1.
Baijiu
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Baijiu, also known as shaojiu or archaically as sorghum wine, is a Chinese alcoholic beverage made from grain. Báijiǔ literally means white alcohol or liquor, and is a distilled spirit. The jiuqu starter culture used in the production of baijiu mash is usually made of pulverized wheat grains. Because of its clarity, baijiu can appear similar to several other East Asian liquors and it is closer to vodka in strength and mouth-feel. Chinese liquor, which has made for over 5000 years, is characterized by a double semisolid-state fermentation using fungi as the main microbial starter for the saccharification. This is a feature of liquors produced in the Far East. The brewing of Chinese baijiu mainly uses grain except for a few that use fruit, the Chinese traditionally serve baijiu either warm or at room temperature in a small ceramic bottle. They then pour the baijiu into small cups, Baijiu may be purchased as a set of items consisting of bottles of baijiu, a small heater, and four to six small cups. The serving method and containers are similar to those used for sake and soju, Baijiu is generally sold in glass or ceramic bottles and consumed in shot glasses, much like vodka. It is traditional to drink baijiu with food rather than on its own, in 2007, a report in Time magazine mentioned integrating baijiu into cocktails. Low grades of baijiu can be inexpensive, a bottle of roughly 250 ml may be purchased for the same price as a can of beer. However, higher grades, which are aged for many years. The highest grade of Wuliangye retails for CN¥26,800, some popular varieties of baijiu include Moutai, kaoliang, erguotou, Luzhou Laojiao, and Wuliangye. Unlike huangjiu, which has a variety of classification methods. Baijiu has a distinctive smell and taste that is valued in Chinese culinary culture. Connoisseurs of the beverage focus especially on its fragrance, even so, during the competition, experts rated various baijiu based on their taste rather than aroma. Furthermore, many categories are simply an advertising hype, in order to distinguish a particular brand from other brands. Sauce fragrance, A highly fragrant distilled liquor of bold character, named for its similarity in flavor to Chinese fermented bean pastes, to the Western palate, sauce fragrance baijiu can be quite challenging
2.
Distilled beverage
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This process purifies it and removes diluting components like water, for the purpose of increasing its proportion of alcohol content. As distilled beverages contain more alcohol, they are considered harder – in North America, as examples, this term does not include beverages such as beer, wine, sake, and cider, as they are fermented but not distilled. These all have relatively low alcohol content, typically less than 15%, brandy is a spirit produced by the distillation of wine, and has an ABV of over 35%. Other examples of distilled beverages include bourbon, vodka, gin, rum, tequila, mezcal, whisky, scotch, the term spirit refers to a distilled beverage that contains no added sugar and has at least 20% alcohol by volume. Distilled beverages bottled with added sugar and added flavorings, such as Grand Marnier, Frangelico, Distilled beverages generally have an alcohol concentration higher than 30%. The origin of liquor and its close relative liquid was the Latin verb liquere, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, an early use of the word in the English language, meaning simply a liquid, can be dated to 1225. The first use the OED mentions of its meaning a liquid for drinking occurred in the 14th century and its use as a term for an intoxicating alcoholic drink appeared in the 16th century. The term spirit in reference to alcohol stems from Middle Eastern alchemy and these alchemists were more concerned with medical elixirs than with transmuting lead into gold. The vapor given off and collected during a process was called a spirit of the original material. Distilled water was described in the 2nd century AD by Alexander of Aphrodisias, the Alexandrians were using a distillation alembic or still device in the 3rd century AD. The medieval Arabs learned the process from the Alexandrians and used it extensively. Freeze distillation involves freezing the alcoholic beverage and then removing the ice, the freezing technique had limitations in geography and implementation limiting how widely this method was put to use. The earliest evidence of distillation of alcohol comes from the School of Salerno in southern Italy during the 12th century. Again, the Chinese may not have been far behind, with evidence indicating the practice of distillation began during the 12th century Jin or Southern Song dynasties. A still has been found at a site in Qinglong, Hebei. Fractional distillation was developed by Taddeo Alderotti in the 13th century, the production method was written in code, suggesting that it was being kept secret. In 1437, burned water was mentioned in the records of the County of Katzenelnbogen in Germany and it was served in a tall, narrow glass called a Goderulffe. Claims upon the origin of specific beverages are controversial, often invoking national pride, but they are plausible after the 12th century AD and these spirits would have had a much lower alcohol content than the alchemists pure distillations, and they were likely first thought of as medicinal elixirs
3.
Korea
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Korea is a historical state in East Asia, since 1945 divided into two distinct sovereign states, North Korea and South Korea. Located on the Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by China to the northwest and it is separated from Japan to the east by the Korea Strait and the Sea of Japan. Korea emerged as a political entity after centuries of conflict among the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Later Silla divided into three states during the Later Three Kingdoms period. Goryeo, which had succeeded Goguryeo, defeated the two states and united the Korean Peninsula. Around the same time, Balhae collapsed and its last crown prince fled south to Goryeo, Goryeo, whose name developed into the modern exonym Korea, was a highly cultured state that created the worlds first metal movable type in 1234. However, multiple invasions by the Mongol Yuan Dynasty during the 13th century greatly weakened the nation, following the Yuan Dynastys collapse, severe political strife followed, and Goryeo eventually fell to a coup led by General Yi Seong-gye, who established Joseon in 1388. The first 200 years of Joseon were marked by peace and saw the creation of the Korean alphabet by Sejong the Great in the 14th century. During the later part of the dynasty, however, Koreas isolationist policy earned it the Western nickname of the Hermit Kingdom, by the late 19th century, the country became the object of imperial design by the Empire of Japan. Despite attempts at modernization by the Korean Empire, in 1910 Korea was annexed by Japan and these circumstances soon became the basis for the division of Korea by the two superpowers, exacerbated by their incapability to agree on the terms of Korean independence. To date, both continue to compete with each other as the sole legitimate government of all of Korea. Korea is the spelling of Corea, a name attested in English as early as 1614. It is a derived from Cauli, Marco Polos transcription of the Chinese 高麗. This was the Hanja for the Korean kingdom of Goryeo or Koryŏ, Goryeos name was a continuation of the earlier Goguryeo or Koguryŏ, the northernmost of the Samguk, which was officially known by the shortened form Goryeo after the 5th-century reign of King Jangsu. The original name was a combination of the go with the name of a local Yemaek tribe. The name Korea is now used in English contexts by both North and South Korea. In South Korea, Korea as a whole is referred to as Hanguk, the name references the Samhan—Ma, Jin, and Byeon—who preceded the Three Kingdoms in the southern and central end of the peninsula during the 1st centuries BC and AD. It has been linked with the title khan used by the nomads of Manchuria
4.
Andong
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Andong is a city in South Korea, and the capital of North Gyeongsang Province. It is the largest city in the part of the province with a population of 167,821 as of October 2010. The Nakdong River flows through the city, Andong is a market centre for the surrounding agricultural areas. Since the 1970s Andong has developed rapidly, although the population has fallen by nearly seventy thousand as people have moved away to Seoul, in the late 1990s and early 2000s it became a tourism and cultural centre. Andong is known as a centre of culture and folk traditions, the surrounding area maintains many ancient traditions, so in mid October the Andong Folk Festival is held every year. One of the most famous aspects of these festivities are the Andong masks. Andong National University, specialising in education and Korean folklore, has grown rapidly since the 1970s, other tertiary institutions include Andong Science College and Catholic Sangji College. Around 1 BC, Andong was founded by the Jinhan people, during the Three Kingdoms period, the area was controlled by the Silla kingdom. The Battle of Gochang in 930 was fought here between Hubaekje forces and the Goryeo army led by Wanggeon, who won control of the city, after the ascent of the Joseon dynasty to the throne of Korea, Andong became a centre of Confucianism. The area was extremely conservative for a time and produced many leading confucian scholars. Toe-gye Yi Hwang, one of the most prominent of all Korean scholars, Yi Hwang retired back to his homeland late in life and started the establishment of the great Confucian academy Dosan Seowon there, which was finished after his death. During this period Andong and its families were influential within Korean political circles. After the 16th century Andong became less influential until the early 19th century, Andong was the site of intense fighting during the Korean War in the early 1950s, the Battle of Andong. Although the city was almost destroyed, it was quickly rebuilt, in 1976 the Andong Dam was built, providing the city with a reliable source of electricity. In 1999, Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom celebrated her 73rd birthday in the city, there is an exhibit dedicated to this historic visit at Hahoe folk village museum. Andong soju is made using methods that are centuries old unlike its popular modern counterparts. It is protected by government regulation to preserve authenticity and commands a premium in the marketplace. Andong has famous local foods that originated in the city such as heotjesabap, Andong jjimdak, Andong soju, Andong sikhye, Geonjin guksu, heotjesabap is a variety of bibimbap, served with soy sauce instead of the gochujang that is more commonly used
5.
Alcohol by volume
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Alcohol by volume is a standard measure of how much alcohol is contained in a given volume of an alcoholic beverage. It is defined as the number of millilitres of pure ethanol present in 100 millilitres of solution at 20 °C, the number of millilitres of pure ethanol is the mass of the ethanol divided by its density at 20 °C, which is 0.78924 g/ml. The ABV standard is used worldwide, the International Organization of Legal Metrology has tables of density of water–ethanol mixtures at different concentrations and temperatures. In some countries, such as the U. K and France, alcohol by volume is referred to as degrees Gay-Lussac and this results in the slight difference in marked % noted later in this article. Mixing two solutions of alcohol of different strengths usually causes a change in volume, mixing pure water with a solution less than 24% by mass causes a slight increase in total volume, whereas the mixing of two solutions above 24% causes a decrease in volume. The phenomenon of volume due to mixing dissimilar solutions is called partial molar volume. Details about typical amounts of alcohol contained in various beverages can be found in the articles about them. Another way of specifying the amount of alcohol is alcohol proof, for example, 40% abv is 80 proof in the US and 70 proof in the UK. However, since 1980, alcohol proof in the UK has been replaced by abv as a measure of alcohol content, in the United States, a few states regulate and tax alcoholic beverages according to alcohol by weight, expressed as a percentage of total mass. Some brewers print the ABW on beer containers, particularly on low-point versions of domestic beer brands. However, because of the miscibility of alcohol and water, the factor is not constant. 100% ABW, of course, is equivalent to 100% ABV, during the production of wine and beer, yeast is added to a sugary solution. During fermentation, the yeasts consume the sugars and produce alcohol, the density of sugar in water is greater than the density of alcohol in water. A hydrometer is used to measure the change in gravity of the solution before. The volume of alcohol in the solution can then be estimated, there are a number of empirical formulae which brewers and winemakers use to estimate the alcohol content of the liquor made. The simplest method for wine has been described by English author C. J. J, the number 0.7936 is the specific gravity of a 100% ethanol solution. The difference between the starting SG and the final SG measures the specific gravity lost to CO2 release
6.
