1.
ChemSpider
–
ChemSpider is a database of chemicals. ChemSpider is owned by the Royal Society of Chemistry, the database contains information on more than 50 million molecules from over 500 data sources including, Each chemical is given a unique identifier, which forms part of a corresponding URL. This is an approach to develop an online chemistry database. The search can be used to widen or restrict already found results, structure searching on mobile devices can be done using free apps for iOS and for the Android. The ChemSpider database has been used in combination with text mining as the basis of document markup. The result is a system between chemistry documents and information look-up via ChemSpider into over 150 data sources. ChemSpider was acquired by the Royal Society of Chemistry in May,2009, prior to the acquisition by RSC, ChemSpider was controlled by a private corporation, ChemZoo Inc. The system was first launched in March 2007 in a release form. ChemSpider has expanded the generic support of a database to include support of the Wikipedia chemical structure collection via their WiChempedia implementation. A number of services are available online. SyntheticPages is an interactive database of synthetic chemistry procedures operated by the Royal Society of Chemistry. Users submit synthetic procedures which they have conducted themselves for publication on the site and these procedures may be original works, but they are more often based on literature reactions. Citations to the published procedure are made where appropriate. They are checked by an editor before posting. The pages do not undergo formal peer-review like a journal article. The comments are moderated by scientific editors. The intention is to collect practical experience of how to conduct useful chemical synthesis in the lab, while experimental methods published in an ordinary academic journal are listed formally and concisely, the procedures in ChemSpider SyntheticPages are given with more practical detail. Comments by submitters are included as well, other publications with comparable amounts of detail include Organic Syntheses and Inorganic Syntheses
ChemSpider
–
ChemSpider
2.
E number
–
E numbers are codes for substances that are permitted to be used as food additives for use within the European Union and Switzerland. Commonly found on labels, their safety assessment and approval are the responsibility of the European Food Safety Authority. Having a single unified list for food additives was first agreed upon in 1962 with food colouring, in 1964, the directives for preservatives were added,1970 for antioxidants and 1974 for the emulsifiers, stabilisers, thickeners and gelling agents. They are increasingly, though rarely, found on North American packaging. In some European countries, E number is used informally as a pejorative term for artificial food additives. This is incorrect, because many components of foods have E numbers, e. g. vitamin C. NB, Not all examples of a fall into the given numeric range. Moreover, many chemicals, particularly in the E400–499 range, have a variety of purposes, the list shows all components that have or had an E-number assigned. Not all additives listed are still allowed in the EU, but are listed as they used to have an E-number, for an overview of currently allowed additives see here. Includes Lists of authorised food additives Food additives database
E number
–
A solution of E101
riboflavin (also known as vitamin B2)
E number
–
Crystals of E621
Monosodium glutamate, a flavour enhancer
3.
PubChem
–
PubChem is a database of chemical molecules and their activities against biological assays. The system is maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information, a component of the National Library of Medicine, PubChem can be accessed for free through a web user interface. Millions of compound structures and descriptive datasets can be downloaded via FTP. PubChem contains substance descriptions and small molecules with fewer than 1000 atoms and 1000 bonds, more than 80 database vendors contribute to the growing PubChem database. PubChem consists of three dynamically growing primary databases, as of 28 January 2016, Compounds,82.6 million entries, contains pure and characterized chemical compounds. Substances,198 million entries, contains also mixtures, extracts, complexes, bioAssay, bioactivity results from 1.1 million high-throughput screening programs with several million values. PubChem contains its own online molecule editor with SMILES/SMARTS and InChI support that allows the import and export of all common chemical file formats to search for structures and fragments. In the text search form the database fields can be searched by adding the name in square brackets to the search term. A numeric range is represented by two separated by a colon. The search terms and field names are case-insensitive, parentheses and the logical operators AND, OR, and NOT can be used. AND is assumed if no operator is used, example,0,5000,50,10 -5,5 PubChem was released in 2004. The American Chemical Society has raised concerns about the publicly supported PubChem database and they have a strong interest in the issue since the Chemical Abstracts Service generates a large percentage of the societys revenue. To advocate their position against the PubChem database, ACS has actively lobbied the US Congress, soon after PubChems creation, the American Chemical Society lobbied U. S. Congress to restrict the operation of PubChem, which they asserted competes with their Chemical Abstracts Service
PubChem
–
PubChem
4.
International Chemical Identifier
–
Initially developed by IUPAC and NIST from 2000 to 2005, the format and algorithms are non-proprietary. The continuing development of the standard has supported since 2010 by the not-for-profit InChI Trust. The current version is 1.04 and was released in September 2011, prior to 1.04, the software was freely available under the open source LGPL license, but it now uses a custom license called IUPAC-InChI Trust License. Not all layers have to be provided, for instance, the layer can be omitted if that type of information is not relevant to the particular application. InChIs can thus be seen as akin to a general and extremely formalized version of IUPAC names and they can express more information than the simpler SMILES notation and differ in that every structure has a unique InChI string, which is important in database applications. Information about the 3-dimensional coordinates of atoms is not represented in InChI, the InChI algorithm converts input structural information into a unique InChI identifier in a three-step process, normalization, canonicalization, and serialization. The InChIKey, sometimes referred to as a hashed InChI, is a fixed length condensed digital representation of the InChI that is not human-understandable. The InChIKey specification was released in September 2007 in order to facilitate web searches for chemical compounds and it should be noted that, unlike the InChI, the InChIKey is not unique, though collisions can be calculated to be very rare, they happen. In January 2009 the final 1.02 version of the InChI software was released and this provided a means to generate so called standard InChI, which does not allow for user selectable options in dealing with the stereochemistry and tautomeric layers of the InChI string. The standard InChIKey is then the hashed version of the standard InChI string, the standard InChI will simplify comparison of InChI strings and keys generated by different groups, and subsequently accessed via diverse sources such as databases and web resources. Every InChI starts with the string InChI= followed by the version number and this is followed by the letter S for standard InChIs. The remaining information is structured as a sequence of layers and sub-layers, the layers and sub-layers are separated by the delimiter / and start with a characteristic prefix letter. The six layers with important sublayers are, Main layer Chemical formula and this is the only sublayer that must occur in every InChI. The atoms in the formula are numbered in sequence, this sublayer describes which atoms are connected by bonds to which other ones. Describes how many hydrogen atoms are connected to each of the other atoms, the condensed,27 character standard InChIKey is a hashed version of the full standard InChI, designed to allow for easy web searches of chemical compounds. Most chemical structures on the Web up to 2007 have been represented as GIF files, the full InChI turned out to be too lengthy for easy searching, and therefore the InChIKey was developed. With all databases currently having below 50 million structures, such duplication appears unlikely at present, a recent study more extensively studies the collision rate finding that the experimental collision rate is in agreement with the theoretical expectations. Example, Morphine has the structure shown on the right, as the InChI cannot be reconstructed from the InChIKey, an InChIKey always needs to be linked to the original InChI to get back to the original structure
International Chemical Identifier
–
L -
ascorbic acid
5.
Simplified molecular-input line-entry system
–
The simplified molecular-input line-entry system is a specification in form of a line notation for describing the structure of chemical species using short ASCII strings. SMILES strings can be imported by most molecule editors for conversion back into two-dimensional drawings or three-dimensional models of the molecules, the original SMILES specification was initiated in the 1980s. It has since modified and extended. In 2007, a standard called OpenSMILES was developed in the open-source chemistry community. Other linear notations include the Wiswesser Line Notation, ROSDAL and SLN, the original SMILES specification was initiated by David Weininger at the USEPA Mid-Continent Ecology Division Laboratory in Duluth in the 1980s. The Environmental Protection Agency funded the project to develop SMILES. It has since modified and extended by others, most notably by Daylight Chemical Information Systems. In 2007, a standard called OpenSMILES was developed by the Blue Obelisk open-source chemistry community. Other linear notations include the Wiswesser Line Notation, ROSDAL and SLN, in July 2006, the IUPAC introduced the InChI as a standard for formula representation. SMILES is generally considered to have the advantage of being slightly more human-readable than InChI, the term SMILES refers to a line notation for encoding molecular structures and specific instances should strictly be called SMILES strings. However, the term SMILES is also used to refer to both a single SMILES string and a number of SMILES strings, the exact meaning is usually apparent from the context. The terms canonical and isomeric can lead to confusion when applied to SMILES. The terms describe different attributes of SMILES strings and are not mutually exclusive, typically, a number of equally valid SMILES strings can be written for a molecule. For example, CCO, OCC and CC all specify the structure of ethanol, algorithms have been developed to generate the same SMILES string for a given molecule, of the many possible strings, these algorithms choose only one of them. This SMILES is unique for each structure, although dependent on the algorithm used to generate it. These algorithms first convert the SMILES to a representation of the molecular structure. A common application of canonical SMILES is indexing and ensuring uniqueness of molecules in a database, there is currently no systematic comparison across commercial software to test if such flaws exist in those packages. SMILES notation allows the specification of configuration at tetrahedral centers, and these are structural features that cannot be specified by connectivity alone and SMILES which encode this information are termed isomeric SMILES
Simplified molecular-input line-entry system
–
Generation of SMILES: Break cycles, then write as branches off a main backbone. (Ciprofloxacin)
6.
Chemical formula
–
These are limited to a single typographic line of symbols, which may include subscripts and superscripts. A chemical formula is not a name, and it contains no words. Although a chemical formula may imply certain simple chemical structures, it is not the same as a full chemical structural formula. Chemical formulas can fully specify the structure of only the simplest of molecules and chemical substances, the simplest types of chemical formulas are called empirical formulas, which use letters and numbers indicating the numerical proportions of atoms of each type. Molecular formulas indicate the numbers of each type of atom in a molecule. For example, the formula for glucose is CH2O, while its molecular formula is C6H12O6. This is possible if the relevant bonding is easy to show in one dimension, an example is the condensed molecular/chemical formula for ethanol, which is CH3-CH2-OH or CH3CH2OH. For reasons of structural complexity, there is no condensed chemical formula that specifies glucose, chemical formulas may be used in chemical equations to describe chemical reactions and other chemical transformations, such as the dissolving of ionic compounds into solution. A chemical formula identifies each constituent element by its chemical symbol, in empirical formulas, these proportions begin with a key element and then assign numbers of atoms of the other elements in the compound, as ratios to the key element. For molecular compounds, these numbers can all be expressed as whole numbers. For example, the formula of ethanol may be written C2H6O because the molecules of ethanol all contain two carbon atoms, six hydrogen atoms, and one oxygen atom. Some types of compounds, however, cannot be written with entirely whole-number empirical formulas. An example is boron carbide, whose formula of CBn is a variable non-whole number ratio with n ranging from over 4 to more than 6.5. When the chemical compound of the consists of simple molecules. These types of formulas are known as molecular formulas and condensed formulas. A molecular formula enumerates the number of atoms to reflect those in the molecule, so that the formula for glucose is C6H12O6 rather than the glucose empirical formula. However, except for very simple substances, molecular chemical formulas lack needed structural information, for simple molecules, a condensed formula is a type of chemical formula that may fully imply a correct structural formula. For example, ethanol may be represented by the chemical formula CH3CH2OH
Chemical formula
–
Al 2 (SO 4) 3
7.
Odor
–
An odor or odour or fragrance is caused by one or more volatilized chemical compounds, generally at a very low concentration, that humans or other animals perceive by the sense of olfaction. Odors are also commonly called scents, which can refer to both pleasant and unpleasant odors, the terms fragrance and aroma are used primarily by the food and cosmetic industry to describe a pleasant odor, and are sometimes used to refer to perfumes, and to describe floral scent. In contrast, malodor, stench, reek, and stink are used specifically to describe unpleasant odor, the term smell is used for both pleasant and unpleasant odors. In the United Kingdom, odour refers to scents in general, the sense of smell gives rise to the perception of odors, mediated by the olfactory nerve. The olfactory receptor cells are present in the olfactory epithelium. There are millions of olfactory receptor neurons that act as sensory signaling cells, each neuron has cilia in direct contact with air. The olfactory nerve is considered the smell mediator, the axon connects the brain to the external air, odorous molecules act as a chemical stimulus. Molecules bind to receptor proteins extended from cilia, initiating an electric signal, thus, by using a chemical that binds to copper in the mouse nose, so that copper wasn’t available to the receptors, the authors showed that the mice couldnt detect the thiols. However, these also found that MOR244-3 lacks the specific metal ion binding site suggested by Suslick. When the signal reaches a threshold, the fires, sending a signal traveling along the axon to the olfactory bulb. Interpretation of the begins, relating the smell to past experiences. The olfactory bulb acts as a station connecting the nose to the olfactory cortex in the brain. Olfactory information is processed and projected through a pathway to the central nervous system. Odor sensation usually depends on the concentration available to the olfactory receptors, the olfactory system does not interpret a single compound, but instead the whole odorous mix, not necessarily corresponding to concentration or intensity of any single constituent. The widest range of odors consists of compounds, although some simple compounds not containing carbon, such as hydrogen sulfide. The perception of an effect is a two-step process. First, there is the part, the detection of stimuli by receptors in the nose. The stimuli are processed by the region of the brain which is responsible for olfaction
Odor
–
"Smell", from Allegory of the senses by
Jan Brueghel the Elder,
Museo del Prado
Odor
–
Odor control covers at a
sewage treatment plant: Under these covers, grit and gravel are settled out of the wastewater.
8.
