1.
Greenock
–
Greenock is a town and administrative centre in the Inverclyde council area in Scotland and a former burgh within the historic county of Renfrewshire, located in the west central Lowlands of Scotland. It forms part of an urban area with Gourock to the west. The 2011 census showed that Greenock had a population of 44,248 and it lies on the south bank of the Clyde at the Tail of the Bank where the River Clyde expands into the Firth of Clyde. The name of the town has had various spellings over time and it was printed in early Acts of Parliament as Grinok, Greenhok, Grinock, Greenhoke, Greinnock, and later as Greinok. Old Presbyterial records used Grenok, a common spelling until it was changed to Greenock around 1700 and it has also been suggested that Grian cnoc or sunny hill could refer to the hill on which the castle and mansion house stood, but this has not found much support. The towns modern indoor shopping centre is called The Oak Mall, the name is also recalled in a local song. Significantly, no green oak appears on the coat of arms which features the three chalices of the Shaw Stewarts, a sailing ship in full sail and two herring above the motto God Speed Greenock. Hugh de Grenock was created a Scottish Baron in 1296, around 1540 the adjoining barony of Finnart was passed to the Schaw family, extending their holdings westward to the boundary of Gourock, and in 1542 Sir John Schaw founded Wester Greenock castle. The coast of Greenock formed a bay with three smaller indentations, the Bay of Quick was known as a safe anchorage as far back as 1164. To its east, a sandy bay ran eastwards from the Old Kirk, the fishing village of Greenock developed along this bay, and around 1635 Sir John Schaw had a jetty built into the bay which became known as Sir Johns Bay. In that year he obtained a Charter raising Greenock to a Burgh of Barony with rights to a weekly market, further east, Saint Laurence Bay curved round past the Crawfurd Barony of Easter Greenock to Garvel Point. When a pier was built making the bay an important harbour, in 1642 it was made into the Burgh of Barony of Crawfurdsdyke, and part of the ill-fated Darien Scheme set out from this pier in 1697. This town was later renamed Cartsdyke, the fishing trade grew prosperous, with barrels of salted herring exported widely, and shipping trade developed. As seagoing ships could not go further up the River Clyde, a separate Barony of Cartsburn was created, the first baron being Thomas Craufurd. The work was completed in 1710, with quays extended out into Sir Johns Bay to enclose the harbour, in 1711 the shipbuilding industry was founded when Scotts leased ground between the harbour and the West Burn to build fishing boats. A whaling business operated for about 40 years, in 1714 Greenock became a custom house port as a branch of Port Glasgow, and for a period this operated from rooms leased in Greenock. Receipts rose rapidly from the 1770s, and in 1778 the custom house moved to new premises at the West Quay of the harbour. By 1791 a new pier was constructed at the East Quay, in 1812 Europes first steamboat service was introduced by PS Comet with frequent sailings between Glasgow, Greenock and Helensburgh, and as trade built up the pier became known as Steamboat Quay
Greenock
–
View northwest over Greenock and the River Clyde, with the
Caribbean Princess at Greenock Ocean Terminal
Greenock
–
The harbour, c. 1838
Greenock
–
The Cut – visitor centre
Greenock
–
The Cut –
aqueduct
2.
Scotland
–
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
Scotland
–
Edinburgh Castle. Human habitation of the site is dated back as far as the 9th century BC, although the nature of this early settlement is unclear.
Scotland
–
Flag
Scotland
–
The class I
Pictish stone at
Aberlemno known as Aberlemno 1 or the Serpent Stone.
Scotland
–
The
Wallace Monument commemorates
William Wallace, the 13th-century Scottish hero.
3.
Corporation
–
A corporation is a company or group of people authorized to act as a single entity and recognized as such in law. Early incorporated entities were established by charter, most jurisdictions now allow the creation of new corporations through registration. Corporations chartered in regions where they are distinguished by whether they are allowed to be for profit or not are referred to as for profit and not-for-profit corporations, there is some overlap between stock/non-stock and for profit/not-for-profit in that not-for-profit corporations are always non-stock as well. A for profit corporation is almost always a stock corporation, registered corporations have legal personality and are owned by shareholders whose liability is limited to their investment. Shareholders do not typically actively manage a corporation, shareholders instead elect or appoint a board of directors to control the corporation in a fiduciary capacity, in American English, the word corporation is most often used to describe large business corporations. In British English and in the Commonwealth countries, the company is more widely used to describe the same sort of entity while the word corporation encompasses all incorporated entities. In American English, the company can include entities such as partnerships that would not be referred to as companies in British English as they are not a separate legal entity. Despite not being human beings, corporations, as far as the law is concerned, are legal persons. Corporations can exercise human rights against real individuals and the state, Corporations can be dissolved either by statutory operation, order of court, or voluntary action on the part of shareholders. Corporations can even be convicted of offenses, such as fraud. However, corporations are not considered living entities in the way humans are. While not a corporation, this new type of entity became very attractive as an alternative for corporations not needing to issue stock, in Germany, the organization was referred to as Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung or GmbH. In the last quarter of the 20th Century this new form of organization became available in the United States and other countries. Since the GmbH and LLC forms of organization are technically not corporations they will not be discussed in this article, the word corporation derives from corpus, the Latin word for body, or a body of people. By the time of Justinian, Roman law recognized a range of corporate entities under the names universitas and these included the state itself, municipalities, and such private associations as sponsors of a religious cult, burial clubs, political groups, and guilds of craftsmen or traders. Such bodies commonly had the right to own property and make contracts, to receive gifts and legacies, to sue and be sued, private associations were granted designated privileges and liberties by the emperor. Entities which carried on business and were the subjects of rights were found in ancient Rome. In medieval Europe, churches became incorporated, as did local governments, such as the Pope, the point was that the incorporation would survive longer than the lives of any particular member, existing in perpetuity
Corporation
–
McDonald's Corporation is one of the most recognizable corporations in the world.
Corporation
Corporation
–
1/8 share of the
Stora Kopparberg mine, dated June 16, 1288.
Corporation
–
A
bond issued by the
Dutch East India Company, dating from 1623, for the amount of 2,400 florins
4.
Partnership
–
A partnership is an arrangement where parties, known as partners, agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests. The partners in a partnership may be individuals, businesses, interest-based organizations, schools, organizations may partner together to increase the likelihood of each achieving their mission and to amplify their reach. A partnership may result in issuing and holding equity or may be governed by a contract. In this case, the alliance may be structured in a process comparable to a Mergers & Acquisitions transaction, Partnerships present the involved parties with complex negotiation and special challenges that must be navigated unto agreement. Once agreement is reached, the partnership is typically enforceable by civil law, Partners who wish to make their agreement affirmatively explicit and enforceable typically draw up Articles of Partnership. It is common for information about formally partnered entities to be public, such as through a press release. While industrial partnerships stand to amplify mutual interests and accelerate success, when a politician, for example, partners with a corporation to advance the latters interest in exchange for some benefit, a conflict of interest results, consequentially, the public good may suffer. While technically lawful in some jurisdictions, such practice is viewed negatively or as corruption. Partnerships recognized by a government body may enjoy special benefits from taxation policy, in such countries, partnerships are often regulated via anti-trust laws, so as to inhibit monopolistic practices and foster free market competition. Enforcement of the laws, however, varies considerably, domestic partnerships recognized by governments typically enjoy tax benefits, as well. Under common law systems, the basic form of partnership is a general partnership. There are two types of partners, general partners have an obligation of strict liability to third parties injured by the Partnership. General partners may have joint liability or joint and several liability depending upon circumstances, the liability of limited partners is limited to their investment in the partnership. Summarising s.5 of the Partnership Act 1958, for a partnership in Australia to exist and they are, Valid Agreement between the parties, To carry on a business – this is defined in s. A partnership is defined as the relation between persons who have agreed to share the profits of a business carried on by all or any of them acting for all, the law does not require written partnership agreement between the partners to form a partnership. A partnership does not also required to be registered, however an unregistered partnership has a number of limitation regarding enforcing its rights in any court, a partnership is considered as a separate legal identity in Bangladesh only if the partnership is registered. There must be a minimum of 2 partners and maximum of 20 partners, statutory regulation of partnerships in Canada fall under provincial jurisdiction. A partnership is not a legal entity and partnership income is taxed at the rate of the partner receiving the income
Partnership
5.
Sole proprietorship
–
The owner is in direct control of all elements and is legally accountable for the finances of such business and this may include debts, loans, loss, etc. The owner receives all profits and has unlimited responsibility for all losses, every asset of the business is owned by the proprietor and all debts of the business are the proprietors. It is a sole proprietorship in contrast with partnerships, a sole proprietor may use a trade name or business name other than his, her, or its legal name. They may have to legally trademark their business if it differs from their own legal name. An exact translation of sole proprietorship is unusual, because the focus of the concept can change. Sole entrepreneur, typical little entrepreneurs, as sole craftsman, autonomous taxi driver, and many others, that can be formal. ”The business owner is required to register with the local authorities. Furthermore, the owner must complete a form submitted to the governing authority to acquire title as a “DBA” or doing business as”. The authority in states is the Secretary of State. The license for a proprietary business entitles the owner to hire employees. Under the legal doctrine Respondeat superior, the liability for any business decision arising from such a contribution remains upon the owner. This is transposed by the unlimited liability attached to a proprietary business. The owner carries the responsibility for all debts and/or losses suffered by the business, to the extent of using personal or other assets. The owner is liable for all business activities conducted by the sole proprietorship and accordingly, entitled to full control. Income, losses and expenses may be listed on a Schedule C Download and it is the responsibility of the owner to ensure all due income taxes and self-employment contributions are paid. Time is a valuable commodity. This will significantly contribute to increased turnover, profits and minimizing taxes, K. Lasser Small Business Taxes, the setting-up process of a sole proprietorship to comply with local laws and regulations, is obtainable from the Small Business Development Center, using their locator facility. A sole proprietor starting a new business involves his or her compiling a business related to ambitions for development. Sole owners are engaged in many varieties of industry and commerce, a crucial component of a sole proprietorship within a business plan is the provision of an inherent guideline, for actions that require implementing for a business to achieve growth
Sole proprietorship
6.
Australia
–
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
Australia
–
Aboriginal rock art in the
Kimberley region of Western Australia
Australia
Australia
–
Portrait of Captain
James Cook, the first European to map the eastern coastline of Australia in 1770
Australia
–
Tasmania's
Port Arthur penal settlement is one of eleven UNESCO World Heritage-listed
Australian Convict Sites.
