1.
Democratic Republic of Yemen
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The Democratic Republic of Yemen was declared in May 1994. The new state failed to receive recognition, despite the sympathy of Saudi Arabia for its position. The secession followed several weeks of fighting began on 27 April. The civil war ended after the DRY strongholds of Mukalla and Aden fell to government forces, history of Yemen South Yemen Movement
2.
Socialist state
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A socialist state or socialist republic refers to any state that is constitutionally dedicated to the establishment of socialism. Aside from the Communist states, a number of states have described their orientation as socialist in their constitutions. In such cases, the system and machinery of government is not specifically structured to pursue the development of socialism. The concept of a socialist state is related to state socialism. Specifically, the state would become an entity for production as opposed to a mechanism for political control. According to Friedrich Engels, Saint-Simon foreshadowed the classical Marxist notion of the development of the state in a socialist society, karl Marx understood the state to be an instrument of the class rule, dominated by the interests of the ruling class in any mode of production. This transitional stage would involve working-class interests dominating government policy, in the manner that capitalist-class interests dominate government policy under capitalism. Karl Marx described the Paris Commune as the prototype for a government of the future. Friedrich Engels noted that all officials, high or low, were only the wages received by other workers. In this way an effective barrier to place-hunting and careerism was set up, such a state would be a temporary affair, Engels argued. A new generation, he suggested, brought up in new and free social conditions, the Leninist conception of a socialist state is tied to Vladimir Lenins theory of the revolutionary party and organizational principles of democratic centralism. These ideas were adopted by Vladimir Lenin in 1917 just prior to the October Revolution in Russia and published in The State and Revolution, a central text for many Marxists. Vladimir Lenin argued that as socialism is replaced by communism, the state would wither away as strong centralized control progressively reduces as local communities gain more empowerment, as he put succinctly, So long as the state exists there is no freedom. When there is freedom, there will be no state, states run by Communist parties that adhere to Marxism–Leninism, or some variation thereof, refer to themselves as socialist states. The Soviet Union was the first to proclaim itself a socialist state in its 1936 Constitution, another well-known example is the Peoples Republic of China, which proclaims itself to be a socialist state in its 1982 Constitution of the Peoples Republic of China. In the West, such states are known as communist states. This often includes at least the commanding heights of the economy to be nationalized, usually operated according to a plan of production, at least in the major production and social spheres. These Communist states often dont claim to have achieved socialism in their countries, rather, the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea used to be a Marxist–Leninist state
3.
Flag of Yemen
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The Flag of Yemen was adopted on May 22,1990, the day that North Yemen and South Yemen were unified. The flag is essentially the Arab Liberation Flag of 1952, introduced after the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 in which Arab nationalism was a dominant theme. The Arab Liberation Flag served as the inspiration for the flags of both North and South Yemen prior to unification, as well as for the current flags of Egypt, Iraq, Sudan, and Syria. According to the description, the red stands for the unity and the bloodshed of martyrs. However, the fact that the design is equivalent to an inversion of the design of the flag of the German Empire has caused some controversy. Before Yemen was unified into the present-day Republic of Yemen in 1990, the North used the flag on the right from 1927 to 1962, when it became the Yemen Arab Republic. The flag of the Yemen Arab Republic was the Arab Liberation Flag with a star in the center of the white band. The flag of the Peoples Democratic Republic of Yemen in the South was the Arab Liberation Flag with a chevron with a red star next to the hoist. Emblem of Yemen Pan-Arabism Pan-Arab colors Yemen at Flags of the World
4.
Emblem of Yemen
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The national emblem of Yemen depicts a golden eagle with a scroll between its claws. On the scroll is written the name of the country in Arabic, the chest of the eagle contains a shield that depicts a coffee plant and the Marib Dam, with seven blue wavy stripes below. The flagstaffs on the right and left of the hold the Flag of Yemen. From 1945 to 1990, Yemen was split into North and South, the North had an emblem more similar to the present day one, and its shield has similarities with the shield of the former Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen. The South had an emblem with the pan-Arab Eagle of Saladin
5.
Aden
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Aden is a port city in Yemen, located by the eastern approach to the Red Sea, some 170 kilometres east of Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people, Adens ancient, natural harbour lies in the crater of a dormant volcano which now forms a peninsula, joined to the mainland by a low isthmus. This harbour, Front Bay, was first used by the ancient Kingdom of Awsan between the 5th and 7th centuries BC, the modern harbour is on the other side of the peninsula. Aden gives its name to the Gulf of Aden, Aden consists of a number of distinct sub-centres, Crater, the original port city, Maalla, the modern port, Tawahi, known as Steamer Point in the colonial period, and the resorts of Gold Mohur. Aden encloses the eastern side of a vast, natural harbour that comprises the modern port, the volcanic peninsula of Little Aden forms a near-mirror image, enclosing the harbour and port on the western side. Little Aden became the site of the oil refinery and tanker port, both were established and operated by British Petroleum until they were turned over to Yemeni government ownership and control in 1978. From March to July 2015, the Battle of Aden raged between Houthis and loyalists to President Hadi, water, food, and medical supplies ran short in the city. On 14 July, the Saudi Army launched an offensive to retake Aden for Hadis government, within three days the Houthis had been removed from the city. A local legend in Yemen states that Aden may be as old as human history itself, some also believe that Cain and Abel are buried somewhere in the city. The ports convenient position on the sea route between India and Europe has made Aden desirable to rulers who sought to possess it at times throughout history. The same work describes Aden as a village by the shore, there is no mention of fortification at this stage, Aden was more an island than a peninsula as the isthmus was not then so developed as it is today. Although the pre-Islamic Himyar civilization was capable of building large structures, fortifications at Mareb and other places in Yemen and the Hadhramaut make it clear that both the Himyar and the Sabean cultures were well capable of it. Thus, watch towers, since destroyed, are possible, however, the Arab historians Ibn al Mojawir and Abu Makhramah attribute the first fortification of Aden to Beni Zureea. Abu Makhramah has also included a biography of Muhammad Azim Sultan Qamarbandi Naqsh in his work. The aim seems to have been twofold, to hostile forces out and to maintain revenue by controlling the movement of goods. In its original form, some of work was relatively feeble. After 1175 AD, rebuilding in a solid form began. According to Muqaddasi, Persians formed the majority of Adens population in the 10th century, the envoys boarded three treasure ships and set sail from Sumatra to the port of Aden
6.
Mehri language
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Mehri or Mahri is a member of the Modern South Arabian languages, a subgroup of the Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic family. It is spoken by the Mehri people, who inhabit isolated areas of the part of Yemen and western Oman. Mehri and its sister Modern South Arabian languages were spoken in the southern Arabian Peninsula before the spread of Arabic along with Islam in the 7th century CE. It is today spoken by Mehri residents in Qatar and the United Arab Emirates. Given the dominance of Arabic in the region over the past 1400 years and it is primarily a spoken language, with little existing vernacular literature and almost no literacy in the written form among native speakers. Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani noted that the Mahra speak a tongue like foreigners. Elsewhere, Hamdani showed extensive knowledge of Arabian dialects, each of which was rated in its distance from classical Arabic, today, Mehri exists in two main dialects, Yemeni Mehri and Omani Mehri. Omani Mehri is spoken by a population and shows no significant variation within itself. Unlike other Modern South Arabian languages, Mehri emphatic consonants are not simply ejectives, the consonant inventory is as follows, Voiced obstruents, or at least voiced stops, devoice in pausa. In this position, both the voiced and emphatic stops are ejective, losing the three-way contrast, elsewhere, the emphatic and the voiced stops are pharyngealized. Emphatic fricatives have a pattern, and in non-pre-pausal position they are partially voiced. The difference in place of the laterals is not clear and it may be that the approximant is denti-alveolar, like the alveolar occlusives, and the lateral fricatives apical, or it may be that the latter are palato-alveolar or alveolo-palatal. The fricatives are typically transcribed ś, etc, /dʒ/ is only in Arabic loans. It is not clear if the rhotic is a trill or a tap, the following are the personal pronouns of Mahri, The independent pronouns can also be placed after the genitive exponent to convert them into possessive pronouns. Soqotri language Shehri language Rubin, Aaron, examples of Mehri poetry from Hadramut forum ELAR archive of Mehri language documentation materials
7.