Density
–
The density, or more precisely, the volumetric mass density, of a substance is its mass per unit volume. The symbol most often used for density is ρ, although the Latin letter D can also be used. Mathematically, density is defined as mass divided by volume, ρ = m V, where ρ is the density, m is the mass, and V is the volume. In some cases, density is defined as its weight per unit volume. For a pure substance the density has the numerical value as its mass concentration. Different materials usually have different densities, and density may be relevant to buoyancy, purity, osmium and iridium are the densest known elements at standard conditions for temperature and pressure but certain chemical compounds may be denser. Thus a relative density less than one means that the floats in water. The density of a material varies with temperature and pressure and this variation is typically small for solids and liquids but much greater for gases. Increasing the pressure on an object decreases the volume of the object, increasing the temperature of a substance decreases its density by increasing its volume. In most materials, heating the bottom of a results in convection of the heat from the bottom to the top. This causes it to rise relative to more dense unheated material, the reciprocal of the density of a substance is occasionally called its specific volume, a term sometimes used in thermodynamics. Density is a property in that increasing the amount of a substance does not increase its density. Archimedes knew that the irregularly shaped wreath could be crushed into a cube whose volume could be calculated easily and compared with the mass, upon this discovery, he leapt from his bath and ran naked through the streets shouting, Eureka. As a result, the term eureka entered common parlance and is used today to indicate a moment of enlightenment, the story first appeared in written form in Vitruvius books of architecture, two centuries after it supposedly took place. Some scholars have doubted the accuracy of this tale, saying among other things that the method would have required precise measurements that would have been difficult to make at the time, from the equation for density, mass density has units of mass divided by volume. As there are units of mass and volume covering many different magnitudes there are a large number of units for mass density in use. The SI unit of kilogram per metre and the cgs unit of gram per cubic centimetre are probably the most commonly used units for density.1,000 kg/m3 equals 1 g/cm3. In industry, other larger or smaller units of mass and or volume are often more practical, see below for a list of some of the most common units of density
Density
–
Air density vs. temperature
9.
Melting point
–
The melting point of a solid is the temperature at which it changes state from solid to liquid at atmospheric pressure. At the melting point the solid and liquid phase exist in equilibrium, the melting point of a substance depends on pressure and is usually specified at standard pressure. When considered as the temperature of the change from liquid to solid. Because of the ability of some substances to supercool, the point is not considered as a characteristic property of a substance. For most substances, melting and freezing points are approximately equal, for example, the melting point and freezing point of mercury is 234.32 kelvins. However, certain substances possess differing solid-liquid transition temperatures, for example, agar melts at 85 °C and solidifies from 31 °C to 40 °C, such direction dependence is known as hysteresis. The melting point of ice at 1 atmosphere of pressure is close to 0 °C. In the presence of nucleating substances the freezing point of water is the same as the melting point, the chemical element with the highest melting point is tungsten, at 3687 K, this property makes tungsten excellent for use as filaments in light bulbs. Many laboratory techniques exist for the determination of melting points, a Kofler bench is a metal strip with a temperature gradient. Any substance can be placed on a section of the strip revealing its thermal behaviour at the temperature at that point, differential scanning calorimetry gives information on melting point together with its enthalpy of fusion. A basic melting point apparatus for the analysis of crystalline solids consists of an oil bath with a transparent window, the several grains of a solid are placed in a thin glass tube and partially immersed in the oil bath. The oil bath is heated and with the aid of the melting of the individual crystals at a certain temperature can be observed. In large/small devices, the sample is placed in a heating block, the measurement can also be made continuously with an operating process. For instance, oil refineries measure the point of diesel fuel online, meaning that the sample is taken from the process. This allows for more frequent measurements as the sample does not have to be manually collected, for refractory materials the extremely high melting point may be determined by heating the material in a black body furnace and measuring the black-body temperature with an optical pyrometer. For the highest melting materials, this may require extrapolation by several hundred degrees, the spectral radiance from an incandescent body is known to be a function of its temperature. An optical pyrometer matches the radiance of a body under study to the radiance of a source that has been previously calibrated as a function of temperature, in this way, the measurement of the absolute magnitude of the intensity of radiation is unnecessary. However, known temperatures must be used to determine the calibration of the pyrometer, for temperatures above the calibration range of the source, an extrapolation technique must be employed
Melting point
–
Melting points (in blue) and boiling points (in pink) of the first eight
carboxylic acids (°C)
Melting point
–
Kofler bench with samples for calibration
Melting point
–
Automatic digital melting point meter
Melting point
–
Pressure dependence of water melting point
10.
Aqueous solution
–
An aqueous solution is a solution in which the solvent is water. It is usually shown in chemical equations by appending to the relevant chemical formula, for example, a solution of table salt, or sodium chloride, in water would be represented as Na+ + Cl−. The word aqueous means pertaining to, related to, similar to, as water is an excellent solvent and is also naturally abundant, it is a ubiquitous solvent in chemistry. Substances that are hydrophobic often do not dissolve well in water, an example of a hydrophilic substance is sodium chloride. Acids and bases are aqueous solutions, as part of their Arrhenius definitions, the ability of a substance to dissolve in water is determined by whether the substance can match or exceed the strong attractive forces that water molecules generate between themselves. If the substance lacks the ability to dissolve in water the molecules form a precipitate, reactions in aqueous solutions are usually metathesis reactions. Metathesis reactions are another term for double-displacement, that is, when a cation displaces to form a bond with the other anion. The cation bonded with the latter anion will dissociate and bond with the other anion, aqueous solutions that conduct electric current efficiently contain strong electrolytes, while ones that conduct poorly are considered to have weak electrolytes. Those strong electrolytes are substances that are ionized in water. Nonelectrolytes are substances that dissolve in water yet maintain their molecular integrity, examples include sugar, urea, glycerol, and methylsulfonylmethane. When writing the equations of reactions, it is essential to determine the precipitate. To determine the precipitate, one must consult a chart of solubility, soluble compounds are aqueous, while insoluble compounds are the precipitate. Remember that there may not always be a precipitate, when performing calculations regarding the reacting of one or more aqueous solutions, in general one must know the concentration, or molarity, of the aqueous solutions. Solution concentration is given in terms of the form of the prior to it dissolving. Metal ions in aqueous solution Solubility Dissociation Acid-base reaction theories Properties of water Zumdahl S.1997, 4th ed. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company
Aqueous solution
–
The first
solvation shell of a sodium ion dissolved in water.
11.
Solubility
–
Solubility is the property of a solid, liquid, or gaseous chemical substance called solute to dissolve in a solid, liquid, or gaseous solvent. The solubility of a substance depends on the physical and chemical properties of the solute and solvent as well as on temperature, pressure. The solubility of a substance is a different property from the rate of solution. Most often, the solvent is a liquid, which can be a substance or a mixture. One may also speak of solid solution, but rarely of solution in a gas, the extent of solubility ranges widely, from infinitely soluble such as ethanol in water, to poorly soluble, such as silver chloride in water. The term insoluble is often applied to poorly or very poorly soluble compounds, a common threshold to describe something as insoluble is less than 0.1 g per 100 mL of solvent. Under certain conditions, the solubility can be exceeded to give a so-called supersaturated solution. Metastability of crystals can also lead to apparent differences in the amount of a chemical that dissolves depending on its form or particle size. A supersaturated solution generally crystallises when seed crystals are introduced and rapid equilibration occurs, phenylsalicylate is one such simple observable substance when fully melted and then cooled below its fusion point. Solubility is not to be confused with the ability to dissolve a substance, for example, zinc dissolves in hydrochloric acid as a result of a chemical reaction releasing hydrogen gas in a displacement reaction. The zinc ions are soluble in the acid, the smaller a particle is, the faster it dissolves although there are many factors to add to this generalization. Crucially solubility applies to all areas of chemistry, geochemistry, inorganic, physical, organic, in all cases it will depend on the physical conditions and the enthalpy and entropy directly relating to the solvents and solutes concerned. By far the most common solvent in chemistry is water which is a solvent for most ionic compounds as well as a range of organic substances. This is a factor in acidity/alkalinity and much environmental and geochemical work. According to the IUPAC definition, solubility is the composition of a saturated solution expressed as a proportion of a designated solute in a designated solvent. Solubility may be stated in units of concentration such as molarity, molality, mole fraction, mole ratio, mass per volume. Solubility occurs under dynamic equilibrium, which means that solubility results from the simultaneous and opposing processes of dissolution, the solubility equilibrium occurs when the two processes proceed at a constant rate. The term solubility is used in some fields where the solute is altered by solvolysis
Solubility
–
Diving medicine:
Solubility
–
"Soluble" redirects here. For the algebraic object called a "soluble group", see
Solvable group.
12.
Pyridine
–
Pyridine is a basic heterocyclic organic compound with the chemical formula C5H5N. It is structurally related to benzene, with one methine group replaced by a nitrogen atom, the pyridine ring occurs in many important compounds, including azines and the vitamins niacin and pyridoxine. Pyridine was discovered in 1849 by the Scottish chemist Thomas Anderson as one of the constituents of bone oil, two years later, Anderson isolated pure pyridine through fractional distillation of the oil. It is a colorless, highly flammable, weakly alkaline, water-soluble liquid with a distinctive, pyridine is used as a precursor to agrochemicals and pharmaceuticals and is also an important solvent and reagent. Pyridine is added to ethanol to make it unsuitable for drinking and it is used in the in vitro synthesis of DNA, in the synthesis of sulfapyridine, antihistaminic drugs tripelennamine and mepyramine, as well as water repellents, bactericides, and herbicides. Some chemical compounds, although not synthesized from pyridine, contain its ring structure and they include B vitamins niacin and pyridoxal, the anti-tuberculosis drug isoniazid, nicotine and other nitrogen-containing plant products. Historically, pyridine was produced from tar and as a byproduct of coal gasification. Pyridine is a liquid that boils at 115.2 °C. Its density,0.9819 g/cm3, is close to that of water, and its index is 1.5093 at a wavelength of 589 nm. Addition of up to 40 mol% of water to pyridine gradually lowers its melting point from −41.6 °C to −65.0 °C, the molecular electric dipole moment is 2.2 debyes. Pyridine is diamagnetic and has a susceptibility of −48.7 × 10−6 cm3·mol−1. The standard enthalpy of formation is 100.2 kJ·mol−1 in the phase and 140.4 kJ·mol−1 in the gas phase. At 25 °C pyridine has a viscosity of 0.88 mPa/s, the enthalpy of vaporization is 35.09 kJ·mol−1 at the boiling point and normal pressure. The enthalpy of fusion is 8.28 kJ·mol−1 at the melting point, pyridine crystallizes in an orthorhombic crystal system with space group Pna21 and lattice parameters a =1752 pm, b =897 pm, c =1135 pm, and 16 formula units per unit cell. For comparison, crystalline benzene is also orthorhombic, with space group Pbca, a =729.2 pm, b =947.1 pm, c =674.2 pm and this difference is partly related to the lower symmetry of the individual pyridine molecule. A trihydrate is known, it crystallizes in an orthorhombic system in the space group Pbca, lattice parameters a =1244 pm, b =1783 pm, c =679 pm. The critical parameters of pyridine are pressure 6.70 MPa, temperature 620 K, the optical absorption spectrum of pyridine in hexane contains three bands at the wavelengths of 195 nm,251 nm and 270 nm. The 1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectrum of pyridine contains three signals with the intensity ratio of 2,1,2 that correspond to the three chemically different protons in the molecule
Pyridine
–
Pyridine
Pyridine
–
Thomas Anderson
Pyridine
–
Use of pyridine in the chemical industry, VEB Berlin-Chemie, 1959.
13.
Ethanol
–
Ethanol, also called alcohol, ethyl alcohol, and drinking alcohol, is the principal type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. It is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid with a characteristic odor. Its chemical formula is C 2H 6O, which can be written also as CH 3-CH 2-OH or C 2H 5-OH, ethanol is mostly produced by the fermentation of sugars by yeasts, or by petrochemical processes. It is a psychoactive drug, causing a characteristic intoxication. It is widely used as a solvent, as fuel, and as a feedstock for synthesis of other chemicals, the eth- prefix and the qualifier ethyl in ethyl alcohol originally come from the name ethyl assigned in 1834 to the group C 2H 5- by Justus Liebig. He coined the word from the German name Aether of the compound C 2H 5-O-C 2H5, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, Ethyl is a contraction of the Ancient Greek αἰθήρ and the Greek word ύλη. The name ethanol was coined as a result of a resolution that was adopted at the International Conference on Chemical Nomenclature that was held in April 1892 in Geneva, Switzerland. The term alcohol now refers to a class of substances in chemistry nomenclature. The Oxford English Dictionary claims that it is a loan from Arabic al-kuḥl, a powdered ore of antimony used since aniquity as a cosmetic. The use of alcohol for ethanol is modern, first recorded 1753, the systematic use in chemistry dates to 1850. Ethanol is used in medical wipes and most common antibacterial hand sanitizer gels as an antiseptic, ethanol kills organisms by denaturing their proteins and dissolving their lipids and is effective against most bacteria and fungi, and many viruses. However, ethanol is ineffective against bacterial spores, ethanol may be administered as an antidote to methanol and ethylene glycol poisoning. Ethanol, often in high concentrations, is used to dissolve many water-insoluble medications, as a central nervous system depressant, ethanol is one of the most commonly consumed psychoactive drugs. The amount of ethanol in the body is typically quantified by blood alcohol content, small doses of ethanol, in general, produce euphoria and relaxation, people experiencing these symptoms tend to become talkative and less inhibited, and may exhibit poor judgment. Ethanol is commonly consumed as a drug, especially while socializing. The largest single use of ethanol is as a fuel and fuel additive. Brazil in particular relies heavily upon the use of ethanol as an engine fuel, gasoline sold in Brazil contains at least 25% anhydrous ethanol. Hydrous ethanol can be used as fuel in more than 90% of new gasoline fueled cars sold in the country, Brazilian ethanol is produced from sugar cane and noted for high carbon sequestration
Ethanol
–
USP grade ethanol for laboratory use.
