1.
Embryology
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Embryology is the branch of biology that studies the prenatal development of gametes, fertilization, and development of embryos and fetuses. Additionally, embryology encompasses the study of disorders that occur before birth. After cleavage, the cells, or morula, becomes a hollow ball, or blastula. In bilateral animals, the blastula develops in one of two ways that divides the whole animal kingdom into two halves. If in the blastula the first pore becomes the mouth of the animal, it is a protostome, the protostomes include most invertebrate animals, such as insects, worms and molluscs, while the deuterostomes include the vertebrates. In due course, the changes into a more differentiated structure called the gastrula. The middle layer, or mesoderm, gives rise to the muscles, skeleton if any, the outer layer of cells, or ectoderm, gives rise to the nervous system, including the brain, and skin or carapace and hair, bristles, or scales. Embryos in many species appear similar to one another in early developmental stages. The reason for this similarity is because species have an evolutionary history. These similarities among species are called homologous structures, which are structures that have the same or similar function and mechanism, Drosophila melanogaster, a fruit fly, is a model organism in biology on which much research into embryology has been done. Before fertilization, the female produces an abundance of mRNA - transcribed from the genes that encode bicoid protein. These mRNA molecules are stored to be used later in what become the developing embryo. The male and female Drosophila gametes exhibit anisogamy, the female gamete is larger than the male gamete because it harbors more cytoplasm and, within the cytoplasm, the female gamete contains an abundance of the mRNA previously mentioned. At fertilization, the male and female gametes fuse and then the nucleus of the male gamete fuses with the nucleus of the female gamete, note that before the gametes nuclei fuse, they are known as pronuclei. A series of nuclear divisions will occur without cytokinesis in the zygote to form a cell known as a syncytium. All the nuclei in the syncytium are identical, just as all the nuclei in every cell of any multicellular organism are identical in terms of the DNA sequence of the genome. Before the nuclei can differentiate in transcriptional activity, the embryo must be divided into segments, in each segment, a unique set of regulatory proteins will cause specific genes in the nuclei to be transcribed. The resulting combination of proteins will transform clusters of cells into early embryo tissues that will develop into multiple fetal
2.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
3.
Anatomical terminology
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Anatomical terminology is a form of scientific terminology used by anatomists, zoologists, and health professionals such as doctors. Anatomical terminology uses many terms, suffixes, and prefixes deriving from Ancient Greek. These terms can be confusing to those unfamiliar with them, but can be more precise reducing ambiguity, also, since these anatomical terms are not used in everyday conversation, their meanings are less likely to change, and less likely to be misinterpreted. By using precise anatomical terminology such ambiguity is eliminated, an international standard for anatomical terminology, Terminologia Anatomica has been created. Anatomical terminology has quite regular morphology, the prefixes and suffixes are used to add meanings to different roots. The root of a term refers to an organ, tissue. For example, in the disorder hypertension, the prefix hyper- means high or over, the roots, prefixes and suffixes are often derived from Greek or Latin, and often quite dissimilar from their English-language variants. Latin names of such as musculus biceps brachii can be split up and refer to, musculus for muscle, biceps for two-headed. The first word tells us what we are speaking about, the second describes it, when describing the position of anatomical structures, structures may be described according to the anatomical landmark they are near. These landmarks may include structures, such as the umbilicus or sternum, or anatomical lines, the cephalon or cephalic region refers to the head. This area is differentiated into the cranium, facies, frons, oculus, auris, bucca, nausus, oris. The neck area is called the cervicis or cervical region, examples of structures named according to this include the frontalis muscle, submental lymph nodes, buccal membrane and orbicularis oculi muscle. Sometimes, unique terminology is used to reduce confusion in different parts of the body, for example, different terms are used when it comes to the skull in compliance with its embryonic origin and its tilted position compared to in other animals. Here, Rostral refers to proximity to the front of the nose, similarly, in the arms, different terminology is often used in the arms, in part to reduce ambiguity as what is the front, back, inner and outer surfaces. For this reason, the terms below are used, Radial referring to the radius bone, ulnar referring to the ulna bone, medially positioned when in the standard anatomical position. Other terms are used to describe the movement and actions of the hands and feet. International morphological terminology is used by the colleges of medicine and dentistry and it facilitates communication and exchanges between scientists from different countries of the world and it is used daily in the fields of research, teaching and medical care. The international morphological terminology refers to morphological sciences as a biological sciences branch, in this field, the form and structure are examined as well as the changes or developments in the organism
4.
Outline of human anatomy
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The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to human anatomy, Human anatomy – scientific study of the morphology of the adult human. It is subdivided into gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy, gross anatomy is the study of anatomical structures that can be seen by unaided vision. Microscopic anatomy is the study of anatomical structures assisted with microscopes, and includes histology. While the order is standardized, the relationships in the TA are somewhat vague. John Hunter William Hunter Jean Baptiste Paulin Trolard Juan Valverde de Amusco Jeffrey Laitman Eber Landau Joseph Lieutaud Amato Lusitano Niko Miljanić Keith L. 20th edition
5.
Gland
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A gland is an organ in an animals body that synthesizes substances for release into the bloodstream or into cavities inside the body or its outer surface. Every gland is formed by an ingrowth from an epithelial surface and this ingrowth may in the beginning possess a tubular structure, but in other instances glands may start as a solid column of cells which subsequently becomes tubulated. As growth proceeds, the column of cells may divide or give off offshoots, in many glands, the number of branches is limited, in others a very large structure is finally formed by repeated growth and sub-division. As a rule, the branches do not unite with one another, but in one instance, the liver, glands are classified according to their shape. If the gland retains its shape as a tube throughout it is termed a tubular gland, in the second main variety of gland the secretory portion is enlarged and the lumen variously increased in size. These are termed alveolar or saccular glands, glands are divided based on their function into two groups, Endocrine glands secrete substances that circulate through the blood stream. These glands that secrete their products through the basal lamina into the blood stream and these glands often secrete hormones, and play an important role in maintaining homeostasis. The pineal gland, thymus gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, exocrine glands secrete their products through a duct onto an outer surface of the body, such as the skin or the gastrointestinal tract. Secretion is directly onto the apical surface, the glands in this group can be divided into three groups, Apocrine glands a portion of the secreting cells body is lost during secretion. E. g. mammary gland, sweat gland of arm pit, pubic region, skin around anus, lips, holocrine glands the entire cell disintegrates to secrete its substances, meibomian and zeis glands. Merocrine glands cells secrete their substances by exocytosis, E. g. max sweat gland of humans, goblet cells, salivary gland, tear gland, intestinal glands. The type of product of exocrine glands may also be one of three categories, Serous glands secrete a watery, often protein-rich, fluid-like product, e. g. sweat glands. Mucous glands secrete a viscous product, rich in carbohydrates, e. g. goblet cells, sebaceous glands secrete a lipid product. These glands are known as oil glands, e. g. Fordyce spots. Adenosis is any disease of a gland, the diseased gland has abnormal formation or development of glandular tissue which is sometimes tumorous. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
6.