7.
European Union
–
The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km2, the EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, a monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU operates through a system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the basis of the EU. The EU as a whole is the largest economy in the world, additionally,27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the nationalism which had devastated the continent. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, the supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak. These men and others are credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome and they also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958, the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand, Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power, Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission. In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum
European Union
–
In 1989, the
Iron Curtain fell, enabling the union to
expand further (
Berlin Wall pictured).
European Union
–
Flag
European Union
–
2009, the
Lisbon Treaty entered into force.
European Union
–
The 65,993 km (41,006 mi) coastline dominates the European climate (
Cyprus).
8.
Small Business Administration
–
The Small Business Administration is a United States government agency that provides support to entrepreneurs and small businesses. The agencys activities are summarized as the 3 Cs of capital, contracts, SBA loans are made through banks, credit unions and other lenders who partner with the SBA. The SBA provides a guarantee on part of the loan. The agency had record lending volumes in late 2010, SBA helps lead the federal governments efforts to deliver 23 percent of prime federal contracts to small businesses. SBA has at least one office in each U. S. state and these counseling services provide services to over 1 million entrepreneurs and small business owners annually. The SBA was created on July 30,1953, by President Eisenhower with the signing of the Small Business Act, the Small Business Act was originally enacted as the Small Business Act of 1953 in Title II of Pub. L. 83–163, The Reconstruction Finance Corporation Liquidation Act was Title I, the Small Business Act Amendments of 1958 withdrew Title II as part of that act and made it a separate act to be known as the Small Business Act. Its function was and is to aid, counsel, assist and protect, insofar as is possible, the SBA has survived a number of threats to its existence. In 1996, the Republican-controlled House of Representatives planned to eliminate the agency and it survived and went on to receive a record high budget in 2000. Renewed efforts by the Bush Administration to end the SBA loan program met congressional resistance, although the SBAs budget was repeatedly cut, the Obama Administration has supported the SBA budget. Significant supplemental appropriations for the agency strengthened SBA lending through the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, the SBA has an Administrator and a Deputy Administrator. The most visible elements of the SBA are the programs it administers. The SBA does not provide grants or direct loans with the exception of Disaster Relief Loans, instead, the SBA guarantees against default certain portions of business loans made by banks and other lenders that conform to its guidelines. A business can qualify for the even if the yearly payment approximates previous years profit. Most banks want annual payment for loans no more than two-thirds of prior years operating profits, lower payments, longer terms and loosened criteria allow some businesses to borrow more money than otherwise. One of the most popular uses of SBA loans is commercial mortgages on buildings occupied or to be occupied by small business and these programs are beneficial to small business because most bank programs frequently require larger down payments and/or have repayment terms requiring borrowers refinance every five years. The 7 Loan Guarantee Program is designed to help start or expand their small businesses. The program makes available to small businesses through bank and non-bank lending institutions
Small Business Administration
–
SBA opens Disaster Loan Center in
Austell, GA, October 26, 2009
Small Business Administration
–
Seal of the SBA
9.
Retail
–
Retail markets and shops have a very ancient history, dating back to antiquity. Retailing involves the process of selling goods or services to customers through multiple channels of distribution to earn a profit. Retailers satisfy demand is identified through a supply chain, Once the strategic retail plan is in place, retailers devise the retail mix which includes product, price, place, promotion, personnel and presentation. In the digital age, a number of retailers are seeking to reach broader markets by selling through multiple channels. Digital technologies are changing the way that consumers pay for goods. Retailing support services may include the provision of credit, delivery services. Shopping generally refers to the act of buying products, sometimes this is done to obtain final goods, including necessities such as food and clothing, sometimes it takes place as a recreational activity. Recreational shopping often involves window shopping and browsing, it not always result in a purchase. Retail shops occur in a range of types and in many different contexts - from strip shopping centres in residential streets through to large. Shopping streets may restrict traffic to pedestrians only, forms of non-shop retailing include online retailing and mail order. Retail comes from the Old French word tailler, which means to cut off, clip, pare and it was first recorded as a noun with the meaning of a sale in small quantities in 1433. Like in French, the retail in both Dutch and German also refers to the sale of small quantities of items. Also see History of merchants, History of the market place, open air, public markets were known in ancient Babylonia and Assyria. These markets typically occupied a place in the towns centre, surrounding the market, skilled artisans, such as metal-workers and leather workers, occupied premises in alley ways that led to the open market-place. These artisans may have sold wares directly from their premises, in ancient Greece markets operated within the agora, and in ancient Rome the forum. In antiquity, exchange involved direct selling, merchants or peddlers, the Phoenicians, noted for their seafaring skills, plied their ships across the Mediterranean, becoming a major trading power by 9th century BCE. The Phoenicians imported and exported wood, textiles, glass and produce such as wine, oil, dried fruit, the Phoenicians extensive trade networks necessitated considerable book-keeping and correspondence. In around 1500 BCE, the Phoenicians developed an alphabet which was much easier to learn that the complex scripts used in ancient Egypt
Retail
–
Macy's Herald Square,
New York City.
Retail
–
Fruit shop in
Naggar,
Himachal Pradesh,
India
Retail
–
San Juan de Dios Market in
Guadalajara, Jalisco
Retail
–
Inside a supermarket in
Russia
10.
Convenience store
–
In some jurisdictions, corner stores are licensed to sell alcohol, typically beer and wine. Such stores may also offer money order and wire transfer services and they differ from general stores and village shops in that they are not in a rural location and are used as a convenient supplement to larger stores. A convenience store may be part of a station, so customers can purchase goods conveniently while filling their vehicle with fuel. It may be located alongside a road, in an urban area, near a railway or railroad station. In some countries, convenience stores have long shopping hours, some remaining open 24 hours, however, convenience stores make up for this loss by having longer open hours, serving more locations, and having shorter cashier lines. A convenience store may also be called a c-store, Cold Store, party store, small store, bodega, mini-market, mini-mart. Various types exist, for example, liquor stores, mini-markets, typically junk food, lottery tickets, newspapers and magazines are sold although merchandise varies widely from store to store. Unless the outlet is a store, the range of alcohol beverages is likely to be limited or non-existent. Most stores carry cigarettes and other tobacco products, varying degrees of food and grocery supplies are usually available, from household products, to prepackaged foods like sandwiches and frozen burritos. Automobile-related items such as oil, maps and car kits may be sold. Often toiletries and other products are stocked, as well as feminine hygiene. Stores may carry apparel, home furnishings, and CDs and DVDs, some of these stores also offer money orders and wire transfer services. Convenience stores that are near fishing destinations may carry live fishing bait as well as fishing equipment, Convenience stores may also carry small appliances as well as other household items such as coolers and back packs. Convenience stores have also known to carry candles, stationery, artwork. Many convenience stores offer food ready to eat, such as breakfast sandwiches, throughout Europe convenience stores now sell fresh French bread. A process of freezing parbaked bread allows easy shipment and baking in-store, some stores have a delicatessen counter, offering custom-made sandwiches and baguettes. Others have racks offering fresh delivered or baked doughnuts from local doughnut shops, some stores have a self-service microwave oven for heating purchased food. In the United States, some fast food chains offer a counter in convenience stores, instead of cooking food in the store, these counters offer a limited menu of items delivered several times a day from a local branch of the restaurant
Convenience store
–
Interior of a
Japanese convenience store.
Convenience store
–
A 7 Eleven convenience store in Japan.
Convenience store
–
Personal care products at a
FamilyMart convenience store
Convenience store
–
Entrance of a Couche-Tard convenience store in
Montreal,
Quebec
11.
Grocery store
–
A grocery store is a retail store that primarily sells food. A grocer is a seller of food. Grocery stores often offer non-perishable food that is packaged in cans, bottles and boxes, with also having fresh produce, butchers, delis. Large grocery stores that stock significant amounts of products, such as clothing. Some large supermarkets also include a pharmacy, and customer service, redemption, in the United States, Canada, and United Kingdom, supermarkets and convenience stores are sometimes described as grocery businesses, or simply grocers. Some grocery stores form the centerpiece of a complex that includes other facilities, such as gas stations. This setup is especially common in the United Kingdom, with chains such as Tesco. Some groceries specialize in the foods of a nationality or culture, such as Italian, Polish. These stores are known as ethnic markets and may serve as gathering places for immigrants. In many cases, the range of products carried by larger supermarkets has reduced the need for such speciality stores. The variety and availability of food is no longer restricted by the diversity of locally grown food or the limitations of the growing season. Beginning as early as the 14th century, a grocer was a dealer in dry goods such as spices, peppers, sugar. These items were bought in bulk, hence the term grocer from the French grossier meaning wholesaler, as increasing numbers of staple foodstuffs became available in cans and other less-perishable packaging, the trade expanded its province. Today, grocers deal in a range of staple food-stuffs including such perishables as meats, produce. These trading posts evolved into larger retail businesses known as general stores and these facilities generally dealt only in dry goods such as flour, dry beans, baking soda, and canned foods. Many rural areas still contain general stores that sell goods ranging from cigars to imported napkins, traditionally, general stores have offered credit to their customers, a system of payment that works on trust rather than modern credit cards. This allowed farm families to buy staples until their harvest could be sold, the first self-service grocery store, Piggly Wiggly, was opened in 1916 in Memphis, Tennessee by Clarence Saunders, an inventor and entrepreneur. The early supermarkets began as chains of grocers shops, a small grocery store may also compete by locating in a mixed commercial-residential area close to, and convenient for, its customers
Grocery store
–
The
produce section in a supermarket
Grocery store
–
Packaged food aisles in a
hypermarket.
Grocery store
–
A grocery store in Nizwa, Oman
Grocery store
12.
