1.
Democratic Republic of Yemen
–
The Democratic Republic of Yemen was declared in May 1994. The new state failed to receive recognition, despite the sympathy of Saudi Arabia for its position. The secession followed several weeks of fighting began on 27 April. The civil war ended after the DRY strongholds of Mukalla and Aden fell to government forces, history of Yemen South Yemen Movement
Democratic Republic of Yemen
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Flag
2.
Soviet Union
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
Soviet Union
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Vladimir Lenin addressing a crowd with Trotsky, 1920
Soviet Union
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Flag
Soviet Union
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Stalin and
Nikolai Yezhov, head of the
NKVD. After Yezhov was executed, he was
edited out of the image.
Soviet Union
3.
Flag of South Yemen
–
The Flag of Yemen was adopted on May 22,1990, the day that North Yemen and South Yemen were unified. The flag is essentially the Arab Liberation Flag of 1952, introduced after the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 in which Arab nationalism was a dominant theme. The Arab Liberation Flag served as the inspiration for the flags of both North and South Yemen prior to unification, as well as for the current flags of Egypt, Iraq, Sudan, and Syria. According to the description, the red stands for the unity and the bloodshed of martyrs. However, the fact that the design is equivalent to an inversion of the design of the flag of the German Empire has caused some controversy. Before Yemen was unified into the present-day Republic of Yemen in 1990, the North used the flag on the right from 1927 to 1962, when it became the Yemen Arab Republic. The flag of the Yemen Arab Republic was the Arab Liberation Flag with a star in the center of the white band. The flag of the Peoples Democratic Republic of Yemen in the South was the Arab Liberation Flag with a chevron with a red star next to the hoist. Emblem of Yemen Pan-Arabism Pan-Arab colors Yemen at Flags of the World
Flag of South Yemen
–
Yemen
4.
Coat of arms of South Yemen
–
The national emblem of Yemen depicts a golden eagle with a scroll between its claws. On the scroll is written the name of the country in Arabic, the chest of the eagle contains a shield that depicts a coffee plant and the Marib Dam, with seven blue wavy stripes below. The flagstaffs on the right and left of the hold the Flag of Yemen. From 1945 to 1990, Yemen was split into North and South, the North had an emblem more similar to the present day one, and its shield has similarities with the shield of the former Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen. The South had an emblem with the pan-Arab Eagle of Saladin
Coat of arms of South Yemen
–
Coat of arms of the
Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen (1918–1962)
Coat of arms of South Yemen
–
Emblem of Yemen
5.
Aden
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Aden is a port city in Yemen, located by the eastern approach to the Red Sea, some 170 kilometres east of Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people, Adens ancient, natural harbour lies in the crater of a dormant volcano which now forms a peninsula, joined to the mainland by a low isthmus. This harbour, Front Bay, was first used by the ancient Kingdom of Awsan between the 5th and 7th centuries BC, the modern harbour is on the other side of the peninsula. Aden gives its name to the Gulf of Aden, Aden consists of a number of distinct sub-centres, Crater, the original port city, Maalla, the modern port, Tawahi, known as Steamer Point in the colonial period, and the resorts of Gold Mohur. Aden encloses the eastern side of a vast, natural harbour that comprises the modern port, the volcanic peninsula of Little Aden forms a near-mirror image, enclosing the harbour and port on the western side. Little Aden became the site of the oil refinery and tanker port, both were established and operated by British Petroleum until they were turned over to Yemeni government ownership and control in 1978. From March to July 2015, the Battle of Aden raged between Houthis and loyalists to President Hadi, water, food, and medical supplies ran short in the city. On 14 July, the Saudi Army launched an offensive to retake Aden for Hadis government, within three days the Houthis had been removed from the city. A local legend in Yemen states that Aden may be as old as human history itself, some also believe that Cain and Abel are buried somewhere in the city. The ports convenient position on the sea route between India and Europe has made Aden desirable to rulers who sought to possess it at times throughout history. The same work describes Aden as a village by the shore, there is no mention of fortification at this stage, Aden was more an island than a peninsula as the isthmus was not then so developed as it is today. Although the pre-Islamic Himyar civilization was capable of building large structures, fortifications at Mareb and other places in Yemen and the Hadhramaut make it clear that both the Himyar and the Sabean cultures were well capable of it. Thus, watch towers, since destroyed, are possible, however, the Arab historians Ibn al Mojawir and Abu Makhramah attribute the first fortification of Aden to Beni Zureea. Abu Makhramah has also included a biography of Muhammad Azim Sultan Qamarbandi Naqsh in his work. The aim seems to have been twofold, to hostile forces out and to maintain revenue by controlling the movement of goods. In its original form, some of work was relatively feeble. After 1175 AD, rebuilding in a solid form began. According to Muqaddasi, Persians formed the majority of Adens population in the 10th century, the envoys boarded three treasure ships and set sail from Sumatra to the port of Aden
Aden
–
The old town of Aden, situated in the crater of an extinct volcano (1999)
Aden
–
Aden, with Portuguese fleet. in Braun & Hogenberg.1590
Aden
–
1951
stamp depicting Steamer Point with the outside of the volcanic rim of Crater in the background
Aden
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1937 stamp of Aden: Half-anna
dhow
6.