Anatomical terms of location
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Standard anatomical terms of location deal unambiguously with the anatomy of animals, including humans. All vertebrates have the basic body plan – they are strictly bilaterally symmetrical in early embryonic stages. That is, they have left and right halves if divided down the centre. For these reasons, the directional terms can be considered to be those used in vertebrates. By extension, the terms are used for many other organisms as well. While these terms are standardized within specific fields of biology, there are unavoidable, sometimes dramatic, for example, differences in terminology remain a problem that, to some extent, still separates the terminology of human anatomy from that used in the study of various other zoological categories. The vertebrates and Craniata share a heritage and common structure. To avoid ambiguities this terminology is based on the anatomy of each animal in a standard way, for humans, one type of vertebrate, anatomical terms may differ from other forms of vertebrates. Thus what is on top of a human is the head, whereas the top of a dog may be its back, for example, many species are not even bilaterally symmetrical. In these species, terminology depends on their type of symmetry, all descriptions are with respect to the organism in its standard anatomical position, even when the organism in question has appendages in another position. This helps avoid confusion in terminology when referring to the organism in different postures. In humans, this refers to the body in a position with arms at the side. While the universal vertebrate terminology used in medicine would work in human medicine. Many anatomical terms can be combined, either to indicate a position in two axes simultaneously or to indicate the direction of a movement relative to the body, for example, anterolateral indicates a position that is both anterior and lateral to the body axis. There is no limit to the contexts in which terms may be modified to qualify each other in such combinations. Generally the modifier term is truncated and an o or an i is added in prefixing it to the qualified term, where desirable three or more terms may be agglutinated or concatenated, as in anteriodorsolateral. Such terms sometimes used to be hyphenated, but the tendency is to omit the hyphen. There is however little basis for any rule to interfere with choice of convenience in such usage
7.
G-spot
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It is typically reported to be located 5–8 cm up the front vaginal wall between the vaginal opening and the urethra and is a sensitive area that may be part of the female prostate. The existence of the G-spot has not been proven, nor has the source of female ejaculation, although the G-spot has been studied since the 1940s, disagreement persists over its existence as a distinct structure, definition and location. A2009 British study concluded that its existence is unproven and subjective, based on questionnaires, other studies, using ultrasound, have found physiological evidence of the G-spot in women who report having orgasms during vaginal intercourse. It is also hypothesized that the G-spot is an extension of the clitoris, sexologists and other researchers are concerned that women may consider themselves to be dysfunctional if they do not experience G-spot stimulation, and emphasize that this is not abnormal. Ultrasound technology has also used to identify physiological differences between women and changes to the G-spot region during sexual activity. The location of the G-spot is typically reported as being about 50 to 80 mm inside the vagina, for some women, stimulating this area creates a more intense orgasm than clitoral stimulation. The G-spot area has been described as needing direct stimulation, such as two fingers pressed deeply into it, attempting to stimulate the area through sexual penetration, especially in the missionary position, is difficult because of the particular angle of penetration required. Women usually need direct clitoral stimulation in order to orgasm, sex toys are available for G-spot stimulation. One common sex toy is the specially-designed G-spot vibrator, which is a vibrator that has a curved tip. G-spot vibrators are made from the materials as regular vibrators, ranging from hard plastic, rubber, silicone, jelly. The level of vaginal penetration when using a G-spot vibrator depends on the woman, in a 1990 study, an anonymous questionnaire was distributed to 2,350 professional women in the United States and Canada with a subsequent 55% return rate. Of these respondents, 40% reported having a release at the moment of orgasm. Several variables were associated with this existence of female ejaculation. Some research suggests that G-spot and clitoral orgasms are of the same origin, Masters and Johnson were the first to determine that the clitoral structures surround and extend along and within the labia. On this basis, Masters and Johnson argued that clitoral stimulation is the source of both kinds of orgasms, reasoning that the clitoris is stimulated during penetration by friction against its hood. The researchers believe these findings make it possible for women to have a rapid test to confirm whether or not they have a G-spot. Supporting Spectors conclusion is a study published in 2005 which investigates the size of the clitoris – it suggests that clitoral tissue extends into the wall of the vagina. The vaginal wall is, in fact, the clitoris, said OConnell, if you lift the skin off the vagina on the side walls, you get the bulbs of the clitoris – triangular, crescental masses of erectile tissue
8.
Blood
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Blood is a body fluid in humans and other animals that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells. In vertebrates, it is composed of blood cells suspended in blood plasma, plasma, which constitutes 55% of blood fluid, is mostly water, and contains dissipated proteins, glucose, mineral ions, hormones, carbon dioxide, and blood cells themselves. Albumin is the protein in plasma, and it functions to regulate the colloidal osmotic pressure of blood. The blood cells are red blood cells, white blood cells. The most abundant cells in blood are red blood cells. These contain hemoglobin, a protein, which facilitates oxygen transport by reversibly binding to this respiratory gas. In contrast, carbon dioxide is mostly transported extracellularly as bicarbonate ion transported in plasma, vertebrate blood is bright red when its hemoglobin is oxygenated and dark red when it is deoxygenated. Some animals, such as crustaceans and mollusks, use hemocyanin to carry oxygen, insects and some mollusks use a fluid called hemolymph instead of blood, the difference being that hemolymph is not contained in a closed circulatory system. In most insects, this blood does not contain oxygen-carrying molecules such as hemoglobin because their bodies are small enough for their system to suffice for supplying oxygen. Jawed vertebrates have an immune system, based largely on white blood cells. White blood cells help to resist infections and parasites, platelets are important in the clotting of blood. Arthropods, using hemolymph, have hemocytes as part of their immune system, Blood is circulated around the body through blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart. Medical terms related to blood often begin with hemo- or hemato- from the Greek word αἷμα for blood. In terms of anatomy and histology, blood is considered a form of connective tissue, given its origin in the bones. The average adult has a volume of roughly 5 litres. These blood cells consist of erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes, by volume, the red blood cells constitute about 45% of whole blood, the plasma about 54. 3%, and white cells about 0. 7%. Whole blood exhibits non-Newtonian fluid dynamics, if all human hemoglobin were free in the plasma rather than being contained in RBCs, the circulatory fluid would be too viscous for the cardiovascular system to function effectively. One microliter of blood contains,4.7 to 6.1 million,4.2 to 5.4 million erythrocytes, Red blood cells contain the bloods hemoglobin, mature red blood cells lack a nucleus and organelles in mammals
9.