Ethanol
–
Ethanol pump station in
São Paulo, Brazil
Ethanol
–
A
Ford Taurus fueled by ethanol in
New York City
Ethanol
–
USPS truck running on
E85 in
Minnesota
14.
1,4-Dioxane
–
1, 4-Dioxane is a heterocyclic organic compound, classified as an ether. It is a liquid with a faint sweet odor similar to that of diethyl ether. The compound is called simply dioxane because the other dioxane isomers are rarely encountered. Dioxane is used as a solvent for a variety of applications as well as in the laboratory. Dioxane is produced by the dehydration of diethylene glycol, which in turn is obtained from the hydrolysis of ethylene oxide. In 1985, the production capacity for dioxane was between 11,000 and 14,000 tons. In 1990, the total U. S. production volume of dioxane was between 5,250 and 9,150 tons, the dioxane molecule is centrosymmetric, meaning that it adopts a chair conformation, typical of relatives of cyclohexane. However, the molecule is conformationally flexible, and the conformation is easily adopted. In the 1980s, most of the produced was used as a stabilizer for 1,1, 1-trichloroethane for storage. Dioxane poisons this catalysis reaction by forming an adduct with aluminum trichloride, Dioxane is used in a variety of applications as a versatile aprotic solvent, e. g. for inks, adhesives, and cellulose esters. It is substituted for tetrahydrofuran in some processes, because of its lower toxicity, while diethyl ether is rather insoluble in water, dioxane is miscible and in fact is hygroscopic. At standard pressure, the mixture of water and dioxane in the ratio 17.9,82.1 by mass is an azeotrope that boils at 87.6 C. The oxygen atoms are Lewis basic, and so dioxane is able to solvate many inorganic compounds and it reacts with Grignard reagents to precipitate the magnesium dihalide. In this way, dioxane is used to drive the Schlenk equilibrium, dimethylmagnesium is prepared in this manner,2 CH3MgBr +2 → MgBr22 + 2Mg Dioxane is used as an internal standard for proton NMR spectroscopy in D2O. Dioxane has an LD50 of 5170 mg/kg in rats and this compound is irritating to the eyes and respiratory tract. Exposure may cause damage to the nervous system, liver. In a 1978 mortality study conducted on workers exposed to 1, 4-Dioxane, Dioxane is classified by the National Toxicology Program as reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen. It is also classified by the IARC as a Group 2B carcinogen, the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency classifies dioxane as a probable human carcinogen, and a known irritant at concentrations significantly higher than those found in commercial products
1,4-Dioxane
15.
GHS hazard pictograms
–
Hazard pictograms form part of the international Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals. Two sets of pictograms are included within the GHS, one for the labelling of containers and for workplace hazard warnings, either one or the other is chosen, depending on the target audience, but the two are not used together. The two sets of use the same symbols for the same hazards, although certain symbols are not required for transport pictograms. Transport pictograms come in variety of colors and may contain additional information such as a subcategory number. It has still to be implemented by the European Union in 2009, the following pictograms are included in the Worldwide Model Using but have not been incorporated into the GHS, ICZ and Catwallsh Hazcom Labelling because of the nature of the hazards. Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals, New York and Geneva, United Nations,2007, ISBN 978-92-1-116957-7, ST/SG/AC. 10/30/Rev. Model Regulations, New York and Geneva, United Nations,2007, ISBN 978-92-1-139120-6, manual of Tests and Criteria, New York and Geneva, United Nations,2002, ISBN 92-1-139087-7, ST/SG/AC. 10/11/Rev.4 GHS pictogram gallery from the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
GHS hazard pictograms
–
Usage
16.
Flash point
–
The flash point is the lowest temperature at which vapours of a volatile material will ignite, when given an ignition source. The flash point may sometimes be confused with the autoignition temperature, the fire point is the lowest temperature at which the vapor will keep burning after being ignited and the ignition source removed. The fire point is higher than the point, because at the flash point the vapor may be reliably expected to cease burning when the ignition source is removed. The flash point is a characteristic that is used to distinguish between flammable liquids, such as petrol, and combustible liquids, such as diesel. It is also used to characterize the fire hazards of liquids, all liquids have a specific vapor pressure, which is a function of that liquids temperature and is subject to Boyles Law. As temperature increases, vapor pressure increases, as vapor pressure increases, the concentration of vapor of a flammable or combustible liquid in the air increases. Hence, temperature determines the concentration of vapor of the liquid in the air. The flash point is the lowest temperature at which there will be enough flammable vapor to induce ignition when a source is applied. There are two types of flash point measurement, open cup and closed cup. In open cup devices, the sample is contained in a cup which is heated and, at intervals. The measured flash point will vary with the height of the flame above the liquid surface and, at sufficient height. The best-known example is the Cleveland open cup, in both these types, the cups are sealed with a lid through which the ignition source can be introduced. Closed cup testers normally give lower values for the point than open cup and are a better approximation to the temperature at which the vapour pressure reaches the lower flammable limit. The flash point is an empirical measurement rather than a physical parameter. The measured value will vary with equipment and test protocol variations, including temperature ramp rate, time allowed for the sample to equilibrate, sample volume, methods for determining the flash point of a liquid are specified in many standards. For example, testing by the Pensky-Martens closed cup method is detailed in ASTM D93, IP34, ISO2719, DIN51758, JIS K2265 and AFNOR M07-019. Determination of flash point by the Small Scale closed cup method is detailed in ASTM D3828 and D3278, EN ISO3679 and 3680, cEN/TR15138 Guide to Flash Point Testing and ISO TR29662 Guidance for Flash Point Testing cover the key aspects of flash point testing. Gasoline is a used in a spark-ignition engine
Flash point
–
Flaming cocktails with a flash point lower than room temperature.
Flash point
–
Automatic flash point tester according to
Pensky-Martens closed cup method with an integrated fire extinguisher.
17.
Food preservation
–
Food preservation is to prevent the growth of bacteria, fungi, or other micro-organisms, as well as slowing the oxidation of fats that cause rancidity. Food preservation may also include processes that inhibit visual deterioration, such as the enzymatic browning reaction in apples after they are cut during food preparation, many processes designed to preserve food involve more than one food preservation method. Preserving fruit by turning it into jam, for example, involves boiling, sugaring and sealing within an airtight jar, some traditional methods of preserving food have been shown to have a lower energy input and carbon footprint, when compared to modern methods. Some methods of preservation are known to create carcinogens. Maintaining or creating nutritional value, texture and flavor is an important aspect of food preservation, new techniques of food preservation became available to the home chef from the dawn of agriculture until the Industrial Revolution. Drying is one of the oldest techniques used to hamper the decomposition of food products, as early as 12,000 BC, Middle Eastern and Oriental cultures were drying foods using the power of the sun. Vegetables and fruits are dried by the sun and wind. A fire would be built inside the building to provide the heat to dry the various fruits, vegetables, cooling preserves food by slowing down the growth and reproduction of microorganisms and the action of enzymes that causes the food to rot. Before the era of mechanical refrigeration, cooling for food storage occurred in the forms of root cellars, rural people often did their own ice cutting, whereas town and city dwellers often relied on the ice trade. For example, potato waffles are stored in the freezer, cold stores provide large-volume, long-term storage for strategic food stocks held in case of national emergency in many countries. Boiling liquid food items can kill any existing microbes, milk and water are often boiled to kill any harmful microbes that may be present in them. Heating to temperatures which are sufficient to kill microorganisms inside the food is a method used with perpetual stews, milk is also boiled before storing to kill many microorganisms. Salting or curing draws moisture from a substance by osmosis, substances are cured with salt, sugar or a combination of the two. Nitrates and nitrites are often used to cure meat and contribute the characteristic pink colour. It was a method of preservation in medieval times and around the 1700s. The earliest cultures have used sugar as a preservative, and it was commonplace to store fruit in honey, similar to pickled foods, sugar cane was brought to Europe through the trade routes. In northern climates without sufficient sun to dry foods, preserves are made by heating the fruit with sugar, sugar tends to draw water from the microbes. This process leaves the microbial cells dehydrated, thus killing them, in this way, the food will remain safe from microbial spoilage
Food preservation
–
Bag of Prague powder #1, also known as "
curing salt " or "pink salt." It is typically a combination of salt and sodium nitrite, with the pink color added to distinguish it from ordinary salt.
Food preservation
–
Smoked
ham in a
smokehouse in
Schleswig-Holstein,
Germany
Food preservation
–
Preserved food
18.
Vinegar
–
Vinegar is a liquid consisting of about 5–20% acetic acid, water, and other trace chemicals, which may include flavorings. The acetic acid is produced by the fermentation of ethanol by acetic acid bacteria, Vinegar is now mainly used as a cooking ingredient, or in pickling. As the most easily manufactured mild acid, it has historically had a variety of industrial, medical. Commercial vinegar is produced either by a fast or a slow fermentation processes, in general, slow methods are used in traditional vinegars where fermentation proceeds slowly over the course of a few months or up to a year. The longer fermentation period allows for the accumulation of a non-toxic slime composed of acetic acid bacteria, fast methods add mother of vinegar to the source liquid before adding air to oxygenate and promote the fastest fermentation. In fast production processes, vinegar may be produced between 20 hours to three days, the conversion of ethanol and oxygen to acetic acid takes place by the following reaction, CH3CH2OH + O2 → CH3COOH + H2O Vinegar has been made and used by people for thousands of years. Traces of it have been found in Egyptian urns from around 3000 BC, apple cider vinegar is made from cider or apple must, and has a brownish-gold color. It is sometimes sold unfiltered and unpasteurized with the mother of vinegar present and it can be diluted with fruit juice or water or sweetened for consumption. Balsamic vinegar is an aged vinegar produced in the Modena. The original product—Traditional Balsamic Vinegar—is made from the juice, or must. It is very dark brown, rich, sweet, and complex, with the finest grades being aged in casks made variously of oak, mulberry, chestnut, cherry, juniper. Regardless of how it is produced, balsamic vinegar must be made from a grape product, a high acidity level is somewhat hidden by the sweetness of the other ingredients, making it very mellow. It ranges from yellow to golden brown in color, and has a mellow flavor, similar in some respects to rice vinegar. Because it contains no sugar, it is no sweeter than any other vinegar. In the Philippines, it often is labeled as sukang maasim, cane vinegars from Ilocos are made in two different ways. One way is to simply place sugar cane juice in large jars, the other way is through fermentation to produce a local wine known as basi. Low-quality basi is then allowed to undergo acetic acid fermentation that converts alcohol into acetic acid, a white variation has become quite popular in Brazil in recent years, where it is the cheapest type of vinegar sold. It is now common for other types of vinegar to be mixed with cane vinegar to lower the cost
Vinegar
–
A variety of flavored vinegars on sale in France (bottom rows)
Vinegar
–
Chinese black vinegar
Vinegar
–
Persimmon vinegar produced in South Korea
Vinegar
–
Raisin vinegar produced in Turkey
19.
Carbonic acid
–
Not to be confused with Carbolic acid, an antiquated name for phenol. Carbonic acid is a compound with the chemical formula H2CO3. It is also a name given to solutions of carbon dioxide in water. In physiology, carbonic acid is described as acid or respiratory acid. It plays an important role in the buffer system to maintain acid–base homeostasis. Carbonic acid, which is an acid, forms two kinds of salts, the carbonates and the bicarbonates. In geology, carbonic acid causes limestone to dissolve producing calcium bicarbonate which leads to many features such as stalactites and stalagmites. It was long believed that carbonic acid could not exist as a pure compound, however, in 1991 it was reported that NASA scientists had succeeded in making solid H2CO3 samples. 7×10−3 in pure water and ≈1. 2×10−3 in seawater. Hence, the majority of the dioxide is not converted into carbonic acid. In the absence of a catalyst, the equilibrium is reached quite slowly, the rate constants are 0.039 s−1 for the forward reaction and 23 s−1 for the reverse reaction. The addition of two molecules of water to CO2 would give orthocarbonic acid, C4, which only in minute amounts in aqueous solution. Addition of base to an excess of acid gives bicarbonate. With excess base, carbonic acid reacts to give carbonate salts, bicarbonate is an intermediate in the transport of CO2 out of the body via respiratory gas exchange. This catalysed reaction is reversed in the lungs, where it converts the bicarbonate back into CO2 and this equilibration plays an important role as a buffer in mammalian blood. A2016 theoretical report suggests that carbonic acid may play a role in protonating various nitrogen bases in blood serum. The oceans of the world have absorbed almost half of the CO2 emitted by humans from the burning of fossil fuels and it has been theorized that the extra dissolved carbon dioxide has caused the oceans average surface pH to shift by about −0.1 unit from pre-industrial levels. This theory is known as acidification, even though the ocean remains basic. Carbonic acid is a polyprotic acid — specifically it is diprotic meaning it has two protons which may dissociate from the parent molecule
Carbonic acid
20.