Soqotri language
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It is one of the Modern South Arabian languages. Soqotri speakers live on their islands, but rarely on the Yemeni mainland, the language was, through its history, isolated from the Arabian mainland. Arabic is also spoken in a form on Socotra. The isolation of the island of Socotra has led to the Soqotri language independently developing certain phonetic characteristics absent in even the related languages of the mainland. In all the dialects of Soqotri, there is a lack of distinction between the original South Arabic interdentals θ, ð, and θˁ and the stops t, d and ṭ, e. g. Soqotri once had ejective consonants. However, ejective fricatives have largely become pharyngeal consonants as in Arabic, apart from that, the phonemic inventory is basically that of Mehri. A writing system for the Soqotri language was developed in 2014 by a Russian team led by Dr. Vitaly Naumkin following five years of work, alexander Militarev Semitic Language Tree with Soqotri modern classification Wolf Leslau, Lexique Soqotri avec comparaisons et explications étymologiques. Paris, Klincksieck 1938 Dr. Maximilian Bittner, Charakteristik der Sprache der Insel Soqotra Anzeiger der philosophisch-historischen Klasse der kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien, die Mehri - und Soqotri - Sprache. Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien, Wien, Alfred Hölder 1902 Müller D. H. Die Mehri - und Soqotri - Sprache, kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien. Wien, Alfred Hölder 1905 Müller D. H, die Mehri - und Soqotri - Sprache. Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien, Wien, Alfred Hölder 1907 Wagner, E. Syntax der Mehri-Sprache unter Berucksichtigung auch der anderen neusudara bischen Sprachen. Wagner, E. Der Dialect von Abd-al-Kuri, temethel as the Brightest Element of Soqotran Folk Poetry. RBGE Soqotra Bibliography, at RBGE and Friends of Soqotra Org. websites, Soqotri spoken Mehazelo tale fragment with Latin transcription - MP3 Soqotri spoken Two Brothers tale fragment with Latin transcription - MP3 and Soqotri folk tale text publication in CLN. A Bibliography with a list on Soqotri language at the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh website The RBGE upgraded Soqotra Bibliography up to 2009 with more language references
8.
Shehri language
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Shehri, also known as Jibbali, is a Modern South Arabian language. It is spoken by a native population inhabiting the coastal towns and in the mountains. Shehri is sometimes confused as a dialect of Arabic even by Omani Arabs, in fact, the Modern South Arabian languages belong to their own branch of the West Semitic languages. Alternative names/spellings for the language are, Jibbali, Geblet, Sheret, Šehri, Šhauri, Shahari, Jibali, Ehkili, Qarawi, Shehri is spoken along a dialect continuum that includes Western Jibbali, Central Jibbali, and Eastern Jibbali. The dialect used by the few inhabitants of Al-Hallaniyah in the Khuriya Muriya Islands is sometimes known as Baby Jibbali, like most Modern South Arabian dialect speakers in Oman and Yemen, many Shehri speakers are bilingual in local dialects of Arabic, especially the Dhofari dialect. In addition, it is primarily a language, and there is no tradition of writing or publishing in the language. The Jibbali Language of Oman, Grammar and Texts, ELAR archive of Shehri language documentation materials
9.
Modern South Arabian languages
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The Modern South Arabian languages are spoken mainly by small populations inhabiting the Arabian Peninsula, in Yemen and Oman. Together with the modern Ethiopian Semitic languages, they form the South Semitic sub-branch of the Afro-Asiatic familys Semitic branch and they are no longer considered to be descendants of the Old South Arabian language, as was once thought, but instead nephews. Modern South Arabian languages are known for their apparent archaic Semitic features, for example, they preserve the lateral fricatives of Proto-Semitic. According to Václav Blažek, this suggests that Semitic peoples assimilated their original Cushitic neighbours to the south who did not later emigrate to the Horn of Africa. He argues that the Levant would thus have been the Proto-Afro-Asiatic Urheimat, mehri, the largest Modern South Arabian language, with more than 70,000 speakers in Yemen. In addition to these, more than 50,000 live in Oman, the population total for all countries is 135,764. Mehri people are referred to as Mahra, Soqotri, another relatively numerous example, with speakers on the island of Socotra isolated from the pressures of Arabic on the Yemeni mainland. According to the 1990 census in Yemen, the number of speakers there was 57,000, the population total for all countries is estimated at 64,000. Harsusi, 1000–2000 speakers est. in Oman, hobyót,100 speakers est. in Oman. Afroasiatic Linguistics 1/5, 93-121 [1-29 Johnstone, T. M, london, School of Oriental and African Studies. Comparative Vocabulary of Southern Arabic, Mahri, Gibbali, and Soqotri, tokyo, Institute for the Study of *Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa. Tokyo, Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, the Jibbali Language of Oman, Grammar and Texts. The Modern South Arabian Languages, by M. C. Simeone-Senelle
10.
Sunni Islam
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Sunni Islam is the largest group of Islam. Its name comes from the word Sunnah, referring to the behavior of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. According to Sunni tradition, Muhammad did not clearly designate a successor and this contrasts with the Shia view, which holds that Muhammad intended his son-in-law and cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib to succeed him. Political tensions between Sunnis and Shias continued with varying intensity throughout Islamic history and they have been exacerbated in recent times by ethnic conflicts, as of 2009, Sunni Muslims constituted between 87–90% of the worlds Muslim population. Sunni Islam is the worlds largest religious denomination, followed by Catholicism and its adherents are referred to in Arabic as ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamāʻah or ahl as-sunnah for short. In English, its doctrines and practices are sometimes called Sunnism, while adherents are known as Sunni Muslims, Sunnis, Sunnites, Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as orthodox Islam. The Quran, together with hadith and binding juristic consensus form the basis of all traditional jurisprudence within Sunni Islam, sunnī, also commonly referred to as Sunnīism, is a term derived from sunnah meaning habit, usual practice, custom, tradition. The Muslim use of this term refers to the sayings and living habits of the prophet Muhammad, in Arabic, this branch of Islam is referred to as ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamāʻah, the people of the sunnah and the community, which is commonly shortened to ahl as-sunnah. One common mistake is to assume that Sunni Islam represents a normative Islam that emerged during the period after Muhammads death, and that Sufism and Shiism developed out of Sunni Islam. This perception is due to the reliance on highly ideological sources that have been accepted as reliable historical works. Both Sunnism and Shiaism are the end products of centuries of competition between ideologies. Both sects used each other to further cement their own identities and doctrines, the first four caliphs are known among Sunnis as the Rashidun or Rightly-Guided Ones. Sunni recognition includes the aforementioned Abu Bakr as the first, Umar who established the Islamic calendar as the second, Uthman as the third, Sunnis believe that the companions of Muhammad were the best of Muslims. Support for this view is found in the Quran, according to Sunnis. Sunnis also believe that the companions were true believers since it was the companions who were given the task of compiling the Quran, furthermore, narrations that were narrated by the companions are considered by Sunnis to be a second source of knowledge of the Muslim faith. A study conducted by the Pew Research Center in 2010 and released January 2011 found that there are 1.62 billion Muslims around the world, Islam does not have a formal hierarchy or clergy. Leaders are informal, and gain influence through study to become a scholar of Islamic law, according to the Islamic Center of Columbia, South Carolina, anyone with the intelligence and the will can become an Islamic scholar. During Midday Mosque services on Fridays, the congregation will choose a person to lead the service
11.