Female ejaculation
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Female ejaculation is the expulsion of fluid by the paraurethral ducts through and around the human female urethra during or before an orgasm. It is also known colloquially as squirting or gushing, although these are considered to be different phenomena in some research publications. The exact source and nature of the continue to be a topic of debate among medical professionals. In questionnaire surveys, 35–50% of women report that they have at some time experienced the gushing of fluid during orgasm, Other studies find anywhere from 10–69%, depending on the definitions and methods used. For instance Kratochvíl surveyed 200 women and found that 6% reported ejaculating, reports on the volume of fluid expelled vary considerably starting from amounts that would be imperceptible to a woman, to mean values of 1–5 ml. Female ejaculation has been discussed in anatomical, medical, and biological literature throughout recorded history, the reasons for the interest in female ejaculation has been questioned by feminist writers. In the 16th century, the Dutch physician Laevinius Lemnius, referred to how a woman draws forth the mans seed and casts her own with it. In the 17th century, François Mauriceau described glands at the urethral meatus that pour out great quantities of liquor during coition. This century saw an increasing understanding of female anatomy and function. De Graaf discussed the controversy but supported the Aristotelian view. He identified the source as the structures and ducts surrounding the urethra. The urethra is lined by a thin membrane, in the lower part, near the outlet of the urinary passage, this membrane is pierced by large ducts, or lacunae, through which pituito-serous matter occasionally discharges in considerable quantities. The substance could be called quite aptly the female prostatae or corpus glandulosum, further on he refers to liquid as usually comes from the pudenda in one gush. However, his purpose was to distinguish between generative fluid and pleasurable fluid, in his stand on the Aristotelian semen controversy. An abnormal secretion of the membrane of the vagina is looked upon as source of disgust. However, womens writing of that time portrayed this in positive terms. Thus we find Almeda Sperry writing to Emma Goldman in 1918, Female ejaculation is mentioned as normal in early 20th century marriage manuals, such as TH Van de Veldes Ideal Marriage, Its Physiology and Technique. Certainly van de Velde was well aware of the experiences of women
10.
Homology (biology)
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In biology, homology is the existence of shared ancestry between a pair of structures, or genes, in different taxa. Evolutionary biology explains homologous structures adapted to different purposes as the result of descent with modification from a common ancestor, examples include the legs of a centipede, the maxillary palp and labial palp of an insect, and the spinous processes of successive vertebrae in a vertebral column. Sequence homology between protein or DNA sequences is defined in terms of shared ancestry. Two segments of DNA can have shared ancestry because of either an event or a duplication event. Homology among proteins or DNA is inferred from their sequence similarity, significant similarity is strong evidence that two sequences are related by divergent evolution from a common ancestor. Alignments of multiple sequences are used to discover the homologous regions, the word homology, coined in about 1656, derives from the Greek ὁμόλογος homologos from ὁμός homos same and λόγος logos relation. Homology is the relationship between biological structures or sequences that are derived from a common ancestor, for example, many insects possess two pairs of flying wings. In beetles, the first pair of wings has evolved into a pair of hard wing covers, the same major forearm bones are found in fossils of lobe-finned fish such as Eusthenopteron. The opposite of homologous organs are analogous organs which do similar jobs in two taxa that were not present in their last common ancestor but rather evolved separately. For example, the wings of insects and birds evolved independently in widely separated groups, similarly, the wings of a sycamore maple seed and the wings of a bird are analogous but not homologous, as they develop from quite different structures. A structure can be homologous at one level, but only analogous at another, for example, in the pterosaurs, the wing involves both the forelimb and the hindlimb. Analogy is called homoplasy in cladistics, and convergent or parallel evolution in evolutionary biology, specialised terms are used in taxonomic research. Primary homology is that initially conjectured by a researcher based on similar structure or anatomical connections, secondary homology is implied by parsimony analysis, where a character that only occurs once on a tree is taken to be homologous. As implied in this definition, many cladists consider homology to be synonymous with synapomorphy, homologies provide the fundamental basis for all biological classification, although some may be highly counter-intuitive. The homologies between these have been discovered by comparing genes in evolutionary developmental biology, among insects, the stinger of the female honey bee is a modified ovipositor, homologous with ovipositors in other insects such as the Orthoptera, Hemiptera, and those Hymenoptera without stingers. The three small bones in the ear of mammals including humans, the malleus, incus. The malleus and incus develop in the embryo from structures that form jaw bones in lizards, both lines of evidence show that these bones are homologous, sharing a common ancestor. Among the many homologies in mammal reproductive systems, ovaries and testicles are homologous, in many plants, defensive or storage structures are made by modifications of the development of primary leaves, stems, and roots
11.
Histology
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Histology is the study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues of plants and animals. It is commonly performed by examining cells and tissues under a microscope or electron microscope, the specimen having been sectioned, stained. Histological studies may be conducted using tissue culture, where human or animal cells are isolated and maintained in an artificial environment for various research projects. The ability to visualize or differentially identify microscopic structures is frequently enhanced through the use of histological stains, histology is an essential tool of biology and medicine. Trained physicians, frequently licensed pathologists, are the personnel who perform histopathological examination and their field of study is called histotechnology. In the 17th century, Italian Marcello Malpighi invented one of the first microscopes for studying tiny biological entities, Malpighi analysed several parts of the organs of bats, frogs and other animals under the microscope. Malpighi, while studying the structure of the lung, noticed its membranous alveoli and his discovery established how the oxygen we breathe enters the blood stream and serves the body. In the 19th century, histology was a discipline in its own right. The French anatomist Bichat introduced the concept of tissue in anatomy in 1801, the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to histologists Camillo Golgi and Santiago Ramon y Cajal. They had dueling interpretations of the structure of the brain based in differing interpretations of the same images. Cajal won the prize for his theory and Golgi for the staining technique he invented to make it possible. There are four types of animal tissues, muscle tissue, nervous tissue, connective tissue. All tissue types are subtypes of these four basic tissue types and their structure is very different from animal tissues. The most common fixative for light microscopy is 10% neutral buffered formalin, for electron microscopy, the most commonly used fixative is glutaraldehyde, usually as a 2. 5% solution in phosphate buffered saline. These fixatives preserve tissues or cells mainly by irreversibly cross-linking proteins and this can be detrimental to certain histological techniques. Further fixatives are often used for electron microscopy such as osmium tetroxide or uranyl acetate Formalin fixation leads to degradation of mRNA, miRNA and DNA in tissues, however, extraction, amplification and analysis of these nucleic acids from formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissues is possible using appropriate protocols. Frozen section procedure is a way to fix and mount histology sections using a refrigeration device called a cryostat. It is often used after surgical removal of tumors to allow determination of margin
12.