Rice
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Rice is the seed of the grass species Oryza sativa or Oryza glaberrima. As a cereal grain, it is the most widely consumed staple food for a part of the worlds human population. It is the agricultural commodity with the third-highest worldwide production, after sugarcane and maize, wild rice, from which the crop was developed, may have its native range in Australia. Chinese legends attribute the domestication of rice to Shennong, the emperor of China. Genetic evidence has shown that rice originates from a single domestication 8, previously, archaeological evidence had suggested that rice was domesticated in the Yangtze River valley region in China. From East Asia, rice was spread to Southeast and South Asia, Rice was introduced to Europe through Western Asia, and to the Americas through European colonization. There are many varieties of rice and culinary preferences tend to vary regionally, in some areas such as the Far East or Spain, there is a preference for softer and stickier varieties. Rice, a monocot, is grown as an annual plant, although in tropical areas it can survive as a perennial. The rice plant can grow to 1–1.8 m tall, occasionally more depending on the variety and it has long, slender leaves 50–100 cm long and 2–2.5 cm broad. The small wind-pollinated flowers are produced in a branched arching to pendulous inflorescence 30–50 cm long, the edible seed is a grain 5–12 mm long and 2–3 mm thick. Rice cultivation is well-suited to countries and regions with low costs and high rainfall, as it is labor-intensive to cultivate. However, rice can be grown practically anywhere, even on a hill or mountain area with the use of water-controlling terrace systems. Although its parent species are native to Asia and certain parts of Africa, centuries of trade, the traditional method for cultivating rice is flooding the fields while, or after, setting the young seedlings. The name wild rice is used for species of the genera Zizania and Porteresia. The Greek word is the source of all European words, the origin of the Greek word is unclear. It is sometimes held to be from the Tamil word அரிசி, however, Krishnamurti disagrees with the notion that Old Tamil arici is the source of the Greek term, and proposes that it was borrowed from descendants of Proto-Dravidian *wariñci instead. The varieties of rice are typically classified as long-, medium-, the grains of long-grain rice tend to remain intact after cooking, medium-grain rice becomes more sticky. Medium-grain rice is used for dishes, for risotto in Italy
7.
Hangul
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The Korean alphabet, known as Hangul in South Korea and as Chosŏngŭl/Chosŏn Muntcha in North Korea is the alphabet that has been used to write the Korean language since the 15th century. It was created during the Joseon Dynasty in 1443 by King Sejong the Great, in South Korea, Hangul is used primarily to write the Korean language as using Hanja in typical Korean writing had fallen out of common usage during the late 1990s. In its classical and modern forms, the alphabet has 19 consonant and 21 vowel letters, however, instead of being written sequentially like the letters of the Latin alphabet, Hangul letters are grouped into blocks, such as 한 han, each of which transcribes a syllable. That is, although the syllable 한 han may look like a single character, each syllabic block consists of two to six letters, including at least one consonant and one vowel. These blocks are arranged horizontally from left to right or vertically from top to bottom. Each Korean word consists of one or more syllables, hence one or more blocks, of the 11,172 possible Hangul syllables, the most frequent 256 have a cumulative frequency of 88. 2%, with the top 512, it reaches 99. 9%. The modern name Hangul was coined by Ju Sigyeong in 1912, han meant great in archaic Korean, and geul is the native Korean word for script. Taken together, then, the meaning is great script, as the word han had also become one way of indicating Korea as a whole the name could also potentially be interpreted as Korean script. Korean 한글 is pronounced, and in English as /ˈhɑːn. ɡʊl/ or /ˈhɑːŋɡʊl/, when used as an English word, it is often rendered without the diacritics, hangul, and it is often capitalized as Hangul, as it appears in many English dictionaries. Hankul in the Yale romanization, a system recommended for technical linguistic studies, North Koreans call it Chosŏngŭl, after Chosŏn, the North Korean name for Korea. Because of objections to the names Hangeul, Chosŏngŭl, and urigeul by Koreans in China, until the early 20th century, Hangul was denigrated as vulgar by the literate elite, who preferred the traditional hanja writing system. They gave it such names as these, Achimgeul, in the original Hanja, it is rendered as 故智者不終朝而會，愚者可浹旬而學。 Gugmun Eonmun Amgeul. Am is a prefix that signifies a noun is feminine Ahaetgeul or Ahaegeul Hangul was promulgated by Sejong the Great, the Hall of Worthies, a group of scholars who worked with Sejong to develop and refine the new alphabet, is often credited for the work. The project was completed in late December 1443 or January 1444, the publication date of the Hunmin Jeong-eum, October 9, became Hangul Day in South Korea. Its North Korean equivalent, Chosongul Day, is on January 15, various speculations about the creation process were put to rest by the discovery in 1940 of the 1446 Hunmin Jeong-eum Haerye. This document explains the design of the consonant letters according to articulatory phonetics, to assuage this problem, King Sejong created the unique alphabet known as Hangul to promote literacy among the common people. However, it entered popular culture as Sejong had intended, being used especially by women, the late 16th century, however, saw a revival of Hangul, with gasa literature and later sijo flourishing. In the 17th century, Hangul novels became a major genre, by this point spelling had become quite irregular
8.
Hanja
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Hanja is the Korean name for Chinese characters. Borrowed from Chinese and incorporated into the Korean language with Korean pronunciation, hanja-mal or hanja-eo refers to words that can be written with hanja, and hanmun refers to Classical Chinese writing, although hanja is sometimes used loosely to encompass these other concepts. Because hanja never underwent major reform, they are almost entirely identical to traditional Chinese, only a small number of hanja characters are modified or unique to Korean. By contrast, many of the Chinese characters currently in use in Japan and Mainland China have been simplified, and contain fewer strokes than the corresponding hanja characters. Today, a working knowledge of Chinese characters is still important for anyone who wishes to study older texts. Learning a certain number of hanja is very helpful for understanding the etymology of Sino-Korean words, hanja are not used to write native Korean words, which are always rendered in hangul, and even words of Chinese origin—hanja-eo —are written with the hangul alphabet most of the time. A major motivation for the introduction of Chinese characters into Korea was the spread of Buddhism, the major Chinese text that introduced hanja to Koreans, however, was not a religious text but the Chinese text, Cheonjamun. One way of adapting hanja to write Korean in such systems was to represent native Korean grammatical particles, for example, Gugyeol uses the characters 爲尼 to transcribe the Korean word hăni, in modern Korean, that means does, and so. However, in Chinese, the characters are read as the expression wéi ní. This is an example of Gugyeol words where the radical is read in Korean for its meaning. Hanja was the means of writing Korean until King Sejong the Great promoted the invention of hangul in the 15th century. However, even after the invention of hangul, most Korean scholars continued to write in hanmun and it was not until the 20th century that hangul truly replaced hanja. Officially, hanja has not been used in North Korea since June 1949, additionally, many words borrowed from Chinese have been replaced in the North with native Korean words. However, there are a number of Chinese-borrowed words in widespread usage in the North. The replacement has been less total in South Korea where, although usage has declined over time, some remains in common usage in some contexts. Each hanja is composed of one of 214 radicals plus in most cases one or more additional elements, the vast majority of hanja use the additional elements to indicate the sound of the character, but a few hanja are purely pictographic, and some were formed in other ways. This dual meaning-sound reading of a character is called eumhun, the word or words used to denote the meaning are often—though hardly always—words of native Korean origin, and are sometimes archaic words no longer commonly used. South Korean primary schools abandoned the teaching of hanja in 1971 and it is taught in separate courses in South Korean high schools, separately from the normal Korean-language curriculum
9.
Bartending terminology
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Various unique terminology is used in bartending. In bartending, the straight up refers to an alcoholic drink that is shaken or stirred with ice. This is contrasted with a drink served neat – a single, unmixed liquor served without being chilled and without any water, ice, neat drinks are typically served in a rocks glass, shot glass, snifter, Glencairn glass, or copita. On the rocks refers to liquor poured over ice cubes, the terms straight and straight up can be ambiguous, as they are sometimes used to mean neat, up is less ambiguous. A pony is slang for one US fluid ounce of spirit, while the shot of alcohol is a 1. 5-US-fluid-ounce jigger. This method breaks down into convenient sub-measures, each count is approximately one-quarter fluid ounce, making a pony 4 counts, there is substantial confusion in the usage of neat, or straight up, straight, and up. In the context of describing ways of serving a drink, all of these mean served without ice, neat and up are relatively unambiguous. The term neat means a single, unmixed liquor at room temperature, straight is often used interchangeably with neat. However, straight is also used to refer to a spirit that is in an unmixed state in general. For example, many bourbons are identified as Kentucky straight bourbon whiskey on their bottling labels, so sometimes straight may be used to mean either straight up or neat, and clarification may be needed to determine the exact manner for serving it. With a twist signals the bartender to add a twist of lemon or lime to the cocktail, often, the bartender will hang the rind of the citrus on the glass as a garnish. Cocktails are generally served chilled, although some may be served either with or without ice, cocktails can be served frozen which is with crushed ice instead of cubes. Unmixed liquors may be served neat, up, or on the rocks. High quality whisky and other aged liquor is most often served neat, a shot of whisky, tequila, or vodka, when served neat in a shot glass, is often accompanied by a chaser or a water back. These terms commingle as well, it is common in locales to hear a beer back ordered as the chaser to a shot. A drink may specifically be ordered no chaser as well, a chaser in the UK however usually refers to a shot taken after a pint of beer or similar
10.