Federation
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A federation is a political entity characterized by a union of partially self-governing states or regions under a central government. The governmental or constitutional structure found in a federation is known as federalism and it can be considered the opposite of another system, the unitary state. Federations are often multiethnic and cover an area of territory. The initial agreements create a stability that encourages other common interests, at some time, that is recognized and a movement is organized to merge more closely. At other times, especially when common cultural factors are at such as ethnicity and language. The Old Swiss Confederacy was an example of formal non-unitary statehood. Several colonies and dominions in the New World consisted of autonomous provinces, the oldest continuous federation, and a role model for many subsequent federations, is the United States. Some of the New World federations failed, the Federal Republic of Central America broke up into independent states ten years after its founding, others, such as Argentina and Mexico, have shifted between federal, confederal, and unitary systems, before settling into federalism. Brazil became a federation only after the fall of the monarchy, australia and Canada are also federations. Germany is another nation-state that has switched between confederal, federal and unitary rules, since the German Confederation was founded in 1815, the North German Confederation, the succeeding German Empire and the Weimar Republic were federations. The Russian Federation has inherited a similar system, Nigeria, Pakistan, India and Malaysia became federations on or shortly before becoming independent from the British Empire. In some recent cases, federations have been instituted as a measure to handle ethnic conflict within a state, such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Iraq since 2005. The component states are in some sense sovereign, insofar as certain powers are reserved to them that may not be exercised by the central government, however, a federation is more than a mere loose alliance of independent states. The component states of a federation usually possess no powers in relation to foreign policy, however, German Länder have that power, which is beginning to be exercised on a European level. Some federations are called asymmetric because some states have more autonomy than others, an example of such a federation is Malaysia, in which Sarawak and Sabah agreed to form the federation on different terms and conditions from the states of Peninsular Malaysia. A federation often emerges from an agreement between a number of separate states. The purpose can be the will to solve problems and to provide for mutual defense or to create a nation state for an ethnicity spread over several states. The former was the case with the United States and Switzerland, however, as the histories of countries and nations vary, the federalist system of a state can be quite different from these models
12.
One-party state
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All other parties are either outlawed or allowed to take only a limited and controlled participation in elections. One-party states explain themselves through various methods, most often, proponents of a one-party state argue that the existence of separate parties runs counter to national unity. Others argue that the one party is the vanguard of the people, the Soviet government argued that multiple parties represented the class struggle, which was absent in Soviet society, and so the Soviet Union only had one party, the Communist Party. Some one-party states only outlaw opposition parties, while allowing allied parties to exist as part of a permanent coalition such as a popular front. However, these parties are largely or completely subservient to the ruling party, examples of this are the Peoples Republic of China under the United Front, or the National Front in former East Germany. Others may allow non-party members to run for seats, as was the case with Taiwans Tangwai movement in the 1970s and 1980s. Within their own countries, dominant parties ruling over one-party states are referred to simply as the Party. One-party systems often arise from decolonization because one party has had a dominant role in liberation or in independence struggles. One-party states are often, but not always, considered to be authoritarian or totalitarian, however, not all authoritarian or totalitarian states operate based on one-party rule. Some, especially absolute monarchies and certain military dictatorships, have all political parties illegal. The term communist state is used in the West to apply to states in which the ruling party subscribes to a form of Marxism–Leninism. While the role of the Communist Party is enshrined in the constitution, no party is permitted to campaign or run candidates for election, the party was conceived by the original Black American settlers and their descendants who referred to themselves as Americo-Liberians. Initially, its ideology was influenced by that of the Whig Party in the United States. Over time it developed into a powerful Masonic Order that ruled every aspect of Liberian society for well over a century until it was overthrown in 1980, while the True Whig Party still exists today, its influence has substantially declined
13.
Republic
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It is a government where the head of state is not a monarch. Both modern and ancient republics vary widely in their ideology, composition, in the classical and medieval period of Europe, many states were fashioned on the Roman Republic, which referred to the governance of the city of Rome, between it having kings and emperors. The Italian medieval and Renaissance political tradition, today referred to as humanism, is sometimes considered to derive directly from Roman republicans such as Sallust. Republics were not equated with classical democracies such as Athens, but had a democratic aspect, Republics became more common in the Western world starting in the late 18th century, eventually displacing absolute monarchy as the most common form of government in Europe. In modern republics, the executive is legitimized both by a constitution and by popular suffrage, for instance, Article IV of the United States Constitution guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican form of Government. The term originates as the Latin translation of Greek word politeia, cicero, among other Latin writers, translated politeia as res publica and it was in turn translated by Renaissance scholars as republic. The term politeia can be translated as form of government, polity, or regime, and is therefore not always a word for a specific type of regime as the modern word republic is. And also amongst classical Latin, the term republic can be used in a way to refer to any regime. In medieval Northern Italy, a number of city states had commune or signoria based governments, in the late Middle Ages, writers, such as Giovanni Villani, began writing about the nature of these states and the differences from other types of regime. They used terms such as libertas populi, a free people, the terminology changed in the 15th century as the renewed interest in the writings of Ancient Rome caused writers to prefer using classical terminology. To describe non-monarchical states writers, most importantly Leonardo Bruni, adopted the Latin phrase res publica. While Bruni and Machiavelli used the term to describe the states of Northern Italy, which were not monarchies, the term can quite literally be translated as public matter. It was most often used by Roman writers to refer to the state and government, in subsequent centuries, the English word commonwealth came to be used as a translation of res publica, and its use in English was comparable to how the Romans used the term res publica. Notably, during The Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell the word commonwealth was the most common term to call the new monarchless state, likewise, in Polish, the term was translated as rzeczpospolita, although the translation is now only used with respect to Poland. Presently, the term republic commonly means a system of government which derives its power from the rather than from another basis. After the classical period, during the Middle Ages, many cities developed again. The modern type of itself is different from any type of state found in the classical world. Nevertheless, there are a number of states of the era that are today still called republics
14.
General Secretary of the Yemeni Socialist Party
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In May 1990, South Yemen unified with the Yemen Arab Republic to form the united Republic of Yemen. During the May–July 1994 Civil War, South Yemen seceded from the united Yemen and established the short-lived Democratic Republic of Yemen. President of Yemen Prime Minister of Yemen Head of state I^ II^ III^ IV^ V ^ VI ^ Head of government I^ II^ III^ IV^ Head of parliament Head of party I^ II^ III^ Notes Bibliography Halliday, revolution and Foreign Policy, The Case of South Yemen, 1967-1987
15.
