liffey, on the site of the castle gardens at the rear of Dublin Castle. In Modern Irish the name is Duibhlinn, and Irish rhymes from Dublin County show that in Dublin Leinster Irish it was pronounced Duílinn /d̪ˠi, other localities in Ireland also bear the name Duibhlinn, variously anglicized as Devlin, Divlin and Difflin. Historically, scribes using the Gaelic script wrote bh with a dot over the b and those without knowledge of Irish omitted the dot, spelling the name as Dublin. Variations on the name are found in traditionally Irish-speaking areas of Scotland, such as An Linne Dhubh. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. Baile Átha Cliath, meaning town of the ford, is the common name for the city in modern Irish. Áth Cliath is a name referring to a fording point of the River Liffey near Father Mathew Bridge. Baile Átha Cliath was an early Christian monastery, believed to have been in the area of Aungier Street, there are other towns of the same name, such as Àth Cliath in East Ayrshire, Scotland, which is Anglicised as Hurlford. Although the area of Dublin Bay has been inhabited by humans since prehistoric times and he called the settlement Eblana polis. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. The subsequent Scandinavian settlement centred on the River Poddle, a tributary of the Liffey in an area now known as Wood Quay, the Dubhlinn was a small lake used to moor ships, the Poddle connected the lake with the Liffey. This lake was covered during the early 18th century as the city grew, the Dubhlinn lay where the Castle Garden is now located, opposite the Chester Beatty Library in Dublin Castle
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