Bakery
–
A bakery is an establishment that produces and sells flour-based food baked in an oven such as bread, cookies, cakes, pastries, and pies. Some retail bakeries are also cafés, serving coffee and tea to customers who wish to consume the baked goods on the premises, baked goods have been around for thousands of years. The art of baking was developed early during the Roman Empire and it was a highly famous art as Roman citizens loved baked goods and demanded for them frequently for important occasions such as feasts and weddings etc. Due to the fame and desire that the art of baking received, around 300 BC, baking was introduced as an occupation, the bakers began to prepare bread at home in an oven, using mills to grind grain into the flour for their breads. The oncoming demand for baked goods vigorously continued and the first bakers guild was established in 168 BC in Rome and this drastic appeal for baked goods promoted baking all throughout Europe and expanded into the eastern parts of Asia. Bakers started baking breads and goods at home and selling out on the streets. This trend became common and soon, baked products were getting sold in streets of Rome, Germany, London and this resulted in a system of delivering the goods to households, as the demand for baked breads and goods significantly increased. This provoked the bakers to establish a place people could purchase baked goods for themselves. Therefore, in Paris, the first open-air bakery of baked goods was developed and since then, bakeries became a place to purchase delicious goods. By the colonial era, bakeries were commonly viewed as places to gather, world War II directly affected bread industries in the UK. Baking schools closed during this time so when the war did eventually end there was an absence of skilled bakers and this resulted in new methods being developed to satisfy the world’s desire for bread. Methods like, adding chemicals to dough, premixes and specialised machinery, unfortunately these old methods of baking were almost completely eradicated when these new methods were introduced and became industrialised. The old methods were seen as unnecessary and financially unsound, during this period there were not many traditional bakeries left, some bakeries provide services for special occasions or for people who have allergies or sensitivities to certain foods. Bakeries can provide a range of cakes designs such as sheet cakes, layer cakes, tiered cakes. Grocery stores and supermarkets, in countries, sell prepackaged or pre-sliced bread, cakes. They can also offer in-store baking and basic cake decoration
Bakery
–
Bakery in
Mahane Yehuda Market
Bakery
–
A woman working with a commercial oven at a bakery
Bakery
–
Bakery window with breads and cakes on display, 1936
Bakery
–
Types
13.
Delicatessen
–
A delicatessen or deli is a retail establishment that sells a selection of unusual or foreign prepared foods. Delicatessens originated in Germany during the 1700s and spread to the United States in the mid-1800s, European immigrants to the United States, especially Ashkenazi Jews, popularized the delicatessen in American culture beginning in the late 1800s. Delicatessen is a German loanword which first appeared in English in 1889 and is the plural of Delikatesse, in German it was originally a French loanword, délicatesse, meaning delicious things. Its root word is the Latin adjective delicatus, meaning giving pleasure, delightful, the first Americanized short version of this word, deli, came into existence c. 1954. The German food company Dallmayr is credited with being the first delicatessen created, in 1700, it became the first store to import bananas, mangoes, and plums to the German population from faraway places such as the Canary Islands and China. Over 300 years later, it remains the largest business of its kind in Europe, the first delicatessens to appear in the United States were in New York City in the mid-1800s, with the first known use of this word occurring in 1885. These catered to the German immigrant population living there, as the German-Jewish population increased in New York City during the mid- to late 1800s, kosher delicatessens began to open, the first was founded in 1889. In the United States, by the late 20th to early 21st centuries, supermarkets, local economy stores, and fast food outlets began using the word to describe sections of their stores. The decline of the deli as an independent retail establishment was most noted in New York City, from a high in the 1930s of about 1,500 Jewish delicatessens, in most of Australia, the term delicatessen retains its European meaning. Large supermarket chains often have a department, and independent delicatessens exist throughout the country. Both types of deli offer a variety of cured meats, sausages, pickled vegetables, dips, breads, Deli also denotes a small convenience store or milk bar in Western and South Australia, and some businesses use deli as part of their business name. Traditional delicatessens also exist in these states, with continental delicatessen sometimes used to indicate the European version, in Canada, both meanings of delicatessen are used. In Europe delicatessen means high-quality, expensive foods and stores, in German-speaking countries a common synonym is Feinkost, and shops which sell it are called Feinkostläden. Department stores often have a Delikatessenabteilung, European delicatessens include Fauchon in Paris, Dallmayr in Munich, Harrods and Fortnum & Mason in London, and Peck in Milan. Although U. S. -style delicatessens are also found in Europe, in Russia, shops and supermarket sections approximating US-style delis are called kulinariya and offer salads and main courses. Delicate meats and cheeses, cold-cut and sliced hot, are sold in a separate section, the Eliseevsky food store in central Moscow, with its fin de siècle decor, is similar to a European delicatessen. From the Tsarist era, it was preserved by the Soviets as an outlet for difficult-to-obtain Russian delicacies, delicatessens may also provide foods from other countries and cultures which is not readily available in local food stores. In Italy, the deli can be called gastronomia, negozio di specialità gastronomiche, in France it is nowadays known as a traiteur or épicerie fine
Delicatessen
–
An Italian delicatessen in Rome
Delicatessen
–
French delicacies, sold in delicatessens: foie gras with Sauternes wine
Delicatessen
–
A fish counter at
Harrods in London
Delicatessen
–
An Italian style delicatessen in
Five Dock, Sydney
14.
Cosmetologist
–
Cosmetology is the study and application of beauty treatment. A cosmetologist is defined as a person who gives beauty treatments to skin, a cosmetologist is someone who is an expert in the care of hair and makeup as well as skincare and beauty products. They can also offer services such as coloring, extensions, perms. Cosmetologists help their clients improve on or acquire a certain look by applying advance trending aesthetic applications, Hair stylists often style hair for weddings, proms, and other special events in addition to routine hair styling. A hair color specialist, aka hair colorist, specializes in the modification of natural hair color utilizing various methods while using a colorant product from a professional company. In the US, some colorists are qualified through the American Board of Certified Hair Colorists and this designation is used to recognize colorists that have a greater level of competency in the industry through a written exam and a practical exam. A hair color specialist’s duties might include, but are not limited to, basic color applications like covering grey, a color specialist also has the ability to perform corrective color applications and create special effects using foiling techniques or any other advanced color application methods. A shampoo technician shampoos and conditions a clients hair in preparation for the hair stylist and this is generally an apprentice position and a first step for many just out of cosmetology school. Estheticians are licensed professionals who are experts in maintaining and improving skin, an estheticians general scope of practice is limited to the epidermis. Estheticians work in different environments such as salons, med spas, day spas, skin care clinics. Estheticians may also specialize in such as microdermabrasion, microcurrent, cosmetic electrotherapy treatments, LED treatments, ultrasound/ultrasonic. The esthetician may undergo training for treatments such as laser hair removal, permanent makeup application, light chemical peels, eyelash extensions. In the US, estheticians must be licensed in the state in which they are working and are governed by the cosmetology board requirements of that state. Estheticians must complete a minimum 300–1500 hours of training and pass both a written and hands-on exam in order to be licensed in a given state, utah, Virginia and Washington are the only states at this time to adopt the Master Esthetician License. Additional post graduate training is required when specializing in areas such as medical esthetics. Estheticians work under a dermatologist’s supervision only when employed by the dermatologists practice, the word esthetician is an alternative spelling of aesthetician, a derivation of the word aesthetic, beauty-related. Many chemicals in salon products pose potential health risks, examples of hazardous chemicals found in common treatments include dibutyl phthalate, formaldehyde, lye, ammonia, and coal tar. Allergies and dermatitis have forced approximately 20% of hairdressers to stop practicing their profession, dibutyl phthalate is used in some nail enamels and hardeners
Cosmetologist
–
Cosmetology class in California, 1946
Cosmetologist
–
Desairologist performing specialized cosmetology at funeral home
15.
Tradesman
–
In Victorian England, The terms skilled worker, craftsman, artisan, and tradesman were used in senses that overlap. All describe people with specialized training in the skills needed for a kind of work. Some of them produced goods that they sold from their own premises, still others were factory hands who had become experts in some complex part of the process and could command high wages and steady employment. Skilled workers in the trades were also referred to by one or another of these terms. One study of Caversham, New Zealand at the turn of the notes that a skilled trade was considered a trade that required an apprenticeship to entry. Skilled tradesmen worked either in traditional handicraft workshops or newer factories that emerged during the Industrial Revolution, tradesmen are contrasted with unskilled workers, agricultural workers, and professionals. Both types of work, however, are considered blue-collar, there is no definitive list of modern skilled trades, as definitions vary, with some lists being broader than others. Despite this, polling for the found that apprenticeships have a lower perceived value than bachelors degrees. Grey-collar worker Guild Journeyman List of construction trades Master craftsman Skilled worker Trade union Technician Vocational education Torpey, high wages after high school - without a bachelors degree
Tradesman
–
Carpenter at work with a
brace in Tennessee, June 1942
16.
Carpenter
–
Carpentry in the United States is almost always done by men. With 98. 5% of carpenters being male, it was the fourth most male-dominated occupation in the country in 1999, Carpenters are usually the first tradesmen on a job and the last to leave. Carpenters normally framed post-and-beam buildings until the end of the 19th century and it is also common that the skill can be learned by gaining work experience other than a formal training program, which may be the case in many places. The word carpenter is the English rendering of the Old French word carpentier which is derived from the Latin carpentrius, the Middle English and Scots word was wright, which could be used in compound forms such as wheelwright or boatwright. An easy way to envisage this is that first fix work is all that is done before plastering takes place, second fix is done after plastering takes place. Second fix work, the construction of such as skirting boards, architraves. Carpentry is also used to construct the formwork into which concrete is poured during the building of such as roads. In the UK, the skill of making timber formwork for poured, or in situ, although the. work of a carpenter and joiner are often combined. Joiner is less common than the finish carpenter or cabinetmaker. The terms housewright and barnwright were used historically, now used by carpenters who work using traditional methods. Someone who builds custom concrete formwork is a form carpenter, wood is one of mankinds oldest building materials. The ability to shape wood improved with technological advances from the age to the bronze age to the iron age. The oldest surviving, complete text is Vitruvius ten books collectively titled De architectura which discusses some carpentry. By the 16th century sawmills were coming into use in Europe, the founding of America was partly based on a desire to extract resources from the new continent including wood for use in ships and buildings in Europe. In the 18th century part of the Industrial Revolution was the invention of the steam engine and these technologies combined with the invention of the circular saw led to the development of balloon framing which was the beginning of the decline of traditional timber framing. The 19th century saw the development of engineering and distribution which allowed the development of hand-held power tools, wire nails. In the 20th century portland cement came into use and concrete foundations allowed carpenters to do away with heavy timber sills. Also, drywall came into common use replacing lime plaster on wooden lath, plywood, engineered lumber and chemically treated lumber also came into use
Carpenter
–
Two German carpenters working (1975)
Carpenter
–
Traditional carpenter's tools Ethnographic Museum of Western Liguria,
Cervo,
Italy
Carpenter
–
Carpenters in an Indian village
Carpenter
–
Khati or Tarkhan, carpenter caste of the Panjab, India. Man sawing a plank.(1825)
17.