Abdul Fattah Ismail
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Abd al-Fattah Ismail Ali Al-Jawfi was the de facto leader of South Yemen from 1969 to 1980. He served as Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Peoples Council and founder, chief ideologue and he was summarily executed on 13 January 1986 along with three others, allegedly for plotting to overthrow Ali Nasir Muhammads regime. Born in July 1939 in the Hugariah district of North Yemen, he was educated in Aden, in 1961 he became a school teacher in one of the Aden districts, and at the same time continuing political activity. He was a co-founder of the National Front for the Liberation of South Yemen and he was elected to the NLF executive in the first, second and third NLF congresses, 1965-67. After South Yemen gained independence in 1967 he was appointed Minister of Culture, in the fourth NLF congress he was instrumental in determining the progressive line of the revolution. But in March 1968 he was arrested by the wing of the NLF and went into exile, where he drafted the program for Accomplishing National Democratic Liberation. He undertook a role in the consolidation of left wing of NLF which subsequently regained power in the 22 June 1969 Correction Step. Subsequent to the Correction Step Ismail was elected Secretary General of the NLF Central Committee and he was also elected a member of the Presidium of the Supreme Peoples Council. In 1970 he was elected Chairman of Presidium and he undertook a leading role in the dialogue between NLF and other left parties in south Yemen leading to the formation of the Yemeni Socialist Party. He was elected Secretary General of the YSP at the first party congress in October 1978, in 1980 he resigned from all his posts for health reasons and was succeeded by Ali Nasir Muhammad. Fighting lasted for more than a month and resulted in thousands of casualties, Ali Nasirs ouster and he was apparently killed when naval forces loyal to Ali Nasir shelled Aden
16.
Ali Nasir Muhammad
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Ali Nasir Muhammad Husani was twice president of South Yemen and once the Prime Minister. He served as the Prime Minister from 2 August 1971 until 14 February 1985, in April 1980, South Yemeni president Abdul Fattah Ismail resigned and moved to Moscow. His successor was Ali Nasir Muhammad who took a less interventionist stance toward both North Yemen and neighbouring Oman, on January 13,1986, a violent struggle began in Aden between Ali Nasirs supporters and supporters of the returned Ismail. Fighting lasted for more than a month and resulted in thousands of casualties, Ali Nasirs ouster, muhammads term had lasted from 21 April 1980 to 24 January 1986. Some 60,000 people, including the deposed Ali Nasir and he was succeeded by Haidar Abu Bakr al-Attas. In 1978, Ali Nasir Muhammad overthrew and executed Rubai Ali, after a battle which took place in Almodowar Palace, located in At-Tawahi, Aden. Mohammed was a member of the National Front, ar. الجبهة القومية as well as the Yemeni Socialist Party after the YSP was formed from the UPONF in October 1978, the southern secession was repressed in July 1994 after the surrender of Aden and Mukalla strongholds. This council is opposed by the Joint Meeting Parties, the opposition coalition, which also supports Salehs removal from power. In February 2015, there were reports that Muhammad was being considered as a prospective interim leader of a presidential council after the collapse of the government. *Russian Translation - Russian TV political detective serial, the first four scenes are giving the version of Aden 1986 civil war between Ali Nasir Muhammad and the opposition in YSP
17.
President of South Yemen
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In May 1990, South Yemen unified with the Yemen Arab Republic to form the united Republic of Yemen. During the May–July 1994 Civil War, South Yemen seceded from the united Yemen and established the short-lived Democratic Republic of Yemen. President of Yemen Prime Minister of Yemen Head of state I^ II^ III^ IV^ V ^ VI ^ Head of government I^ II^ III^ IV^ Head of parliament Head of party I^ II^ III^ Notes Bibliography Halliday, revolution and Foreign Policy, The Case of South Yemen, 1967-1987
18.
Qahtan Muhammad al-Shaabi
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Qahtan Muhammad al-Shaabi was the first President of the Peoples Republic of South Yemen. On 30 November 1967, the protectorate of South Arabia was declared independent as the Peoples Republic of South Yemen with al-Shaabi as President, Al-Shaabi held the presidency until 22 June 1969, when a hard-line Marxist group from within his own NLF seized control. He was replaced by Salim Rubai Ali and jailed, then placed under house arrest until the 1970s, Al-Shaabi was originally an agricultural officer from Lahej, who fled to Cairo in 1958. In 1962, he was announced the head of a National Liberation Army, formed in Egypt, upon independence in 1967, he was the best-known NLF leader and the only one over 40 years old. The government declared in 1990 that the deposition was in the absence of true democracy, qahtans son Najeeb Qahtan Al-Shaabi ran unsuccessfully against President Ali Abdullah Saleh in the 1999 Yemeni presidential election
19.
Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
20.
Member states of the United Nations
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The United Nations member states are the 193 sovereign states that are members of the United Nations and have equal representation in the UN General Assembly. The UN is the worlds largest intergovernmental organization, ahead of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the admission of any such state to membership in the United Nations will be effected by a decision of the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council. A recommendation for admission from the Security Council requires affirmative votes from at least nine of the fifteen members. The Security Councils recommendation must then be approved in the General Assembly by a majority vote. In principle, only states can become UN members. Although five members were not sovereign when they joined the UN and this is because the UN does not consider them to possess sovereignty, mainly due to the lack of international recognition or due to opposition from one of the permanent members. Observers are generally intergovernmental organizations and international organizations and entities whose statehood or sovereignty is not precisely defined, the other two original members, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, had been dissolved and their memberships in the UN not continued from 1992 by any one successor state. India was under British colonial rule, until gaining independence in 1947. The Philippines was a commonwealth with the United States, until gaining independence in 1946. New Zealand, while de facto sovereign at that time, only gained full capacity to enter into relations with states in 1947 when it passed the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act. This occurred 16 years after the British Parliament passed the Statute of Westminster Act in 1931 that recognised New Zealands autonomy, if judged by the Montevideo Convention criteria, New Zealand did not achieve full de jure statehood until 1947. The current members and their dates of admission are listed below with their official designations used by the United Nations, the member states can be sorted by their official designations and dates of admission by clicking on the buttons in the header of the columns. See related sections on former members by clicking on the links in the column See also, original members are listed with blue background. Both sides rejected compromise proposals to both states to participate in the UN, based on the One-China policy. By the 1970s, a shift had occurred in diplomatic circles. This effectively transferred the seat of China in the UN, including its permanent seat on the Security Council, from the ROC to the PRC, from the United Nations perspective the Republic of China is not a former member. No UN member was expelled in 1971, rather, the credentials of one Chinese delegation were rejected and the credentials of another Chinese delegation were accepted. In addition to losing its seat in the UN, the UN Secretary-General concluded from the resolution that the General Assembly considered Taiwan to be a province of China
21.
Unification of Yemen
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Yemeni unification took place on May 22,1990, when the area of the Peoples Democratic Republic of Yemen was united with the Yemen Arab Republic, forming the Republic of Yemen. Unlike East and West Germany, Communist and Nationalist China, North and South Korea, or North and South Vietnam, following the North Yemen Civil War, the north established a republican government that included tribal representatives. It enjoyed modest oil revenues and remittances from its citizens working in the oil-rich Arab states of the Persian Gulf and its population in the 1980s was estimated at 12 million as opposed to 3 million in South Yemen. South Yemen developed as a Marxist, mostly secular society ruled first by the National Liberation Front, the only avowedly Marxist nation in the Middle East, South Yemen received significant foreign aid and other assistance from the USSR. In October 1972, fighting erupted between north and south, North Yemen was supplied by Saudi Arabia while South Yemen was supplied by the USSR. Fighting was short-lived and the led to the October 28,1972 Cairo Agreement. Fighting broke out again in February and March 1979, with South Yemen allegedly supplying aid to rebels in the north through the National Democratic Front, Southern forces made it as far as the city of Taizz before withdrawing. The same month, they formed the Yemeni Company for Investment in Mineral, the Republic of Yemen was declared on 22 May 1990. Ali Abdullah Saleh of the north became Head of State, a 30-month transitional period for completing the unification of the two political and economic systems was set. A presidential council was elected by the 26-member Yemen Arab Republic advisory council. The presidential council appointed a Prime Minister, who formed a Cabinet, there was also a 301-seat provisional unified parliament, consisting of 159 members from the north,111 members from the south, and 31 independent members appointed by the chairman of the council. A unity constitution was agreed upon in May 1990 and ratified by the populace in May 1991 and it affirmed Yemens commitment to free elections, a multiparty political system, the right to own private property, equality under the law, and respect of basic human rights. Parliamentary elections were held on April 27,1993, International groups assisted in the organization of the elections and observed actual balloting. The resulting Parliament included 143 General Peoples Congress,69 Yemeni Socialist Party,63 Islaah,6 Baathists,3 Nasserist Unionist Peoples Organisation,2 Al Haq, the new parliament represented the North strongly. The YSP, though it had won the most seats in voting in the south, was considered a minor part of the new coalition government. The head of Islaah, Abdullah ibn Husayn al-Ahmar, became the speaker of Parliament, Islaah was invited into the ruling coalition, and the presidential council was altered to include one Islaah member. The repatriation of these Yemenis immediately increased the population by 7%. Haidar Abu Bakr al-Attas, the former Southern Prime Minister continued to serve as the Yemens Prime Minister, continuous negotiations between northern and southern leaders resulted in the signing of the document of pledge and accord in Amman, Jordan on February 20,1994
22.