Secretion
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Secretion is the movement of material from one point to another, e. g. secreted chemical substance from a cell or gland. In contrast, excretion, is the removal of certain substances or waste products from a cell or organism, the classical mechanism of cell secretion is via secretory portals at the cell plasma membrane called porosomes. Porosomes are permanent cup-shaped lipoprotein structure at the plasma membrane. Secretion in bacterial species means the transport or translocation of molecules for example, proteins. Secretion is an important mechanism in bacterial functioning and operation in their natural surrounding environment for adaptation. Eukaryotic cells, including human cells, have a highly evolved process of secretion, proteins targeted for the outside are synthesized by ribosomes docked to the rough endoplasmic reticulum. As they are synthesized, these proteins translocate into the ER lumen, where they are glycosylated, misfolded proteins are usually identified here and retrotranslocated by ER-associated degradation to the cytosol, where they are degraded by a proteasome. The vesicles containing the properly folded proteins then enter the Golgi apparatus, in the Golgi apparatus, the glycosylation of the proteins is modified and further posttranslational modifications, including cleavage and functionalization, may occur. The proteins are then moved into secretory vesicles which travel along the cytoskeleton to the edge of the cell, more modification can occur in the secretory vesicles. Eventually, there is vesicle fusion with the membrane at a structure called the porosome, in a process called exocytosis. Strict biochemical control is maintained over this sequence by usage of a pH gradient, the pH of the cytosol is 7.4, the ERs pH is 7.0, and the cis-golgi has a pH of 6.5. Secretory vesicles have pHs ranging between 5.0 and 6.0, some secretory vesicles evolve into lysosomes, which have a pH of 4.8, there are many proteins like FGF1, FGF2, interleukin-1 etc. which do not have a signal sequence. They do not use the classical ER-golgi pathway and these are secreted through various nonclassical pathways. At least four nonclassical protein secretion pathways have been described, many human cell types have the ability to be secretory cells. They have a well-developed endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus to fulfill their function, meibomian glands in the eyelid secrete sebum to lubricate and protect the eye. Secretion is not unique to eukaryotes alone, it is present in bacteria, ATP binding cassette type transporters are common to all the three domains of life. Some secreted proteins are translocated across the membrane by the Sec translocon. Others are translocated across the membrane by the twin-arginine translocation pathway
13.
Antimicrobial
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An antimicrobial is an agent that kills microorganisms or stop their growth. Antimicrobial medicines can be grouped according to the microorganisms they act primarily against, for example, antibiotics are used against bacteria and antifungals are used against fungi. They can also be classified according to their function, agents that kill microbes are called microbicidal, while those that merely inhibit their growth are called biostatic. The use of medicines to treat infection is known as antimicrobial chemotherapy. The main classes of agents are disinfectants, which kill a wide range of microbes on non-living surfaces to prevent the spread of illness, antiseptics. The term antibiotic originally described only those formulations derived from living organisms but is now applied to synthetic antimicrobials, such as the sulphonamides. The term also used to be restricted to antibacterials, but its context has broadened to include all antimicrobials, antibacterial agents can be further subdivided into bactericidal agents, which kill bacteria, and bacteriostatic agents, which slow down or stall bacterial growth. In response, further advancements in technologies have resulted in solutions that can go beyond simply inhibiting microbial growth. Instead, certain types of media have been developed to kill microbes on contact. Use of substances with antimicrobial properties is known to have been common practice for at least 2000 years, ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks used specific molds and plant extracts to treat infection. More recently, microbiologists such as Louis Pasteur and Jules Francois Joubert observed antagonism between some bacteria and discussed the merits of controlling these interactions in medicine, in 1928, Alexander Fleming became the first to discover a natural antimicrobial fungus known as Penicillium rubens. The substance extracted from the fungus he named penicillin and in 1942 it was used to treat a Streptococcus infection. Penicillin also proved successful in the treatment of other infectious diseases such as gonorrhea, strep throat and pneumonia. Many antimicrobial agents exist, for use against a range of infectious diseases. Antibacterials are used to treat bacterial infections, the toxicity to humans and other animals from antibacterials is generally considered low. However, prolonged use of certain antibacterials can decrease the number of gut flora, after prolonged antibacterial use consumption of probiotics and reasonable eating can help to replace destroyed gut flora. Stool transplants may be considered for patients who are having difficulty recovering from prolonged antibiotic treatment, the discovery, development and clinical use of antibacterials during the 20th century has substantially reduced mortality from bacterial infections. However, since 1980 the introduction of new agents for clinical use has declined
14.
Prostate-specific antigen
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Prostate-specific antigen, also known as gamma-seminoprotein or kallikrein-3, is a glycoprotein enzyme encoded in humans by the KLK3 gene. PSA is a member of the peptidase family and is secreted by the epithelial cells of the prostate gland. PSA is produced for the ejaculate, where it liquefies semen in the seminal coagulum and it is also believed to be instrumental in dissolving cervical mucus, allowing the entry of sperm into the uterus. PSA is present in quantities in the serum of men with healthy prostates. The USPSTF concludes the potential benefit does not outweigh the expected harms, PSA is not a unique indicator of prostate cancer, but may also detect prostatitis or benign prostatic hyperplasia. 30 percent of patients with high PSA have prostate cancer diagnosed after biopsy, in the United States, the U. S. Food and Drug Administration has approved the PSA test for annual screening of prostate cancer in men of age 50 and older. The patient needs to be informed of the risks and benefits of PSA testing prior to performing the test, PSA levels between 4 and 10 ng/mL are considered to be suspicious and consideration should be given to confirming the abnormal PSA with a repeat test. If indicated, prostate biopsy is performed to obtain tissue sample for histopathological analysis, in the United Kingdom, the National Health Service does not mandate, nor advise for PSA test, but allows patients to decide based on their doctors advice. A review commissioned by the U. S, while PSA testing may help 1000 in 1,000,000 avoid death due to prostate cancer,4000 to 5000 in 1,000,000 would die from prostate cancer after 10 years even with screening. This means that PSA screening may reduce mortality from cancer by up to 25%. Expected harms include anxiety for 100 –120 receiving false positives, biopsy pain, of those found to have prostate cancer, frequent overdiagnosis is common because most cases of prostate cancer are not expected to cause any symptoms. Since the expected relative to risk of death are perceived by patients as minimal. Men with prostate cancer may be characterized as low-, intermediate-, PSA level is one of three variables on which the risk-stratification is based, the others are the grade of prostate cancer and the stage of cancer based on physical examination and imaging studies. Studies are being conducted into the incorporation of multiparametric MRI imaging results into nomograms that rely on PSA, Gleason grade, PSA levels are monitored periodically after treatment for prostate cancer - more frequently in patients with high-risk disease, less frequently in patients with lower-risk disease. If surgical therapy is successful at removing all prostate tissue, PSA becomes undetectable within a few weeks, following radiation therapy of any type for prostate cancer, some PSA levels might be detected, even when the treatment ultimately proves to be successful. This makes it difficult to interpret the relationship between PSA levels and recurrence/persistence of prostate cancer after radiation therapy. PSA levels may continue to decrease for several years after radiation therapy, the lowest level is referred to as the PSA nadir. A subsequent increase in PSA levels by 2.0 ng/dL above the nadir is the accepted definition of prostate cancer recurrence after radiation therapy
15.