South Korea
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South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea, is a sovereign state in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korean Peninsula. The earliest Korean pottery dates to 8000 BC, with three kingdoms flourishing in the 1st century BC and its rich and vibrant culture left 19 UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity, the third largest in the world, along with 12 World Heritage Sites. Annexed into Imperial Japan in 1910, Korea was divided after its surrender in 1945, peace has since mostly continued with the two agreeing to work peacefully for reunification and the South solidifying peace as a regional power with the worlds 10th largest defence budget. South Koreas tiger economy soared at an average of 10% for over 30 years in a period of rapid transformation called the Miracle on the Han River. A long legacy of openness and focus on innovation made it successful, today, it is the worlds fifth largest exporter with the G20s largest budget surplus and highest credit rating of any country in East Asia. It has free trade agreements with 75% of the economy and is the only G20 nation trading freely with China, the US. Since 1988, its constitution guarantees a liberal democracy with high government transparency, high personal freedoms led to the rise of a globally influential pop culture such as K-pop and K-drama, a phenomenon called the Korean Wave, known for its distinctive fashionable and trendy style. Home of the UN Green Climate Fund and GGGI, South Korea is a leader in low carbon growth, committed to helping developing countries as a major DAC. It is the third least ignorant country in the Index of Ignorance, ranking eighth highest for peaceful tolerance. It is the worlds largest spender on R&D per GDP, leading the OECD in graduates in science, the name Korea derives from the name Goryeo. The name Goryeo itself was first used by the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo in the 5th century as a form of its name. The 10th-century kingdom of Goryeo succeeded Goguryeo, and thus inherited its name, the modern spelling of Korea first appeared in the late 17th century in the travel writings of the Dutch East India Companys Hendrick Hamel. After Goryeo was replaced by Joseon in 1392, Joseon became the name for the entire territory. The new official name has its origin in the ancient country of Gojoseon, in 1897, the Joseon dynasty changed the official name of the country from Joseon to Daehan Jeguk. The name Daehan, which means great Han literally, derives from Samhan, however, the name Joseon was still widely used by Koreans to refer to their country, though it was no longer the official name. Under Japanese rule, the two names Han and Joseon coexisted, there were several groups who fought for independence, the most notable being the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea. Following the surrender of Japan, in 1945, the Republic of Korea was adopted as the name for the new country. Since the government only controlled the part of the Korean Peninsula
11.
Wheat
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Wheat is a cereal grain, originally from the Levant region but now cultivated worldwide. In 2016, world production of wheat was 749 million tonnes, making it the second most-produced cereal after maize, since 1960, world production of wheat and other grain crops has tripled and is expected to grow further through the middle of the 21st Century. This grain is grown on land area than any other commercial food. World trade in wheat is greater than for all other crops combined, globally, wheat is the leading source of vegetal protein in human food, having a protein content of about 13%, which is relatively high compared to other major cereals and staple foods. The archaeological record suggests that wheat was first cultivated in the regions of the Fertile Crescent around 9600 BCE. In a small part of the population, gluten – the major part of wheat protein – can trigger coeliac disease, non-coeliac gluten sensitivity, gluten ataxia. Cultivation and repeated harvesting and sowing of the grains of wild grasses led to the creation of domestic strains, in domesticated wheat, grains are larger, and the seeds remain attached to the ear by a toughened rachis during harvesting. In wild strains, a more fragile rachis allows the ear to easily shatter, as the traits that improve wheat as a food source also involve the loss of the plants natural seed dispersal mechanisms, highly domesticated strains of wheat cannot survive in the wild. Cultivation of wheat began to spread beyond the Fertile Crescent after about 8000 BCE, jared Diamond traces the spread of cultivated emmer wheat starting in the Fertile Crescent sometime before 8800 BCE. Archaeological analysis of wild emmer indicates that it was first cultivated in the southern Levant with finds dating back as far as 9600 BCE, Genetic analysis of wild einkorn wheat suggests that it was first grown in the Karacadag Mountains in southeastern Turkey. Dated archeological remains of wheat in settlement sites near this region, including those at Abu Hureyra in Syria. With the anomalous exception of two grains from Iraq ed-Dubb, the earliest carbon-14 date for einkorn wheat remains at Abu Hureyra is 7800 to 7500 years BCE. Remains of harvested emmer from several sites near the Karacadag Range have been dated to between 8600 and 8400 BCE, that is, in the Neolithic period and these remains were dated by Willem van Zeist and his assistant Johanna Bakker-Heeres to 8800 BCE. They also concluded that the settlers of Tell Aswad did not develop this form of emmer themselves, the cultivation of emmer reached Greece, Cyprus and India by 6500 BCE, Egypt shortly after 6000 BCE, and Germany and Spain by 5000 BCE. The early Egyptians were developers of bread and the use of the oven, by 3000 BCE, wheat had reached the British Isles and Scandinavia. A millennium later it reached China, the oldest evidence for hexaploid wheat has been confirmed through DNA analysis of wheat seeds, dating to around 6400-6200 BCE, recovered from Çatalhöyük. The first identifiable bread wheat with sufficient gluten for yeasted breads has been identified using DNA analysis in samples from a dating to approximately 1350 BCE at Assiros in Macedonia. From Asia, wheat continued to spread throughout Europe, in the British Isles, wheat straw was used for roofing in the Bronze Age, and was in common use until the late 19th century
12.
Barley
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Barley, a member of the grass family, is a major cereal grain grown in temperate climates globally. It was one of the first cultivated grains, particularly in Eurasia as early as 10,000 years ago, Barley has been used as animal fodder, as a source of fermentable material for beer and certain distilled beverages, and as a component of various health foods. It is used in soups and stews, and in barley bread of various cultures, Barley grains are commonly made into malt in a traditional and ancient method of preparation. In 2014, barley was ranked fourth among grains in quantity produced behind corn, rice, the Old English word for barley was bære, which traces back to Proto-Indo-European and is cognate to the Latin word farina flour. The direct ancestor of modern English barley in Old English was the derived adjective bærlic, the first citation of the form bærlic in the Oxford English Dictionary dates to around 966 CE, in the compound word bærlic-croft. The underived word bære survives in the north of Scotland as bere, the word barn, which originally meant barley-house, is also rooted in these words. Barley is a member of the grass family and it is a self-pollinating, diploid species with 14 chromosomes. The wild ancestor of domesticated barley, Hordeum vulgare subsp, spontaneum, is abundant in grasslands and woodlands throughout the Fertile Crescent area of Western Asia and northeast Africa, and is abundant in disturbed habitats, roadsides and orchards. Outside this region, the barley is less common and is usually found in disturbed habitats. However, in a study of genome-wide diversity markers, Tibet was found to be a center of domestication of cultivated barley. Wild barley has a spike, upon maturity, the spikelets separate. Domesticated barley has nonshattering spikes, making it easier to harvest the mature ears. The nonshattering condition is caused by a mutation in one of two linked genes known as Bt1 and Bt2, many cultivars possess both mutations. The nonshattering condition is recessive, so varieties of barley that exhibit this condition are homozygous for the mutant allele, spikelets are arranged in triplets which alternate along the rachis. In wild barley, only the central spikelet is fertile, while the two are reduced. This condition is retained in certain cultivars known as two-row barleys, a pair of mutations result in fertile lateral spikelets to produce six-row barleys. Recent genetic studies have revealed that a mutation in one gene, two-row barley has a lower protein content than six-row barley, thus a more fermentable sugar content. High-protein barley is best suited for animal feed, Malting barley is usually lower protein which shows more uniform germination, needs shorter steeping, and has less protein in the extract that can make beer cloudy
13.
Potato
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The potato is a starchy, tuberous crop from the perennial nightshade Solanum tuberosum. The word potato may refer either to the plant itself or to the edible tuber, in the Andes, where the species is indigenous, there are some other closely related cultivated potato species. Potatoes were introduced to Europe in the half of the 16th century by the Spanish. It is the worlds fourth-largest food crop, following maize, wheat, the green leaves and green skins of tubers exposed to the light are toxic. Wild potato species can be throughout the Americas from the United States to southern Chile. Following centuries of breeding, there are now over a thousand different types of potatoes. However, the importance of the potato is variable and changing rapidly. As of 2007 China led the world in production, and nearly a third of the worlds potatoes were harvested in China. The English word potato comes from Spanish patata, the Spanish Royal Academy says the Spanish word is a compound of the Taíno batata and the Quechua papa. The 16th-century English herbalist John Gerard used the terms bastard potatoes and Virginia potatoes for this species, potatoes are occasionally referred to as Irish potatoes or white potatoes in the United States, to distinguish them from sweet potatoes. The name spud for a small potato comes from the digging of soil prior to the planting of potatoes, the word spud traces back to the 16th century. It subsequently transferred over to a variety of digging tools, around 1845, the name transferred to the tuber itself. It was Mario Peis 1949 The Story of Language that can be blamed for the false origin. Pei writes, the potato, for its part, was in disrepute some centuries ago, some Englishmen who did not fancy potatoes formed a Society for the Prevention of Unwholesome Diet. The initials of the words in this title gave rise to spud. Like most other pre-20th century acronymic origins, this is false, Potato plants are herbaceous perennials that grow about 60 cm high, depending on variety, with the leaves dying back after flowering, fruiting and tuber formation. They bear white, pink, red, blue, or purple flowers with yellow stamens, in general, the tubers of varieties with white flowers have white skins, while those of varieties with colored flowers tend to have pinkish skins. Potatoes are mostly cross-pollinated by insects such as bumblebees, which carry pollen from other potato plants, tubers form in response to decreasing day length, although this tendency has been minimized in commercial varieties
14.