South Yemeni dinar
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The dinar was the currency of South Arabia and then South Yemen between 1965 and 1990. It was subdivided into 1000 fils, after Yemens monetary unification on 1 July 1990, it was one of the two official currencies used in Yemen Republic until 11 June 1996. The dinar was introduced in 1965 as the South Arabian Dinar, replacing the East African shilling at a rate of 1 dinar =20 shillings and it was renamed the South Yemeni dinar after the Aden Protectorate became independent in 1967 as the South Yemen. The South Yemeni dinar was replaced by the following unification with North Yemen. The exchange rate was 1 dinar =26 rial, Dinar banknotes remained legal tender until 1996. For a wider history surrounding currency in the region, see The History of British Currency in the Middle East, in 1965, coins were introduced for South Arabia in denominations of 1,5,25 and 50 fils. The 1 fils was struck in aluminium, the 5 fils in bronze, in 1971, coins were issued in the name of Democratic Yemen, changing to the Peoples democratic Republic of Yemen in 1973. That year, aluminium 2½ fils were introduced, followed by aluminium 10 fils, the 10 fils was scalloped shaped whilst the 100 fils was octagonal. On 1 April 1965, the South Arabian Currency Authority introduced notes in denominations of 250 and 500 fils, a 10-dinar note was issued on 1 July 1967. Article on the banknotes of South Yemen
23.
Federation of South Arabia
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The Federation of South Arabia was an organization of states under British protection in what would become South Yemen. It was formed on 4 April 1962 from the 15 protected states of the Federation of Arab Emirates of the South, on 18 January 1963 it was merged with the Crown colony of Aden. In June 1964, the Upper Aulaqi Sultanate was added for a total of 17 states, a team was sent to the 1966 Commonwealth Games in Kingston, Jamaica. The Federation was abolished when it gained independence along with the Protectorate of South Arabia as the Peoples Democratic Republic of Yemen on 30 November 1967. Most of its issues were part of the omnibus issues common to all the Commonwealth territories, but it did issue its own definitive stamps on 1 April 1965. The set of 14 included 10 values, from 5 to 75 fils, each depicting the arms of the Federation in a colour, while the top four values. The stamps referred to above are listed in the Scott Standard Postage Stamp Catalog. A number of stamps have also been issued and are listed in Stanley Gibbons. It is possible, or even likely, that some of the stamps of South Arabia were not issued primarily for postal use, united Nations Security Council Resolution 188 Paul Dresch. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press,2000
24.
Protectorate of South Arabia
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The Protectorate of South Arabia was a grouping of 4 states located at the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula under treaties of protection with Britain. The area of the former protectorate is now part of the Republic of Yemen, already before the opening of the Suez Canal, industrial Britain with its rapidly expanding economy, needed improved communication with British India. The coastal plains of the peninsula had been devastated earlier in the 19th century by Wahhabi puritan Muslims from Central Arabia followed by an Egyptian invasion. The Aden Protectorate was established in 1869, the year of the opening of the Suez Canal which heralded a new era of trade. The Protectorate of South Arabia was dissolved on 30 November 1967 and its constituent states quickly collapsed, the territory was absorbed into the newly independent Peoples Republic of South Yemen, which became part of the Republic of Yemen in 1990. South Yemen Official Website of the Al-Quaiti Royal Family of Hadhramaut
25.
Yemen
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Yemen, officially known as the Republic of Yemen, is an Arab country in Western Asia, occupying South Arabia, the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula. Yemen is the second-largest country in the peninsula, occupying 527,970 km2, the coastline stretches for about 2,000 km. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the north, the Red Sea to the west, the Gulf of Aden and Arabian Sea to the south, although Yemens constitutionally stated capital is the city of Sanaa, the city has been under rebel control since February 2015. Because of this, Yemens capital has been relocated to the port city of Aden. Yemens territory includes more than 200 islands, the largest of these is Socotra, Yemen was the home of the Sabaeans, a trading state that flourished for over a thousand years and probably also included parts of modern-day Ethiopia and Eritrea. In 275 AD, the region came under the rule of the later Jewish-influenced Himyarite Kingdom, Christianity arrived in the fourth century, whereas Judaism and local paganism were already established. Islam spread quickly in the century and Yemenite troops were crucial in the expansion of the early Islamic conquests. Administration of Yemen has long been notoriously difficult, several dynasties emerged from the ninth to 16th centuries, the Rasulid dynasty being the strongest and most prosperous. The country was divided between the Ottoman and British empires in the twentieth century. The Zaydi Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen was established after World War I in North Yemen before the creation of the Yemen Arab Republic in 1962, South Yemen remained a British protectorate known as the Aden Protectorate until 1967 when it became an independent state and later, a Marxist state. The two Yemeni states united to form the modern republic of Yemen in 1990, Yemen is a developing country, and the poorest country in the Middle East. Under the rule of President Ali Abdullah Saleh, Yemen was described as a kleptocracy, according to the 2009 international corruption Perception Index by Transparency International, Yemen ranked 164 out of 182 countries surveyed. President Saleh stepped down and the powers of the presidency were transferred to Vice President Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi, the transitional process was disrupted by conflicts between the Houthis and al-Islah, as well as the al-Qaeda insurgency. In September 2014, the Houthis took over Sanaa, later declaring themselves in control of the government in a coup détat, since then, a Saudi-led intervention has taken place, however, it could not stop the civil war. Instead, the Saudis and the others have destroyed some hospitals, schools and homes, Yemen was mentioned in Old South Arabian inscriptions as Yamnat. In Arabic literature, the term includes much greater territory than that of the republic of Yemen. It stretches from the northern Asir Region in southwestern Saudi Arabia to Dhofar Governorate in southern Oman, one etymology derives Yemen from yumn, meaning felicity, as much of the country is fertile. The Romans called it Arabia Felix, as opposed to Arabia Deserta, al-Yaman significantly plays on the notion of the land to the right, when in Mecca facing the dawn, complementary to Al-Sham, the Land to the Left, referring to the Levant
26.