English language
–
English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now the global lingua franca. Named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England, English is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. It is the third most common language in the world, after Mandarin. It is the most widely learned second language and a language of the United Nations, of the European Union. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of speakers of this Indo-European branch, English has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years. The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the century, are called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the King James Bible, and the start of the Great Vowel Shift. Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, modern English spread around the world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries, English is an Indo-European language, and belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages. Most closely related to English are the Frisian languages, and English, Old Saxon and its descendent Low German languages are also closely related, and sometimes Low German, English, and Frisian are grouped together as the Ingvaeonic or North Sea Germanic languages. Modern English descends from Middle English, which in turn descends from Old English, particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into a number of other English languages, including Scots and the extinct Fingallian and Forth and Bargy dialects of Ireland. English is classified as a Germanic language because it shares new language features with other Germanic languages such as Dutch, German and these shared innovations show that the languages have descended from a single common ancestor, which linguists call Proto-Germanic. Through Grimms law, the word for foot begins with /f/ in Germanic languages, English is classified as an Anglo-Frisian language because Frisian and English share other features, such as the palatalisation of consonants that were velar consonants in Proto-Germanic. The earliest form of English is called Old English or Anglo-Saxon, in the fifth century, the Anglo-Saxons settled Britain and the Romans withdrew from Britain. England and English are named after the Angles, Old English was divided into four dialects, the Anglian dialects, Mercian and Northumbrian, and the Saxon dialects, Kentish and West Saxon. Through the educational reforms of King Alfred in the century and the influence of the kingdom of Wessex. The epic poem Beowulf is written in West Saxon, and the earliest English poem, Modern English developed mainly from Mercian, but the Scots language developed from Northumbrian. A few short inscriptions from the period of Old English were written using a runic script. By the sixth century, a Latin alphabet was adopted, written with half-uncial letterforms and it included the runic letters wynn ⟨ƿ⟩ and thorn ⟨þ⟩, and the modified Latin letters eth ⟨ð⟩, and ash ⟨æ⟩
English language
–
The opening to the Old English epic poem
Beowulf,
handwritten in
half-uncial script: Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon... "Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."
English language
–
Countries of the world where English is a majority native language
English language
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Title page of Geoffrey Chaucer's
Canterbury Tales c.1400
7.
Mehri language
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Mehri or Mahri is a member of the Modern South Arabian languages, a subgroup of the Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic family. It is spoken by the Mehri people, who inhabit isolated areas of the part of Yemen and western Oman. Mehri and its sister Modern South Arabian languages were spoken in the southern Arabian Peninsula before the spread of Arabic along with Islam in the 7th century CE. It is today spoken by Mehri residents in Qatar and the United Arab Emirates. Given the dominance of Arabic in the region over the past 1400 years and it is primarily a spoken language, with little existing vernacular literature and almost no literacy in the written form among native speakers. Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani noted that the Mahra speak a tongue like foreigners. Elsewhere, Hamdani showed extensive knowledge of Arabian dialects, each of which was rated in its distance from classical Arabic, today, Mehri exists in two main dialects, Yemeni Mehri and Omani Mehri. Omani Mehri is spoken by a population and shows no significant variation within itself. Unlike other Modern South Arabian languages, Mehri emphatic consonants are not simply ejectives, the consonant inventory is as follows, Voiced obstruents, or at least voiced stops, devoice in pausa. In this position, both the voiced and emphatic stops are ejective, losing the three-way contrast, elsewhere, the emphatic and the voiced stops are pharyngealized. Emphatic fricatives have a pattern, and in non-pre-pausal position they are partially voiced. The difference in place of the laterals is not clear and it may be that the approximant is denti-alveolar, like the alveolar occlusives, and the lateral fricatives apical, or it may be that the latter are palato-alveolar or alveolo-palatal. The fricatives are typically transcribed ś, etc, /dʒ/ is only in Arabic loans. It is not clear if the rhotic is a trill or a tap, the following are the personal pronouns of Mahri, The independent pronouns can also be placed after the genitive exponent to convert them into possessive pronouns. Soqotri language Shehri language Rubin, Aaron, examples of Mehri poetry from Hadramut forum ELAR archive of Mehri language documentation materials
Mehri language
–
Mehri
8.