Sweet potato
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The sweet potato is a dicotyledonous plant that belongs to the morning glory family Convolvulaceae. Its large, starchy, sweet-tasting, tuberous roots are a root vegetable, in some parts of the English-speaking world, sweet potatoes are locally known by other names such as kumara, but people usually confused it with yam due to their similar appearances. The young leaves and shoots are eaten as greens. The sweet potato is only related to the potato and does not belong to the nightshade family Solanaceae. The plant is a perennial vine, bearing alternate heart-shaped or palmately lobed leaves. The edible tuberous root is long and tapered, with a smooth skin whose color ranges between yellow, orange, red, brown, purple, and beige and its flesh ranges from beige through white, red, pink, violet, yellow, orange, and purple. Sweet potato cultivars with white or pale yellow flesh are less sweet and moist than those with red, Ipomoea batatas is native to the tropical regions in the Americas. Of the approximately 50 genera and more than 1,000 species of Convolvulaceae, I. batatas is the crop plant of major importance—some others are used locally. The genus Ipomoea that contains the sweet potato also includes several garden flowers called morning glories, some cultivars of Ipomoea batatas are grown as ornamental plants under the name tuberous morning glory, used in a horticultural context. To add to the confusion, a different crop plant, the oca, is called a yam in many parts of Polynesia, the United States Department of Agriculture requires that the label yam always be accompanied by sweet potato in U. S. retail sales of sweet potato. Although the sweet potato is not closely related botanically to the common potato, the first Europeans to taste sweet potatoes were members of Christopher Columbuss expedition in 1492. Later explorers found many cultivars under an assortment of local names, the Spanish combined this with the Quechua word for potato, papa, to create the word patata for the common potato. The first record of the sweet potato is found in the Oxford English Dictionary of 1775. In Argentina, Venezuela, Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic the sweet potato is called batata, in Mexico, Peru, Chile, Central America, and the Philippines, the sweet potato is known as camote, derived from the Nahuatl word camotli. In New Zealand, the most common cultivar is the red cultivar called kumara, a derived from the Māori name kūmara. Kumara is particularly popular as a food, or in contemporary cuisine as kumara chips, often served with sour cream. Occasionally, shops in Australia will label purple cultivars as purple sweet potato to denote the difference to the other cultivars, about 95% of Australias production is of the orange cultivar named Beauregard, originally from North America, known simply as sweet potato. A reddish-purple cultivar, Northern Star, is 4% of production and is sold as kumara, the origin and domestication of sweet potato is thought to be in either Central America or South America
15.
Tapioca
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Tapioca is a starch extracted from cassava root. This species is native to the North Region of Brazil but spread throughout South America, the plant was carried by Portuguese and Spanish explorers to most of the West Indies, and the continents of Africa and Asia, including the Philippines and Taiwan. Its a shrubby, tropical, perennial plant that is common in the temperate zone. Tapioca thrives better in poor soils than any other major food plant, as a result, fertilization is rarely necessary Around the world, Tapioca is a vital staple food for about 500 million people. Tapiocas starchy roots produce more energy per unit of land than any other staple crop. Its leaves, commonly eaten as a vegetable in parts of Asia and Africa, provide vitamins, nutritionally, the Tapioca is comparable to potatoes, except that it has twice the fiber content and a higher level of potassium. Its used as an agent in various foods. Tapioca is derived from the word tipióka, its name in the Tupí language spoken by natives when the Portuguese first arrived in the Northeast Region of Brazil around 1707 and this Tupí word refers to the process by which the cassava starch is made edible. Tapioca is one of the purest forms of food. The cassava plant has red or green branches with blue spindles on them. The root of the green-branched variant requires treatment to remove linamarin, a cyanogenic glycoside occurring naturally in the plant, konzo is a paralytic disease associated with several weeks of almost exclusive consumption of insufficiently processed bitter cassava. In the north and northeast of Brazil, traditional community-based production of tapioca is a by-product of manioc flour production from cassava roots, in this process, the manioc is ground to a pulp with a small hand- or diesel-powered mill. This masa is then squeezed to dry it out, the wet masa is placed in a long woven tube called a tipiti. This liquid is collected and the water allowed to evaporate, leaving behind a fine-grained tapioca powder similar in appearance to corn starch, commercially, the starch is processed into several forms, hot soluble powder, meal, pre-cooked fine/coarse flakes, rectangular sticks, and spherical pearls. Pearls are the most widely available shape, sizes range from about 1 mm to 8 mm in diameter, flakes, sticks, and pearls must be soaked well before cooking, in order to rehydrate, absorbing water up to twice their volume. After rehydration, tapioca products become leathery and swollen, processed tapioca is usually white, but sticks and pearls may be colored. Traditionally, the most common color applied to tapioca has been brown, Tapioca pearls are generally opaque when raw, but become translucent when cooked in boiling water. Brazil in South America, Thailand in Asia, and Nigeria in Africa are the worlds largest producers of cassava, currently, Thailand accounts for about 60 percent of worldwide exports
16.
Oxford Dictionary of English
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The Oxford Dictionary of English is a single-volume English dictionary published by Oxford University Press, first published in 1998 as The New Oxford Dictionary of English. The word new was dropped from the title with the Second Edition in 2003 and this dictionary is not based on the Oxford English Dictionary and should not be mistaken for a new or updated version of the OED. It is a new dictionary which strives to represent as faithfully as possible the current usage of English words. The Revised Second Edition contains 355,000 words, phrases, the Third Edition was published in August 2010, with some new words, including vuvuzela. It is currently the largest single-volume English-language dictionary published by Oxford University Press, the first editor, Judy Pearsall, wrote in the introduction that it is based on a modern understanding of language and is derived from a corpus of contemporary English usage. For example, the editors did not discourage split infinitives, the first edition was based on bodies of texts such as the British National Corpus and the citation database of the Oxford Reading Programme. The dictionary views the language from the perspective that English is a world language, a network of consultants provide extensive coverage of English usage from the United States to the Caribbean and New Zealand. A more unusual decision was to omit pronunciations of common, everyday words, the International Phonetic Alphabet is used to present pronunciations, which are in turn based on the Received Pronunciation. The Second Edition added over 3,000 new words, senses and phrases drawn from the Oxford English Corpus, the New Oxford American Dictionary is the American version of the Oxford Dictionary of English, with substantial editing and uses a diacritical respelling scheme rather than the IPA system. CD-ROM supports Windows 95/NT and above, impression Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press paperback edition 1st. Impression CD edition, Includes iFinger version 2.0, impression New edition edition Hardcover edition, 1st. The online version is updated every three months, Oxford Dictionaries Online also includes the New Oxford American Dictionary, Oxford Thesaurus of English, Oxford American Writer’s Thesaurus and grammar and usage resources. The online version added more than 80,000 words from the OED in August 2015, Includes nearly 100,000 headwords, with 11,000 proper names, over 350,000 words and phrases and definitions,11,000 encyclopaedic entries,68,000 explanations. Hardcover edition, Includes 12-month access to Oxford Dictionaries Online, impression Android version, Published by MobiSystems, Inc. Premium version includes audio pronunciation, offline mode, priority support, Version 7.0.177, Support split screen for Android 7. Version 7.1.195, Support Shortcut Items for Android 7.1 Version 7.1.208, Includes over 350,000 words, phrases, premium version includes 75,000 audio pronunciations of both common and rare words. IOS free version, Published by MobiSystems, Inc, Version 8.2.9, Includes iOS10 optimization. Version 8.5.6, Supports voice over, voice search in iOS10, OS X paid version, Published by WordWeb Software
17.
Andong soju
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Andong soju is a kind of distilled soju produced in Andong, North Gyeongsang Province, South Korea. Andong soju is an alcoholic drink. The process of making the fermentation starter of Andong soju consists of washing and drying wheat, crushing it and it is then filtered, fermented, mixed with hard-boiled rice, and placed in a jug with water for about 15 days. The aged liquor is then boiled in a sot, a sojugeori and a cooling device are placed on the sot, and sirutbun dough is used to make an air-tight seal. It is spread on the gap between the sojugeori and the device so that no steam escapes. When the aged liquor is heated, it vaporizes, and the steam is cooled by the cold water in the cooling device. The Adong soju flows out through the pipe in the sojugeori, the development of soju in Andong is related to the Yuan Dynastys movement into the Korean Peninsula in the 13th century. The Yuan Dynastys supply base was in Andong, and was established to prepare for an expedition to Japan, Andong soju dates to the Silla period (Silla dynasty. The distillation skill was developed by alchemists engaged in trade with Arab tribes, evidence of relations between the Silla and tribes of the Arabian Peninsula includes warrior statues with nonlocal features and Persian glass found at Goereung. China had been drinking hard liquor since the Tang Dynasty, with the close relationship between Silla and the Tang Dynasty, it can be assumed that strong liquor was used in Korea since the Silla period. The artisans of Andong soju are Joe Ok-wha and Park Jae-seo and these artisans keep the traditional ways of making Andong soju alive through the Korean governments support for discovering traditional liquors. After the Silla period, the skills of making Andong soju were passed down in Andong, daughter-in-law Bae Kyong-hwa and son Kim Yeon-park continue the tradition. Park Jae-seo is 25th generation of Park Eung-ju, and is carrying on the legacy of Andong soju that has passed down in his family for 500 years. For preserving this tradition, Park Jae-seo was designated as Korean food grand master No.6 in July,1995. Andong soju is the only specialty to have two Korean food grand masters, because Joe Ok-wha and Park Jae-seos way of making it and materials are different from each other
18.
Goryeo
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Goryeo, also spelled as Koryŏ, was a Korean dynasty established in 918 by King Taejo. This kingdom later gave name to the modern exonym Korea and it united the Later Three Kingdoms in 936 and ruled most of the Korean Peninsula until it was removed by the founder of the Joseon in 1392. Goryeo expanded Koreas borders to present-day Wonsan in the northeast, the Yalu River, two of this periods most notable products are celadon pottery and the Tripitaka Koreana—the Buddhist canon carved onto more than 80,000 woodblocks and stored at Haeinsa. The people of Goryeo also created the first metal type that was capable of printing actual books, in 1234, the oldest surviving metal movable type book. A son of a lord, Wang Geon, joined Taebong as a general. Taebong fell when Wang Geon revolted and killed Gung Ye in 918, Silla was overpowered by Goryeo and Later Baekje and surrendered to Goryeo in 935. By the late 13th century, after nearly 30 years of warfare with the Mongols of the Yuan dynasty, Goryeo lost much of its power, the name Goryeo is derived from Goguryeo of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, which the Goryeo state regarded as its predecessor. Goguryeo changed its name to Goryeo during the reign of Jangsu in the 5th century, the English name Korea derives from Goryeo. Silla, which had accomplished an incomplete unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea in 668, weakened, the country entered a period of civil war and rebellion, led by Gung Ye, Gi Hwon, Yang Gil, and Gyeon Hwon. Gung Ye established the state of Later Goguryeo, renamed Taebong, together with the declining Later Silla, they are known as the Later Three Kingdoms. Wang Geon, who became the Taejo of Goryeo, joined Later Goguryeo as a general but later overthrew Gung Ye. Goryeo regarded itself as the successor of Goguryeo, Wang Geon, the founder of Goryeo, was a descendant of Goguryeo, and traced his ancestry to a noble Goguryeo clan. For three years after, Later Baekje dominated the Later Three Kingdoms, but after a defeat at Andong in 930, the Later Three Kingdoms era ended when Goryeo annexed Silla in 935 and defeated Later Baekje in 936. King Taejo moved the capital to his hometown of Kaesǒng, Taejo married a daughter of the Silla royal family and allowed most of their nobility to keep their lands. Even though he ruled the nation for only seven years before his son took the throne upon his death. The terminology used in the court of Goryeo was that of an empire, the capital, Gaegyeong was called Hwangdo Imperial Capital and the palace was referred to as Imperial Palace. The nation also utilized a system of multiple capitals, Gaegyeong as the main capital, the mere use of this system and the nomenclature or use of the character 京 implied that Goryeo functioned internally as an empire. Other terms, such as Your Imperial Majesty, Empress Imperial Crown Prince, Empress Dowager, however, Goryeo, when enshrining its rulers, did not use the title Emperor
19.