ISO 3166-1
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The official name of the standard is Codes for the representation of names of countries and their subdivisions – Part 1, Country codes. ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 – three-letter country codes which allow a visual association between the codes and the country names than the alpha-2 codes. The alphabetic country codes were first included in ISO3166 in 1974, as a widely used international standard, ISO 3166-1 is implemented in other standards and used by international organizations to allow facilitation of the exchange of goods and information. However, it is not the standard for country codes. Other country codes used by international organizations are partly or totally incompatible with ISO 3166-1. Currently 249 countries, territories, or areas of geographical interest are assigned codes in ISO 3166-1. Once a country name or territory name appears in either of two sources, it will be added to ISO 3166-1 by default. The ISO 3166/MA may reserve code elements for other entities that do not qualify for inclusion based on the above criteria, ISO 3166-1 is published officially in both English and French. For this reason, common components of names like Republic, Kingdom, United. As a consequence, for example, the United Kingdom is officially assigned the alpha-2 code GB rather than UK, based on its official name United Kingdom of Great Britain, some codes are chosen based on the native names of the countries. For example, Germany is assigned the alpha-2 code DE, based on its native name Deutschland, the following is a complete ISO 3166-1 encoding list of the countries which are assigned official codes. It is listed in order by the English short country name used by the ISO 3166/MA. Note, Each countrys alpha-2 code is linked to information about the assignment of its code elements. Besides the officially assigned codes, code elements may be expanded by using either reserved codes or user-assigned codes. Reserved code elements are codes which have become obsolete, or are required in order to enable a user application of the standard. Codes are usually reserved for countries, overseas territories, international organizations. A country is assigned new ISO 3166-1 codes if it changes its name or its territorial boundaries. In general, new codes are assigned if a country changes a significant part of its name
27.
Arabic
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
28.
Middle East
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The Middle East is a transcontinental region centered on Western Asia and Egypt. The corresponding adjective is Middle-Eastern and the noun is Middle-Easterner. The term has come into usage as a replacement of the term Near East beginning in the early 20th century. Arabs, Turks, Persians, Kurds, and Azeris constitute the largest ethnic groups in the region by population. Indigenous minorities of the Middle East include Jews, Assyrians and other Arameans, Baloch, Berbers, Copts, Druze, Lurs, Mandaeans, Samaritans, Shabaks, Tats, in the Middle East, there is also a Romani community. European ethnic groups form a diaspora in the region include Albanians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Crimean Tatars, Franco-Levantines. Among other migrant populations are Bengalis as well as other Indians, Chinese, Filipinos, Indonesians, Pakistanis, the history of the Middle East dates back to ancient times, with the importance of the region being recognized for millennia. Most of the countries border the Persian Gulf have vast reserves of crude oil. The term Middle East may have originated in the 1850s in the British India Office, however, it became more widely known when American naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan used the term in 1902 to designate the area between Arabia and India. During this time the British and Russian Empires were vying for influence in Central Asia, Mahan realized not only the strategic importance of the region, but also of its center, the Persian Gulf. Mahan first used the term in his article The Persian Gulf and International Relations, published in September 1902 in the National Review, a British journal. The Middle East, if I may adopt a term which I have not seen, will some day need its Malta, as well as its Gibraltar, it does not follow that either will be in the Persian Gulf. The British Navy should have the facility to concentrate in force if occasion arise, about Aden, India, mahans article was reprinted in The Times and followed in October by a 20-article series entitled The Middle Eastern Question, written by Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol. During this series, Sir Ignatius expanded the definition of Middle East to include regions of Asia which extend to the borders of India or command the approaches to India. After the series ended in 1903, The Times removed quotation marks from subsequent uses of the term, in the late 1930s, the British established the Middle East Command, which was based in Cairo, for its military forces in the region. After that time, the term Middle East gained broader usage in Europe, the description Middle has also led to some confusion over changing definitions. Before the First World War, Near East was used in English to refer to the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire, while Middle East referred to Iran, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Turkestan. The first official use of the term Middle East by the United States government was in the 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine, the Associated Press Stylebook says that Near East formerly referred to the farther west countries while Middle East referred to the eastern ones, but that now they are synonymous
29.
Socotra
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Socotra, also spelled Soqotra, is an island and a small archipelago of four islands in the Arabian Sea. The territory is part of Yemen, and had long been a subdivision of the Aden Governorate, in 2004, it became attached to the Hadhramaut Governorate, which is much closer to the island than Aden. In 2013, the archipelago became its own governorate, the Soqatra Governorate, the island of Socotra constitutes around 95% of the landmass of the archipelago. It lies some 240 kilometres east of the Horn of Africa and 380 kilometres south of the Arabian Peninsula, the island is very isolated and a third of its plant life is found nowhere else on the planet. It has been described as the most alien-looking place on Earth, the island measures 132 kilometres in length and 49.7 kilometres in width. In the notes to his translation of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, huntingford remarks that the name Suqotra is not Greek in origin, but from the Sanskrit dvīpa sukhadhara. Another posited origin of the name is the Arabic suq meaning market, there was initially an Oldowan culture in Socotra. Oldowan stone tools were found in the area around Hadibo by V. A, zhukov, a member of the Russian Complex Expedition in 2008. Socotra appears as Dioskouridou in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, in 2001 a group of Belgian speleologists of the Socotra Karst Project investigated a cave on the island Socotra. There, they came across a number of inscriptions, drawings. Further investigation showed that these had left by sailors who visited the island between the 1st century BC and the 6th century AD. Most of the texts are written in the Indian Brāhmī script and this corpus of nearly 250 texts and drawings thus constitutes one of the main sources for the investigation of Indian Ocean trade networks in that time period. A local tradition holds that the inhabitants were converted to Christianity by Thomas the Apostle in AD52, in the 10th century, the Arab geographer Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani stated that in his time most of the inhabitants were Christians. They were Nestorians but also practised ancient magic rituals despite the warnings of their archbishop and he reported in a letter home that the tribesmen, due to lack of missionaries, had only retained a faint knowledge of Christianity. In 1507, a Portuguese fleet commanded by Tristão da Cunha with Afonso de Albuquerque landed at the capital of Suq. Their objective was to set a base in a place on the route to India. Tomás Fernandes started to build a fortress at Suq, the Forte de São Miguel de Socotorá, however, the infertility of the land led to famine and sickness in the garrison. Thus the Portuguese abandoned the island four years later, as it was not advantageous as a base, the islands passed under the control of the Mahra sultans in 1511, and its inhabitants were completely Islamized during their rule
30.
Colony of Aden
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The Colony of Aden or Aden Colony was a British Crown colony from 1937 to 1963 located in the south of contemporary Yemen. It consisted of the port of Aden and its immediate surroundings, prior to 1937, Aden had been governed as part of British India. Under the Government of India Act 1935 the territory was detached from British India, and was established as a colony of the United Kingdom. On 18 January 1963, the colony was reconstituted as the State of Aden within the new Federation of South Arabia, the federation in turn became the Peoples Republic of South Yemen on 30 November 1967, marking the end of British rule. The hinterland of the Colony of Aden was separately governed as the Aden Protectorate, on 19 January 1839, the British East India Company landed Royal Marines at Aden to occupy the territory and stop attacks by pirates against British shipping to India. The British Army considered Aden an important place due to its location, later, British influence extended progressively into the hinterland, both west and east, with the establishment of the Aden Protectorate. Aden soon became an important transit port and coaling station for trade between British India and the Far East, and Europe, the commercial and strategic importance of Aden increased considerably when the Suez Canal opened in 1869. From then and until the 1960s, the Port of Aden was to be one of the busiest ship-bunkering, duty-free shopping, in 1937, Aden was separated from British India to become a Crown Colony, a status that it retained until 1963. It consisted of the city of Aden and its immediate surroundings. The Aden Settlement, and later Aden Colony, also included the islands of Kamaran, Perim. Prior to 1937, Aden had been governed as part of British India, through the latter years of its existence, the Colony of Aden was plagued by civil unrest. Population of Aden Colony 1955 “The town of Aden was tied more closely into the fabric of the British Empire. The fundamental law for the Crown Colony of Aden is the Order of Council 28 September 1936, Aden was notable in that Sharia law was not used in the Colony. All suits, including dealing with personal status and inheritance of Muslims, are entertained in the ordinary secular courts of the colony. Within the Aden Colony there were three local government bodies, all of these bodies were under the overall control of the Executive Council, which in turn was kept in check by the Governor. Until 1 December 1955, the Executive Council was entirely unelected, the situation improved only slightly after this date, as four members were elected. Judicial administration was entirely in British hands. Compared with other British possessions, the development towards self-government and greater local participation has been rather slow, education was provided for all children, both boys and girls, until at least intermediate level
31.