Soqotri language
–
It is one of the Modern South Arabian languages. Soqotri speakers live on their islands, but rarely on the Yemeni mainland, the language was, through its history, isolated from the Arabian mainland. Arabic is also spoken in a form on Socotra. The isolation of the island of Socotra has led to the Soqotri language independently developing certain phonetic characteristics absent in even the related languages of the mainland. In all the dialects of Soqotri, there is a lack of distinction between the original South Arabic interdentals θ, ð, and θˁ and the stops t, d and ṭ, e. g. Soqotri once had ejective consonants. However, ejective fricatives have largely become pharyngeal consonants as in Arabic, apart from that, the phonemic inventory is basically that of Mehri. A writing system for the Soqotri language was developed in 2014 by a Russian team led by Dr. Vitaly Naumkin following five years of work, alexander Militarev Semitic Language Tree with Soqotri modern classification Wolf Leslau, Lexique Soqotri avec comparaisons et explications étymologiques. Paris, Klincksieck 1938 Dr. Maximilian Bittner, Charakteristik der Sprache der Insel Soqotra Anzeiger der philosophisch-historischen Klasse der kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien, die Mehri - und Soqotri - Sprache. Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien, Wien, Alfred Hölder 1902 Müller D. H. Die Mehri - und Soqotri - Sprache, kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien. Wien, Alfred Hölder 1905 Müller D. H, die Mehri - und Soqotri - Sprache. Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien, Wien, Alfred Hölder 1907 Wagner, E. Syntax der Mehri-Sprache unter Berucksichtigung auch der anderen neusudara bischen Sprachen. Wagner, E. Der Dialect von Abd-al-Kuri, temethel as the Brightest Element of Soqotran Folk Poetry. RBGE Soqotra Bibliography, at RBGE and Friends of Soqotra Org. websites, Soqotri spoken Mehazelo tale fragment with Latin transcription - MP3 Soqotri spoken Two Brothers tale fragment with Latin transcription - MP3 and Soqotri folk tale text publication in CLN. A Bibliography with a list on Soqotri language at the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh website The RBGE upgraded Soqotra Bibliography up to 2009 with more language references
Soqotri language
–
Soqotri
9.
Shehri language
–
Shehri, also known as Jibbali, is a Modern South Arabian language. It is spoken by a native population inhabiting the coastal towns and in the mountains. Shehri is sometimes confused as a dialect of Arabic even by Omani Arabs, in fact, the Modern South Arabian languages belong to their own branch of the West Semitic languages. Alternative names/spellings for the language are, Jibbali, Geblet, Sheret, Šehri, Šhauri, Shahari, Jibali, Ehkili, Qarawi, Shehri is spoken along a dialect continuum that includes Western Jibbali, Central Jibbali, and Eastern Jibbali. The dialect used by the few inhabitants of Al-Hallaniyah in the Khuriya Muriya Islands is sometimes known as Baby Jibbali, like most Modern South Arabian dialect speakers in Oman and Yemen, many Shehri speakers are bilingual in local dialects of Arabic, especially the Dhofari dialect. In addition, it is primarily a language, and there is no tradition of writing or publishing in the language. The Jibbali Language of Oman, Grammar and Texts, ELAR archive of Shehri language documentation materials
Shehri language
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Shehri
10.