Citric acid
–
Citric acid is a weak organic tricarboxylic acid having the chemical formula C6H8O7. It occurs naturally in citrus fruits, in biochemistry, it is an intermediate in the citric acid cycle, which occurs in the metabolism of all aerobic organisms. More than a million tons of acid are manufactured every year. It is used widely as an acidifier, as a flavoring and chelating agent, a citrate is a derivative of citric acid, that is, the salts, esters, and the polyatomic anion found in solution. An example of the former, a salt is trisodium citrate, when part of a salt, the formula of the citrate ion is written as C6H5O73− or C3H5O33−. Citric acid exists in greater than trace amounts in a variety of fruits and vegetables, lemons and limes have particularly high concentrations of the acid, it can constitute as much as 8% of the dry weight of these fruits. The concentrations of acid in citrus fruits range from 0.005 mol/L for oranges and grapefruits to 0.30 mol/L in lemons. Within species, these values vary depending on the cultivar and the circumstances in which the fruit was grown, wehmer discovered Penicillium mold could produce citric acid from sugar. However, microbial production of citric acid did not become important until World War I disrupted Italian citrus exports. In this production technique, which is still the major route to citric acid used today. The source of sugar is corn steep liquor, molasses, hydrolyzed corn starch or other inexpensive sugary solutions, in 1977, a patent was granted to Lever Brothers for the chemical synthesis of citric acid starting either from aconitic or isocitrate/alloisocitrate calcium salts under high pressure conditions. This produced citric acid in near quantitative conversion under what appeared to be a reverse non-enzymatic Krebs cycle reaction, in 2007, worldwide annual production stood at approximately 1,600,000 tons. More than 50% of this volume was produced in China, citric acid was first isolated in 1784 by the chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele, who crystallized it from lemon juice. It can exist either in a form or as a monohydrate. The anhydrous form crystallizes from hot water, while the forms when citric acid is crystallized from cold water. The monohydrate can be converted to the form at about 78 °C. Citric acid also dissolves in ethanol at 15 °C. It decomposes with loss of carbon dioxide above about 175 °C, citric acid is normally considered to be a tribasic acid, with pKa values, extrapolated to zero ionic strength, of 5.21,4.28 and 2.92 at 25 °C
Citric acid
–
Citric acid crystal under polarized light, enlarged 200x
Citric acid
Citric acid
–
Lemons, oranges, limes, and other citrus fruits possess high concentrations of citric acid
21.
Pickling
–
Pickling is the process of preserving or expanding the lifespan of food by either anaerobic fermentation in brine or immersion in vinegar. The resulting food is called a pickle, or, to prevent ambiguity, the pickling procedure will typically affect the foods texture and flavor. In East Asia, vinaigrette is used as a pickling medium. Foods that are pickled include meats, fruits, eggs, another distinguishing characteristic is a pH of 4.6 or lower, which is sufficient to kill most bacteria. Pickling can preserve perishable foods for months, antimicrobial herbs and spices, such as mustard seed, garlic, cinnamon or cloves, are often added. If the food contains sufficient moisture, a pickling brine may be produced simply by adding dry salt, for example, German sauerkraut and Korean kimchi are produced by salting the vegetables to draw out excess water. Natural fermentation at room temperature, by lactic acid bacteria, produces the required acidity, other pickles are made by placing vegetables in vinegar. Unlike the canning process, pickling does not require that the food be completely sterile before it is sealed, the acidity or salinity of the solution, the temperature of fermentation, and the exclusion of oxygen determine which microorganisms dominate, and determine the flavor of the end product. When both salt concentration and temperature are low, Leuconostoc mesenteroides dominates, producing a mix of acids, alcohol, at higher temperatures Lactobacillus plantarum dominates, which produces primarily lactic acid. Many pickles start with Leuconostoc, and change to Lactobacillus with higher acidity, pickling began 4000 years ago using cucumbers native to India. This was used as a way to food for out-of-season use and for long journeys. Salt pork and salt beef were common staples for sailors before the days of steam engines, although the process was invented to preserve foods, pickles are also made and eaten because people enjoy the resulting flavors. Pickling may also improve the value of food by introducing B vitamins produced by bacteria. The term pickle is derived from the Dutch word pekel, meaning brine, in the U. S. and Canada, and sometimes Australia and New Zealand, the word pickle alone almost always refers to a pickled cucumber, except when it is used figuratively. It may also refer to types of pickles such as pickled onion, pickled cauliflower. In the UK, pickle, as in a cheese and pickle sandwich, may refer to Ploughmans pickle. South Asia has a variety of pickles, which are mainly made from varieties of mango, lemon, lime, goongura, tamarind and Indian gooseberry. Vegetables such as brinjal, carrots, cauliflower, tomato, bitter gourd, green tamarind, ginger, garlic, onion and these fruits and vegetables are generally mixed with ingredients like salt, spices, and vegetable oils and are set to mature in a moistureless medium
Pickling
–
Pickled cucumbers
Pickling
–
Pickled herring
Pickling
–
Pickled
mushrooms
Pickling
–
Pickled
Olives
22.
Condiment
–
A condiment is a spice, sauce, or, preparation that is added to food to impart a particular flavor, to enhance its flavor, or in some cultures, to complement the dish. The term originally described pickled or preserved foods, but has shifted meaning over time, many condiments are available packaged in single-serving packets, like mustard or ketchup, particularly when supplied with take-out or fast-food meals. They are usually applied by the diner, but are added prior to serving, for example, in a sandwich made with ketchup. Some condiments are used during cooking to add flavor or texture to the food, barbecue sauce, compound butter, teriyaki sauce, soy sauce, and marmite are examples. The term condiment comes from the Latin condimentum, meaning spice, seasoning, sauce and from the Latin condere, meaning preserve, pickle, the exact definition of what is and is not a condiment varies. Some definitions include spice and herbs, including salt and pepper, others restrict the definition to including only prepared food compound, containing one or more spices, which are added to food after the cooking process, such as mustard, ketchup or mint sauce. Cheese is also considered a condiment in some European countries, Condiments were known in Ancient Rome, Ancient India, Ancient Greece and Ancient China. The Romans made the condiments garum and liquamen by crushing the meat of fish and fermenting it in salt. Apicius, a based on 4th and 5th century cuisine. The condiment market refers to the marketing and consumer purchase of condiments, in the United States, condiment market was valued at USD5.6 billion in 2010 and is estimated to grow to USD7 billion by 2015. The condiment market is the second largest in specialty foods behind that of cheese, farrell, K. T. Spices, Condiments and Seasonings. The Oxford companion to American food and drink
Condiment
–
Salt,
pepper, and
sugar are commonly placed on Western restaurant tables.
Condiment
–
Tray of condiments and spices
Condiment
–
Dijon mustard
Condiment
–
Chrain (
horseradish sauce)
23.
Potassium sorbate
–
Potassium sorbate is the potassium salt of sorbic acid, chemical formula CH3CH=CH−CH=CH−CO2K. It is a salt that is very soluble in water. It is primarily used as a food preservative, potassium sorbate is effective in a variety of applications including food, wine, and personal-care products. While sorbic acid is naturally occurring in some berries, virtually all of the production of sorbic acid. Potassium sorbate is produced industrially by neutralizing sorbic acid with potassium hydroxide, the precursor sorbic acid is produced in a two-step process via the condensation of crotonaldehyde and ketene. Potassium sorbate is used to inhibit molds and yeasts in many foods, such as cheese, wine, yogurt, dried meats, apple cider, soft drinks and fruit drinks, and baked goods. Its breakdown to sorbitol, an alcohol, has been shown to increase the chances of a bowel movement from eating prunes. It is used in the preparation of such as maple syrup. It can also be found in the ingredients list of many dried fruit products, in addition, herbal dietary supplement products generally contain potassium sorbate, which acts to prevent mold and microbes and to increase shelf life. It is used in quantities at which no adverse effects are known. Labeling of this preservative on ingredient statements reads as potassium sorbate or E202, also, it is used in many personal-care products to inhibit the development of microorganisms for shelf stability. Some manufacturers are using this preservative as a replacement for parabens, tube feeding of potassium sorbate reduces gastric burden of pathogenic bacteria. Also known as wine stabilizer, potassium sorbate produces sorbic acid when added to wine, when active fermentation has ceased and the wine is racked for the final time after clearing, potassium sorbate renders any surviving yeast incapable of multiplying. Yeast living at that moment can continue fermenting any residual sugar into CO2 and alcohol, when a wine is sweetened before bottling, potassium sorbate is used to prevent refermentation when used in conjunction with potassium metabisulfite. It is primarily used with sweet wines, sparkling wines, and some hard ciders, but may be added to table wines, some molds and yeasts are able to detoxify sorbates by decarboxylation, producing piperylene. The pentadiene manifests as an odor of kerosene or petroleum. Pure potassium sorbate is a skin, eye and respiratory irritant, typical culinary usage rates of potassium sorbate are 0. 025% to 0. 1%, which in a 100 g serving yields an intake of 25 mg to 100 mg. The maximal acceptable daily intake for human consumption is 25 mg/kg, under some conditions, particularly at high concentrations or when combined with nitrites, potassium sorbate has shown genotoxic activity in vitro
Potassium sorbate
24.
United Kingdom
–
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
United Kingdom
–
Stonehenge, in
Wiltshire, was erected around 2500 BC.
United Kingdom
–
Flag
United Kingdom
–
The
Bayeux Tapestry depicts the
Battle of Hastings, 1066, and the events leading to it.
United Kingdom
–
The
Treaty of Union led to a single united kingdom encompassing all Great Britain.
25.
Fireworks
–
Fireworks are a class of low explosive pyrotechnic devices used for aesthetic and entertainment purposes. The most common use of a firework is as part of a fireworks display, Fireworks competitions are also regularly held at a number of places. Fireworks take many forms to produce the four primary effects, noise, light, smoke and they may be designed to burn with colored flames and sparks including red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, and silver. Displays are common throughout the world and are the point of many cultural. Fireworks were invented in ancient China in the 7th century to scare evil spirits. Such important events and festivities as Chinese New Year and the Mid-Autumn Moon Festival were, China is the largest manufacturer and exporter of fireworks in the world. Fireworks are generally classified as to where they perform, either as a ground or aerial firework, in the latter case they may provide their own propulsion or be shot into the air by a mortar. The most common feature of fireworks is a paper or pasteboard tube or casing filled with the combustible material, a number of these tubes or cases are often combined so as to make, when kindled, a great variety of sparkling shapes, often variously colored. The skyrocket is a form of firework, although the first skyrockets were used in war. The aerial shell, however, is the backbone of todays commercial aerial display, such rocket technology has also been used for the delivery of mail by rocket and is used as propulsion for most model rockets. The earliest documentation of fireworks dates back to 7th century China, the fireworks were used to accompany many festivities. It is thus a part of the culture of China and had its origin there, the art and science of firework making has developed into an independent profession. In China, pyrotechnicians were respected for their knowledge of techniques in mounting firework displays. Chinese people originally believed that the fireworks could expel evil spirits and bring about luck, during the Song Dynasty, many of the common people could purchase various kinds of fireworks from market vendors, and grand displays of fireworks were also known to be held. In 1110, a fireworks display in a martial demonstration was held to entertain Emperor Huizong of Song. A record from 1264 states that a rocket-propelled firework went off near the Empress Dowager Gong Sheng, rocket propulsion was common in warfare, as evidenced by the Huolongjing compiled by Liu Bowen and Jiao Yu. In 1240 the Arabs acquired knowledge of gunpowder and its uses from China, with the development of chinoiserie in Europe, Chinese fireworks began to gain popularity around the mid-17th century. Lev Izmailov, ambassador of Peter the Great, once reported from China and his writings would be translated in 1765, resulting in the popularization of fireworks and further attempts to uncover the secrets of Chinese fireworks
Fireworks
–
Sydney leads the world in one of the first major
New Year celebrations each year.
Fireworks
Fireworks
–
A fireworks show celebrating
Independence Day in the
United States
Fireworks
–
A fireworks display on
Taipei 101,
Taipei,
Taiwan,
New Year 's
2008. The 2005 New Year fireworks display is the first fireworks on a supertall
skyscraper in the world.
26.
Fermentation (food)
–
Fermentation in food processing is the process of converting carbohydrates to alcohol or organic acids using microorganisms—yeasts or bacteria—under anaerobic conditions. Fermentation usually implies that the action of microorganisms is desired, the science of fermentation is known as zymology or zymurgy. The term fermentation sometimes refers specifically to the conversion of sugars into ethanol, producing alcoholic drinks such as wine, beer. However, similar processes take place in the leavening of bread, other widely consumed fermented foods include vinegar, olives, and cheese. More localised foods prepared by fermentation may also be based on beans, grain, vegetables, fruit, honey, dairy products, fish, meat, since ancient times, humans have exploited the fermentation process. Seven-thousand-year-old jars containing the remains of wine, now on display at the University of Pennsylvania, were excavated in the Zagros Mountains in Iran. There is strong evidence that people were fermenting alcoholic drinks in Babylon c.3000 BC, ancient Egypt c.3150 BC, pre-Hispanic Mexico c.2000 BC, the French chemist Louis Pasteur founded zymology, when in 1856 he connected yeast to fermentation. When studying the fermentation of sugar to alcohol by yeast, Pasteur concluded that the fermentation was catalyzed by a force, called ferments. The ferments were thought to only within living organisms. Alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells, not with the death or putrefaction of the cells, nevertheless, it was known that yeast extracts can ferment sugar even in the absence of living yeast cells. In 1907 he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his research, one year earlier, in 1906, ethanol fermentation studies led to the early discovery of NAD+. Food fermentation is the conversion of sugars and other carbohydrates into alcohol or preservative organic acids, all three products have found human uses. The production of carbon dioxide is used to leaven bread, the production of organic acids is exploited to preserve and flavor vegetables and dairy products. It has more cases of botulism than any state in the United States of America. The World Health Organization has classified pickled foods as possibly carcinogenic, other research found that fermented food contains a carcinogenic by-product, ethyl carbamate. A2009 review of the studies conducted across Asia concluded that regularly eating pickled vegetables roughly doubles a persons risk for esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Science aid, Fermentation - Process and uses of fermentation Fermented cereals, a global perspective - FAO1999
Fermentation (food)
–
Beer fermenting at a
brewery
Fermentation (food)
–
Beer and bread, two major uses of fermentation in food
Fermentation (food)
–
Nattō, a Japanese fermented
soybean food
Fermentation (food)
–
Batter made from rice and lentil (Vigna mungo) prepared and fermented for baking
idlis and
dosas
27.