Aden Protectorate
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In 1940 it was divided for administrative purposes into the Western Protectorate and the Eastern Protectorate. Today the territory part of the Republic of Yemen. Aden with its harbour was the area under full British sovereignty and, together with some offshore islands, was known as Aden Settlement, Aden Province, Aden Colony. In exchange for British protection, the rulers of the constituent territories of the Protectorate agreed not to enter into treaties with or cede territory to any foreign power. For administrative purposes, the protectorate was divided into the Eastern Protectorate. In 1928, the British established Aden Command, under Royal Air Force leadership and it was renamed British Forces Aden in 1936 and was later known as British Forces Arabian Peninsula and then Middle East Command. The boundaries between the polities and even their number fluctuated over time, some such as the Mahra Sultanate barely had any functioning administration. Not included in the protectorate were Aden Colony and the areas of Perim, Kamaran. This rationalised and stabilised the rulers status and laws of succession but had the effect of ossifying the leadership, aerial bombardment and collective punishment were sometimes used against wayward tribes to enforce the rule of Britains clients. British protection came to be seen as an impediment to progress, in 1950, Kennedy Trevaskis, the Advisor for the Western Protectorate drew up a plan for the protectorate states to form two federations, corresponding to the two-halves of the protectorate. Although little progress was made in bringing the plan to fruition, in addition to his role as king, he also served as the imam of the ruling Zaidi branch of Shia Islam. He feared that a federation in the Shafii Sunnite protectorates would serve as a beacon for discontented Shafiites who inhabited the coastal regions of Yemen. To counter the threat, Ahmad stepped up Yemeni efforts to undermine British control and, in the mid-1950s and it had also been chosen as the new location for Middle East Command. In the next three years, they were joined by nine others and, on 18 January 1963, Aden Colony was merged with the creating the new Federation of South Arabia. At the same time, the states that had not joined the federation became the Protectorate of South Arabia, on 10 December 1963, a state of emergency was declared in the former protectorate and the newly created State of Aden. By 1965, the RAF station was operating 9 Squadrons and these included transport units with helicopters and a number of Hawker Hunter ground attack aircraft. These were called in by the army for strikes against positions when they would use 60 lb high explosive rockets, notable events include the Battle of Crater which brought Lt-Col Colin Campbell Mitchell to prominence. On 20 June 1967 there was a mutiny in the South Arabian Federation Army, order was restored by the British, mainly due to the efforts of the 1st Battalion Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders, under the command of Lt-Col Mitchell
32.
British Raj
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The British Raj was the rule by the British Crown in the Indian subcontinent between 1858 and 1947. The rule is also called Crown rule in India, or direct rule in India, the resulting political union was also called the Indian Empire and after 1876 issued passports under that name. It lasted until 1947, when the British Indian Empire was partitioned into two sovereign states, the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. The British Raj extended over almost all present-day India, Pakistan and this area is very diverse, containing the Himalayan mountains, fertile floodplains, the Indo-Gangetic Plain, a long coastline, tropical dry forests, arid uplands, and the Thar desert. In addition, at times, it included Aden, Lower Burma, Upper Burma, British Somaliland. Burma was separated from India and directly administered by the British Crown from 1937 until its independence in 1948, among other countries in the region, Ceylon was ceded to Britain in 1802 under the Treaty of Amiens. Ceylon was part of Madras Presidency between 1793 and 1798, the kingdoms of Nepal and Bhutan, having fought wars with the British, subsequently signed treaties with them and were recognised by the British as independent states. The Kingdom of Sikkim was established as a state after the Anglo-Sikkimese Treaty of 1861, however. The Maldive Islands were a British protectorate from 1887 to 1965, India during the British Raj was made up of two types of territory, British India and the Native States. In general, the term British India had been used to also to the regions under the rule of the British East India Company in India from 1600 to 1858. The term has also used to refer to the British in India. The terms Indian Empire and Empire of India were not used in legislation, the monarch was known as Empress or Emperor of India and the term was often used in Queen Victorias Queens Speeches and Prorogation Speeches. The passports issued by the British Indian government had the words Indian Empire on the cover, in addition, an order of knighthood, the Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire, was set up in 1878. At the turn of the 20th century, British India consisted of eight provinces that were administered either by a Governor or a Lieutenant-Governor, during the partition of Bengal the new provinces of Assam and East Bengal were created as a Lieutenant-Governorship. In 1911, East Bengal was reunited with Bengal, and the new provinces in the east became, Assam, Bengal, Bihar, there were 565 princely states when India and Pakistan became independent from Britain in August 1947. The princely states did not form a part of British India, the larger ones had treaties with Britain that specified which rights the princes had, in the smaller ones the princes had few rights. Within the princely states external affairs, defence and most communications were under British control, the British also exercised a general influence over the states internal politics, in part through the granting or withholding of recognition of individual rulers. Although there were nearly 600 princely states, the majority were very small
33.
Aden Emergency
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The Aden Emergency, also known as the Radfan Uprising, was an insurgency against the British Crown forces in the British controlled territories of South Arabia which now form part of the Yemen. Partly inspired by Nassers pan Arab nationalism, it began on 14 October 1963 with the throwing of a grenade at a gathering of British officials at Aden Airport, a state of emergency was then declared in the British Crown colony of Aden and its hinterland, the Aden Protectorate. The emergency escalated in 1967 and hastened the end of British rule in the territory which had begun in 1839, on 30 November 1967, British forces withdrew and the independent Peoples Republic of South Yemen was proclaimed. Aden was originally of interest to Britain as a station to protect shipping on the routes to British India. With the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, it served as a coaling station. Following the independence of India in 1947, Aden became less important to the United Kingdom, the grenade killed a woman and injured fifty other people. On that day, a state of emergency was declared in Aden, the NLF and FLOSY began a campaign against British forces in Aden, relying largely on grenade attacks. One such attack was carried out against RAF Khormaksar during a party, killing a girl. The guerrilla attacks largely focused on killing off-duty British officers and policemen, much of the violence was carried out in the Crater, the old Arab quarter of Aden. British forces attempted to intercept weapons being smuggled into the Crater by the NLF and FLOSY on the Dhala road, despite taking a toll on British forces, the death toll among rebels was far higher, largely to inter-factional fighting among different rebel groups. In 1964 24th Infantry Brigade arrived to conduct land operations and it remained in Aden and the Aden Protectorate until November 1967. By 1965, the RAF station RAF Khormaksar was operating nine squadrons and these included transport units with helicopters and a number of Hawker Hunter fighter bomber aircraft. These were called in by the army for strikes against rebel positions in which they would use 60-pounder high explosive rockets, on 19–20 January 1967, the NLF provoked street riots in Aden. After the Aden police lost control, British High Commissioner Sir Richard Turnbull deployed British troops to crush the riots, as soon as the NLF riots were crushed, pro-FLOSY rioters took to the streets. Fighting between British forces and pro-guerrilla rioters lasted into February, the emergency was further exacerbated by the Six-Day War in June 1967. The mutineers killed 22 British soldiers and shot down a helicopter, and as a result and this is recorded in From Barren Rocks to Living Stones. Following the mutiny, all British forces were withdrawn from the Crater, while Royal Marines of 45 Commando took up sniping positions on the high ground, however, the Crater remained occupied by an estimated 400 Arab fighters. NLF and FLOSY fighters then took to the streets and engaged in gun battles, while arson, looting, British forces blocked off the two main entrances to the Crater
34.