Ejaculate
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Ejaculation is the discharge of semen from the male reproductory tract, usually accompanied by orgasm. It is the stage and natural objective of male sexual stimulation. In rare cases, ejaculation occurs because of prostatic disease, ejaculation may also occur spontaneously during sleep. Anejaculation is the condition of being unable to ejaculate, dysejaculation is an ejaculation that is painful or uncomfortable. A usual precursor to ejaculation is the arousal of the male, leading to the erection of the penis. Penile sexual stimulation during masturbation or vaginal, anal, oral, or non-penetrative sexual activity may provide the stimulus for a man to achieve orgasm. A prolonged stimulation either through foreplay or stroking leads to an amount of arousal. While the presence of sperm in pre-ejaculatory fluid is thought to be rare, sperm from an earlier ejaculation, still present in the urethra, in addition, infectious agents often can be present in pre-ejaculate. Premature ejaculation is when ejaculation occurs before the desired time, if a man is unable to ejaculate in a timely manner after prolonged sexual stimulation, in spite of his desire to do so, it is called delayed ejaculation or anorgasmia. An orgasm that is not accompanied by ejaculation is known as a dry orgasm, when a man has achieved a sufficient level of stimulation, the orgasm and ejaculation begins. At that point, under the control of the nervous system. The semen is ejected through the urethra with rhythmic contractions and these rhythmic contractions are part of the male orgasm. They are generated by the bulbospongiosus and pubococcygeus muscles under the control of a reflex at the level of the spinal nerves S2–4 via the pudendal nerve. The typical male orgasm lasts several seconds, after the start of orgasm, pulses of semen begin to flow from the urethra, reach a peak discharge and then diminish in flow. The typical orgasm consists of 10 to 15 contractions, although the man is unlikely to be aware of that many. Once the first contraction has taken place, ejaculation will continue to completion as an involuntary process, at this stage, ejaculation cannot be stopped. The rate of contractions gradually slows during the orgasm, initial contractions occur at an average interval of 0.6 seconds with an increasing increment of 0.1 seconds per contraction. Contractions of most men proceed at regular intervals for the duration of the orgasm
16.
Acid phosphatase
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Acid phosphatase is a phosphatase, a type of enzyme, used to free attached phosphoryl groups from other molecules during digestion. It can be classified as a phosphomonoesterase. Acid phosphatase is stored in lysosomes and functions when these fuse with endosomes and this enzyme is present in many animal and plant species. Different forms of acid phosphatase are found in different organs, in the past, they were also used to diagnose this type of cancer. Its also used as a marker to distinguish the two different lineages of Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia, B-ALL is Acid-Phosphatase negative, T-ALL is acid-phosphatase positive. An assay on the rates of activity of enzymes may be used to ascertain biological demand for phosphates in the soil. Some plant roots, especially roots, exude carboxylates that perform acid phosphatase activity. Certain bacteria like Nocardia, can degrade this enzyme and utilize it as a carbon source, tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase may be used as a biochemical marker of osteoclast function during the process of bone resorption. The following genes encode the polypeptide components for various acid phosphatase isoenzymes.1.3.2
17.
Orgasm
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Orgasm is the sudden discharge of accumulated sexual excitement during the sexual response cycle, resulting in rhythmic muscular contractions in the pelvic region characterized by sexual pleasure. Experienced by males and females, orgasms are controlled by the involuntary or autonomic nervous system and they are often associated with other involuntary actions, including muscular spasms in multiple areas of the body, a general euphoric sensation and, frequently, body movements and vocalizations. The period after orgasm is often a relaxing experience, attributed to the release of the neurohormones oxytocin and prolactin as well as endorphins, Human orgasms usually result from physical sexual stimulation of the penis in males, and the clitoris in females. Sexual stimulation can be by self-practice or with a sex partner, the health effects surrounding the human orgasm are diverse. There is also a range of sexual dysfunctions, such as anorgasmia. Orgasm in non-human animals has been studied less than orgasm in humans. This is categorized as the discharge of accumulated sexual tension during the sexual response cycle. However, definitions of orgasm vary and there is sentiment that consensus on how to classify it is absent. At least twenty-six definitions of orgasm were listed in the journal Clinical Psychology Review, in these and similar cases, the sensations experienced are subjective and do not necessarily involve the involuntary contractions characteristic of orgasm. For example, modern findings support distinction between ejaculation and male orgasm, for this reason, there are views on both sides as to whether these can be accurately defined as orgasms. Orgasms can be achieved by a variety of activities, including vaginal, anal or oral sex, Orgasm may also be achieved by the use of a sex toy, such as a sensual vibrator or an erotic electrostimulation. It can additionally be achieved by stimulation of the nipples, uterus, or other erogenous zones, in addition to physical stimulation, orgasm can be achieved from psychological arousal alone, such as during dreaming or by orgasm control. Orgasm by psychological stimulation alone was first reported among people who had spinal cord injury, although sexual function and sexuality after spinal cord injury is very often impacted, this injury does not deprive one of sexual feelings such as sexual arousal and erotic desires. A person may experience multiple orgasms, or an involuntary orgasm, an involuntary orgasm from forced sexual contact often results in feelings of shame caused by internalization of victim-blaming attitudes. In one controlled study by Vance and Wagner, independent raters could not differentiate written descriptions of male versus female orgasm experiences, in men, the most common way of achieving orgasm is by physical sexual stimulation of the penis. This is usually accompanied by ejaculation, but it is possible, though also rare, men may also achieve orgasm by stimulation of the prostate. The traditional view of male orgasm is that there are two stages, emission following orgasm, almost instantly followed by a refractory period, in 1966, Masters and Johnson published pivotal research about the phases of sexual stimulation. Their work included women and men, and, unlike Alfred Kinsey in 1948 and 1953, tried to determine the stages before
18.
Uteroglobin
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Uteroglobin, also known as secretoglobin family 1A member 1, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SCGB1A1 gene. SCGB1A1 is the member of the secretoglobin family of small. This protein is expressed in club cells in the lungs. Real physiological role is not known, putative functions are, Immunomodulation, Progesterone binding, weak in some animals, especially weak in humans
19.