Phosphofructokinase
–
Phosphofructokinase is a kinase enzyme that phosphorylates fructose 6-phosphate in glycolysis. The enzyme-catalysed transfer of a group from ATP is an important reaction in a wide variety of biological processes. It is allosterically inhibited by ATP and allosterically activated by AMP, PFK exists as a homotetramer in bacteria and mammals and as an octomer in yeast. This protein may use the model of allosteric regulation. These conformations are thought to be successive stages of a pathway that requires subunit closure to bring the 2 molecules sufficiently close to react. Sufferers are usually able to lead an ordinary life by learning to adjust activity levels. The reverse reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme Fructose-1, 6-bisphosphatase
Phosphofructokinase
–
Fructose 6-phosphate
28.
Sodium carbonate
–
Sodium carbonate, Na2CO3, is the water-soluble sodium salt of carbonic acid. It most commonly occurs as a crystalline decahydrate, which readily effloresces to form a white powder, pure sodium carbonate is a white, odorless powder that is hygroscopic. It has a strongly alkaline taste, and forms a basic solution in water. Sodium carbonate is known domestically for its everyday use as a water softener. Historically it was extracted from the ashes of plants growing in soils, such as vegetation from the Middle East, kelp from Scotland. Because the ashes of these plants were noticeably different from ashes of timber. It is synthetically produced in quantities from salt and limestone by a method known as the Solvay process. The manufacture of glass is one of the most important uses of sodium carbonate, Sodium carbonate acts as a flux for silica, lowering the melting point of the mixture to something achievable without special materials. This soda glass is mildly water-soluble, so some calcium carbonate is added to the mixture to make the glass produced insoluble. This type of glass is known as soda lime glass, soda for the sodium carbonate, soda lime glass has been the most common form of glass for centuries. Sodium carbonate is used as a relatively strong base in various settings. For example, it is used as a pH regulator to maintain stable alkaline conditions necessary for the action of the majority of film developing agents. It acts as an alkali because when dissolved in water, it dissociates into the acid, carbonic acid. This gives sodium carbonate in solution the ability to attack such as aluminium with the release of hydrogen gas. It is an additive in swimming pools used to raise the ph which can be lowered by chlorine tablets. In cooking, it is used in place of sodium hydroxide for lyeing, especially with German pretzels. These dishes are treated with a solution of a substance to change the pH of the surface of the food. In chemistry, it is used as an electrolyte
Sodium carbonate
–
Sodium carbonate
Sodium carbonate
29.
Effervescence
–
Effervescence is the escape of gas from an aqueous solution and the foaming or fizzing that results from that release. The word effervescence is derived from the Latin verb fervere, preceded by the adverb ex and it has the same linguistic root as the word fermentation. Effervescence can also be observed when opening a bottle of champagne, the visible bubbles are produced by the escape from solution of the dissolved gas. Although CO2 is most common for beverages, nitrogen gas is sometimes added to certain draught beers. The smaller bubble size creates a beer head. Due to the solubility of nitrogen in beer, kegs or widgets are used for this. In the laboratory, an example of effervescence is seen if hydrochloric acid is added to a block of limestone. If a few pieces of marble or a tablet are put in hydrochloric acid in a test tube fitted with a bung
Effervescence
–
Bubbles of carbon dioxide float to the surface of a
carbonated soft drink.
30.
Generally recognized as safe
–
On August 31,1960, William W. Goodrich, assistant general counsel of the FDA, addressed the annual meeting of the FFDCA. The purpose of the meeting was the forthcoming March 6,1961, effective date of the enforcement provisions of the Food Additives Amendment of 1958, a GRAS determination can be self-affirmed or the FDA can be notified of a determination of GRAS by qualified non-governmental experts, Self-affirmed. The manufacturer has performed all the due diligence, and submitted a GRAS notification to inform the Food & Drug Administration of a determination that the use of a substance is GRAS. Following evaluation the FDA provides three possible responses,1, FDA does not question the basis for the notifiers GRAS determination,2. The notification does not provide a sufficient basis for GRAS determination, the FDA has, at the notifiers request, ceased to evaluate the GRAS notice. As of June 2015,572 ingredient or food substances have been filed with the FDA and these petitions, submitted by sponsors or manufacturers, are reviewed for the safety evidence contained in the document. FDA posts status of the review as either without further questions or the petition is withdrawn by the applicant, the FDA can also explicitly withdraw the GRAS classification, as it did for trans fat in 2015. The Code of Federal Regulations, Revised as of April 1,2010, the substance must be shown to be generally recognized as safe under the conditions of its intended use. The proponent of the exemption has the burden of proving that the use of the substance is generally recognized as safe, to establish such recognition, the proponent must show that there is a consensus of expert opinion regarding the safety of the use of the substance. The existence of a conflict among experts regarding the safety of a substance precludes a finding of general recognition. When a use of a substance does not qualify for the GRAS exemption, that use of the substance is subject to the premarket approval mandated by the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. In such circumstances, the FDA can take enforcement action to stop distribution of the food substance, Food and Drug Administration Generally recognized as safe and effective Life Sciences Research Office List of drug interactions Novel food Substantial equivalence U. S. Food and Drug Administration. Everything Added to Food in the United States, fDAs online database of Everything Added to Food in the United States, A Food Additive Database More information from the Food and Drug Administration
Generally recognized as safe
–
Food safety
31.
Food and Drug Administration
–
The Food and Drug Administration is a federal agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, one of the United States federal executive departments. As of 2017, 3/4th of the FDA budget is funded by the pharmaceutical companies due to the Prescription drug user fee act and these include regulating lasers, cellular phones, condoms and control of disease on products ranging from certain household pets to sperm donation for assisted reproduction. The FDA is led by the Commissioner of Food and Drugs, appointed by the President with the advice, the Commissioner reports to the Secretary of Health and Human Services. Dr. Robert M. Califf, MD is the current commissioner, who took over in February 2016 for Dr. Stephen Ostroff, the FDA has its headquarters in unincorporated White Oak, Maryland. The agency also has 223 field offices and 13 laboratories located throughout the 50 states, the United States Virgin Islands, in 2008, the FDA began to post employees to foreign countries, including China, India, Costa Rica, Chile, Belgium, and the United Kingdom. The site was renamed from the White Oak Naval Surface Warfare Center to the Federal Research Center at White Oak, the first building, the Life Sciences Laboratory, was dedicated and opened with 104 employees on the campus in December 2003. Only one original building from the facility was kept. All other buildings are new construction, the project is slated to be completed by 2017, assuming future Congressional funding While most of the Centers are located in the Washington, D. C. The Office of Regulatory Affairs is considered the eyes and ears of the agency, the Office of Regulatory Affairs is divided into five regions, which are further divided into 20 districts. Districts are based roughly on the divisions of the federal court system. Each district comprises a main office and a number of Resident Posts. ORA also includes the Agencys network of laboratories, which analyze any physical samples taken. Though samples are usually food-related, some laboratories are equipped to analyze drugs, cosmetics, the Office of Criminal Investigations was established in 1991 to investigate criminal cases. Unlike ORA Investigators, OCI Special Agents are armed, and dont focus on aspects of the regulated industries. In many cases, OCI pursues cases involving Title 18 violations, OCI Special Agents often come from other criminal investigations backgrounds, and work closely with the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Assistant Attorney General, and even Interpol. OCI receives cases from a variety of sources—including ORA, local agencies, OCI is a smaller branch, comprising about 200 agents nationwide. The FDA frequently works with federal agencies, including the Department of Agriculture, Drug Enforcement Administration, Customs and Border Protection. Often local and state government agencies also work with the FDA to provide regulatory inspections, the FDA regulates more than US$1 trillion worth of consumer goods, about 25% of consumer expenditures in the United States
Food and Drug Administration
–
FDA Building 31 houses the Office of the Commissioner and the Office of Regulatory Affairs.
Food and Drug Administration
–
Regulation of therapeutic goods in the United States
Food and Drug Administration
–
FDA Building 51 houses the Center for Drug Evaluation and Research.
Food and Drug Administration
–
Harvey W. Wiley, chief advocate of the Food and Drug Act
32.
Cat
–
The domestic cat is a small, typically furry, carnivorous mammal. They are often called house cats when kept as pets or simply cats when there is no need to distinguish them from other felids. Cats are often valued by humans for companionship and for their ability to hunt vermin, there are more than 70 cat breeds, though different associations proclaim different numbers according to their standards. Cats are similar in anatomy to the felids, with a strong flexible body, quick reflexes, sharp retractable claws. Cat senses fit a crepuscular and predatory ecological niche, cats can hear sounds too faint or too high in frequency for human ears, such as those made by mice and other small animals. They can see in near darkness, like most other mammals, cats have poorer color vision and a better sense of smell than humans. Cats, despite being solitary hunters, are a species and cat communication includes the use of a variety of vocalizations. Cats have a high breeding rate, under controlled breeding, they can be bred and shown as registered pedigree pets, a hobby known as cat fancy. Failure to control the breeding of pet cats by neutering, as well as the abandonment of former household pets, has resulted in numbers of feral cats worldwide. In certain areas outside cats native range, this has contributed, along with destruction and other factors. Cats have been known to extirpate a bird species within specific regions, a genetic study in 2007 concluded that domestic cats are descended from Near Eastern wildcats, having diverged around 8,000 BC in the Middle East. As of a 2007 study, cats are the second most popular pet in the US by number of pets owned, in a 2010 study they were ranked the third most popular pet in the UK, after fish and dogs, with around 8 million being owned. The domestic cat is believed to have evolved from the Near Eastern wildcat, the felids are a rapidly evolving family of mammals that share a common ancestor only 10–15 million years ago and include lions, tigers, cougars and many others. Within this family, domestic cats are part of the genus Felis, members of the genus are found worldwide and include the jungle cat of southeast Asia, European wildcat, African wildcat, the Chinese mountain cat, and the Arabian sand cat, among others. The domestic cat was first classified as Felis catus by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae published in 1758, because of modern phylogenetics, domestic cats are usually regarded as another subspecies of the wildcat, F. silvestris. This has resulted in mixed usage of the terms, as the cat can be called by its subspecies name. Wildcats have also referred to as various subspecies of F. catus, but in 2003. The most common name in use for the cat remains F. catus
Cat
–
Domestic cat
Cat
–
A 19th century drawing of a tabby cat
Cat
–
Cat skull
Cat
–
Thermograph
33.
Salts
–
Currently, SALTS administrative offices are located on Herald Street in downtown Victoria, with a shop space located nearby in the Rock Bay area. Young people ages 13–25 are given the experience of learning to sail a tall ship, in addition to learning a large set of sailing skills, they learn teamwork, responsibility, interpersonal skills, and facing fears, resulting in increased confidence. In the spring and fall, voyages are made from Ship Point Wharf in Victoria, every few years, an offshore voyage has been held to ports around the world, where youth can participate in selected legs of the journey. Due to new Canadian regulations for offshore vessels which the current tall ships do not meet, group programs are offered with over 30 public and private schools, university programs, and youth groups bringing 20 -30 young people and their adult chaperones. Day sails are made available to interested sailors of all ages. SALTS is a registered Canadian charity, a large portion of program costs are funded through boat donations. SALTS arranges a third-party appraisal for the value of the tax receipt issued, a major campaign is underway for the capital cost of a new 116 Pilot Schooner. As of July,2014, approximately 50% of the $6.3 million had been raised, SALTS owns, maintains and operates two tall ships, Pacific Swift and Pacific Grace. Both were built by the Society in a shipyard at the former Coast Guard base on Victorias Upper Harbour, a new 116 Pilot Schooner is being custom designed, and fundraising is underway for the $6.3 million project. The hull of Pacific Swift was built as an exhibit at Expo 86 in Vancouver. She is based on the brigantine Swift of 1778, the society had built another brigantine, Spirit of Chemainus, in 1985. Pacific Grace was built at the S. A. L. T. S, heritage Shipyard in Victoria, launched in October 1999 and commissioned in May 2001. She is based on the Grand Banks fishing schooner Robertson II, which the society operated from 1974 to 1995. From June 2007 to June 2008, she made a voyage, to the South Pacific, calling at, Hawaii, Tahiti, Fiji, Vanuatu, Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, Guam, Okinawa, Shanghai, Osaka
Salts
–
SALTS Heritage Shipyard above and below Victoria's
Johnson Street Bridge (Pacific Swift in port)
Salts
–
S.A.L.T.S. Sail and Life Training Society
Salts
–
Pacific Swift
Salts
–
pacific grace
34.