Electrician
–
An electrician is a tradesperson specializing in electrical wiring of buildings, stationary machines, and related equipment. Electricians may be employed in the installation of new electrical components or the maintenance, Electricians may also specialize in wiring ships, airplanes, and other mobile platforms, as well as data and cable. Electricians were originally people who demonstrated or studied the principles of electricity, wiremen are generally trained in one of five primary specialties, commercial, residential, light industrial, industrial, and low-voltage wiring, more commonly known as Voice-Data-Video, or VDV. Other sub-specialties such as wiring and fire-alarm may be performed by specialists trained in the devices being installed. Electricians are trained to one of three levels, Apprentice, Journeyman, and Master Electrician, in the US and Canada, apprentices work and receive a reduced compensation while learning their trade. Journeymen are electricians who have completed their Apprenticeship and who have been found by the local, State, or National licensing body to be competent in the electrical trade. Master Electricians have performed well in the trade for a period of time, often seven to ten years, service electricians are tasked to respond to requests for isolated repairs and upgrades. They have skills troubleshooting wiring problems, installing wiring in existing buildings, other specialty areas are marine electricians, research electricians and hospital electricians. Electrician is also used as the name of a role in stagecraft, where electricians are tasked primarily with hanging, focusing, in this context, the Master Electrician is the shows chief electrician. In the film industry and on a television crew the head electrician is referred to as a Gaffer, Electrical contractors are businesses that employ electricians to design, install, and maintain electrical systems. Many jurisdictions have regulatory restrictions concerning electrical work for safety due to the many hazards of working with electricity. Such requirements may be testing, registration or licensing, an electricians license entitles the holder to carry out all types of electrical installation work in Australia without supervision. However, to contract, or offer to contract, to carry out electrical installation work, under Australian law, electrical work that involves fixed wiring is strictly regulated and must almost always be performed by a licensed electrician or electrical contractor. Electrical licensing in Australia is regulated by the individual states, in Western Australia the Department of Commerce tracks licensees and allows the public to search for individually named/licensed Electricians. Currently in Victoria the apprenticeship last for four years, during three of years the apprentice attends trade school in either a block release of one week each month or one day each week. At the end of the apprenticeship the apprentice is required to pass three examinations, one of which is based with the other two practically based. Upon successful completion of exams, providing all other components of the apprenticeship are satisfactory. In most cases a certificate of electrical safety must be submitted to the relevant body after any electrical works are performed, Safety equipment used and worn by electricians in Australia needs to be tested regularly to ensure it is still protecting the worker
Electrician
–
TVA electricians, Tennessee, 1942
Electrician
–
An electrician hooking up a generator to a home's electrical panel.
Electrician
–
A high voltage certified electrician changes a transformer
Electrician
–
An electrician upgrades service on a multi-family house from two meters to four.
18.
Restaurant
–
A restaurant, or an eatery, is a business which prepares and serves food and drinks to customers in exchange for money. Meals are generally served and eaten on the premises, but many also offer take-out and food delivery services. In Western countries, most mid- to high-range restaurants serve alcoholic beverages such as beer, wine, some restaurants serve all the major meals, such as breakfast, lunch, and dinner. Other restaurants may serve a single meal or they may serve two meals or even a kids meal. Restaurants may be classified or distinguished in different ways. The primary factors are usually the food itself, the cuisine and/or the style of offering, beyond this, restaurants may differentiate themselves on factors including speed, formality, location, cost, service, or novelty themes. In the former case, customers usually wear casual clothing, in the latter case, depending on culture and local traditions, customers might wear semi-casual, semi-formal or formal wear. Typically, at mid- to high-priced restaurants, customers sit at tables, their orders are taken by a waiter, after eating, the customers then pay the bill. Another restaurant approach which uses few waiters is the buffet restaurant, customers serve food onto their own plates and then pay at the end of the meal. Buffet restaurants typically still have waiters to serve drinks and alcoholic beverages, fast food restaurants are also considered a restaurant. The travelling public has long been catered for with ships messes and railway restaurant cars which are, in effect, many railways, the world over, also cater for the needs of travellers by providing railway refreshment rooms, a form of restaurant, at railway stations. In the 2000s, a number of travelling restaurants, specifically designed for tourists, have been created and these can be found on trams, boats, buses, etc. A restaurants proprietor is called a restaurateur /ˌrɛstərəˈtɜːr/, like restaurant, professional cooks are called chefs, with there being various finer distinctions. Most restaurant will have various waiting staff to serve food, beverages and alcoholic drinks, including busboys who remove used dishes and cutlery. In finer restaurants, this may include a host or hostess, a maître dhôtel to welcome customers and to them. A new route to becoming a restauranter, rather than working ones way up through the stages, is to operate a food truck, once a sufficient following has been obtained, a permanent restaurant site can be opened. This trend has become common in the UK and the US, a chefs table is a table located in the kitchen of a restaurant, reserved for VIPs and special guests. Patrons may be served a themed tasting menu prepared and served by the head chef, Restaurants can require a minimum party and charge a higher flat fee
Restaurant
–
Sandrinos restaurant in
Fremantle,
Western Australia
Restaurant
–
Le Piment Rouge restaurant in
Montreal
Restaurant
–
A Salaama Hut restaurant at a
Somali strip mall in
Toronto
Restaurant
–
The
kitchen of
Pétrus, located in
Knightsbridge,
Central London
19.
Motel
–
A motel is a hotel designed for motorists and usually has a parking area for motor vehicles. Motels are often owned, though motel chains do exist. Several historic motels are listed on the US National Register of Historic Places, Motels differ from hotels in their location along highways, as opposed to the urban cores favored by hotels, and their orientation to the outside. Motels almost by definition include a lot, while older hotels were not usually built with automobile parking in mind. Because of their construction, the number of rooms which would fit on any given amount of land was low compared to the high-rise urban hotels which had grown around train stations. The automobile brought mobility and the motel could appear anywhere on the vast network of two-lane highways. Motels are typically constructed in an I-, L-, or U-shaped layout that includes guest rooms, a managers office, a small reception, and in some cases, a small diner. A motel was typically single-story with rooms opening directly onto a parking lot, a second story, if present, would face onto a balcony served by multiple stairwells. U. S. Route 66 is the most popular example of the neon era, many of these signs remain in use to this day. Rooms with connecting doors also commonly appeared in hotels and motels. A few motels would offer honeymoon suites with extra amenities such as whirlpool baths, the first campgrounds for automobile tourists were constructed in the late 1910s. Before that, tourists who couldnt afford to stay in a hotel either slept in their cars or pitched their tents in fields alongside the road, the modern campgrounds of the 1920s and 1930s provided running water, picnic grounds, and restroom facilities. They also kept those pesky tin can tourists out of the farmers fields, Auto camps predated motels by a few years, established in the 1920s as primitive municipal camp sites where travelers pitched their own tents. As demand increased, for-profit commercial camps gradually displaced public camp grounds, until the first travel trailers became available in the 1930s, auto tourists adapted their cars by adding beds, makeshift kitchens and roof decks. The next step up from the trailer was the cabin camp. During the Great Depression, landholders whose property fronted onto highways built cabins to convert land to income, some opened tourist homes. The buildings for a motel or cabin court were quick and simple to construct, with plans and instructions readily available in how-to. The 1935 City Directory for San Diego, California, lists motel-type accommodations under tourist camps, one initially could stay in the Depression-era cabin camps for less than a dollar per night but small comforts were few and far between
Motel
–
A motel in
Bjerka,
Norway
Motel
–
The
Star Lite Motel in
Dilworth, Minnesota is a typical American 1950s L-shaped motel
Motel
–
A family enjoying a typical 1960s-era American motel room at the Howard Johnson's Motor Lodge in
Penns Grove, New Jersey. For a nominal fee, motels would provide a
cot to accommodate this family's four children.
Motel
–
Motels frequently had large pools, such as the Thunderbird Motel on the Columbia River in
Portland, Oregon (1973)
20.
Photographer
–
A photographer is a person who makes photographs. As in other arts, the definitions of amateur and professional are not entirely categorical, a professional photographer is likely to take photographs to make money, by salary or through the display, sale or use of those photographs. An amateur photographer may take photographs for pleasure and to record an event, emotion, place, as a person without a monetary motivation. A professional photographer may be an employee, for example of a newspaper, or may contract to cover a planned event such as a wedding or graduation. Others, including paparazzi and fine art photographers, are freelancers, first making a picture, some workers, such as crime scene detectives, estate agents, journalists and scientists, make photographs as part of other work. Photographers who produce moving rather than still pictures are often called cinematographers, videographers or camera operators, an amateur may make considerable sums entering work in contests for prize money or through occasional inclusion of their work in magazines or the archive of a photo agency. The term professional may also imply preparation, for example, by academic study, Photographers are also categorized based on the subjects they photograph. Some photographers explore subjects typical of such as landscape, still life. The exclusive right of photographers to copy and use their products is protected by copyright, countless industries purchase photographs for use in publications and on products. This is usually referred to as usage fee and is used to distinguish from production fees, an additional contract and royalty would apply for each additional use of the photograph. The contract may be for one year, or other duration. The photographer usually charges a royalty as well as a one-time fee, the contract may be for non-exclusive use of the photograph or for exclusive use of the photograph. The contract can also stipulate that the photographer is entitled to audit the company for determination of royalty payments. A royalty is also based on the size at which the photo will be used in a magazine or book. Photos taken by a photographer working on assignment are often work for hire belonging to the company or publication unless stipulated otherwise by contract. There are major companies who have maintained catalogues of stock photography and images for decades, such as Getty Images, commercial photographers may also promote their work to advertising and editorial art buyers via printed and online marketing vehicles. Many people upload their photographs to social networking websites and other websites and those interested in legal precision may explicitly release them to the public domain or under a free content license. Some sites, including Wikimedia Commons, are punctilious about licenses, the dictionary definition of photographer at Wiktionary Media related to Photographers at Wikimedia Commons
Photographer
–
2012 IAAF World Indoor Championships photographer stand.
Photographer
–
A group of photographers taking photographs of retired footballer
Franz Beckenbauer.
Photographer
–
Nature photographer Urmas Tartes working on an outdoor environment.
Photographer
–
A photographer (
Douglas Osheroff) setting up a shot with the aid of a
tripod.
21.