Modern South Arabian languages
–
The Modern South Arabian languages are spoken mainly by small populations inhabiting the Arabian Peninsula, in Yemen and Oman. Together with the modern Ethiopian Semitic languages, they form the South Semitic sub-branch of the Afro-Asiatic familys Semitic branch and they are no longer considered to be descendants of the Old South Arabian language, as was once thought, but instead nephews. Modern South Arabian languages are known for their apparent archaic Semitic features, for example, they preserve the lateral fricatives of Proto-Semitic. According to Václav Blažek, this suggests that Semitic peoples assimilated their original Cushitic neighbours to the south who did not later emigrate to the Horn of Africa. He argues that the Levant would thus have been the Proto-Afro-Asiatic Urheimat, mehri, the largest Modern South Arabian language, with more than 70,000 speakers in Yemen. In addition to these, more than 50,000 live in Oman, the population total for all countries is 135,764. Mehri people are referred to as Mahra, Soqotri, another relatively numerous example, with speakers on the island of Socotra isolated from the pressures of Arabic on the Yemeni mainland. According to the 1990 census in Yemen, the number of speakers there was 57,000, the population total for all countries is estimated at 64,000. Harsusi, 1000–2000 speakers est. in Oman, hobyót,100 speakers est. in Oman. Afroasiatic Linguistics 1/5, 93-121 [1-29 Johnstone, T. M, london, School of Oriental and African Studies. Comparative Vocabulary of Southern Arabic, Mahri, Gibbali, and Soqotri, tokyo, Institute for the Study of *Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa. Tokyo, Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, the Jibbali Language of Oman, Grammar and Texts. The Modern South Arabian Languages, by M. C. Simeone-Senelle
Modern South Arabian languages
–
Modern South Arabian
11.
Unitary state
–
The majority of states in the world have a unitary system of government. Of the 193 UN member states,165 of them are governed as unitary states, unitary states are contrasted with federal states. In a unitary state, sub-national units are created and abolished, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is an example of a unitary state. Many unitary states have no areas possessing a degree of autonomy, in such countries, sub-national regions cannot decide their own laws. Examples are the Republic of Ireland and the Kingdom of Norway, in federal states, the sub-national governments share powers with the central government as equal actors through a written constitution, to which the consent of both is required to make amendments. This means that the units have a right of existence. The United States of America is an example of a federal state, under the U. S. Constitution, powers are shared between the federal government and the states
Unitary state
–
Unitary states
12.
One-party
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All other parties are either outlawed or allowed to take only a limited and controlled participation in elections. One-party states explain themselves through various methods, most often, proponents of a one-party state argue that the existence of separate parties runs counter to national unity. Others argue that the one party is the vanguard of the people, the Soviet government argued that multiple parties represented the class struggle, which was absent in Soviet society, and so the Soviet Union only had one party, the Communist Party. Some one-party states only outlaw opposition parties, while allowing allied parties to exist as part of a permanent coalition such as a popular front. However, these parties are largely or completely subservient to the ruling party, examples of this are the Peoples Republic of China under the United Front, or the National Front in former East Germany. Others may allow non-party members to run for seats, as was the case with Taiwans Tangwai movement in the 1970s and 1980s. Within their own countries, dominant parties ruling over one-party states are referred to simply as the Party. One-party systems often arise from decolonization because one party has had a dominant role in liberation or in independence struggles. One-party states are often, but not always, considered to be authoritarian or totalitarian, however, not all authoritarian or totalitarian states operate based on one-party rule. Some, especially absolute monarchies and certain military dictatorships, have all political parties illegal. The term communist state is used in the West to apply to states in which the ruling party subscribes to a form of Marxism–Leninism. While the role of the Communist Party is enshrined in the constitution, no party is permitted to campaign or run candidates for election, the party was conceived by the original Black American settlers and their descendants who referred to themselves as Americo-Liberians. Initially, its ideology was influenced by that of the Whig Party in the United States. Over time it developed into a powerful Masonic Order that ruled every aspect of Liberian society for well over a century until it was overthrown in 1980, while the True Whig Party still exists today, its influence has substantially declined
One-party
–
Presidential republics with a semi-presidential system.
13.