Rat
–
Rats are various medium-sized, long-tailed rodents of the superfamily Muroidea. True rats are members of the genus Rattus, the most important of which to humans are the black rat, Rattus rattus, many members of other rodent genera and families are also referred to as rats, and share many characteristics with true rats. Rats are typically distinguished from mice by their size, generally, when someone discovers a large muroid rodent, its common name includes the term rat, while if it is smaller, the name includes the term mouse. The muroid family is broad and complex, and the common terms rat, scientifically, the terms are not confined to members of the Rattus and Mus genera, for example, the pack rat and cotton mouse. The best-known rat species are the black rat and the brown rat, the group is generally known as the Old World rats or true rats, and originated in Asia. Rats are bigger than most Old World mice, which are their relatives, the term rat is also used in the names of other small mammals which are not true rats. Examples include the North American pack rats, a number of species loosely called kangaroo rats, Rats such as the bandicoot rat are murine rodents related to true rats, but are not members of the genus Rattus. Male rats are called bucks, unmated females are called does, pregnant or parent females are called dams, a group of rats is referred to as a mischief. The common species are opportunistic survivors and often live with and near humans, therefore and they may cause substantial food losses, especially in developing countries. However, the distributed and problematic commensal species of rats are a minority in this diverse genus. Many species of rats are island endemics and some have become endangered due to loss or competition with the brown. Wild rodents, including rats, can carry many different zoonotic pathogens, such as Leptospira, Toxoplasma gondii, another zoonotic disease linked to the rat is the foot-and-mouth disease. The average lifespan of any given rat depends on species is being discussed. The black and brown rats diverged from other Old World rats during the beginning of the Pleistocene in the forests of Asia, specially bred rats have been kept as pets at least since the late 19th century. Pet rats are typically variants of the brown rat, but black rats. Pet rats behave differently from their wild counterparts depending on how many generations they have kept as pets. Pet rats do not pose any more of a risk than pets such as cats or dogs. Tamed rats are generally friendly and can be taught to perform selected behaviors, in 1895, Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts established a population of domestic albino brown rats to study the effects of diet and for other physiological studies
Rat
–
Rats Temporal range: Early
Pleistocene – Recent
Rat
–
A river rat
Rat
–
A rat in a city street
Rat
–
A rat in a
suburb of
Vancouver
35.
Mouse
–
A mouse is a small rodent characteristically having a pointed snout, small rounded ears, a body-length scaly tail and a high breeding rate. The best known species is the common house mouse. It is also a popular pet, in some places, certain kinds of field mice are locally common. They are known to invade homes for food and shelter, domestic mice sold as pets often differ substantially in size from the common house mouse. This is attributable both to breeding and to different conditions in the wild, the most well known strain, the white lab mouse, has more uniform traits that are appropriate to its use in research. The American white-footed mouse and the mouse, as well as other common species of mouse-like rodents around the world. These, however, are in other genera, cats, wild dogs, foxes, birds of prey, snakes and even certain kinds of arthropods have been known to prey heavily upon mice. Nevertheless, because of its adaptability to almost any environment. Mice, in contexts, can be considered vermin which are a major source of crop damage, causing structural damage. In North America, breathing dust that has come in contact with mouse excrement has been linked to hantavirus, primarily nocturnal animals, mice compensate for their poor eyesight with a keen sense of hearing, and rely especially on their sense of smell to locate food and avoid predators. Mice build intricate burrows in the wild and these burrows typically have long entrances and are equipped with escape tunnels or routes. In at least one species, the design of a burrow is a genetic trait. Breeding onset is at about 50 days of age in females and males, although females may have their first estrus at 25–40 days. Mice are polyestrous and breed year round, ovulation is spontaneous, the duration of the estrous cycle is 4–5 days and estrus itself lasts about 12 hours, occurring in the evening. Vaginal smears are useful in timed matings to determine the stage of the estrous cycle, mating is usually nocturnal and may be confirmed by the presence of a copulatory plug in the vagina up to 24 hours post-copulation. The presence of sperm on a smear is also a reliable indicator of mating. Female mice housed together tend to go into anestrus and do not cycle, if exposed to a male mouse or the pheromones of a male mouse, most of the females will go into estrus in about 72 hours. This synchronization of the cycle is known as the Whitten effect
Mouse
–
Mouse Temporal range: Late
Miocene –Recent
Mouse
–
1 day old pups
Mouse
–
Knockout mice
Mouse
–
Field mouse of the subgenus
Mus.
36.
Benzene in soft drinks
–
Benzene in soft drinks is of potential concern due to the carcinogenic nature of the benzene molecule. This contamination is a health concern and has caused significant outcry among environmental. Benzene levels are regulated in drinking water nationally and internationally, and in bottled water in the United States, the benzene forms from decarboxylation of the preservative benzoic acid in the presence of ascorbic acid and metal ions that act as catalysts, especially under heat and light. The major cause of benzene in soft drinks is the decarboxylation of benzoic acid in the presence of acid or erythorbic acid. Benzoic acid is added to drinks as a preservative in the form of its salts sodium benzoate, potassium benzoate. Storing soft drinks in warm conditions speeds up the formation of benzene, calcium disodium EDTA and sugars have been shown to inhibit benzene production in soft drinks. The International Council of Beverages Associations has produced advice to prevent or minimize benzene formation, various authorities have set limits on benzene content in drinking water. The following limits are given in parts per billion.15 ppb, Benzene in soft drinks has to be seen in the context of other environmental exposure. While there are alternatives to using sodium benzoate as a preservative, daily personal exposure to benzene is determined by adding exposure from all sources. Air, A European study found that people breathe in 220 μg of benzene every day due to atmospheric pollution. A motorist refilling a fuel tank for three minutes would inhale a further 32 μg, the estimated daily exposure from automobile-related activities is 49 μg and for driving for one hour is 40 μg. Smoking, For smokers, cigarette smoking is the source of exposure to benzene. Estimates are 7900 μg per day,1820 μg/day, and 1800 µg/day, passive smoking, Benzene intake from passive smoking is estimated at 63 μg/day and 50 µg/day. Diet and drinking water,0.2 to 3.1 μg per day, in 1990, a study reported having found benzene in bottles of Perrier for sale in the United States, resulting in a voluntary product recall. In the early 1990s, the soft drink industry initially approached FDA with concerns about benzene formation in soft drinks, following testing, FDA asked manufacturers to voluntarily reformulate. By 1993, FDA determined that most drinks had little benzene contamination, in 1993, research showed how benzene can form from benzoic acid in the presence of vitamin C. In November 2005, the FDA received test results conducted by private citizens that benzene was forming at low levels in several types of beverages, in December 2005, Germanys Federal Institute for Risk Assessment published a review of benzenes possible formation in foods and drinks. The United Kingdoms Food Standards Agency released results on March 31,2006 for 150 beverages and its results showed 43 beverages contained benzene, four of which contained levels above the World Health Organization drinking water standards
Benzene in soft drinks
–
Contents
37.
Ascorbic acid
–
Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid and L-ascorbic acid, is a vitamin found in food and used as a dietary supplement. As a supplement it is used to treat and prevent scurvy, evidence does not support use in the general population for the prevention of the common cold. It may be taken by mouth or by injection, large doses may cause gastrointestinal discomfort, headache, trouble sleeping, and flushing of the skin. Normal doses are safe during pregnancy, Vitamin C is an essential nutrient involved in the repair of tissue. Foods that contain vitamin C include citrus fruit, tomatoes, Vitamin C was discovered in 1912, isolated in 1928, and first made in 1933. It is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, Vitamin C is available as a generic medication and over the counter. In 2015, the wholesale cost in the world was about 0.003 to 0.007 USD per tablet. In some countries, ascorbic acid may be added to such as breakfast cereal. A2012 Cochrane review found no effect of vitamin C supplementation on overall mortality, although rare in modern times, scurvy and its associated destabilization of collagen, connective tissue, and bone can be prevented by adequate vitamin C intake. A2014 review found that, Currently, the use of high-dose IV vitamin C cannot be recommended outside of a clinical trial, a 2013 Cochrane review found no evidence that vitamin C supplementation reduces the risk of lung cancer in healthy or high risk people. A2014 meta-analysis found that vitamin C intake might protect against lung cancer risk, a second meta-analysis found no effect on the risk of prostate cancer. Two meta-analyses evaluated the effect of vitamin C supplementation on the risk of colorectal cancer, one found a weak association between vitamin C consumption and reduced risk, and the other found no effect of supplementation. A2013 meta-analysis found no evidence that vitamin C supplementation reduces the risk of myocardial infarction, stroke, cardiovascular mortality, however, a second analysis found an inverse relationship between circulating vitamin C levels or dietary vitamin C and the risk of stroke. A meta-analysis of 44 clinical trials has shown a significant positive effect of vitamin C on endothelial function when taken at doses greater than 500 mg per day. The researchers noted that the effect of vitamin C supplementation appeared to be dependent on health status, a 2010 review found no role for vitamin C supplementation in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Studies examining the effects of vitamin C intake on the risk of Alzheimers disease have reached conflicting conclusions, maintaining a healthy dietary intake is probably more important than supplementation for achieving any potential benefit. Vitamin C supplementation above the RDA has been used in trials to study a potential effect on preventing and slowing the progression of age-related cataract, however, no significant effects were found from the research. Vitamin Cs effect on the cold has been extensively researched
Ascorbic acid
–
L -Ascorbic acid
38.
Potassium benzoate
–
Potassium benzoate, the potassium salt of benzoic acid, is a food preservative that inhibits the growth of mold, yeast and some bacteria. It works best in low-pH products, below 4.5, acidic foods and beverages such as fruit juice, sparkling drinks, soft drinks, and pickles may be preserved with potassium benzoate. It is approved for use in most countries including Canada, the U. S. and the EU, potassium benzoate is also used in the whistle in many fireworks. One very common way to make potassium benzoate is by oxidizing toluene to benzoic acid followed by a neutralization with potassium hydroxide, another way to synthesize potassium benzoate in the lab setting is by hydrolyzing methyl benzoate with potassium hydroxide. The mechanism of food preservation begins with the absorption of benzoic acid into the cell, if the intracellular pH changes to 5 or lower, the anaerobic fermentation of glucose through phosphofructokinase is decreased by 95%. Potassium benzoate has low acute toxicity upon oral and dermal exposure, the Food Commission, which campaigns for safer, healthier food in the UK, describes potassium benzoate as mildly irritant to the skin, eyes and mucous membranes. Cats have a lower tolerance to benzoic acid and its salts than rats. Under certain circumstances, such as in the presence of ascorbic acid, the US Food and Drug Administration states the levels of benzene measured do not pose a safety concern for consumers. The carbon-13 NMR shows 5 unique peaks, there are four peaks between 130-140 ppm from the carbon atoms in the benzene ring. There is an additional carbon peak around 178 ppm representing the carbon atom from the carbonyl group, the following are the main peaks in the IR spectrum. 1610, C=O from carbonyl 1580, C=C from benzene ring Sodium benzoate
Potassium benzoate
–
Potassium benzoate
39.
Benzene
–
Benzene is an important organic chemical compound with the chemical formula C6H6. The benzene molecule is composed of 6 carbon atoms joined in a ring with 1 hydrogen atom attached to each, because it contains only carbon and hydrogen atoms, benzene is classed as a hydrocarbon. Benzene is a constituent of crude oil and is one of the elementary petrochemicals. Because of the cyclic continuous pi bond between the atoms, benzene is classed as an aromatic hydrocarbon, the second -annulene. Benzene is a colorless and highly flammable liquid with a sweet smell and it is used primarily as a precursor to the manufacture of chemicals with more complex structure, such as ethylbenzene and cumene, of which billions of kilograms are produced. Because benzene has a high number, it is an important component of gasoline. Because benzene is a carcinogen, most non-industrial applications have been limited. The word benzene derives historically from gum benzoin, a resin known to European pharmacists. An acidic material was derived from benzoin by sublimation, and named flowers of benzoin, the hydrocarbon derived from benzoic acid thus acquired the name benzin, benzol, or benzene. Michael Faraday first isolated and identified benzene in 1825 from the oily residue derived from the production of illuminating gas, in 1833, Eilhard Mitscherlich produced it by distilling benzoic acid and lime. He gave the compound the name benzin, in 1845, Charles Mansfield, working under August Wilhelm von Hofmann, isolated benzene from coal tar. Four years later, Mansfield began the first industrial-scale production of benzene, gradually, the sense developed among chemists that a number of substances were chemically related to benzene, comprising a diverse chemical family. In 1855, Hofmann used the word aromatic to designate this family relationship, in 1997, benzene was detected in deep space. The empirical formula for benzene was known, but its highly polyunsaturated structure. In 1865, the German chemist Friedrich August Kekulé published a paper in French suggesting that the structure contained a ring of six carbon atoms with alternating single and double bonds, the next year he published a much longer paper in German on the same subject. Kekulés symmetrical ring could explain these facts, as well as benzenes 1,1 carbon-hydrogen ratio. Here Kekulé spoke of the creation of the theory and he said that he had discovered the ring shape of the benzene molecule after having a reverie or day-dream of a snake seizing its own tail. This vision, he said, came to him years of studying the nature of carbon-carbon bonds
Benzene
–
A bottle of benzene. The warnings show benzene is a toxic and flammable liquid.
Benzene
–
Geometry of molecule
40.