Manufacturing
–
Manufacturing is the value added to production of merchandise for use or sale using labour and machines, tools, chemical and biological processing, or formulation. Manufacturing engineering or manufacturing process are the steps through which raw materials are transformed into a final product, the manufacturing process begins with the product design, and materials specification from which the product is made. These materials are modified through manufacturing processes to become the required part. Manufacturing takes turns under all types of economic systems, in a free market economy, manufacturing is usually directed toward the mass production of products for sale to consumers at a profit. In a collectivist economy, manufacturing is more directed by the state to supply a centrally planned economy. In mixed market economies, manufacturing occurs under some degree of government regulation, modern manufacturing includes all intermediate processes required the production and integration of a products components. Some industries, such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers use the term fabrication instead, the manufacturing sector is closely connected with engineering and industrial design. Examples of major manufacturers in North America include General Motors Corporation, General Electric, Procter & Gamble, General Dynamics, Boeing, Pfizer, examples in Europe include Volkswagen Group, Siemens, and Michelin. Examples in Asia include Sony, Huawei, Lenovo, Toyota, Samsung, in its earliest form, manufacturing was usually carried out by a single skilled artisan with assistants. In much of the world, the guild system protected the privileges. Before the Industrial Revolution, most manufacturing occurred in rural areas, entrepreneurs organized a number of manufacturing households into a single enterprise through the putting-out system. Toll manufacturing is an arrangement whereby a first firm with specialized equipment processes raw materials or semi-finished goods for a second firm, manufacturing provides important material support for national infrastructure and for national defense. On the other hand, most manufacturing may involve significant social and environmental costs, the clean-up costs of hazardous waste, for example, may outweigh the benefits of a product that creates it. Hazardous materials may expose workers to health risks and these costs are now well known and there is effort to address them by improving efficiency, reducing waste, using industrial symbiosis, and eliminating harmful chemicals. The negative costs of manufacturing can also be addressed legally, developed countries regulate manufacturing activity with labor laws and environmental laws. Across the globe, manufacturers can be subject to regulations and pollution taxes to offset the costs of manufacturing activities. Labor unions and craft guilds have played a role in the negotiation of worker rights. Environment laws and labor protections that are available in developed nations may not be available in the third world, tort law and product liability impose additional costs on manufacturing
Manufacturing
–
Textile factory (
Germany, circa 1975).
Manufacturing
Manufacturing
–
Assembly of Section 41 of a
Boeing 787 Dreamliner
Manufacturing
–
A female industrial
worker amidst heavy steel semi-products (KINEX BEARINGS,
Bytča,
Slovakia, c. 1995–2000)
22.
Web design
–
Web design encompasses many different skills and disciplines in the production and maintenance of websites. Often many individuals will work in teams covering different aspects of the design process, the term web design is normally used to describe the design process relating to the front-end design of a website including writing mark up. Web design partially overlaps web engineering in the scope of web development. Web designers are expected to have an awareness of usability and if their role involves creating mark up then they are expected to be up to date with web accessibility guidelines. Although web design has a recent history, it can be linked to other areas such as graphic design. However, web design can also be seen from a technological standpoint and it has become a large part of people’s everyday lives. It is hard to imagine the Internet without animated graphics, different styles of typography, background, in 1989, whilst working at CERN Tim Berners-Lee proposed to create a global hypertext project, which later became known as the World Wide Web. During 1991 to 1993 the World Wide Web was born, text-only pages could be viewed using a simple line-mode browser. In 1993 Marc Andreessen and Eric Bina, created the Mosaic browser, at the time there were multiple browsers, however the majority of them were Unix-based and naturally text heavy. There had been no integrated approach to design elements such as images or sounds. The Mosaic browser broke this mould, the W3C was created in October 1994 to lead the World Wide Web to its full potential by developing common protocols that promote its evolution and ensure its interoperability. This discouraged any one company from monopolizing a propriety browser and programming language, the W3C continues to set standards, which can today be seen with JavaScript. In 1994 Andreessen formed Communications Corp. that later known as Netscape Communications. Netscape created its own HTML tags without regard to the standards process. For example, Netscape 1.1 included tags for changing background colours, throughout 1996 to 1999 the browser wars began, as Microsoft and Netscape fought for ultimate browser dominance. During this time there were new technologies in the field, notably Cascading Style Sheets, JavaScript. On the whole, the competition did lead to many positive creations. In 1996, Microsoft released its first competitive browser, which was complete with its own features and it was also the first browser to support style sheets, which at the time was seen as an obscure authoring technique
Web design
–
Web design books in a store
23.
Computer programming
–
Computer programming is a process that leads from an original formulation of a computing problem to executable computer programs. Source code is written in one or more programming languages, the purpose of programming is to find a sequence of instructions that will automate performing a specific task or solving a given problem. The process of programming thus often requires expertise in many different subjects, including knowledge of the domain, specialized algorithms. Related tasks include testing, debugging, and maintaining the code, implementation of the build system. Software engineering combines engineering techniques with software development practices, within software engineering, programming is regarded as one phase in a software development process. There is a debate on the extent to which the writing of programs is an art form. In general, good programming is considered to be the application of all three, with the goal of producing an efficient and evolvable software solution. Because the discipline covers many areas, which may or may not include critical applications, in most cases, the discipline is self-governed by the entities which require the programming, and sometimes very strict environments are defined. Another ongoing debate is the extent to which the language used in writing computer programs affects the form that the final program takes. Different language patterns yield different patterns of thought and this idea challenges the possibility of representing the world perfectly with language because it acknowledges that the mechanisms of any language condition the thoughts of its speaker community. In the 1880s Herman Hollerith invented the concept of storing data in machine-readable form, however, with the concept of the stored-program computers introduced in 1949, both programs and data were stored and manipulated in the same way in computer memory. Machine code was the language of early programs, written in the set of the particular machine. Assembly languages were developed that let the programmer specify instruction in a text format, with abbreviations for each operation code. However, because a language is little more than a different notation for a machine language. High-level languages allow the programmer to write programs in terms that are more abstract and they harness the power of computers to make programming easier by allowing programmers to specify calculations by entering a formula directly. Programs were mostly still entered using punched cards or paper tape, see computer programming in the punch card era. By the late 1960s, data storage devices and computer terminals became inexpensive enough that programs could be created by typing directly into the computers, text editors were developed that allowed changes and corrections to be made much more easily than with punched cards. Whatever the approach to development may be, the program must satisfy some fundamental properties
Computer programming
–
Ada Lovelace commenting on the work of
Luigi Menabrea, created the first
algorithm designed for processing by a computer and is usually recognized as history's first computer programmer.
Computer programming
–
Data and instructions were once stored on external
punched cards, which were kept in order and arranged in program decks.
Computer programming
–
Wired control panel for an
IBM 402 Accounting Machine
Computer programming
–
The
bug from 1947 which is at the origin of a popular (but incorrect) etymology for the common term for a software defect.
24.
Lawyer
–
A lawyer is a person who practices law, as an advocate, barrister, attorney, counselor or solicitor or chartered legal executive. The role of the lawyer varies greatly across legal jurisdictions, in practice, legal jurisdictions exercise their right to determine who is recognized as being a lawyer. As a result, the meaning of the lawyer may vary from place to place. In Australia, the lawyer is used to refer to both barristers and solicitors. In Canada, the word lawyer refers to individuals who have been called to the bar or. Common law lawyers in Canada are formally and properly called barristers and solicitors, however, in Quebec, civil law advocates often call themselves attorney and sometimes barrister and solicitor in English. The Legal Services Act 2007 defines the activities that may only be performed by a person who is entitled to do so pursuant to the Act. Lawyer is not a protected title, in India, the term lawyer is often colloquially used, but the official term is advocate as prescribed under the Advocates Act,1961. In Scotland, the word refers to a more specific group of legally trained people. It specifically includes advocates and solicitors, in a generic sense, it may also include judges and law-trained support staff. In the United States, the term refers to attorneys who may practice law. It is never used to refer to patent agents or paralegals, in fact, there are regulatory restrictions on non-lawyers like paralegals practicing law. Other nations tend to have terms for the analogous concept. In most countries, particularly civil law countries, there has been a tradition of giving many legal tasks to a variety of civil law notaries, clerks, and scriveners. Several countries that originally had two or more legal professions have since fused or united their professions into a type of lawyer. Most countries in this category are common law countries, though France, in countries with fused professions, a lawyer is usually permitted to carry out all or nearly all the responsibilities listed below. Arguing a clients case before a judge or jury in a court of law is the province of the barrister in England. However, the boundary between barristers and solicitors has evolved, in England today, the barrister monopoly covers only appellate courts, and barristers must compete directly with solicitors in many trial courts
Lawyer
–
Dr Alberico Gentili (1552-1608), one of the best known lawyers.
Lawyer
–
A French lawyer
Lawyer
–
Law Faculty of
Comenius University in
Bratislava (Slovakia).
Lawyer
–
U.S. President Abraham Lincoln is a famous example of a lawyer who became a politician.
25.
Accountant
–
In many jurisdictions, professional accounting bodies maintain standards of practice and evaluations for professionals. Such professionals are granted certain responsibilities by statute, such as the ability to certify an organizations financial statements, non-qualified accountants may be employed by a qualified accountant, or may work independently without statutory privileges and obligations. The Big Four auditors are the largest employers of accountants worldwide, however, most accountants are employed in commerce, industry and the public sector. The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Scotland received its Royal Charter in 1854 and is the worlds first professional body of accountants, a Chartered Management Accountant must be a member of the Chartered Institute of Management Accountants. A Chartered Public Finance Accountant must be a member of the Chartered Institute of Public Finance, an International Accountant is a member of the Association of International Accountants. An Incorporated Financial Accountant is a member of the Institute of Financial Accountants, a Public Accountant may be a member of the Institute of Public Accountants. Registered Qualified Accountant is a member of Accountants Institute, excepting the Association of Certified Public Accountants, each of the above bodies admits members only after passing examinations and undergoing a period of relevant work experience. Once admitted, members are expected to comply with ethical guidelines, the ICAEW, ICAS, ICAI, ACCA and AAPA are five Recognised Supervisory Bodies RSB in the UK. It is illegal for any individual or firm that is not a Statutory Auditor to perform a company audit, the ICAEW, ICAS, ICAI, ACCA, AIA and CIPFA are six Recognised qualifying bodies statutory RQB in the UK. A member of one them may become a Statutory Auditor in accordance with the Companies Act. All six RQBs are listed under EU mutual recognition directives to practise in 27 EU member states, further restrictions apply to accountants who carry out insolvency work. In addition to the bodies above, technical qualifications are offered by the Association of Accounting Technicians, ACCA and AIA, other international bodies such as ACCA and Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales enjoy recognition for the purposes of supporting their members in their careers. For instance, ACCA has achieved recognition by the Tax Practitioner Board, as Tax and BAS agents, Chartered accountancy is governed in Bangladesh by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Bangladesh. And The Institute of Cost and Management Accountants of Bangladesh offers management accountant studies in Bangladesh, up to 2013, there were three nationally recognized accounting designations in Canada, Chartered Accountant, Certified General Accountant, and Certified Management Accountants. The national CA and CGA bodies were created by Acts of Parliament in 1902 and 1913 respectively, cGA-Canada integrated with CPA Canada on October 1,2014, completing the unification of Canada’s accounting profession at the national level. All recognized national and provincial accounting bodies in Canada have now unified under the CPA banner, the Canadian CPA designation is held by more than 200,000 members in Canada and around the world. Chartered accountancy is offered in India by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India and this Institute was established in 1949 under the Chartered Accountants Act,1949 for the regulation of the profession of Chartered Accountants in India. The ICAI set up the Accountancy Museum of India in 2009 and it is currently located at ICAIs office in Noida
Accountant
–
Accounting
26.