Socialist state
–
A socialist state or socialist republic refers to any state that is constitutionally dedicated to the establishment of socialism. Aside from the Communist states, a number of states have described their orientation as socialist in their constitutions. In such cases, the system and machinery of government is not specifically structured to pursue the development of socialism. The concept of a socialist state is related to state socialism. Specifically, the state would become an entity for production as opposed to a mechanism for political control. According to Friedrich Engels, Saint-Simon foreshadowed the classical Marxist notion of the development of the state in a socialist society, karl Marx understood the state to be an instrument of the class rule, dominated by the interests of the ruling class in any mode of production. This transitional stage would involve working-class interests dominating government policy, in the manner that capitalist-class interests dominate government policy under capitalism. Karl Marx described the Paris Commune as the prototype for a government of the future. Friedrich Engels noted that all officials, high or low, were only the wages received by other workers. In this way an effective barrier to place-hunting and careerism was set up, such a state would be a temporary affair, Engels argued. A new generation, he suggested, brought up in new and free social conditions, the Leninist conception of a socialist state is tied to Vladimir Lenins theory of the revolutionary party and organizational principles of democratic centralism. These ideas were adopted by Vladimir Lenin in 1917 just prior to the October Revolution in Russia and published in The State and Revolution, a central text for many Marxists. Vladimir Lenin argued that as socialism is replaced by communism, the state would wither away as strong centralized control progressively reduces as local communities gain more empowerment, as he put succinctly, So long as the state exists there is no freedom. When there is freedom, there will be no state, states run by Communist parties that adhere to Marxism–Leninism, or some variation thereof, refer to themselves as socialist states. The Soviet Union was the first to proclaim itself a socialist state in its 1936 Constitution, another well-known example is the Peoples Republic of China, which proclaims itself to be a socialist state in its 1982 Constitution of the Peoples Republic of China. In the West, such states are known as communist states. This often includes at least the commanding heights of the economy to be nationalized, usually operated according to a plan of production, at least in the major production and social spheres. These Communist states often dont claim to have achieved socialism in their countries, rather, the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea used to be a Marxist–Leninist state
Socialist state
–
Symbolics on the banknotes of socialist states (V.I.
Lenin in the Soviet note and "a worker with a female co-operative farmer" on the Czechoslovak one).
14.
General Secretary of the Yemeni Socialist Party
–
In May 1990, South Yemen unified with the Yemen Arab Republic to form the united Republic of Yemen. During the May–July 1994 Civil War, South Yemen seceded from the united Yemen and established the short-lived Democratic Republic of Yemen. President of Yemen Prime Minister of Yemen Head of state I^ II^ III^ IV^ V ^ VI ^ Head of government I^ II^ III^ IV^ Head of parliament Head of party I^ II^ III^ Notes Bibliography Halliday, revolution and Foreign Policy, The Case of South Yemen, 1967-1987
General Secretary of the Yemeni Socialist Party
General Secretary of the Yemeni Socialist Party
–
Coat of arms
General Secretary of the Yemeni Socialist Party
General Secretary of the Yemeni Socialist Party
15.
Abdul Fattah Ismail
–
Abd al-Fattah Ismail Ali Al-Jawfi was the de facto leader of South Yemen from 1969 to 1980. He served as Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Peoples Council and founder, chief ideologue and he was summarily executed on 13 January 1986 along with three others, allegedly for plotting to overthrow Ali Nasir Muhammads regime. Born in July 1939 in the Hugariah district of North Yemen, he was educated in Aden, in 1961 he became a school teacher in one of the Aden districts, and at the same time continuing political activity. He was a co-founder of the National Front for the Liberation of South Yemen and he was elected to the NLF executive in the first, second and third NLF congresses, 1965-67. After South Yemen gained independence in 1967 he was appointed Minister of Culture, in the fourth NLF congress he was instrumental in determining the progressive line of the revolution. But in March 1968 he was arrested by the wing of the NLF and went into exile, where he drafted the program for Accomplishing National Democratic Liberation. He undertook a role in the consolidation of left wing of NLF which subsequently regained power in the 22 June 1969 Correction Step. Subsequent to the Correction Step Ismail was elected Secretary General of the NLF Central Committee and he was also elected a member of the Presidium of the Supreme Peoples Council. In 1970 he was elected Chairman of Presidium and he undertook a leading role in the dialogue between NLF and other left parties in south Yemen leading to the formation of the Yemeni Socialist Party. He was elected Secretary General of the YSP at the first party congress in October 1978, in 1980 he resigned from all his posts for health reasons and was succeeded by Ali Nasir Muhammad. Fighting lasted for more than a month and resulted in thousands of casualties, Ali Nasirs ouster and he was apparently killed when naval forces loyal to Ali Nasir shelled Aden
Abdul Fattah Ismail
–
Abdul Fattah Ismail
16.