Levantine cuisine
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Levantine cuisine is the traditional cuisine of the Levant, known in Arabic as the Bilad ash-Sham and Mashriq. It is found in the states of Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, and parts of southern Turkey near Adana, Gaziantep. In the broader family of Mediterranean cuisine, Cypriot cuisine also has strong Levantine influences, perhaps the most distinctive aspect of Levantine cuisine is meze including tabbouleh, hummus and baba ghanoush. Jean Bottéro, The Oldest Cuisine in the World, Cooking in Mesopotamia, University of Chicago Press,2004, ISBN0226067343
20.
Mongol invasions of Korea
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The Mongol invasions of Korea comprised a series of campaigns between 1231 and 1270 by the Mongol Empire against the Kingdom of Goryeo. These Khitans are possibly the origin of the Baekjeong, Gojong of Goryeo was the 23rd king of the Goryeo dynasty of Korea. In 1225, the Mongol Empire demanded tribute goods from Goryeo and his death was used by the Mongols as an excuse to invade Goryeo. In 1231, Ögedei Khan ordered the invasion of Korea, the experienced Mongol army was placed under the command of General Sartai. The Mongol army crossed the Yalu river and quickly secured the surrender of the town of Uiju. The Mongols were joined by Hong Bok-won, a traitor Goryeo general, Choe U mobilized as many soldiers as possible into an army consisting largely of infantry, where it fought the Mongols at both Anju and Kuju. The Mongols took Anju, however, they were forced to retreat after the Siege of Kuju, frustrated by siege warfare, Sartai instead used his armies superior mobility to bypass the Goryeo army and succeeded in taking the capital at Gaesong. Elements of the Mongol army reached as far as Chungju in the central Korean peninsula, however, realizing that with the fall of the capital Goryeo was unable to resist the Mongol invaders, Goryeo sued for peace. Choe U exploited the Mongols primary weakness, fear of the sea, the government commandeered every available ship and barge to transport supplies and soldiers to Ganghwa Island. The evacuation was so sudden that King Kojong himself had to sleep in an inn on the island. The government further ordered the people to flee the countryside and take shelter in major cities, mountain citadels. Ganghwa Island itself was a defensive fortress. Smaller fortresses were built on the side of the island. The Mongols protested the move and immediately launched a second attack, the Mongol army was led by a traitor from Pyongyang called Hong Bok-won and the Mongols occupied much of northern Korea. Although they reached parts of the peninsula as well, the Mongols failed to capture Ganghwa Island, which was only a few miles from shore. The Mongol general there, Sartai, was killed by the monk Kim Yun-hu amidst strong resistance at the Battle of Cheoin near Yongin. In 1235, the Mongols began a campaign that ravaged parts of Gyeongsang, civilian resistance was strong, and the Royal Court at Ganghwa attempted to strengthen its fortress. Goryeo won several victories but the Goryeo military and Righteous armies could not withstand the waves of invasions, in 1236, Gojong ordered the re-creation of the Tripitaka Koreana, destroyed during the 1232 invasion
21.
Yuan dynasty
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The Yuan dynasty, officially the Great Yuan, was the empire or ruling dynasty of China established by Kublai Khan, leader of the Mongolian Borjigin clan. His realm was, by point, isolated from the other khanates and controlled most of present-day China and its surrounding areas. Some of the Mongolian Emperors of the Yuan mastered the Chinese language, while others used their native language. The Yuan dynasty is considered both a successor to the Mongol Empire and an imperial Chinese dynasty and it was the khanate ruled by the successors of Möngke Khan after the division of the Mongol Empire. In official Chinese histories, the Yuan dynasty bore the Mandate of Heaven, following the Song dynasty, the dynasty was established by Kublai Khan, yet he placed his grandfather Genghis Khan on the imperial records as the official founder of the dynasty as Taizu. In addition to Emperor of China, Kublai Khan also claimed the title of Great Khan, supreme over the other khanates, the Chagatai, the Golden Horde. As such, the Yuan was also referred to as the Empire of the Great Khan. However, while the claim of supremacy by the Yuan emperors was at times recognized by the khans, their subservience was nominal. In 1271, Kublai Khan imposed the name Great Yuan, establishing the Yuan dynasty, dà Yuán is from the clause 大哉乾元 in the Commentaries on the Classic of Changes section regarding Qián. The counterpart in Mongolian language was Dai Ön Ulus, also rendered as Ikh Yuan Üls or Yekhe Yuan Ulus, in Mongolian, Dai Ön is often used in conjunction with the Yeke Mongghul Ulus, resulting in Dai Ön Yeke Mongghul Ulus, meaning Great Mongol State. Nevertheless, both terms can refer to the khanate within the Mongol Empire directly ruled by Great Khans before the actual establishment of the Yuan dynasty by Kublai Khan in 1271. Genghis Khan united the Mongol and Turkic tribes of the steppes and he and his successors expanded the Mongol empire across Asia. Under the reign of Genghis third son, Ögedei Khan, the Mongols destroyed the weakened Jin dynasty in 1234, Ögedei offered his nephew Kublai a position in Xingzhou, Hebei. Kublai was unable to read Chinese but had several Han Chinese teachers attached to him since his early years by his mother Sorghaghtani and he sought the counsel of Chinese Buddhist and Confucian advisers. Möngke Khan succeeded Ögedeis son, Güyük, as Great Khan in 1251 and he granted his brother Kublai control over Mongol held territories in China. Kublai built schools for Confucian scholars, issued paper money, revived Chinese rituals and he adopted as his capital city Kaiping in Inner Mongolia, later renamed Shangdu. Many Han Chinese and Khitan defected to the Mongols to fight against the Jin, two Han Chinese leaders, Shi Tianze, Liu Heima, and the Khitan Xiao Zhala defected and commanded the 3 Tumens in the Mongol army. Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Ogödei Khan, Liu Heima and Shi Tianxiang led armies against Western Xia for the Mongols
22.
Arak (drink)
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Arak or araq is a Levantine alcoholic spirit in the anis drinks family. It is a clear, colorless, unsweetened anise-flavored distilled alcoholic drink, the Persian version of Arak does not contain anise, as it is usually produced from raisins, dates or saccharum plant. Arak is the alcoholic beverage in Lebanon, Iran, Morocco, Iraq, Syria. The word arak comes from Arabic ʿaraq ﻋﺮﻕ, meaning perspiration and its pronunciation varies depending on local varieties of Arabic. Arak is not to be confused with the similarly named liquor, another similar-sounding word is aragh, which in Armenia, Iran, Azerbaijan and Georgia is the colloquial name of vodka, and not an aniseed-flavored drink. Rakı, mastika, and ouzo are aniseed-flavored alcoholic drinks, related to arak, popular in Turkey, Macedonia and Bulgaria, and Cyprus and Greece, respectively. This dilution causes the liquor to turn a translucent milky-white color, this is because anethole. This results in an emulsion, whose fine droplets scatter the light and turn the liquid translucent, Arak is commonly served with mezza, which may include dozens of small traditional dishes. In general, arak drinkers prefer to consume it this way and it is also consumed with barbecues, along with garlic sauce. If ice is added after pouring it into the cup, this results in the formation of an aesthetically unpleasant layer on the surface of the drink, if water is added first, the ethanol causes the fat to emulsify, leading to the characteristic milky color. To avoid the precipitation of the anise, drinkers prefer not to reuse an arak-filled glass, in restaurants, when a bottle of arak is ordered, the waiter will usually bring a number of glasses along with it for this reason. Distillation begins with the vineyards, and quality grapevines are the key to making good arak, the vines should be very mature and usually of a golden color. Instead of being irrigated, the vineyards are left to the care of the Mediterranean climate and make use of the natural rain and sun. The grapes, which are harvested in late September and October, are crushed and put in together with the juice. Occasionally the whole mix is stirred to release the CO2, numerous stills exist including stainless steel or copper, pot and column stills that will affect the final taste and specificity of the arak. The authentic copper stills with a Moorish shape are the most sought after, the finished product is made during the second distillation. The alcohol collected in the first distillation is distilled again but this time it is mixed with aniseed, the ratio of alcohol to aniseed may vary and it is one of the major factors in the quality of the final product. Another distillation takes place, usually on the lowest possible temperature, for a quality arak, the finished spirit is aged in clay amphoras to allow the angels share to evaporate and thus the remaining liquid is the most suitable for consumption
23.