Dentist
–
A dentist, also known in the U. S. as a dental surgeon, is a surgeon who specializes in dentistry—the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases and conditions of the oral cavity. The dentists supporting team aids in providing health services. The dental team includes dental assistants, dental hygienists, dental technicians, in China as well as France, the first people to perform dentistry were barbers. They have been categorized into 2 distinct groups, guild of barbers, the first group, the Guild of Barbers, was created to distinguish more educated and qualified dental surgeons from lay barbers. Guild barbers were trained to do complex surgeries, the second group, the lay barbers, were qualified to perform regular hygienic services such as shaving and tooth extraction as well as basic surgery. However, in 1400 France made decrees prohibiting lay barbers from practicing all types of surgery, in Germany as well as France from 1530 to 1575 publications completely devoted to dentistry were being published. Ambrose Pare, often known as the Father of Surgery, published his own work about the proper maintenance, ambrose Pare was a French barber surgeon who performed dental care for multiple French monarchs. He is often credited with having raised the status of barber surgeons, pierre Fauchard of France is often referred to as the father of modern dentistry for being the first to publish a scientific textbook on the techniques and practices of dentistry. Over time, trained dentists immigrated from Europe to the Americas to practice dentistry, newspapers were used at the time to advertise and promote dental services. In America from 1768-1770 the first application of dentistry to verify forensic cases was being pioneered, with the rise of dentists there was also the rise of new methods to improve the quality of dentistry. These new methods included the spinning wheel to rotate a drill, in the 1840s the worlds first dental school and national dental organization were established. Along with the first dental school came the establishment of the Doctor of Dental Surgery degree, in response to the rise in new dentists as well as dentistry techniques, the first dental practice act was established to regulate dentistry. In the United States, the First Dental Practice Act required dentists to pass each specific states medical board exam in order to practice dentistry in particular state. However, because the act was rarely enforced, some dentists did not obey the act. From 1846-1855 new dental techniques were being invented such as the use of anesthesia for surgery. The American Dental Association was established in 1859 after a meeting with 26 dentists, around 1867, the first university associated dental school was established, Harvard Dental School. Lucy Hobbs Taylor was the first woman to earn a dental degree, in the 1880s, tube toothpaste was created which replaced the original forms of powder or liquid toothpaste. New dental boards, such as the National Association of Dental Examiners, were created to establish standards, in 1887 the first dental laboratory was established, dental laborites are used to create dentures and crowns that are specific to each patient
Dentist
–
A dentist and his assistant making a gold crown for a patient.
Dentist
–
A dentist in Finland treating a child
27.
Medical doctor
–
Both the role of the physician and the meaning of the word itself vary around the world. Degrees and other qualifications vary widely, but there are common elements, such as medical ethics requiring that physicians show consideration, compassion. Around the world the term refers to a specialist in internal medicine or one of its many sub-specialties. This meaning of physician conveys a sense of expertise in treatment by drugs or medications and this term is at least nine hundred years old in English, physicians and surgeons were once members of separate professions, and traditionally were rivals. Henry VIII granted a charter to the London Royal College of Physicians in 1518 and it was not until 1540 that he granted the Company of Barber/Surgeons its separate charter. In the same year, the English monarch established the Regius Professorship of Physic at the University of Cambridge, newer universities would probably describe such an academic as a professor of internal medicine. Hence, in the 16th century, physic meant roughly what internal medicine does now, currently, a specialist physician in the United States may be described as an internist. Another term, hospitalist, was introduced in 1996, to describe US specialists in internal medicine who work largely or exclusively in hospitals, such hospitalists now make up about 19% of all US general internists, who are often called general physicians in Commonwealth countries. In such places, the more general English terms doctor or medical practitioner are prevalent, in Commonwealth countries, specialist pediatricians and geriatricians are also described as specialist physicians who have sub-specialized by age of patient rather than by organ system. Around the world, the term physician and surgeon is used to describe either a general practitioner or any medical practitioner irrespective of specialty. This usage still shows the meaning of physician and preserves the old difference between a physician, as a practitioner of physic, and a surgeon. The term may be used by state medical boards in the United States of America, in modern English, the term physician is used in two main ways, with relatively broad and narrow meanings respectively. This is the result of history and is often confusing and these meanings and variations are explained below. In the United States and Canada, the term physician describes all medical practitioners holding a professional medical degree, the American Medical Association, established in 1847, as well as the American Osteopathic Association, founded in 1897, both currently use the term physician to describe members. However, the American College of Physicians, established in 1915, does not, its title uses physician in its original sense. A physician trained in the United States has either a Doctor of Medicine degree, all boards of certification now require that physicians demonstrate, by examination, continuing mastery of the core knowledge and skills for a chosen specialty. Recertification varies by particular specialty between every seven and every ten years, graduates of osteopathic medical schools in the United States should not be confused with osteopaths, who are trained in the European and Commonwealth nations. Their training is similar to physical therapy and they are not licensed to prescribe medications or perform surgeries, also in the United States, the American Podiatric Medical Association defines podiatrists as physicians and surgeons that fall under the department of surgery in hospitals
Medical doctor
–
"The Doctor" by
Luke Fildes (detail).
Medical doctor
–
The
Italian Francesco Redi, considered to be the founder of experimental biology, he was the first to recognize and correctly describe details of many important
parasites.
Medical doctor
–
Elizabeth Blackwell, the first female physician to receive a medical degree in the United States
28.
Day care
–
Child care or day care is the care of a child during the day by a person other than the childs legal guardians, typically performed by someone outside the childs immediate family. Day care is typically an ongoing service during specific periods, such as the time at work. The service is known as care in the United Kingdom, crèche in Ireland and New Zealand. The vast majority of childcare is still performed by the parents, in-house nannies or through informal arrangements with relatives, Child care in the childs own home is traditionally provided by a nanny or au pair, or by extended family members including grandparents, aunts and uncles. Child care is provided in nurseries or crèches or by a nanny or family child care provider caring for children in their own homes. It can also take on a formal structure, with education, child development, discipline. The day care industry is a continuum from personal care to large. Some childminders care for children from several families at the same time, some employers provide nursery provisions for their employees at or near the place of employment. For-profit day care corporations often exist where the market is large or there are government subsidies. Research shows that not-for-profits are much more likely to produce the high quality environments in which children thrive, local governments, often municipalities, may operate non-profit day care centers. For all providers, the largest expense is labor, local legislation may regulate the operation of daycare centers, affecting staffing requirements. In Canada, the workforce is female and low paid. Some jurisdictions require licensing or certification, legislation may specify details of the physical facilities. Independent studies suggest that good daycare is not harmful, in some cases, good daycare can provide different experiences than parental care does, especially when children reach two and are ready to interact with other children. Children in higher quality childcare had somewhat better language and cognitive development during the first 4½ years of life than those in lower quality care, Day care appeared in France about 1840, and the Société des Crèches was recognized by the French government in 1869. The Fitch Creche in Buffalo, New York was known as the first day center for working mothers in the United States, another at that time was the New York Day Nursery in 1854. The day care industry is a continuum from personal care to large. The vast majority of childcare is still performed by the parents, in-house nanny or through informal arrangements with relatives, however, for-profit day care corporations often exist where the market is sufficiently large or there are government subsidies
Day care
–
Children play under the supervision of a daycare staffer.
Day care
–
A worker drops off her child at a California day care center, 1943.
Day care
–
A daycare in 2009.
Day care
–
A child playing with a toy in a daycare.
29.
Retirement home
–
A retirement home – sometimes called an old peoples home or old age home, although this term can also refer to a nursing home – is a multi-residence housing facility intended for senior citizens. Typically, each person or couple in the home has a room or suite of rooms. Additional facilities are provided within the building and this can include facilities for meals, gatherings, recreation activities, and some form of health or hospice care. A place in a retirement home can be paid for on a basis, like an apartment. A retirement home differs from a nursing home primarily in the level of care given. Retirement communities, unlike retirement homes, offer separate and autonomous homes for residents, assisted living Media related to Retirement homes at Wikimedia Commons
Retirement home
–
An Israeli retirement home in
Tel Aviv in January 2010
30.