Ali Nasir Muhammad
–
Ali Nasir Muhammad Husani was twice president of South Yemen and once the Prime Minister. He served as the Prime Minister from 2 August 1971 until 14 February 1985, in April 1980, South Yemeni president Abdul Fattah Ismail resigned and moved to Moscow. His successor was Ali Nasir Muhammad who took a less interventionist stance toward both North Yemen and neighbouring Oman, on January 13,1986, a violent struggle began in Aden between Ali Nasirs supporters and supporters of the returned Ismail. Fighting lasted for more than a month and resulted in thousands of casualties, Ali Nasirs ouster, muhammads term had lasted from 21 April 1980 to 24 January 1986. Some 60,000 people, including the deposed Ali Nasir and he was succeeded by Haidar Abu Bakr al-Attas. In 1978, Ali Nasir Muhammad overthrew and executed Rubai Ali, after a battle which took place in Almodowar Palace, located in At-Tawahi, Aden. Mohammed was a member of the National Front, ar. الجبهة القومية as well as the Yemeni Socialist Party after the YSP was formed from the UPONF in October 1978, the southern secession was repressed in July 1994 after the surrender of Aden and Mukalla strongholds. This council is opposed by the Joint Meeting Parties, the opposition coalition, which also supports Salehs removal from power. In February 2015, there were reports that Muhammad was being considered as a prospective interim leader of a presidential council after the collapse of the government. *Russian Translation - Russian TV political detective serial, the first four scenes are giving the version of Aden 1986 civil war between Ali Nasir Muhammad and the opposition in YSP
Ali Nasir Muhammad
–
Nasir (right) in
East Berlin, 1978
17.
President of South Yemen
–
In May 1990, South Yemen unified with the Yemen Arab Republic to form the united Republic of Yemen. During the May–July 1994 Civil War, South Yemen seceded from the united Yemen and established the short-lived Democratic Republic of Yemen. President of Yemen Prime Minister of Yemen Head of state I^ II^ III^ IV^ V ^ VI ^ Head of government I^ II^ III^ IV^ Head of parliament Head of party I^ II^ III^ Notes Bibliography Halliday, revolution and Foreign Policy, The Case of South Yemen, 1967-1987
President of South Yemen
President of South Yemen
–
Coat of arms
President of South Yemen
President of South Yemen
18.
Qahtan al-Shaabi
–
Qahtan Muhammad al-Shaabi was the first President of the Peoples Republic of South Yemen. On 30 November 1967, the protectorate of South Arabia was declared independent as the Peoples Republic of South Yemen with al-Shaabi as President, Al-Shaabi held the presidency until 22 June 1969, when a hard-line Marxist group from within his own NLF seized control. He was replaced by Salim Rubai Ali and jailed, then placed under house arrest until the 1970s, Al-Shaabi was originally an agricultural officer from Lahej, who fled to Cairo in 1958. In 1962, he was announced the head of a National Liberation Army, formed in Egypt, upon independence in 1967, he was the best-known NLF leader and the only one over 40 years old. The government declared in 1990 that the deposition was in the absence of true democracy, qahtans son Najeeb Qahtan Al-Shaabi ran unsuccessfully against President Ali Abdullah Saleh in the 1999 Yemeni presidential election
Qahtan al-Shaabi
–
Qahtan Muhammad al-Shaabi
19.
Prime Minister of South Yemen
–
In May 1990, South Yemen unified with the Yemen Arab Republic to form the united Republic of Yemen. During the May–July 1994 Civil War, South Yemen seceded from the united Yemen and established the short-lived Democratic Republic of Yemen. President of Yemen Prime Minister of Yemen Head of state I^ II^ III^ IV^ V ^ VI ^ Head of government I^ II^ III^ IV^ Head of parliament Head of party I^ II^ III^ Notes Bibliography Halliday, revolution and Foreign Policy, The Case of South Yemen, 1967-1987
Prime Minister of South Yemen
Prime Minister of South Yemen
–
Coat of arms
Prime Minister of South Yemen
Prime Minister of South Yemen
20.