CGMP-specific phosphodiesterase type 5
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CGMP-specific phosphodiesterase type 5 is an enzyme from the phosphodiesterase class. It is found in tissues, most prominently the corpus cavernosum. It has also recently discovered to play a vital role in the cardiovascular system. Sildenafil, vardenafil, tadalafil, and avanafil are PDE5 inhibitors that are more potent and selective than zaprinast. PDE5 is an enzyme that accepts cGMP and breaks it down, sildenafil, vardenafil and tadalafil are inhibitors of this enzyme, which bind to the catalytic site of PDE5. Both inhibitors bind with high affinity and specificity, and cGMP-binding to the allosteric sites stimulates binding of PDE5 inhibitors at the catalytic site. e, an extended conformer and a more compact conformer. PDE5 activity is modulated by a reversible redox switch. Chemical reduction of PDE5 relieves autoinhibition of enzyme functions, allosteric cGMP-binding activity is increased 10-fold, the redox effect on allosteric cGMP-binding occurs in the isolated regulatory domain. A change in the state of reduction of PDE5 or the regulatory domain is associated with an apparent conformational change similar to that caused by phosphorylation. PDE5 is expressed in human cells and in intestinal tissue. This presumably occurs through binding of cGMP to the GAF domains in the N-terminus of PDE5, pDE5-selective inhibitors may show good discrimination of PDE5 from most other PDE isoforms. In addition to human corpus cavernosum smooth muscle, PDE5 is also found in lower concentrations in tissues including platelets, vascular and visceral smooth muscle. Immunohistology has shown that PDE5 localizes in heart cells at the sarcomere z-disk, increased expression of PDE5 has also been measured in hypertrophic disease and has been linked to oxidative stress, and PDE5 inhibition has shown beneficial effects in the failing heart. In an experiment, PDE5 overexpression was found to contribute to worsened pathological remodeling after mouse cardiomyocytes experienced myocardial infarction, the role of PDE5 in heart failure and cardiac treatment involving PDE5 inhibitors have been major areas of focus for both lab and clinical studies. For all practical purposes, these drugs including Viagra, Levitra, in some cases, treatment of the underlying cause may resolve the sexual dysfunction. Particular caution should be used when prescribing PDE5 inhibitors for erectile dysfunction for patients receiving protease inhibitors, PDE5 inhibitor drugs appear to work in men regardless of why they have erectile dysfunction — including vascular disease, nerve problems, and even psychological causes. PDE5-inhibiting drugs can cause a number of minor side-effects, including headache, lightheadedness, dizziness, flushing, nasal congestion, in 2011, the Food and Drug Administration issued additional guidance on regulations related to CGMP manufacture and packaging. Viagra was the first PDE5 inhibitor on the market, the FDA approved Viagra on March 27,1998
20.
Electron microscope
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An electron microscope is a microscope that uses a beam of accelerated electrons as a source of illumination. Transmission electron microscopes use electrostatic and electromagnetic lenses to control the electron beam and these electron optical lenses are analogous to the glass lenses of an optical light microscope. Industrially, electron microscopes are used for quality control and failure analysis. Modern electron microscopes produce electron micrographs using specialized digital cameras and frame grabbers to capture the image, the first electromagnetic lens was developed in 1926 by Hans Busch. According to Dennis Gabor, the physicist Leó Szilárd tried in 1928 to convince Busch to build an electron microscope, two years later, in 1933, Ruska built an electron microscope that exceeded the resolution attainable with an optical microscope. Moreover, Reinhold Rudenberg, the director of Siemens-Schuckertwerke, obtained the patent for the electron microscope in May 1931. In 1932, Ernst Lubcke of Siemens & Halske built and obtained images from an electron microscope. Five years later, the firm financed the work of Ernst Ruska and Bodo von Borries, also in 1937, Manfred von Ardenne pioneered the scanning electron microscope. The first commercial electron microscope was produced in 1938 by Siemens, although contemporary transmission electron microscopes are capable of two million-power magnification, as scientific instruments, they remain based upon Ruska’s prototype. The original form of electron microscope, the electron microscope uses a high voltage electron beam to illuminate the specimen. The electron beam is produced by a gun, commonly fitted with a tungsten filament cathode as the electron source. When it emerges from the specimen, the electron beam carries information about the structure of the specimen that is magnified by the lens system of the microscope. The image detected by the camera may be displayed on a monitor or computer. The resolution of TEMs is limited primarily by spherical aberration, but a new generation of aberration correctors have been able to partially overcome spherical aberration to increase resolution. The ability to determine the positions of atoms within materials has made the HRTEM an important tool for nano-technologies research, transmission electron microscopes are often used in electron diffraction mode. The major disadvantage of the electron microscope is the need for extremely thin sections of the specimens. Biological specimens are required to be chemically fixed, dehydrated and embedded in a polymer resin to stabilize them sufficiently to allow ultrathin sectioning. Sections of biological specimens, organic polymers and similar materials may require treatment with heavy atom labels in order to achieve the required image contrast
21.
Surgeon
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In medicine, a surgeon is a doctor who performs operations. Surgeons may be physicians, podiatrists, dentists, or veterinarians, the first person to document a surgery was the 6th Century BC Indian physician-surgeon, Sushrutha. He is considered the greatest medieval surgeon to have appeared from the Islamic World and his greatest contribution to medicine is the Kitab al-Tasrif, a thirty-volume encyclopedia of medical practices. He was the first physician to describe an ectopic pregnancy, in Europe, surgery was mostly associated with barber-surgeons who also used their hair-cutting tools to undertake surgical procedures, often at the battlefield and also for their royal paymasters. In 1950, the Royal College of Surgeons of England in London began to offer surgeons a formal status via RCS membership. The distinction of Mr is also used by surgeons in the Republic of Ireland, Australia, Barbados, New Zealand, South Africa, Zimbabwe, in many English-speaking countries the military title of surgeon is applied to any medical practitioner, due to the historical evolution of the term. Some physicians who are general practitioners or specialists in medicine or emergency medicine may perform limited ranges of minor, common. Anesthesia often accompanies surgery, and anesthesiologists and nurse anesthetists may oversee this aspect of surgery, Surgeons assistant, surgical nurses, surgical technologists and operating department practitioners are trained professionals who support surgeons. Sushruta Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi Charles Kelman William Stewart Halsted Alfred Blalock C
22.