Carcinogen
–
A carcinogen is any substance, radionuclide, or radiation that is an agent directly involved in causing cancer. This may be due to the ability to damage the genome or to the disruption of cellular metabolic processes, several radioactive substances are considered carcinogens, but their carcinogenic activity is attributed to the radiation, for example gamma rays and alpha particles, which they emit. Common examples of non-radioactive carcinogens are inhaled asbestos, certain dioxins, although the public generally associates carcinogenicity with synthetic chemicals, it is equally likely to arise in both natural and synthetic substances. Carcinogens are not necessarily immediately toxic, thus their effect can be insidious, Cancer is any disease in which normal cells are damaged and do not undergo programmed cell death as fast as they divide via mitosis. Usually, severe DNA damage leads to apoptosis, but if the cell death pathway is damaged. Aflatoxin B1, which is produced by the fungus Aspergillus flavus growing on stored grains, nuts and peanut butter, is an example of a potent, certain viruses such as hepatitis B and human papilloma virus have been found to cause cancer in humans. The first one shown to cause cancer in animals is Rous sarcoma virus, other infectious organisms which cause cancer in humans include some bacteria and helminths. Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds, benzene, kepone, EDB, vinyl chloride, from which PVC is manufactured, is a carcinogen and thus a hazard in PVC production. Co-carcinogens are chemicals that do not necessarily cause cancer on their own, after the carcinogen enters the body, the body makes an attempt to eliminate it through a process called biotransformation. The purpose of these reactions is to make the carcinogen more water-soluble so that it can be removed from the body, however, in some cases, these reactions can also convert a less toxic carcinogen into a more toxic carcinogen. DNA is nucleophilic, therefore soluble carbon electrophiles are carcinogenic, because DNA attacks them, for example, some alkenes are toxicated by human enzymes to produce an electrophilic epoxide. DNA attacks the epoxide, and is bound permanently to it and this is the mechanism behind the carcinogenicity of benzopyrene in tobacco smoke, other aromatics, aflatoxin and mustard gas. Carcinogenicity of radiation depends on the type of radiation, type of exposure, for example, alpha radiation has low penetration and is not a hazard outside the body, but emitters are carcinogenic when inhaled or ingested. Low-level ionizing radiation may induce irreparable DNA damage leading to pre-mature aging, not all types of electromagnetic radiation are carcinogenic. Higher-energy radiation, including radiation, x-rays, and gamma radiation, generally is carcinogenic. For most people, ultraviolet radiations from sunlight is the most common cause of skin cancer, in Australia, where people with pale skin are often exposed to strong sunlight, melanoma is the most common cancer diagnosed in people aged 15–44 years. Substances or foods irradiated with electrons or electromagnetic radiation are not carcinogenic, in contrast, non-electromagnetic neutron radiation produced inside nuclear reactors can produce secondary radiation through nuclear transmutation. Chemicals used in processed and cured such as some brands of bacon, sausages
Carcinogen
–
The
international pictogram for chemicals that are sensitising,
mutagenic, carcinogenic or
toxic to reproduction.
41.
World Health Organization
–
The World Health Organization is a specialised agency of the United Nations that is concerned with international public health. It was established on 7 April 1948, headquartered in Geneva, the WHO is a member of the United Nations Development Group. Its predecessor, the Health Organization, was an agency of the League of Nations, the constitution of the World Health Organization had been signed by 61 countries on 22 July 1946, with the first meeting of the World Health Assembly finishing on 24 July 1948. It incorporated the Office international dhygiène publique and the League of Nations Health Organization, since its creation, it has played a leading role in the eradication of smallpox. The WHO is responsible for the World Health Report, an international publication on health, the worldwide World Health Survey. The head of WHO is Margaret Chan, the 2014/2015 proposed budget of the WHO is about US$4 billion. About US$930 million are to be provided by member states with a further US$3 billion to be from voluntary contributions, after failing to get a resolution passed on the subject, Alger Hiss, the Secretary General of the conference, recommended using a declaration to establish such an organisation. Dr. Sze and other delegates lobbied and a declaration passed calling for a conference on health. The use of the world, rather than international, emphasised the truly global nature of what the organisation was seeking to achieve. The constitution of the World Health Organization was signed by all 51 countries of the United Nations and it thus became the first specialised agency of the United Nations to which every member subscribed. Its constitution formally came into force on the first World Health Day on 7 April 1948, the first meeting of the World Health Assembly finished on 24 July 1948, having secured a budget of US$5 million for the 1949 year. Andrija Stampar was the Assemblys first president, and G. Brock Chisholm was appointed Director-General of WHO and its first priorities were to control the spread of malaria, tuberculosis and sexually transmitted infections, and to improve maternal and child health, nutrition and environmental hygiene. Its first legislative act was concerning the compilation of statistics on the spread. The logo of the World Health Organization features the Rod of Asclepius as a symbol for healing, in 1947 the WHO established an epidemiological information service via telex, and by 1950 a mass tuberculosis inoculation drive using the BCG vaccine was under way. In 1955, the eradication programme was launched, although it was later altered in objective. 1965 saw the first report on diabetes mellitus and the creation of the International Agency for Research on Cancer. In 1958, Viktor Zhdanov, Deputy Minister of Health for the USSR, called on the World Health Assembly to undertake an initiative to eradicate smallpox. At this point,2 million people were dying from smallpox every year, in 1966, WHO moved into its headquarters building
World Health Organization
–
Three former directors of the
Global Smallpox Eradication Programme read the news that smallpox had been globally eradicated, 1980
World Health Organization
–
World Health Organization
World Health Organization
–
WHO Headquarters in Geneva
World Health Organization
–
Demonstration on
Chernobyl disaster day near WHO in
Geneva
42.
Food Standards Agency
–
The Food Standards Agency is a non-ministerial government department of the Government of the United Kingdom. It is responsible for protecting public health in relation to food in England, Wales and it is led by a board appointed to act in the public interest. Its headquarters are in London, opposite Holborn tube station, with offices in Wales. The agency had a office in Scotland until April 2015. The Agency was created in 2001 based on a report by Professor James, issued after several high-profile outbreaks, from its inception, the Agency declared that it would take no decisions about food policy except in open Board meetings accessible to the public. Since 2003, these meetings have been webcast live, enabling consumers to see the process in action. Each Board meeting concludes with a Q&A session in which web viewers can question the Board or its Executive directly, in 2006, the Wine Standards Board merged with the FSA to take over responsibility for enforcing the EU wine regime in the UK. Formerly an executive agency of the FSA, the Meat Hygiene Service merged with the FSA in April 2010 to form a new operations group, the operations group has responsibility for the delivery of official controls. Certain aspects of food labelling policy in England were transferred from the Food Standards Agency to the Department for Environment, Food, the Food Standards Agency offices in Scotland and Northern Ireland have retained their responsibilities for nutrition policy. Plans to create a new food standards body in Scotland were announced by Ministers in June 2012, Food Standards Scotland took over from the FSA on 1 April 2015 as the public body responsible for food safety, food standards, nutrition, food labelling and meat inspection in Scotland. Sir John Krebs was the first Chair of the Food Standards Agency, dame Deirdre Hutton was Chair between 2005 and July 2009, followed by Jeff Rooker until July 2013. Tim Bennett, the former Deputy Chair, was appointed as interim Chair whilst a permanent appointment was made, heather Hancock was appointed the new Chair on 1 April 2016, for a three-year term. In February 2005, the announced the discovery of the dye Sudan I in Worcester sauce. The Agency asked for these to be removed from sale, the Food Standards Agency also imposed restrictions on the sheep trade because of the consequences of the 1986 Chernobyl catastrophe which were repealed in March 2012. In 2007, the UK TV regulator Ofcom introduced restrictions on advertising of products that scored poorly under the scheme, in June 2002, and re-released in June 2006, the FSA conducted an advertising campaign on British television, highlighting the danger of food poisoning caused by barbecues. The advert, intended to shock viewers, shows sausages sizzling on a barbecue, however, when a pair of tongs pick up one of these sausages, it falls apart, and reveals pink, uncooked meat in the middle. To emphasize the risk of diarrhoea and vomiting caused by food poisoning, in 2005, Brenda Dean carried out an independent review of the Food Standards Agency. The report made 22 recommendations, all of which were accepted by the Food Standards Agency board and it has done well in taking forward the experiences, good and bad, of the previous regime, to begin building its own reputation
Food Standards Agency
–
Ministerial
43.
Artificial color
–
Food coloring, or color additive, is any dye, pigment or substance that imparts color when it is added to food or drink. They come in many forms consisting of liquids, powders, gels, Food coloring is used both in commercial food production and in domestic cooking. Food colorants are used in a variety of non-food applications including cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, home craft projects. People associate certain colors with certain flavors, and the color of food can influence the flavor in anything from candy to wine. During the Middle Ages, the economy in the European countries was based on agriculture, under feudalism, aesthetic aspects were not considered, at least not by the vast majority of the generally very poor population. This situation changed with urbanization at the beginning of the Modern Age, one of the very first food laws, created in Augsburg, Germany, in 1531, concerned spices or colorants and required saffron counterfeiters to be burned. With the onset of the revolution, people became dependent on foods produced by others. These new urban dwellers demanded food at low cost, analytical chemistry was still primitive and regulations few. Copper arsenite was used to recolor used tea leaves for resale and it also caused two deaths when used to color a dessert in 1860. Again his tea if mixed or green, he would not escape without the administration of a little Prussian blue. Many color additives had never tested for toxicity or other adverse effects. Historical records show that injuries, even deaths, resulted from tainted colorants, in 1851, about 200 people were poisoned in England,17 of them fatally, directly as a result of eating adulterated lozenges. Originally, these were dubbed coal-tar colors because the materials were obtained from bituminous coal. Many synthesized dyes were easier and less costly to produce and were superior in coloring properties when compared to naturally derived alternatives, some synthetic food colorants are diazo dyes. Diazo dyes are prepared by coupling of a compound with a second aromatic hydrocarbons. The resulting compounds contain conjugated systems that absorb light in the visible parts of the spectrum. The attractiveness of the synthetic dyes is that their color, lipophilicity, the color of the dyes can be controlled by selecting the number of azo-groups and various substituents. Yellow shades are often achieved by using acetoacetanilide, Red colors are often azo compounds
Artificial color
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Food coloring spreading on a thin water film in the
International Space Station
Artificial color
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Natural food colors can make a variety of different hues
44.
Southampton University
–
The University of Southampton is a public research university located in Southampton, England. The origins of the university back to the founding of the Hartley Institution in 1862 following a legacy to the Corporation of Southampton by Henry Robinson Hartley. In 1902, the Institution developed into the Hartley University College awarding degrees from the University of London, on 29 April 1952, the institution was granted a Royal Charter to give the University of Southampton full university status, allowing it to award its own degrees. The university has seven teaching campuses, in addition, the university operates a School of Art based in nearby Winchester and an international branch in Malaysia offering courses in Engineering. Each campus is equipped with its own library facilities, the University of Southampton currently has 17,485 undergraduate and 7,390 postgraduate students, making it the largest university by higher education students in the South East region. The university owns and operates a sports ground at nearby Wide Lane for use by students, besides being recognised as one of the leading research universities in the UK, Southampton has also achieved consistently high scores for its teaching and learning activities. It additionally has one of the highest proportions of income derived from activities in Britain. As of 2015, Southampton is one of the few universities to achieve a top 20 UK position in the most established national and international rankings, in the 2016 edition of U. S. News & World Report, Southampton is placed in the top 10 of British Universities. Southampton is a member of the European University Association, the Association of Commonwealth Universities and is an institution of the Worldwide Universities Network. The university consistently ranks in the top 5 in Engineering programs in England, the University of Southampton has its origin as the Hartley Institution which was formed in 1862 from a benefaction by Henry Robinson Hartley. Hartley had inherited a fortune from two generations of successful wine merchants, at his death in 1850, he left a bequest of £103,000 to the Southampton Corporation for the study and advancement of the sciences in his property on Southamptons High Street, in the city centre. Hartley was a straggler, who had little liking of the new age docks. He did not desire to create a college for many but a centre for Southamptons intellectual elite. After lengthy legal challenges to the Bequest, and a debate as to how best interpret the language of his Will. On 15 October 1862, the Hartley Institute was opened by the Prime Minister Lord Palmerston in a civic occasion which exceeded in splendor anything that anyone in the town could remember. After initial years of struggle, the Hartley Institute became the Hartley College in 1883. This move was followed by increasing numbers of students, teaching staff, in 1902, the Hartley College became the Hartley University college, a degree awarding branch of the University of London. This was after inspection of the teaching and finances by the University College Grants Committee, an increase in student numbers in the following years motivated fund raising efforts to move the college to greenfield land around Back Lane in the Highfield area of Southampton
Southampton University
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The arrival of Prime Minister
Lord Palmerston for the opening of the Hartley Institute on 15 October 1862
Southampton University
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The University of Southampton
Southampton University
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Front of the Hartley Library, constructed in the 1930s after the move to Highfield Campus, with the support of private donors.
Southampton University
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Toast rack, a 1929 Dennis GL that has been owned by the University of Southampton Engineering Society since 1958.
45.