National Liberation Front (South Yemen)
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The National Liberation Front or NLF was a Marxist paramilitary organization operating in the Federation of South Arabia, during the Aden Emergency. During the North Yemen Civil War, fighting spilled over into South Yemen as the British attempted to establish a colony known as the Federation of South Arabia. Following the exit of the British armed forces, the NLF seized power from its rival, in the late 50s Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nassers Pan-Arabism had spread to the region and threatened Britain and the traditional Emirs of the regions control. In response the British were able to convince the feuding Emirs to merge into the Federation of South Arabia and this conflict spread throughout the region becoming what the British would term as the Aden Emergency which officially began when a state of emergency was declared in the State of Aden. The anti-Royalist campaign for power spread to the Federation of South Arabia in 1964 when the NLF announced the start of their revolution, in 1964 there was a new British government headed by the Labour Party after they won the United Kingdom general election. They attempted to grant independence to the Federation of South Arabia by giving Abdullah al Asnags FLOSY control of the country and this proposal was annulled by the American President Johnson who didnt want Britain to withdraw while the Americans were escalating the Vietnam War. In 1965 the British suspended the Federation of South Arabian government, realizing that the British werent going to give him control Asnag fled the country and joined the NLF. However elements of the NLF become more radical Marxist and they split from the Egyptians, Asnag formed his own military organization, FLOSY, in order to counter the NLF. The NLF quickly denounced Asnag and FLOSY as Imperialist forces under control of Nasser, by February 1967 the British could no longer control or protect its bases in Aden and announced it was leaving the country, against American wishes. In January 1967, there were riots by NLF and FLOSY supporters in the old Arab quarter of Aden town. During the period there were attacks on the troops. At the same time, the members of FLOSY and the NLF were also killing each other in large numbers, on 20 June 1967, there was a mutiny in the Federation of South Arabia Army, which also spread to the police. Order was restored by the British, mainly due to the efforts of the 1st Battalion Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders, nevertheless, deadly guerrilla attacks particularly by the NLF soon resumed against British forces. Nasser threw its weight behind FLOSY and arrested the head of the NLF who was living at the time in Egypt, officially FLOSY and the NLF refused to talk to the leaving British forces as they didnt want to be seen as agents of British Imperialism. However unofficial secret talks were held between the British and the NLF who conspired to defeat FLOSY so that the much hated Nasser supported FLOSY would be defeated. With the British withdrawing from Aden by the end of November 1967, earlier than had planned by British Prime Minister Harold Wilson. On November 30,1967 the Federation of South Arabia ceased to exist when the Peoples Republic of South Yemen was proclaimed, in 1967 Israel defeated Egypt in the Six-Day War thus obliging Egypt to evacuate its troops from Yemen. FLOSY, now without any support from its Egyptian ally
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Front for the Liberation of Occupied South Yemen
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The Front for the Liberation of Occupied South Yemen was a military organization operating in the Federation of South Arabia in the 1960s. As the British tried to exit its Federation of South Arabia colony Abdullah al Asnag created FLOSY, FLOSY attempted to seize power when the British left from another military group operating in South Arabia, the Marxist National Liberation Front. Abdullah al Asnag was a leader in the Aden Trade Union Congress, a union operating in and around the British protectorate. In the late 1950s, Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nassers Pan-Arabism had spread to the region and threatened Britains, in response the British were able to convince the feuding Emirs to merge into the Federation of South Arabia. This conflict spread throughout the region becoming the Aden Emergency and officially began on 10 December 1963, the NLF campaign for power spread to the Federation of South Arabia in 1964. In 1964 a new government headed by the Labour Party won the United Kingdom general election and they attempted to grant independence to the Federation of South Arabia by giving Abdullah al Asnag control of the country. This proposal was nixed by the American President Johnson who didnt want Britain to withdraw while the Americans were escalating the Vietnam War, in 1965 the British suspended the Federation of South Arabian government and imposed direct colonial rule. Realizing that the British werent going to him control Asnag fled the country. However elements of the NLF become more radical Marxist and they split from the Egyptians, Asnag formed his own military organization, FLOSY, in order to counter the NLF. The NLF quickly denounced Asnag and FLOSY as Imperialist forces under control of Nassar, by February 1967 the British could no longer control or protect its bases in Aden and announced it was leaving the country, against American wishes. Nasser threw its weight behind FLOSY and arrested the head of the NLF who was living at the time in Egypt, officially FLOSY and the NLF refused to talk to the leaving British forces as they didnt want to be seen as agents of British Imperialism. When the last governor of Aden, Sir Humphrey Trevelyan, left the country with no apparent successor. As a point of respect, he had the government house repainted for whoever emerged victorious, however unofficial secret talks were held between the British and the NLF who conspired to defeat FLOSY so that the Nassar-supported FLOSY would be defeated. On November 30,1967 Federation of South Arabia ceased to exist with the creation of the Peoples Republic of South Yemen, in 1967, Nasser was defeated in the Six-Day War and was forced to pull troops out of Yemen. This left FLOSY without any support from its Egyptian allies. With the loss of Egyptian support, the NLF allied with Yemens Federal army, on November 7,1967 FLOSY took heavy losses attacking a federal army base in conjunction with the NLF. With that defeat, the forces of FLOSY ceased to exist although some cadres. The Middle East and North Africa 2004, Empire and after, a short history of the British Empire and Commonwealth
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Marxism
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It originates from the mid-to-late 19th century works of German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. As the contradiction becomes apparent to the proletariat through the alienation of labor, Marxism has since developed into different branches and schools of thought, and there is now no single definitive Marxist theory. Marxism has been adopted by a number of academics and theorists working in various disciplines. Critics have taken issue with particular Marxist claims or accused Marxism as a whole of being inconsistent, refuted based on new information. The Marxian analysis begins with an analysis of the material conditions, the economic system and these social relations form a base and superstructure. As forces of production, most notably technology, improve, existing forms of social organization become inefficient, from forms of development of the productive forces these relations turn into their fetters. Then begins an era of social revolution and these inefficiencies manifest themselves as social contradictions in society in the form of class struggle. Under the capitalist mode of production, this struggle materializes between the minority who own the means of production, and the vast majority of the population who produce goods, the socialist system would succeed capitalism as humanitys mode of production through workers revolution. According to Marxism, especially arising from crisis theory, socialism is a historical necessity, in a socialist society private property, in the form of the means of production, would be replaced by co-operative ownership. A socialist economy would not base production on the creation of private profits, Society does not consist of individuals, but expresses the sum of interrelations, the relations within which these individuals stand. The historical materialist theory of history analyses the causes of societal development. All constituent features of a society are assumed to stem from economic activity, the base and superstructure metaphor portrays the totality of social relations by which humans produce and re-produce their social existence. According to Marx, The sum total of the forces of production accessible to men determines the condition of society and this relationship is reflexive, at first the base gives rise to the superstructure and remains the foundation of a form of social organization. As Friedrich Engels clarified, The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles, accordingly, Marx designated human history as encompassing four stages of development in relations of production. Primitive Communism, as in tribal societies. Slave Society, a development of tribal to city-state, aristocracy is born, feudalism, aristocrats are the ruling class, merchants evolve into capitalists. Capitalism, capitalists are the class, who create and employ the proletariat. According to the Marxist theoretician and revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, the content of Marxism was Marxs economic doctrine
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Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
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This article incorporates public domain material from the CIA World Factbook website https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html.