Gynaecologist
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Gynaecology or gynecology is the medical practice dealing with the health of the female reproductive systems and the breasts. Literally, outside medicine, the means the science of women. Its counterpart is andrology, which deals with issues specific to the male reproductive system. Almost all modern gynaecologists are also obstetricians, in many areas, the specialities of gynaecology and obstetrics overlap. The word gynaecology comes from the Greek γυνή, woman, and -logia, the Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus is the oldest known medical text of any kind. Dated to about 1800 BC, it deals with womens complaints—gynaecological diseases, fertility, pregnancy, contraception, the text is divided into thirty-four sections, each section dealing with a specific problem and containing diagnosis and treatment, no prognosis is suggested. Treatments are non surgical, comprising applying medicines to the body part or swallowing them. The womb is at times seen as the source of complaints manifesting themselves in other body parts, the Hippocratic Corpus contains several gynaecological treatises dating to the 5th/4th centuries BC. Aristotle is another source for medical texts from 4th century BC with his descriptions of biology primarily found in History of Animals, Parts of Animals. The gynaecological treatise Gynaikeia by Soranus of Ephesus is extant and he was the chief representative of the school of physicians known as the Methodists. J. Marion Sims is widely considered the father of modern gynaecology, Now criticized for the short comings. Now criticized for the short comings. He developed some of his techniques by operating on slaves, many of whom were not given anaesthesia, in some countries, women must first see a general practitioner prior to seeing a gynaecologist. If their condition requires training, knowledge, surgical procedure, or equipment unavailable to the GP, in the United States, however, law and many health insurance plans allow gynaecologists to provide primary care in addition to aspects of their own specialty. With this option available, some women opt to see a surgeon for non-gynaecological problems without another physicians referral. As in all of medicine, the tools of diagnosis are clinical history. Gynaecological examination is quite intimate, more so than a physical exam. It also requires unique instrumentation such as the speculum, Gynaecologists typically do a bimanual examination to palpate the cervix, uterus, ovaries and bony pelvis. It is not uncommon to do a rectovaginal examination for complete evaluation of the pelvis, male gynaecologists may have a female chaperone for their examination
23.
Alexander Skene
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Alexander Johnston Chalmers Skene was a British gynaecologist from Scotland who described what became known as Skenes glands. Skene was born in Fyvie, Scotland, United Kingdom, on 17 June 1837, at the age of 19, he went to North America. He studied medicine at Kings College, then at the University of Michigan and he was professor of gynaecology in the post-graduate Medical School of New York in 1884, and was president of the American Gynaecological Society. Skene wrote over 100 medical articles and several textbooks and he contributed many surgical instruments and improved on surgical techniques. He performed the first successful operation of gastro-elytrotomy that is recorded, primarily, he is remembered for his description of the Skenes glands at the floor of the urethra. He also described their infection - skenitis, as a sculptor, Skene created a bust of J. Marion Sims, which is on display in the lobby of the Kings County Medical Society. A bust honoring him is located in Prospect Park Plaza and this statue was moved in 2011 to accommodate a statue of Abraham Lincoln, a former U. S. president. Skene died in his summerhouse in the Catskills, New York and he left behind a son, Jonathan Bowers. He is buried at Rockland Cemetery in Sparkill, NY.1981, wilson, James Grant, Fiske, John, eds
24.
Medicine
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Medicine is the science and practice of the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. The word medicine is derived from Latin medicus, meaning a physician, Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness. Medicine has existed for thousands of years, during most of which it was an art frequently having connections to the religious and philosophical beliefs of local culture. For example, a man would apply herbs and say prayers for healing, or an ancient philosopher. In recent centuries, since the advent of modern science, most medicine has become a combination of art, while stitching technique for sutures is an art learned through practice, the knowledge of what happens at the cellular and molecular level in the tissues being stitched arises through science. Prescientific forms of medicine are now known as medicine and folk medicine. They remain commonly used with or instead of medicine and are thus called alternative medicine. For example, evidence on the effectiveness of acupuncture is variable and inconsistent for any condition, in contrast, treatments outside the bounds of safety and efficacy are termed quackery. Medical availability and clinical practice varies across the world due to differences in culture. In modern clinical practice, physicians personally assess patients in order to diagnose, treat, the doctor-patient relationship typically begins an interaction with an examination of the patients medical history and medical record, followed by a medical interview and a physical examination. Basic diagnostic medical devices are typically used, after examination for signs and interviewing for symptoms, the doctor may order medical tests, take a biopsy, or prescribe pharmaceutical drugs or other therapies. Differential diagnosis methods help to rule out conditions based on the information provided, during the encounter, properly informing the patient of all relevant facts is an important part of the relationship and the development of trust. The medical encounter is then documented in the record, which is a legal document in many jurisdictions. Follow-ups may be shorter but follow the general procedure. The diagnosis and treatment may take only a few minutes or a few weeks depending upon the complexity of the issue, the components of the medical interview and encounter are, Chief complaint, the reason for the current medical visit. They are in the patients own words and are recorded along with the duration of each one, also called chief concern or presenting complaint. History of present illness, the order of events of symptoms. Distinguishable from history of illness, often called past medical history
25.
Pudendal nerve
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The pudendal nerve is the main nerve of the perineum. If damaged, most commonly by childbirth, lesions may cause sensory loss or fecal incontinence, the nerve may be temporarily blocked as part of an anaesthetic procedure. The pudendal canal that carries the pudendal nerve, is known by the eponymous term Alcocks canal, after Benjamin Alcock. The pudendal nerve is paired, meaning there are two nerves, one on the left and one on the side of the body. Each is formed as three roots immediately converge above the border of the sacrotuberous ligament and the coccygeus muscle. The three roots become two cords when the middle and lower root join to form the cord, and these in turn unite to form the pudendal nerve proper just proximal to the sacrospinous ligament. The three roots are derived from the rami of the second, third, and fourth sacral spinal nerves. The pudendal nerve passes between the muscle and coccygeus muscles and leaves the pelvis through the lower part of the greater sciatic foramen. It crosses over the part of the sacrospinous ligament and reenters the pelvis through the lesser sciatic foramen. The nerve is a branch of the sacral plexus, with fibers originating in Onufs nucleus in the sacral region of the spinal cord. The pudendal nerve may vary in its origins, for example, the pudendal nerve may actually originate off of the sciatic nerve. Consequently, damage to the nerve can affect the pudendal nerve as well. Sometimes dorsal rami of the first sacral nerve contribute fibers to the pudendal nerve, the pudendal nerve has both motor and sensory functions. It does not carry parasympathetic fibers, but does carry sympathetic fibers, the pudendal nerve supplies sensation to the penis in males and the clitoris in females, through the branches dorsal nerve of penis and dorsal nerve of clitoris. The posterior scrotum in males and the labia in females are also supplied, the pudendal nerve is one of several nerves supplying sensation to these areas. Branches also supply sensation to the anal canal, by providing sensation to the penis and the clitoris, the pudendal nerve is responsible for the afferent component of penile erection and clitoral erection. It is also responsible for ejaculation, as it functions to innervate the external urethral sphincter it is responsible for the tone of the sphincter mediated via acetylcholine release. This means that during periods of increased acetylcholine release the skeletal muscle in the urethral sphincter contracts
26.