European Pharmacopoeia
–
It is a published collection of monographs which describe both the individual and general quality standards for ingredients, dosage forms, and methods of analysis for medicines. These standards apply to medicines for human and veterinary use. The European Pharmacopoeia has a binding character. It is used as a reference to serve public health. Several legal texts make the European Pharmacopoeia mandatory in Europe, the Convention on the Elaboration of a European Pharmacopoeia which was adopted by the Council of Europe in 1964, laid the groundwork for the development of the European Pharmacopoeia. European Union Directive 2001/82/EC and Directive 2001/83/EC, state the legally binding character of European Pharmacopoeia texts for Marketing Authorisation Applications. All manufacturers of medicines or substances for pharmaceutical use therefore must apply the European Pharmacopoeia quality standards in order to be able to market, as of November 2016, thirty-seven member states and the European Union are signatories to the Convention on the Elaboration of a European Pharmacopoeia. Twenty-six countries from all continents are part of its observers, as is the World Health Organization, the European Pharmacopoeia Commission determines the general principles applicable to the elaboration of the European Pharmacopoeia. This Commission meets in Strasbourg, France, three times a year, to adopt texts proposed by its groups of experts, and to decide on its programme of work, each national delegation has one vote. In all technical questions, the decisions of the Commission are taken by a vote of the national delegations that cast a vote. Member States representatives are from health authorities, national authorities, universities or industry. Representatives of the observers are invited to attend the sessions. The current Chair of the Commission is Dr Tobias Gosdschan, who was elected in March 2016, Dr Gosdschan term for Chair is three years, and runs in parallel with other members of the Commissions Presidium. The 1st Edition of the European Pharmacopoeia was published in 1969, the 9th Edition, was published in July 2016 and is currently in force. It contains some 2,300 monographs, and more than 350 general chapters, illustrated with diagrams or chromatograms, with 121 new and 1,403 revised texts, over 50 percent of the 9th Editions content is new compared to the 8th Edition. It consists of three volumes, and will culminate in a collection of eight non-cumulative supplements. A new edition is published three years, in both English and French, by the Council of Europe. It is made available in print and electronic versions, the version is also accessible from smartphones
European Pharmacopoeia
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EDQM Building, Strasbourg
46.
Sigma-Aldrich
–
Sigma-Aldrich Corporation is an American chemical, life science and biotechnology company owned by Merck KGaA. The company is headquartered in St. Louis and has operations in approximately 40 countries, in September 2014, the German company Merck KGaA announced that it would be acquiring Sigma-Aldrich for 17.0 billion dollars. The acquisition was completed in November 2015 and Sigma-Aldrich became a subsidiary of Merck KGaA, the company is currently a part of Mercks life science business and in combination with Mercks earlier acquired Millipore, operates as MilliporeSigma. Sigma Chemical Company of St Louis and Aldrich Chemical Company of Milwaukee were both American specialty chemical companies when they merged in August 1975, the company grew throughout the 80s and 90s, with significant expansion in facilities, acquisitions and diversification into new market sectors. 1935 – Midwest Consultants was founded in St Louis by the Fischer brothers,1946 – Sigma was formed from Midwest Consultants and manufactured just adenosine triphosphate. They were the first to manufacture pure ATP,1972 – Sigmas IPO1951 – Aldrich founded in Milwaukee by Alfred Bader and Jack Eisendrath and manufactured just 1-methyl-3-nitro-1-nitrosoguanidine. 1966 – Aldrichs IPO1972 – Subsidiary Aldrich-Boranes launched to manufacture hydroboration products 1975 – Merger of Sigma Chemical and their first year earned $43 million in sales. 1999 – Sigma-Aldrich reaches $1 billion in sales 2005 – Announced membership in The RNAi Consortium 2014 – Merck KGaA announced that it would purchase Sigma-Aldrich for approx. 1978 – Makor Chemicals 1984 – Pathfinder 1986 – Bio Yeda, BioReliance, BioReliance had previously been acquired by Invitrogen and subsequently sold to Avista Capital Partners. 2014 – Cell Marque Key numbers for Sigma-Aldrich, research Specialties – Specialty analytical, biochemical and chemical products. Research Essentials – Commonly used laboratory chemicals and supplies, SAFC – Development and manufacturing services to the pharmaceutical, biopharmaceutical and diagnostic sectors. Aldrich is a supplier in the research and fine chemicals market, Aldrich provides organic and inorganic chemicals, building blocks, reagents, advanced materials and stable isotopes for chemical synthesis, medicinal chemistry and materials science. Aldrichs chemicals catalog, the Aldrich Catalog and Handbook is often used as a due to the inclusion of structures, physical data. Sigma RBI produces specialized products for use in the field of cell signaling, Fluka manufactures chemicals and reagents for analytical, organic and biochemical research, and intermediates for the chemical and pharmaceutical industries. Riedel-de Haën was incorporated with Sigma-Aldrich in 1999 and manufactures reagents, supelco is the chromatography products branch of Sigma-Aldrich. Sigma Life Science provides products such as custom DNA/RNA oligos, custom DNA and LNA probes, siRNA, isotopically-labelled peptides, Sigma Advanced Genetic Engineering Labs is a division within Sigma-Aldrich that specializes in genetic manipulation of in vivo systems for special research and development applications. It was formed in 2008 to investigate zinc finger nuclease technology, located in St. Louis, Missouri, SAGE Labs have developed knockout rats for the study of human diseases and disorders, which are sold for up to US$95,000. SAGE also announced its first successful effort in creating a knockout rabbit and its facilities include a specific pathogen free, biosecure vivarium as well as research and development labs
Sigma-Aldrich
–
Sigma-Aldrich Corporation
47.
International Standard Serial Number
–
An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
International Standard Serial Number
–
ISSN encoded in an EAN-13 barcode with sequence variant 0 and issue number 5
48.
PubMed Identifier
–
PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health maintains the database as part of the Entrez system of information retrieval, from 1971 to 1997, MEDLINE online access to the MEDLARS Online computerized database primarily had been through institutional facilities, such as university libraries. PubMed, first released in January 1996, ushered in the era of private, free, home-, the PubMed system was offered free to the public in June 1997, when MEDLINE searches via the Web were demonstrated, in a ceremony, by Vice President Al Gore. Information about the journals indexed in MEDLINE, and available through PubMed, is found in the NLM Catalog. As of 5 January 2017, PubMed has more than 26.8 million records going back to 1966, selectively to the year 1865, and very selectively to 1809, about 500,000 new records are added each year. As of the date,13.1 million of PubMeds records are listed with their abstracts. In 2016, NLM changed the system so that publishers will be able to directly correct typos. Simple searches on PubMed can be carried out by entering key aspects of a subject into PubMeds search window, when a journal article is indexed, numerous article parameters are extracted and stored as structured information. Such parameters are, Article Type, Secondary identifiers, Language, publication type parameter enables many special features. As these clinical girish can generate small sets of robust studies with considerable precision, since July 2005, the MEDLINE article indexing process extracts important identifiers from the article abstract and puts those in a field called Secondary Identifier. The secondary identifier field is to store numbers to various databases of molecular sequence data, gene expression or chemical compounds. For clinical trials, PubMed extracts trial IDs for the two largest trial registries, ClinicalTrials. gov and the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number Register, a reference which is judged particularly relevant can be marked and related articles can be identified. If relevant, several studies can be selected and related articles to all of them can be generated using the Find related data option, the related articles are then listed in order of relatedness. To create these lists of related articles, PubMed compares words from the title and abstract of each citation, as well as the MeSH headings assigned, using a powerful word-weighted algorithm. The related articles function has been judged to be so precise that some researchers suggest it can be used instead of a full search, a strong feature of PubMed is its ability to automatically link to MeSH terms and subheadings. Examples would be, bad breath links to halitosis, heart attack to myocardial infarction, where appropriate, these MeSH terms are automatically expanded, that is, include more specific terms. Terms like nursing are automatically linked to Nursing or Nursing and this important feature makes PubMed searches automatically more sensitive and avoids false-negative hits by compensating for the diversity of medical terminology. The My NCBI area can be accessed from any computer with web-access, an earlier version of My NCBI was called PubMed Cubby
PubMed Identifier
–
PubMed
49.
United States Food and Drug Administration
–
The Food and Drug Administration is a federal agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, one of the United States federal executive departments. As of 2017, 3/4th of the FDA budget is funded by the pharmaceutical companies due to the Prescription drug user fee act and these include regulating lasers, cellular phones, condoms and control of disease on products ranging from certain household pets to sperm donation for assisted reproduction. The FDA is led by the Commissioner of Food and Drugs, appointed by the President with the advice, the Commissioner reports to the Secretary of Health and Human Services. Dr. Robert M. Califf, MD is the current commissioner, who took over in February 2016 for Dr. Stephen Ostroff, the FDA has its headquarters in unincorporated White Oak, Maryland. The agency also has 223 field offices and 13 laboratories located throughout the 50 states, the United States Virgin Islands, in 2008, the FDA began to post employees to foreign countries, including China, India, Costa Rica, Chile, Belgium, and the United Kingdom. The site was renamed from the White Oak Naval Surface Warfare Center to the Federal Research Center at White Oak, the first building, the Life Sciences Laboratory, was dedicated and opened with 104 employees on the campus in December 2003. Only one original building from the facility was kept. All other buildings are new construction, the project is slated to be completed by 2017, assuming future Congressional funding While most of the Centers are located in the Washington, D. C. The Office of Regulatory Affairs is considered the eyes and ears of the agency, the Office of Regulatory Affairs is divided into five regions, which are further divided into 20 districts. Districts are based roughly on the divisions of the federal court system. Each district comprises a main office and a number of Resident Posts. ORA also includes the Agencys network of laboratories, which analyze any physical samples taken. Though samples are usually food-related, some laboratories are equipped to analyze drugs, cosmetics, the Office of Criminal Investigations was established in 1991 to investigate criminal cases. Unlike ORA Investigators, OCI Special Agents are armed, and dont focus on aspects of the regulated industries. In many cases, OCI pursues cases involving Title 18 violations, OCI Special Agents often come from other criminal investigations backgrounds, and work closely with the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Assistant Attorney General, and even Interpol. OCI receives cases from a variety of sources—including ORA, local agencies, OCI is a smaller branch, comprising about 200 agents nationwide. The FDA frequently works with federal agencies, including the Department of Agriculture, Drug Enforcement Administration, Customs and Border Protection. Often local and state government agencies also work with the FDA to provide regulatory inspections, the FDA regulates more than US$1 trillion worth of consumer goods, about 25% of consumer expenditures in the United States
United States Food and Drug Administration
–
FDA Building 31 houses the Office of the Commissioner and the Office of Regulatory Affairs.
United States Food and Drug Administration
–
Food and Drug Administration
United States Food and Drug Administration
–
Regulation of therapeutic goods in the United States
United States Food and Drug Administration
–
FDA Building 51 houses the Center for Drug Evaluation and Research.
50.
Sigma Aldrich
–
Sigma-Aldrich Corporation is an American chemical, life science and biotechnology company owned by Merck KGaA. The company is headquartered in St. Louis and has operations in approximately 40 countries, in September 2014, the German company Merck KGaA announced that it would be acquiring Sigma-Aldrich for 17.0 billion dollars. The acquisition was completed in November 2015 and Sigma-Aldrich became a subsidiary of Merck KGaA, the company is currently a part of Mercks life science business and in combination with Mercks earlier acquired Millipore, operates as MilliporeSigma. Sigma Chemical Company of St Louis and Aldrich Chemical Company of Milwaukee were both American specialty chemical companies when they merged in August 1975, the company grew throughout the 80s and 90s, with significant expansion in facilities, acquisitions and diversification into new market sectors. 1935 – Midwest Consultants was founded in St Louis by the Fischer brothers,1946 – Sigma was formed from Midwest Consultants and manufactured just adenosine triphosphate. They were the first to manufacture pure ATP,1972 – Sigmas IPO1951 – Aldrich founded in Milwaukee by Alfred Bader and Jack Eisendrath and manufactured just 1-methyl-3-nitro-1-nitrosoguanidine. 1966 – Aldrichs IPO1972 – Subsidiary Aldrich-Boranes launched to manufacture hydroboration products 1975 – Merger of Sigma Chemical and their first year earned $43 million in sales. 1999 – Sigma-Aldrich reaches $1 billion in sales 2005 – Announced membership in The RNAi Consortium 2014 – Merck KGaA announced that it would purchase Sigma-Aldrich for approx. 1978 – Makor Chemicals 1984 – Pathfinder 1986 – Bio Yeda, BioReliance, BioReliance had previously been acquired by Invitrogen and subsequently sold to Avista Capital Partners. 2014 – Cell Marque Key numbers for Sigma-Aldrich, research Specialties – Specialty analytical, biochemical and chemical products. Research Essentials – Commonly used laboratory chemicals and supplies, SAFC – Development and manufacturing services to the pharmaceutical, biopharmaceutical and diagnostic sectors. Aldrich is a supplier in the research and fine chemicals market, Aldrich provides organic and inorganic chemicals, building blocks, reagents, advanced materials and stable isotopes for chemical synthesis, medicinal chemistry and materials science. Aldrichs chemicals catalog, the Aldrich Catalog and Handbook is often used as a due to the inclusion of structures, physical data. Sigma RBI produces specialized products for use in the field of cell signaling, Fluka manufactures chemicals and reagents for analytical, organic and biochemical research, and intermediates for the chemical and pharmaceutical industries. Riedel-de Haën was incorporated with Sigma-Aldrich in 1999 and manufactures reagents, supelco is the chromatography products branch of Sigma-Aldrich. Sigma Life Science provides products such as custom DNA/RNA oligos, custom DNA and LNA probes, siRNA, isotopically-labelled peptides, Sigma Advanced Genetic Engineering Labs is a division within Sigma-Aldrich that specializes in genetic manipulation of in vivo systems for special research and development applications. It was formed in 2008 to investigate zinc finger nuclease technology, located in St. Louis, Missouri, SAGE Labs have developed knockout rats for the study of human diseases and disorders, which are sold for up to US$95,000. SAGE also announced its first successful effort in creating a knockout rabbit and its facilities include a specific pathogen free, biosecure vivarium as well as research and development labs
Sigma Aldrich
–
Sigma-Aldrich Corporation
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. PMID 22642880. doi:10.1186/1750-1172-7-32.