Mongol invasions of the Levant
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Starting in the 1240s, the Mongols made repeated invasions of Syria or attempts thereof. Most failed, but they did have success in 1260 and 1300, capturing Aleppo and Damascus. The Mongols were forced to retreat within months each time by forces in the area. Since 1260, it had described as the Mamluk-Ilkhanid War. During the governorship of Bachu in Persia, the Mongolian army under Yisaur attacked Syria in 1244, the reasons for the attack are unclear, but it may have been in retaliation for the Syrian participation on the Seljuk side in the Battle of Köse Dağ. In the autumn 1244, Yisaur concentrated the Mongol forces in the upper Tigris valley where they subjugated the Kurdish province of Akhlat, moving across, the Mongolian army encountered no resistance and ravaged the area en route. The fortified cities were untaken in his advance because Yisaur was not prepared for siege assault, passing through the territory of the city of Urfa, he crossed the Euphrates. He marched directly to Aleppo but went as far as Hailan before the climate impaired his armys movements, Yisaur sent envoys to Aleppo to demand submission of tribute, which Malik agreed to pay. The same demand were sent to Bohemond of Antioch who chose not to them instead of defiance. Yisaur withdrew his force back up the Euphrates valley and received the submission of Malatia, in Egypt, Sultan Saleeh decided to acquiesce to the results and made no attempt to raise an army to encounter the Mongols who had invaded his dominions in Syria. In 1251, as an expediency to buy peace, Sultan Nasir sent his representatives to Mongolia for the election of Möngke, in 1255 Hulagu sought to further expand the Empire into the Middle East under orders from his older brother, the Great Khan Möngke. Hulagus forces subjugated multiple peoples along the way, most notably the center of the Islamic Empire, Baghdad, from there, the Mongol forces proceeded into Syria. In 1260, Egypt was under the control of the Bahri Mamluks, the last Ayyubid king, An-Nasir Yusuf, was captured by the Mongols near Gaza in 1260. However, Hulagu promised him that he would appoint An-Nasir Yusuf as his viceroy in Syria, with the Islamic power center of Baghdad and Syria gone, the center of Islamic power transferred to the Mamluks in Cairo. Hulagus intention at that point was to continue south through Palestine to Egypt, however, Möngke died in late 1259, requiring Hulagu to return to Karakorum to engage in the councils on who the next Great Khan would be. Hulagu departed with the bulk of his forces, leaving only about 10,000 Mongol horsemen in Syria under Kitbuqa, some of Kitbuqas forces engaged in raids southwards towards Egypt, reaching as far as Gaza, where a Mongol garrison was established with 1,000 troops. The Mamluks achieved a victory, Kitbuqa was executed. In previous defeats, the Mongols had always returned later to re-take the territory, the border of the Mongol Ilkhanate remained at the Tigris River for the duration of Hulagus dynasty
24.
Mongol invasions of Anatolia
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Mongol invasions of Anatolia occurred at various times, starting with the campaign of 1241–1243 that culminated in the Battle of Köse Dağ. Real power over Anatolia was exercised by the Mongols after the Seljuks surrendered in 1243 until the fall of the Ilkhanate in 1335, because the Seljuk Sultan rebelled several times, in 1255, the Mongols swept through central and eastern Anatolia. The Ilkhanate garrison was stationed near Ankara, timurs invasion is sometimes considered the last invasion of Anatolia by the Mongols. Remains of the Mongol cultural heritage still can be seen in Turkey, including tombs of a Mongol governor, by the end of the 14th century, most of Anatolia was controlled by various Anatolian beyliks due to the collapse of the Seljuk dynasty in Rum. The Turkmen Beyliks were under the control of the Mongols through declining Seljuk Sultans, the Beyliks did not mint coins in the names of their own leaders while they remained under the suzerainty of the Ilkhanids. The Osmanli ruler Osman I was the first Turkish ruler who minted coins in his own name in the 1320s, since the minting of coins was a prerogative accorded in Islamic practice only to be a sovereign, it can be considered that Osmanli became independent of the Mongol Khans. In the 12th century, the Byzantines managed to reassert their control in Western and Northern Anatolia, after the sack of Constantinople in 1204 by Latin Crusaders, two Byzantine successor states were established, the Empire of Nicaea, and the Despotate of Epirus. A third one, the Empire of Trebizond was created a few weeks before the sack of Constantinople by Alexios I of Trebizond, of these three successor states, Trebizond and Nicaea stood near the Mongolian Empire. Control of Anatolia was then split between the Greek States and the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, with the Byzantine holdings gradually being reduced, during the Military governor Chormaqans tenure in Persia, no hostilities occurred with the Seljuk Turks. Ala al-Din Kayqubad I and his immediate successor Giyath al-Din Kaykhusraw II swore an oath of vassalage with the payment of at least token tribute in the name of Ögedei Qaghan, however, the Mongols raided part of Greater Armenia which was under the Sultanate of Rum in 1238. After the death of Ögedei in 1241, Kaykhusraw took the opportunity to terminate the tributary status of his realm, Chormaqans successor Baiju summoned him to resubmit Asia Minor to its tributary status. The Sultan rejected his demands to him go to Mongolia in person, give hostages. When the Sultan refused, Baiju declared war, the Seljuks invaded the Kingdom of Georgia, part of the Mongol Empire. Baijus army attacked Karin in relation to Kaykhusraws disobedience in 1241, before sacking of the city, Baiju demanded the submission of it. The inhabitants of the city bullied the Mongol envoy sent by him, since the city decided to resist and defied the Mongol diplomacy, it is enclosed with the siege machines. In two months, the Mongols took it and punished its residents, aware of the Seljuk power in Anatolia, Baiju returned to Mughan plain without advancing further deep. Baiju advanced to Erzurum with a contingent of Georgian and Armenian warriors under Awag and they besieged the city of Erzurum when its governor Yakut refused to surrender it. With the power of twelve catapults, Baiju stormed Erzurum, when the reports of the attack on Erzurum reported to him, Kaykhusraw summoned his armed forces at Konya
25.
Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia
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The Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia from 1219 to 1221 marked the beginning of the Mongol conquest of the Islamic states. The Mongol expansion would ultimately culminate in the conquest of all of Asia save for Japan. It was not originally the intention of the Mongol Empire to invade the Khwarezmid Empire, let us conclude a firm treaty of friendship and peace. The Mongol wars with the Jurchens however had shown how cruel the Mongols could be, Shah Muhammad reluctantly agreed to this peace treaty, but it was not to last. The war started less than a later, when a Mongol caravan. In the ensuing war, lasting less than two years, the Khwarezmid Empire was destroyed, after the defeat of the Kara-Khitans, Genghis Khans Mongol Empire gained a border with the Khwarezmid Empire, governed by Shah Ala ad-Din Muhammad. The Shah had only recently taken some of the territory under his control, the Shah had refused to make the obligatory homage to the caliph as titular leader of Islam, and demanded recognition as Shah of his empire, without any of the usual bribes or pretenses. This alone had created problems for him along his southern border and it was at this junction the rapidly expanding Mongol Empire made contact. Mongol historians are adamant that the great khan at that time had no intention of invading the Khwarezmid Empire, of further interest is that the caliph of Baghdad had attempted to instigate a war between the Mongols and the Shah some years before the Mongol invasion actually occurred. However, it is known that Genghis rejected the notion of war as he was engaged in war with the Jin Dynasty and was gaining much wealth from trading with the Khwarezmid Empire, Genghis then sent a 500-man caravan of Muslims to establish official trade ties with Khwarezmia. However Inalchuq, the governor of the Khwarezmian city of Otrar, had the members of the caravan that came from Mongolia arrested and it seems unlikely, however, that any members of the trade delegation were spies. Genghis Khan then sent a group of three ambassadors to meet the shah himself and demand the caravan at Otrar be set free. The shah had both of the Mongols shaved and had the Muslim beheaded before sending them back to Genghis Khan, Muhammad also ordered the personnel of the caravan to be executed. This was seen as an affront to the Khan himself. This led Genghis Khan to attack the Khwarezmian Dynasty, the Mongols crossed the Tien Shan mountains, coming into the Shahs empire in 1219. The changes had come in adding supporting units to his dreaded cavalry, while still relying on the traditional advantages of his mobile nomadic cavalry, Genghis incorporated many aspects of warfare from China, particularly in siege warfare. His baggage train included such siege equipment as battering rams, gunpowder, also, the Mongol intelligence network was formidable. The Mongols never invaded an opponent whose military and economic will, for instance, Subutai and Batu Khan spent a year scouting central Europe, before destroying the armies of Hungary and Poland in two separate battles, two days apart
26.
Kaesong
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Kaesong is a city in North Hwanghae Province in the southern part of North Korea, a former Directly-Governed City, and the capital of Korea during the Taebong kingdom and subsequent Goryeo dynasty. The city is near the Kaesong Industrial Region close to the border with South Korea, called Songdo while it was the ancient capital of Goryeo, the city prospered as a trade centre that produced Korean ginseng. Kaesong now functions as the DPRKs light industry centre and it was also known by the Japanese pronunciation of its name, Kaijō, during the Japanese occupation from 1910 to 1945. Due to the proximity to the border with South Korea. As of 2009 the city had a population of 192,578, the earliest archaeological signs of habitation in the Kaesong area date from the Neolithic. Artifacts such as Jeulmun pottery, stone ware, and stone axes have been excavated from Osongsan and Kaesong Nasong, as Kaesong has been occupied by various states throughout centuries, its name has changed. It was in the realm of Mahan confederacy, and was referred to as Busogap during the rule of Goguryeo. Before the strength of Baekje was retreated to the southwest of Jungnyeong, Mungyeong Saejae, and Asan Bay in 475, the area had been a part of Baekje for about 100 years. However, it became a territory of Silla in 555, the 16th year of Jinheung of Sillas reign, and its name was changed to Songak-gun during the period. According to the Samguk Sagi, when a castle was built in the site in 694, therefore, it is assumed that the name Songak had been used at least before the time. Silla began to decline in late 9th century, and a period of rival warlords ensued. In 898, Kaesong fell under the hand of Gung Ye, the founder of his state, Taebong, and then became a part of Goryeo in 919 by its founder, Wang Geon. Taejo established the capital in the south of Songak, and incorporated Kaesong into Songak under the name of Gaeju, in 919, Kaesong became the national capital. In 960, the 11th year of Gwangjong of Goryeos reign, the city was renamed Gaegyeong, and in 995, the Gaeseong-bu is a combined term of Songak-gun, and Gaesong-gun, which is different from the region of the pre-1945 Gaesong-ri, Seo-myeon, Kaepung-gun. In the late 12th century, there was instability in both the government and the countryside, a slave named Manjǒk led a group of slaves who gathered outside Kaesong in 1198. The revolt plot was suppressed by Choe Chung-heon, when Yi Songgye overthrew Goryeo in 1392 and established the Joseon as Taejo of Joseon, he moved the Korean capital from Kaesong to Hanyang in 1394. Kaesŏng remained a part of Gyeonggi Province until the Korean War, when Korea was partitioned at the 38th parallel after World War II, Kaesong was on the southern side of the line. However, the battle of Kaesong-Munsan was won by the Korean Peoples Army in the first days of the Korean War, the city was recaptured by UN Forces on 9 October 1950 during the pursuit of the KPA that followed the successful Inchon landings
27.