Mesonephric duct
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The mesonephric duct is a paired organ found in mammals including humans during embryogenesis. Wolffian structures are male urogenital structures that include the epididymis, vas deferens, the mesonephric duct connects the primitive kidney, the mesonephros, to the cloaca and serves as the anlage for certain male reproductive organs. The mesonephric duct connects the primitive kidney, the mesonephros, to the cloaca, in both the male and the female the mesonephric duct develops into the trigone of urinary bladder, a part of the bladder wall. However, further development differentiates between the sexes in the development of the urinary and reproductive organs. In a male, it develops into a system of connected organs between the efferent ducts of the testis and the prostate, namely the epididymis, the vas deferens, the prostate forms from the urogenital sinus and the efferent ducts form from the mesonephric tubules. For this it is critical that the ducts are exposed to testosterone during embryogenesis, testosterone binds to and activates androgen receptor, affecting intracellular signals and modifying the expression of numerous genes. In the mature male, the function of system is to store and mature sperm. In the female, with the absence of anti-Müllerian hormone secretion by the Sertoli cells and subsequent Müllerian apoptosis, the Wolffian duct regresses, the epoophoron and Skenes glands may be present. Also, lateral to the wall of the vagina a Gartners duct or cyst could develop as a remnant and it is named after Caspar Friedrich Wolff who described the mesonephros and its ducts in his dissertation in 1759
27.
PubMed Identifier
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PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health maintains the database as part of the Entrez system of information retrieval, from 1971 to 1997, MEDLINE online access to the MEDLARS Online computerized database primarily had been through institutional facilities, such as university libraries. PubMed, first released in January 1996, ushered in the era of private, free, home-, the PubMed system was offered free to the public in June 1997, when MEDLINE searches via the Web were demonstrated, in a ceremony, by Vice President Al Gore. Information about the journals indexed in MEDLINE, and available through PubMed, is found in the NLM Catalog. As of 5 January 2017, PubMed has more than 26.8 million records going back to 1966, selectively to the year 1865, and very selectively to 1809, about 500,000 new records are added each year. As of the date,13.1 million of PubMeds records are listed with their abstracts. In 2016, NLM changed the system so that publishers will be able to directly correct typos. Simple searches on PubMed can be carried out by entering key aspects of a subject into PubMeds search window, when a journal article is indexed, numerous article parameters are extracted and stored as structured information. Such parameters are, Article Type, Secondary identifiers, Language, publication type parameter enables many special features. As these clinical girish can generate small sets of robust studies with considerable precision, since July 2005, the MEDLINE article indexing process extracts important identifiers from the article abstract and puts those in a field called Secondary Identifier. The secondary identifier field is to store numbers to various databases of molecular sequence data, gene expression or chemical compounds. For clinical trials, PubMed extracts trial IDs for the two largest trial registries, ClinicalTrials. gov and the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number Register, a reference which is judged particularly relevant can be marked and related articles can be identified. If relevant, several studies can be selected and related articles to all of them can be generated using the Find related data option, the related articles are then listed in order of relatedness. To create these lists of related articles, PubMed compares words from the title and abstract of each citation, as well as the MeSH headings assigned, using a powerful word-weighted algorithm. The related articles function has been judged to be so precise that some researchers suggest it can be used instead of a full search, a strong feature of PubMed is its ability to automatically link to MeSH terms and subheadings. Examples would be, bad breath links to halitosis, heart attack to myocardial infarction, where appropriate, these MeSH terms are automatically expanded, that is, include more specific terms. Terms like nursing are automatically linked to Nursing or Nursing and this important feature makes PubMed searches automatically more sensitive and avoids false-negative hits by compensating for the diversity of medical terminology. The My NCBI area can be accessed from any computer with web-access, an earlier version of My NCBI was called PubMed Cubby
28.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
29.
Routledge
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Routledge is a British multinational publisher. The company publishes approximately 1,800 journals &5,000 new books each year, Routledge is claimed to be the largest global academic publisher within humanities and social sciences. Following the merger of Informa and T&F in 2004, Routledge become a publishing unit, the firm originated in 1836, when Camden bookseller George Routledge published an unsuccessful guidebook, The Beauties of Gilsand with his brother-in-law W H Warne as assistant. The company was restyled in 1858 as Routledge, Warne & Routledge when George Routledges son, Robert Warne Routledge, Frederick Warne eventually left the company after the death of his brother W. H. Warne in May 1859. Gaining rights to titles, he founded Frederick Warne & Co in 1865. In July 1865, his son Edmund Routledge became a partner, by 1902 the company was running close to bankruptcy. Following a successful restructuring, however, it was able to recover and began to acquire and merge with other publishing companies including J. C. In 1912 the company merged with Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. the descendant of companies founded by Charles Kegan Paul, Alexander Chenevix Trench, Nicholas Trübner and it was soon particularly known for its titles in the social sciences. In 1985, Routledge & Kegan Paul joined with Associated Book Publishers, just two year later, Cinven and Routledges directors accepted a deal for Routledges acquisition by Taylor & Francis Group, with the Routledge name being retained as an imprint and subdivision. In 2004, T&F became a division within Informa plc after a merger, Routledge has grown considerably as a result of organic growth and acquisitions of other publishing companies and other publishers titles by its parent company. Humanities and social sciences acquired by T&F from other publishers are rebranded under the Routledge imprint. The famous English publisher Fredric Warburg was an editor at Routledge during the early 20th century. Novelist Nina Stibbe author of Love, Nina worked at the company as a Commissioning Editor in the 1990s, the republished works of these authors have appeared as part of the Routledge Classics and Routledge Great Minds series. Competitors to the series are Verso Books Radical Thinkers, Penguin Classics, Taylor and Francis closed down the Routledge print encyclopaedia division in 2006. Some of its publications were, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, by Edward Craig, in 10 volumes, Encyclopedia of Ethics, by Lawrence C. Reference Works by Europa Publications, published by Routledge, Europa World Year Book, many of Routledges reference works are published in print and electronic formats as Routledge Handbooks and have their own dedicated Web site, Routledge Handbooks Online. Records of Routledge & Kegan Paul - Correspondence files covering the period 1935 to 1990, as well as review files 1950s-1990s, Special Collections, archives of George Routledge & Company 1853-1902, Chadwyck-Healey Ltd,1973. 6 reels of microfilm and printed index, archives of Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Henry S. King 1858-1912, Chadwyck-Healey Ltd,1973
. PMID 8686301.