Genova
–
Genoa is the capital of the Italian region of Liguria and the sixth-largest city in Italy. In 2015,594,733 people lived within the administrative limits. As of the 2011 Italian census, the Province of Genoa, over 1.5 million people live in the wider metropolitan area stretching along the Italian Riviera. Genoa has been nicknamed la Superba due to its glorious past, part of the old town of Genoa was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2006. The citys rich history in notably its art, music. It is the birthplace of Christopher Columbus, Niccolò Paganini, Giuseppe Mazzini, Genoa, which forms the southern corner of the Milan-Turin-Genoa industrial triangle of north-west Italy, is one of the countrys major economic centres. The city has hosted massive shipyards and steelworks since the 19th century, the Bank of Saint George, founded in 1407, is among the oldest in the world and has played an important role in the citys prosperity since the middle of the 15th century. Today a number of leading Italian companies are based in the city, including Fincantieri, Selex ES, Ansaldo Energia, Ansaldo STS, Edoardo Raffinerie Garrone, Piaggio Aerospace, the Genoa area has been inhabited since the fifth or fourth millennium BC. In ancient times this area was frequented and inhabited by Ligures, Phoenicians, Phocaeans, Greeks, and Etruscans. The city cemetery, dating from the 6th and 5th centuries BC, testifies to the occupation of the site by the Greeks, but the fine harbour probably saw use much earlier, perhaps by the Etruscans. In the 5th century BC was founded the first oppidum at the foot of the today called the Castle Hill which now is inside the medieval old town. The ancient Ligurian city was known as Stalia, so referred to by Artemidorus Ephesius and Pomponius Mela, Ligurian Stalia was overshadowed by the powerful Marseille and Vada Sabatia, near modern Savona. Stalia had an alliance with Rome through a foedus aequum in the course of the Second Punic War, the Carthaginians accordingly destroyed it in 209 BC. The town was rebuilt and, after the Carthaginian Wars ended in 146 BC. it received municipal rights, the original castrum thenceforth expanded towards the current areas of Santa Maria di Castello and the San Lorenzo promontory. Trades included skins, wood, and honey, goods were shipped to the mainland, up to major cities like Tortona and Piacenza. Among the archeological remains from the Roman period, an amphitheatre was also found, another theory traces the name to the Etruscan word Kainua which means New City and still another from the Latin word ianua, related to the name of the God Janus, meaning door or passage. The latter is in reference to its position at the centre of the Ligurian coastal arch. The Latin name, oppidum Genua, is recorded by Pliny the Elder as part of the Augustean Regio IX Liguria, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Ostrogoths occupied Genoa
Genova
–
A collage of Genoa, clockwise from top left:
Torre della Lanterna,
Piazza de Ferrari, Galleria Mazzini, Brigata Liguria Street, view of San Teodoro from
Port of Genoa
Genova
–
The Polcevera bronze tablet, evidence of the Roman and pre-Roman past of Genoa.
Genova
–
Portrait of
Christopher Columbus by
Ridolfo Ghirlandaio
Genova
–
The iconic
Lanterna, renaissance lighthouse of Genoa built in 1543
31.
Italy
–
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
Italy
–
The
Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of
architecture and
engineering of ancient history.
Italy
–
Flag
Italy
–
The
Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the
Kings of Italy.
Italy
–
Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor
Frederick II,
UNESCO World Heritage site
32.
Entrepreneurship
–
What appears as a real opportunity ex ante might actually be a non-opportunity or one that cannot be actualized by entrepreneurs lacking the necessary business skills, financial or social capital. Traditionally, an entrepreneur has been defined as a person who starts, organizes and manages any enterprise, especially a business, usually with considerable initiative and risk. Rather than working as an employee, an entrepreneur runs a business and assumes all the risk and reward of a given business venture, idea. The entrepreneur is commonly seen as a leader and innovator of new ideas. They act as the manager and oversee the launch and growth of an enterprise, Entrepreneurship is the process by which an individual identifies a business opportunity and acquires and deploys the necessary resources required for its exploitation. For Schumpeter, the changes and dynamic disequilibrium brought on by the innovating entrepreneur, the ‘norm’ of a healthy economy. Entrepreneurial spirit is characterized by innovation and risk-taking, for example, in the 2000s, the field of social entrepreneurship has been identified, in which entrepreneurs combine business activities with humanitarian, environmental or community goals. In the 2010s, entrepreneurship can be studied in college or university as part of the disciplines of management or business administration, Entrepreneur, is a loanword from French. First used in 1723, today the term entrepreneur implies qualities of leadership, initiative, economist Robert Reich has called team-building, leadership, and management ability essential qualities for the entrepreneur. Historically the study of entrepreneurship reaches back to the work in the late 17th and early 18th centuries of Richard Cantillon and Adam Smith, which was foundational to classical economics. In the 20th century, entrepreneurship was studied by Joseph Schumpeter in the 1930s and other Austrian economists such as Carl Menger, Ludwig von Mises, the term entrepreneurship was coined around the 1920s, while the loan from French of the word entrepreneur dates to the 1850s. According to Schumpeter, an entrepreneur is willing and able to convert a new idea or invention into a successful innovation, thus, creative destruction is largely responsible for long-term economic growth. The idea that leads to economic growth is an interpretation of the residual in endogenous growth theory. For Schumpeter, entrepreneurship resulted in new industries and in new combinations of currently existing inputs, Schumpeters initial example of this was the combination of a steam engine and then current wagon making technologies to produce the horseless carriage. In this case the innovation, the car, was transformational and it did not immediately replace the horse-drawn carriage, but in time, incremental improvements reduced the cost and improved the technology, leading to the modern auto industry. Despite Schumpeters early 20th-century contributions, traditional microeconomic theory did not formally consider the entrepreneur in its theoretical frameworks, in this treatment, the entrepreneur was an implied but unspecified actor, consistent with the concept of the entrepreneur being the agent of x-efficiency. For Schumpeter, the entrepreneur did not bear risk, the capitalist did, Schumpeter was of the opinion that entrepreneurs shift the Production Possibility Curve to a higher level using innovations. Cantillon emphasized the willingness of the entrepreneur to assume risk and to deal with uncertainty, thus, he draws attention to the function of the entrepreneur, and distinguishes clearly between the function of the entrepreneur and the owner who provides the money
Entrepreneurship
–
Left to right,
Eric Schmidt,
Sergey Brin and
Larry Page of
Google, which is cited as an example of entrepreneurship and
disruptive innovation. As of the 2010s, Google is a huge corporation, but in the late 1990s, it started out as an entrepreneurial venture in a garage.
Entrepreneurship
–
In 2012, Ambassador-at-Large for Global Women's Issues
Melanne Verveer greeted participants in an African Women's Entrepreneurship Program at the State Department in Washington, D.C.
Entrepreneurship
–
British entrepreneur
Karren Brady has an estimated net worth of $123 million
Entrepreneurship
–
Dell Women's Entrepreneur
Network event in New York City, May 2013
33.
Venture capital
–
Venture capital firms or funds invest in these early-stage companies in exchange for equity–an ownership stake–in the companies they invest in. Venture capitalists take on the risk of financing risky start-ups in the hopes some of the firms they support will become successful. The start-ups are usually based on a technology or business model and they are usually from the high technology industries, such as information technology. The typical venture capital investment occurs after a seed funding round. The first round of venture capital to fund growth is called the Series A round. This institution helps identify promising new firms and provide them with finance, technical expertise, mentoring, marketing know-how, and business models. Once integrated into the network, these firms are more likely to succeed. However, venture capitalists decisions are often biased, exhibiting for instance overconfidence and illusion of control, a venture may be defined as a project prospective converted into a process with an adequate assumed risk and investment. With few exceptions, private equity in the first half of the 20th century was the domain of wealthy individuals, the Wallenbergs, Vanderbilts, Whitneys, Rockefellers, and Warburgs were notable investors in private companies in the first half of the century. In 1938, Laurance S. Rockefeller helped finance the creation of both Eastern Air Lines and Douglas Aircraft, and the Rockefeller family had vast holdings in a variety of companies. Eric M. Warburg founded E. M. Warburg & Co. in 1938, which would ultimately become Warburg Pincus, with investments in both leveraged buyouts and venture capital. The Wallenberg family started Investor AB in 1916 in Sweden and were early investors in several Swedish companies such as ABB, Atlas Copco, Ericsson, before World War II, money orders remained primarily the domain of wealthy individuals and families. Georges Doriot, the father of capitalism, founded INSEAD in 1957. Along with Ralph Flanders and Karl Compton, Doriot founded ARDC in 1946 to encourage investment in businesses run by soldiers returning from World War II. ARDC became the first institutional private-equity investment firm to raise capital from other than wealthy families. ARDC is credited with the first trick when its 1957 investment of $70,000 in Digital Equipment Corporation would be valued at over $355 million after the initial public offering in 1968. Former employees of ARDC went on to several prominent venture-capital firms including Greylock Partners and Morgan, Holland Ventures. ARDC continued investing until 1971, when Doriot retired, in 1972 Doriot merged ARDC with Textron after having invested in over 150 companies
Venture capital
–
A highway exit for
Sand Hill Road in
Menlo Park, California, where many Bay Area venture capital firms are based
Venture capital
–
Technology in Israel
Venture capital
–
Basic investment types
34.
Angel investor
–
An angel investor is an affluent individual who provides capital for a business start-up, usually in exchange for convertible debt or ownership equity. A similar term is patron, commonly used in arts, Angel investors are often retired entrepreneurs or executives, who may be interested in angel investing for reasons that go beyond pure monetary return. Thus, in addition to funds, angel investors can provide valuable management advice. According to the Center for Venture Research, there were 258,000 active angel investors in the U. S. in 2007. According to literature reviewed by the US Small Business Administration, the number of individuals in the US who made an investment between 2001 and 2003 is between 300,000 and 600,000. Beginning in the late 1980s, angels started to coalesce into groups with the goal of sharing deal flow and due diligence work. Angel groups are generally local organizations made up of 10 to 150 accredited investors interested in early-stage investing, in 1996 there were about 10 angel groups in the United States. There were over 200 as of 2006, Angels typically invest their own funds, unlike venture capitalists who manage the pooled money of others in a professionally managed fund. Angel capital fills the gap in seed funding between friends and family and more robust start-up financing through formal venture capital, there is no set amount for angel investors, and the range can go anywhere from a few thousand, to a few million dollars. While more readily available than venture financing, angel investment is still difficult to raise. However some new models are developing that are trying to make this easier, Angel investments bear extremely high risks and are usually subject to dilution from future investment rounds. As such, they require a high return on investment. Total investments in 2011 were $22.5 billion, an increase of 12.1 percent over 2010 when investments totalled $20.1 billion. In the United States, angels are generally accredited investors in order to comply with current SEC regulations, in 2013, 41% of tech sector executives name angel investors as a means of funding. A study by NESTA in 2009 estimated that there were between 4,000 and 6,000 angel investors in the UK with an average investment size of £42,000 per investment. Furthermore, each angel investor on average acquired 8 percent of the venture in the deal with 10 percent of investments accounting for more than 20 percent of the venture. In terms of returns,35 percent of investments produced returns of between one and five times of the investment, whilst 9 percent produced returns of multiples of ten times or more. The mean return, however, was 2.2 times investment in 3.6 years, the UK Business Angel market grew in 2009/2010 and, despite recessionary concerns, continues to show signs of growth
Angel investor
–
Basic investment types
35.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
–
Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
–
Flag
United States
–
The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
36.
Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act
–
The Affordable Care Act was designed to increase health insurance quality and affordability, lower the uninsured rate by expanding insurance coverage and reduce the costs of healthcare. It introduced mechanisms including mandates, subsidies and insurance exchanges, the law requires insurers to accept all applicants, cover a specific list of conditions and charge the same rates regardless of pre-existing conditions or sex. The ACA has caused a significant reduction in the number and percentage of people without health insurance, increases in overall healthcare spending have slowed since the law was implemented, including premiums for employer-based insurance plans. The Congressional Budget Office reported in studies that the ACA would reduce the budget deficit. As implementation began, first opponents, then others, and finally the president himself adopted the term Obamacare to refer to the ACA. The law and its implementation faced challenges in Congress and federal courts, and from state governments, conservative advocacy groups, labor unions. The ACA includes provisions to take effect between 2010 and 2020, although most took effect on January 1,2014, few areas of the US health care system were left untouched, making it the most sweeping health care reform since the enactment of Medicare and Medicaid in 1965. However, some areas were more affected than others, most of the coverage gains were made through the expansion of Medicaid, and the biggest cost savings were made in Medicare. Some regulations applied to the market, and the law also made delivery system changes that affected most of the health care system. Not all provisions took full effect, some were made discretionary, some were deferred, and others were repealed before implementation. Guaranteed issue prohibits insurers from denying coverage to individuals due to pre-existing conditions, States were required to ensure the availability of insurance for individual children who did not have coverage via their families. The law provides a 5% income disregard, making the income eligibility limit for Medicaid 138% of the poverty level. The State Childrens Health Insurance Program enrollment process was simplified, among the groups who remained uninsured were, Illegal immigrants, estimated at around 8 million—or roughly a third of the 23 million projection—are ineligible for insurance subsidies and Medicaid. They remain eligible for emergency services, eligible citizens not enrolled in Medicaid. Citizens who pay the penalty instead of purchasing insurance, mostly younger. Citizens whose insurance coverage would cost more than 8% of household income and are exempt from the penalty, citizens who live in states that opt out of the Medicaid expansion and who qualify for neither existing Medicaid coverage nor subsidized coverage through the states new insurance exchanges. Households with incomes between 100% and 400% of the poverty level were eligible to receive federal subsidies for policies purchased via an exchange. Subsidies are provided as an advanceable, refundable tax credits, additionally, small businesses are eligible for a tax credit provided that they enroll in the SHOP Marketplace
Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act
–
The President and White House Staff react to the House of Representatives passing the bill on March 21, 2010.
Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act
–
Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act
Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act
–
John Chafee
Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act
–
Mitt Romney's
Massachusetts went from 90% of its residents insured to 98%, the highest rate in the nation.
37.
Sales
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A sale is the exchange of a commodity or money as the price of a good or a service. Sales is activity related to selling or the amount of goods or services sold in a time period. The seller or the provider of the goods or services completes a sale in response to an acquisition, appropriation, requisition or an interaction with the buyer at the point of sale. There is a passing of title of the item, and the settlement of a price, the seller, not the purchaser generally executes the sale and it may be completed prior to the obligation of payment. In common law countries, sales are governed generally by the common law, a person or organization expressing an interest in acquiring the offered item of value is referred to as a potential buyer, prospective customer or prospect. Buying and selling are understood to be two sides of the coin or transaction. Both seller and buyer engage in a process of negotiation to consummate the exchange of values, the exchange, or selling, process has implied rules and identifiable stages. It is implied that the process will proceed fairly and ethically so that the parties end up nearly equally rewarded. Sometimes, sellers have to use their own experiences when selling products with appropriate discounts, from a management viewpoint it is thought of as a part of marketing, although the skills required are different. Sales often forms a separate grouping in a structure, employing separate specialist operatives known as salespersons. Selling is considered by many to be a sort of persuading art, selling is the profession-wide term, much like marketing defines a profession. Recently, attempts have been made to understand who is in the sales profession. There are many articles looking at marketing, advertising, promotions, two common terms used to describe a salesperson are Farmer and Hunter. The reality is that most professional sales people have a little of both, a hunter is often associated with aggressive personalities who use aggressive sales technique. In terms of sales methodology a hunter refers to a person whose focus is on bringing in and this process is called sales capturing. An example is a commodity such as a long distance sales person, shoe sales person. Their job is to find and convert buyers, a sales farmer is someone who creates sales demand by activities that directly influence and alter the buying process. Many believe that the focus of selling is on the agents involved in the exchange between buyer and seller
Sales
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Vegetable seller at a market in
Porto Covo,
Portugal.
Sales
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A beach salesman showing necklaces to a
tourist in
Mexico.
38.
Assets
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In financial accounting, an asset is an economic resource. Anything tangible or intangible that can be owned or controlled to produce value, simply stated, assets represent value of ownership that can be converted into cash. The balance sheet of a firm records the value of the assets owned by that firm. It covers money and other valuables belonging to an individual or to a business, one can classify assets into two major asset classes, tangible assets and intangible assets. Tangible assets contain various subclasses, including current assets and fixed assets, current assets include inventory, while fixed assets include such items as buildings and equipment. Intangible assets are resources and rights that have a value to the firm because they give the firm some kind of advantage in the marketplace. Examples of intangible assets include goodwill, copyrights, trademarks, patents and computer programs, an asset is a resource controlled by the entity as a result of past events and from which future economic benefits are expected to flow to the entity. One of the most widely accepted accounting definitions of asset is the one used by the International Accounting Standards Board, employees are not considered assets like machinery is, even though they can generate future economic benefits. This is because an entity does not have sufficient control over its employees to satisfy the Frameworks definition of an asset, similarly, in economics an asset is any form in which wealth can be held. The accounting equation is the structure of the balance sheet. It relates assets, liabilities, and owners equity, Assets = Liabilities + Capital Liabilities = Assets − Capital Equity = Assets − Liabilities Assets are listed on the balance sheet. On a companys balance sheet certain divisions are required by generally accepted accounting principles, Assets can be divided into e. g. current assets and fixed assets, often with further subdivisions such as cash, receivables and inventory. Assets are formally controlled and managed within larger organizations via the use of asset tracking tools and these monitor the purchasing, upgrading, servicing, licensing, disposal etc. of both physical and non-physical assets. Current assets are cash and other assets expected to be converted to cash or consumed either in a year or in the operating cycle and these assets are continually turned over in the course of a business during normal business activity. There are 5 major items included into current assets, Cash and cash equivalents – it is the most liquid asset, which includes currency, deposit accounts, short-term investments – include securities bought and held for sale in the near future to generate income on short-term price differences. Receivables – usually reported as net of allowance for non-collectable accounts, inventory – trading these assets is a normal business of a company. The inventory value reported on the sheet is usually the historical cost or fair market value. This is known as the lower of cost or market rule, prepaid expenses – these are expenses paid in cash and recorded as assets before they are used or consumed
Assets
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Accounting
39.
Net profit
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Net profit, also referred to as the bottom line, net income, or net earnings is a measure of the profitability of a venture after accounting for all costs. It is the actual profit without inclusion of working expense in the calculation of gross profit, in a survey of nearly 200 senior marketing managers, 91% responded that they found the net profit metric very useful. In accounting, net profit is equal to the gross profit minus overheads, a common synonym for net profit when discussing financial statements is the bottom line. In simplistic terms, net profit is the left over after paying all the expenses of an endeavor. In practice this can get very complex in large organizations or endeavors, the bookkeeper or accountant must itemise and allocate revenues and expenses properly to the specific working scope and context in which the term is applied. Definitions of the term can, however, vary between the UK and US, in the US, net profit is often associated with net income or profit after tax. The net profit margin percentage is a related ratio and this figure is calculated by dividing net profit by revenue or turnover, and it represents profitability, as a percentage. How does a company decide whether it is successful or not, probably the most common way is to look at the net profits of the business. Given that companies are collections of projects and markets, individual areas can be judged on how successful they are at adding to the net profit. Net profit, To calculate net profit for a venture, subtract all costs, including a share of total corporate overheads. Net profit = sales revenue − total costs Net profit is a measure of the profitability of the venture. It is the revenues of the activity less the costs of the activity, when needs to be allocated across ventures. Almost by definition, overheads are costs that cannot be tied to any specific project, product. The classic example would be the cost of headquarters staff, although it is theoretically possible to calculate profits for any sub-, such as a product or region, often the calculations are rendered suspect by the need to allocate overhead costs. Because overhead costs generally don’t come in packages, their allocation across ventures is not an exact science
Net profit
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Accounting
40.
Revenue
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In accounting, revenue is the income that a business has from its normal business activities, usually from the sale of goods and services to customers. Revenue is also referred to as sales or turnover, some companies receive revenue from interest, royalties, or other fees. Revenue may refer to income in general, or it may refer to the amount, in a monetary unit, received during a period of time, as in Last year. Profits or net income generally imply total revenue minus total expenses in a given period, in accounting, revenue is often referred to as the top line due to its position on the income statement at the very top. This is to be contrasted with the line which denotes net income. For non-profit organizations, annual revenue may be referred to as gross receipts, in general usage, revenue is income received by an organization in the form of cash or cash equivalents. Sales revenue or revenues is income received from selling goods or services over a period of time, tax revenue is income that a government receives from taxpayers. In more formal usage, revenue is a calculation or estimation of periodic income based on a standard accounting practice or the rules established by a government or government agency. Two common accounting methods, cash basis accounting and accrual basis accounting, corporations that offer shares for sale to the public are usually required by law to report revenue based on generally accepted accounting principles or International Financial Reporting Standards. In a double-entry bookkeeping system, revenue accounts are general ledger accounts that are summarized periodically under the heading Revenue or Revenues on an income statement, Revenue account names describe the type of revenue, such as Repair service revenue, Rent revenue earned or Sales. Money income from activities that are ordinary for a corporation, company, partnership. For some businesses, such as manufacturing and/or grocery, most revenue is from the sale of goods, service businesses such as law firms and barber shops receive most of their revenue from rendering services. Lending businesses such as car rentals and banks receive most of their revenue from fees, Revenues from a businesss primary activities are reported as sales, sales revenue or net sales. This includes product returns and discounts for early payment of invoices, most businesses also have revenue that is incidental to the businesss primary activities, such as interest earned on deposits in a demand account. This is included in revenue but not included in net sales, Sales revenue does not include sales tax collected by the business. Other revenue is revenue from peripheral operations, for example, a company that manufactures and sells automobiles would record the revenue from the sale of an automobile as regular revenue. The combination of all the revenue generating systems of a business is called its revenue model, Revenue is a crucial part of financial statement analysis. The company’s performance is measured to the extent to which its asset inflows compare with its asset outflows, net income is the result of this equation, but revenue typically enjoys equal attention during a standard earnings call
Revenue
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Accounting