Ethanol
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Ethanol, also called alcohol, ethyl alcohol, and drinking alcohol, is the principal type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. It is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid with a characteristic odor. Its chemical formula is C 2H 6O, which can be written also as CH 3-CH 2-OH or C 2H 5-OH, ethanol is mostly produced by the fermentation of sugars by yeasts, or by petrochemical processes. It is a psychoactive drug, causing a characteristic intoxication. It is widely used as a solvent, as fuel, and as a feedstock for synthesis of other chemicals, the eth- prefix and the qualifier ethyl in ethyl alcohol originally come from the name ethyl assigned in 1834 to the group C 2H 5- by Justus Liebig. He coined the word from the German name Aether of the compound C 2H 5-O-C 2H5, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, Ethyl is a contraction of the Ancient Greek αἰθήρ and the Greek word ύλη. The name ethanol was coined as a result of a resolution that was adopted at the International Conference on Chemical Nomenclature that was held in April 1892 in Geneva, Switzerland. The term alcohol now refers to a class of substances in chemistry nomenclature. The Oxford English Dictionary claims that it is a loan from Arabic al-kuḥl, a powdered ore of antimony used since aniquity as a cosmetic. The use of alcohol for ethanol is modern, first recorded 1753, the systematic use in chemistry dates to 1850. Ethanol is used in medical wipes and most common antibacterial hand sanitizer gels as an antiseptic, ethanol kills organisms by denaturing their proteins and dissolving their lipids and is effective against most bacteria and fungi, and many viruses. However, ethanol is ineffective against bacterial spores, ethanol may be administered as an antidote to methanol and ethylene glycol poisoning. Ethanol, often in high concentrations, is used to dissolve many water-insoluble medications, as a central nervous system depressant, ethanol is one of the most commonly consumed psychoactive drugs. The amount of ethanol in the body is typically quantified by blood alcohol content, small doses of ethanol, in general, produce euphoria and relaxation, people experiencing these symptoms tend to become talkative and less inhibited, and may exhibit poor judgment. Ethanol is commonly consumed as a drug, especially while socializing. The largest single use of ethanol is as a fuel and fuel additive. Brazil in particular relies heavily upon the use of ethanol as an engine fuel, gasoline sold in Brazil contains at least 25% anhydrous ethanol. Hydrous ethanol can be used as fuel in more than 90% of new gasoline fueled cars sold in the country, Brazilian ethanol is produced from sugar cane and noted for high carbon sequestration
28.
Saccharin
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With effectively no food energy that is about 300–400 times as sweet as sucrose but has a bitter or metallic aftertaste, especially at high concentrations. It is used to sweeten products such as drinks, candies, cookies, medicines, Saccharin derives its name from the word saccharine, meaning sugary. The word saccharine is used figuratively, often in a derogative sense, both words are derived from the Greek word σάκχαρον meaning gravel. It does not react chemically with other ingredients, as such. Blends of saccharin with other sweeteners are used to compensate for each sweeteners weaknesses. A10,1 cyclamate, saccharin blend is common in countries where both these sweeteners are legal, in this blend, each sweetener masks the others off taste. Saccharin is often used with aspartame in diet carbonated soft drinks, in its acid form, saccharin is not water-soluble. The form used as a sweetener is usually its sodium salt. The calcium salt is sometimes used, especially by people restricting their dietary sodium intake. Both salts are highly water-soluble,0.67 g/ml water at room temperature, in the 1970s, studies performed on laboratory rats found an association between consumption of high doses of saccharin and the development of bladder cancer. However, further study determined that this effect was due to a mechanism that is not relevant to humans, epidemiological studies have shown no evidence that saccharin is associated with bladder cancer in humans. The International Agency for Research on Cancer originally classified saccharin in Group 2B based on the rat studies, Saccharin has no food energy and no nutritional value. It is safe to consume for individuals with diabetes, Saccharin was produced first in 1879, by Constantin Fahlberg, a chemist working on coal tar derivatives in Ira Remsens laboratory at the Johns Hopkins University. Fahlberg noticed a sweet taste on his hand one evening, Fahlberg and Remsen published articles on benzoic sulfimide in 1879 and 1880. In 1884, then working on his own in New York City, Fahlberg applied for patents in several countries, two years later, he began production of the substance in a factory in a suburb of Magdeburg, Germany. Fahlberg would soon grow wealthy, while Remsen merely grew irritated, on the matter, Remsen commented, Fahlberg is a scoundrel. It nauseates me to hear my name mentioned in the breath with him. Although saccharin was commercialized not long after its discovery, until sugar shortages during World War I and its popularity further increased during the 1960s and 1970s among dieters, since saccharin is a calorie-free sweetener
29.
South Korean won
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The won or the Korean Republic Won is the currency of South Korea. A single won is divided into 100 jeon, the monetary subunit, the jeon is no longer used for everyday transactions, and appears only in foreign exchange rates. The won is issued by the Bank of Korea, based in the capital city, the old won was a cognate of the Chinese yuan and Japanese yen. It is derived from the hanja 圓, meaning currency or coin, the won was subdivided into 100 jeon, itself a cognate of the Chinese character 錢 which means money and also used as a unit of money in ancient times. The current won is written in hangul only. During the Colonial era, the won was replaced at par by the yen, in 1945 after World War II, Korea became divided, resulting in two separate currencies, both called won, for the South and the North. Both the Southern won and the Northern won replaced the yen at par, the first South Korean won was subdivided into 100 jeon. The South Korean won was pegged to the U. S. dollar at a rate of 15 won =1 dollar. A series of devaluations followed, the ones in part due to the Korean War. The pegs were, The first South Korean won was replaced by the hwan on February 15,1953 at a rate of 1 hwan =100 won, Republic of Korea Banknotes 5th Edition In 1946, the Bank of Joseon introduced 10- and 100-won notes. These were followed in 1949 by 5- and 1, 000-won notes, a new central bank, the Bank of Korea, was established on 12 June 1950, and assumed the duties of Bank of Joseon. Notes were introduced in denominations of 5,10 and 50 jeon, the 500-won notes were introduced in 1952. In 1953, a series of banknotes was issued which, although it gave the denominations in English in won, were, in fact, the won was reintroduced on June 10,1962, at a rate of 1 won =10 hwan. It became the legal tender on March 22,1975. Its ISO4217 code is KRW, at the reintroduction of the won in 1962, its value was pegged at 125 won = $US1. The following pegs operated between 1962 and 1980, On February 27,1980, efforts were initiated to lead to an exchange rate. The won was allowed to float on December 24,1997. Shortly after, the won was devalued to almost half of its value, until 1966, 10- and 50-hwan coins, revalued as 1 and 5 won, were the only coins in circulation
30.
Drinking culture of Korea
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South Koreas drinking culture reveals much about its social structure, lifestyle, and traditions. The beverages themselves are also reflective of the geography, climate. South Korea has a tradition of consuming alcohol to celebrate holidays and seasonal events, in which they honor ancestors and exchange goodwill with neighbors. Some of the holidays included New Year, Rice planting and South Koreas Day of Thanks, drinking alcohol is often correlated with a seasons passing and its related farming activities. Once the harvest has ended farmers would spend their downtime brewing and fermenting alcohol as they looked forward to the spring, South Korean ancestors often drank a glass of rice-wine accompanied by a light breakfast snack before they left for the fields in the morning. Traditional South Korean music would play while they worked, upon the new year Korean ancestors consumed Soju to drive out disease and bad spirits, the word Soju meaning a welcoming spring. One type of Soju is called Dosoju, made with medicinal herbs, alcohol consumption was also used to medicate both adults and children during illnesses. Because alcohol was held in high regard, Korean ancestors took great pains to pass down drinking customs from generation to generation. The 15th day of the New Year according to the calendar is a traditional South Korean holiday. Many attend moon-viewing events all over the country for the new years first full moon, on that night, Koreans drink Daeboreium or ear-quickening wine in hopes of hearing good news quickly for the next year. While children do not drink the alcohol they are encouraged to place their lips to the glass, then pour the wine in a chimney to deter sickness, each region gave their own name to the beverage. The fifth day of the month of the lunar calendar is called ‘Dano’. This is an important holiday and celebrates the transplanting of rice seedlings, the custom during ‘Dano’ was/is to hold a memorial service for their ancestors and toast the day with a drink mixed with sweet flag called Changpoju. The properties in the drink were said to dispel evil spirits, providing escape from misfortune and promote health, during this era most Koreans practiced Confucianism which prohibited women and certain other members of society from drinking alcohol or pouring it for someone else. However, in modern times anyone can partake in the customs, by the middle of 1300’s, manners and culture of drinking came into South Korea. There are many manners about drinking alcohol in South Korea, among them is a typical manner of drinking culture called ‘Hyanguemjurye’. It was an event that saw many classical and Confucian scholars gather and drink and it also meant that people had to respect benevolent persons and support old men. Within ‘Hyanguemjurye’, the most important thing about South Korea drinking culture is manners, Koreans believed drinking etiquette is important
31.
Korean Peninsula
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The Korean Peninsula is a peninsula in East Asia. Until the end of World War II, Korea was a political entity whose territory roughly coincided with the Korean Peninsula. The northern boundaries for the Korean Peninsula are commonly taken to coincide with political borders between North Korea and its northern neighbors, China and Russia. These borders are formed naturally by the rivers Yalu/Amnok and Tumen/Tuman/Duman, taking this definition, the Korean Peninsula has an area of 220,847 km2. The peninsulas names in Korean, Chinese and Japanese all have the origin, that being Joseon. In North Koreas Chosonmal, the peninsula is called Chosŏn Pando, while in China, in Japan, it is either Chōsenhantō or Kanhantō. Meanwhile, in South Korea, it is called Hanbando, referring to the Samhan and they both use Korea as part of their official English names, which is a name that comes from the Goryeo dynasty. Korea Geography of Korea Geography of North Korea Geography of South Korea List of Korea-related topics KOIS, location of the Korean Peninsula — The official Korean Tourism guide website
32.
Koreans in China
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Chaoxianzu, Joseonjok or Chosŏnjok form one of the 56 ethnicities officially recognized by the Chinese government. Their total population was estimated at 1,923,842 as of 2005 and 1,830,929 according to the 2010 Chinese census. High levels of emigration to South Korea, which has reported a large increase in Chosŏnjok, are the likely cause of the drop. Most of them live in Northeast China, especially in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture, the South Korean media of the 1990s referred to Koreans in China as jungguk-in. Government regulations in 2004 forced the use of the term jaeoe dongpo, similarly friendly terms include hanguk gye jungguk-in or jungguk dongpo. Due to the proximity of borders between China and Korean Peninsula, population migration of some kind had occurred throughout history. In the Yuan dynasty, Koreans were included along with Northern Chinese, Khitan and Jurchen in the third class, Korean settlements in the Yuan Dynasty were mostly war-related. In the next years, another ten thousand Goryeo households was brought under his administration, in 1266, Wang Jun, a member of the Goryeo royal family, was sent to the Mongol Empire as a hostage. There were 2000 Goryeo households accompanying him and settled down in current-day Shenyang city in Northeast China.76 The Korean population in China has increased during the Ming Dynasty, per the Chronicles of Liaodong, Koreans and Manchus accounted for 30% of the total local population in Northeast China. In 1386, the Ming government set up the Dongningwei and Guangningwei to manage the increasing Korean population settlement in Northeast China,76. In 1537, Korean population in Dongningwei had decreased by 60%.37 As Jurchens established the Later Jin, each time when Jurchens attacked Korean Peninsula, they plundered large amount of Korean people with them. Most of these Koreans captured by Jurchens were drafted as soldiers in the Eight Banners or sold to rich Jurchens as farm laborers or servants, most of the captured Koreans in the early Qing dynasty were forcefully converted to Manchu or other ethnic, and lost their ethnic identities. The Joseon rulers were forced by the Qing government to implement harsh penalties to prevent Koreans from entering the sealed areas. The Russian Empire meanwhile seized the opportunity to encroach this region, meanwhile, peasant revolts in the south spread to the north. Large numbers of Korean refugees moved to the banks of the Tumen. In 1879, there were 8722 Korean households living in 28 villages in Tonghua, Huairen, Kuandian, Xingjing areas, the Qing government strengthened the management of Korean emigrants during the start of the 20th century. Korean emigrants were able to land ownership if adopting Manchu’s dressing codes including the Queue hairstyle, obtaining the license from. But most of the Korean emigrants considered adopting Manchu’s addressing codes is a policy of assimilation
33.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
34.
Liquor Control Board of Ontario
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The Liquor Control Board of Ontario is a Crown corporation that retails and distributes alcoholic beverages throughout the province of Ontario, Canada. It is accountable to the Ontario Ministry of Finance and it was established in 1927 on the advice of Ontario Premier Howard Ferguson, to sell liquor, wine, and beer. Such sales had been banned outright in 1916, thus, the creation of the LCBO marked an easing of the provinces temperance regime, many of these outlets are located at the wineries, breweries or distilleries themselves, certain wine retail shops are located within grocery stores. Beverages sold at bars and restaurants must be consumed on the establishments premises, as of July 11,2016, LCBO accepts Apple Pay in each of their 654 stores in the province, allowing contactless payment for all purchases of liquor. The LCBO was created in 1927 with the end of prohibition which had introduced in the province in 1916. The Liquor Control Act authorized the LCBO to control the sale, transportation, Brewers Retail was created to sell beer in a controlled manner while wines and spirits were sold in LCBO outlets. Wineries and breweries were allowed to sell from their own stores. The Conservative government of Howard Ferguson contested the 1926 provincial election on a platform of easing the temperance law, on being re-elected, it introduced the Liquor Control Act as a compromise between the complete prohibition demanded by the temperance movement and the unregulated sale of alcohol. Premier Ferguson stated that the Liquor Control Act was, to allow people to exercise a God-given freedom under reasonable restrictions. Ferguson was further quoted as saying the purpose of the LCBO was to promote temperance sobriety, personal liberty and, above all, to restore respect for the law. To achieve these goals LCBO was mandated by Ferguson’s Government to employ a mechanism in order to know “exactly who is buying and how much. From 1927-1962 the LCBO required people who wanted to purchase liquor to possess a permit and they had to present these permits at the point of purchase, and the clerk at the liquor store would enter information about what, precisely, the individual purchased. Residents applied for and received individually-numbered liquor permits, a temporary permit was a single sheet form with 6 digit number with effective and expiry dates. This was issued until the yearly permit form was received and it was also provided to non-resident visitors. In 1957 Permit books were replaced with permit cards and these cards held the permit holder’s name and their permit number and also were needed in order to purchase liquor at the LCBO. The purchase order form would be handed to an LCBO employee along with the individual’s liquor permit and he would “examine permit and see to what extent the purchaser has been buying liquor. If purchaser has exceeded a reasonable quantity per week, note permit number and address and this meant a store employee could deny a sale to a customer if his intended purchases may be considered too large for one person to reasonably consume. Purchase order forms remained in use into the 1970s when the LCBO changed to a self serve format, to control what it considered to be excessive purchases or other abuses of the permit privilege the LCBO employed a list called the interdiction list
35.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
36.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
37.
Martini (cocktail)
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The martini is a cocktail made with gin and vermouth, and garnished with an olive or a lemon twist. Over the years, the martini has become one of the best-known mixed alcoholic beverages, H. L. Mencken called the martini the only American invention as perfect as the sonnet and E. B. White called it the elixir of quietude, over time the generally expected garnish became the drinkers choice of a green olive or a twist of lemon peel. A dry Martini is made dry, white vermouth. By the Roaring Twenties, it common to ask for them. Over the course of the century, the amount of vermouth steadily dropped, during the 1930s the ratio was 3,1, and during the 1940s the ratio was 4,1. During the latter part of the 20th century,6,1,8,1,12,1,15,1, a dirty Martini contains a splash of olive brine or olive juice and is typically garnished with an olive. A perfect Martini uses equal amounts of sweet and dry vermouth, some Martinis were prepared by filling a cocktail glass with gin, then rubbing a finger of vermouth along the rim. There are those who advocated the elimination of vermouth altogether, according to Noël Coward, A perfect Martini should be made by filling a glass with gin, then waving it in the general direction of Italy, Italy being a major producer of vermouth. Luis Buñuel used the dry Martini as part of his creative process and he offers his own recipe, involving Angostura bitters, in his memoir. In 1966, the American Standards Association released K100. 1-1966, Safety Code and Requirements for Dry Martinis, a humorous account of how to make a standard dry martini. The latest revision of this document, K100. 1-1974, was published by American National Standards Institute, there are a number of variations on the traditional Martini. The fictional spy James Bond sometimes asked for his vodka Martinis to be shaken, not stirred, following Harry Craddocks The Savoy Cocktail Book, the proper name for a shaken Martini is a Bradford. However, Somerset Maugham is often quoted as saying that a Martini should always be stirred, not shaken, a Martini may also be served on the rocks, that is, with the ingredients poured over ice cubes and served in an Old-Fashioned glass. The exact origin of the martini is unclear, in 1863, an Italian vermouth maker started marketing their product under the brand name of Martini, after its director Alessandro Martini, and the brand name may be the source of the cocktails name. Alternatively, the people of Martinez say the drink was first created by a bartender in their town, put a quarter of a slice of lemon in the glass, and serve. If the guest prefers it very sweet, add two dashes of gum syrup, numerous cocktails with names and ingredients similar to the modern-day martini were seen in other bartending guides of the late 19th century. For example, in the 1888 Bartenders Manual there was a recipe for a drink that consisted in part of half a glass of Old Tom Gin
38.
Cosmopolitan (cocktail)
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A cosmopolitan, or informally a cosmo, is a cocktail made with vodka, triple sec, cranberry juice, and freshly squeezed or sweetened lime juice. The International Bartenders Association recipe is based on vodka citron, lemon-flavored vodka, the cosmopolitan is a relative of cranberry coolers like the Cape Codder. Though often presented far differently, the cosmopolitan also bears a likeness in composition to the kamikaze cocktail, the origin of the cosmopolitan is disputed. It is widely believed that the drink was created independently by different bartenders since the 1970s, generally, people have recognized that John Caine brought the drink to San Francisco around 1987 from Ohio. The same year in Manhattan, the internationally recognized version of the cocktail was created by Toby Cecchini, according to Sally Ann Berk and Bob Sennett, the cosmopolitan appears in literature as early as 1993 and derives from New York City. Made with ingredients that would have readily available during the period. If this drink is in fact the source of the modern cosmopolitan then it would be an adaption of a Daisy rather than a Kamikaze, one version of the creation of this popular drink credits the accomplishment to the gay community in Provincetown, Massachusetts. Neal Murray claims to have created the cosmopolitan in 1975 at the Cork & Cleaver steak house in Minneapolis, according to Murray, he added a splash of cranberry juice to a Kamikaze and the first taster declared, How cosmopolitan. This event supposedly led to the naming of the new beverage, John Caine is the owner of several popular bars in San Francisco and a cosmopolitan expert. He partially credits the upsurge in cocktails during the 1970s to the Cosmo being served at fern bars, Caine is credited with bringing the Cosmo west from Cleveland. There are a number of claims made as to the origin of the cosmopolitan. Cocktail historian Gary Regan credits bartender Cheryl Cook of the Strand Restaurant in South Beach and it was on this realization that gave me the idea to create a drink that everyone could palate and was visually stunning in that classic glass. This is what the Cosmo was based on, Cooks original recipes called for Absolut Citron, a splash of Triple sec, a drop of Roses lime and just enough cranberry to make it oh so pretty in pink. Although Absolut Citron was not introduced anywhere officially until 1988, it was test marketed in Miami, another important person involved in the creation of the cosmopolitan was Melissa Huffsmith of Manhattan. Huffsmith stated that the color should be. just barely pink—the color of pink lemonade, huffsmiths version has become an internationally standardized method for preparing the drink. The cosmopolitan gained popularity in the 1990s, the film adaptation made a reference to its popularity when Miranda asks why they stopped drinking them, Carrie replies because everyone else started. It is not only in television that the Cosmo has influenced popular culture, demeter Fragrance Library has created a cologne intended to smell like the cosmopolitan cocktail. The cosmopolitan is usually served in a cocktail glass, also called a martini glass