Cold War
–
The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
Cold War
–
Photograph of the
Berlin Wall taken from the West side. The Wall was built in 1961 to prevent East Germans from fleeing and to stop an economically disastrous drain of workers. It was a symbol of the Cold War and its fall in 1989 marked the approaching end of the war.
Cold War
–
Allied troops in
Vladivostok, August 1918, during the
Allied intervention in the
Russian Civil War.
Cold War
–
The "
Big Three " at the Yalta Conference:
Winston Churchill,
Franklin D. Roosevelt and
Joseph Stalin, 1945.
21.
United Nations member states
–
The United Nations member states are the 193 sovereign states that are members of the United Nations and have equal representation in the UN General Assembly. The UN is the worlds largest intergovernmental organization, ahead of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the admission of any such state to membership in the United Nations will be effected by a decision of the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council. A recommendation for admission from the Security Council requires affirmative votes from at least nine of the fifteen members. The Security Councils recommendation must then be approved in the General Assembly by a majority vote. In principle, only states can become UN members. Although five members were not sovereign when they joined the UN and this is because the UN does not consider them to possess sovereignty, mainly due to the lack of international recognition or due to opposition from one of the permanent members. Observers are generally intergovernmental organizations and international organizations and entities whose statehood or sovereignty is not precisely defined, the other two original members, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, had been dissolved and their memberships in the UN not continued from 1992 by any one successor state. India was under British colonial rule, until gaining independence in 1947. The Philippines was a commonwealth with the United States, until gaining independence in 1946. New Zealand, while de facto sovereign at that time, only gained full capacity to enter into relations with states in 1947 when it passed the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act. This occurred 16 years after the British Parliament passed the Statute of Westminster Act in 1931 that recognised New Zealands autonomy, if judged by the Montevideo Convention criteria, New Zealand did not achieve full de jure statehood until 1947. The current members and their dates of admission are listed below with their official designations used by the United Nations, the member states can be sorted by their official designations and dates of admission by clicking on the buttons in the header of the columns. See related sections on former members by clicking on the links in the column See also, original members are listed with blue background. Both sides rejected compromise proposals to both states to participate in the UN, based on the One-China policy. By the 1970s, a shift had occurred in diplomatic circles. This effectively transferred the seat of China in the UN, including its permanent seat on the Security Council, from the ROC to the PRC, from the United Nations perspective the Republic of China is not a former member. No UN member was expelled in 1971, rather, the credentials of one Chinese delegation were rejected and the credentials of another Chinese delegation were accepted. In addition to losing its seat in the UN, the UN Secretary-General concluded from the resolution that the General Assembly considered Taiwan to be a province of China
United Nations member states
–
Flags of the member states of the United Nations, in front of the
Palace of Nations (
Geneva,
Switzerland). Since 2015, the flags of the two
non-member observer states are raised alongside those of the 193 member states.
United Nations member states
–
Map of the United Nations (UN) member states, with their territories (including
dependent territories) recognized by the UN in blue
United Nations member states
–
The presidency of
Ma Ying-jeou saw the first participation of the
Republic of China on a United Nations body in almost 40 years.
United Nations member states
–
Egyptian president
Gamal Abdel Nasser (seated right) and Syrian president
Shukri al-Quwatli sign the accord to form the
United Arab Republic in 1958. The short-lived political union briefly represented both states and was used as the name of
Egypt following
Syria 's withdrawal in 1961.
22.
Unification of Yemen
–
Yemeni unification took place on May 22,1990, when the area of the Peoples Democratic Republic of Yemen was united with the Yemen Arab Republic, forming the Republic of Yemen. Unlike East and West Germany, Communist and Nationalist China, North and South Korea, or North and South Vietnam, following the North Yemen Civil War, the north established a republican government that included tribal representatives. It enjoyed modest oil revenues and remittances from its citizens working in the oil-rich Arab states of the Persian Gulf and its population in the 1980s was estimated at 12 million as opposed to 3 million in South Yemen. South Yemen developed as a Marxist, mostly secular society ruled first by the National Liberation Front, the only avowedly Marxist nation in the Middle East, South Yemen received significant foreign aid and other assistance from the USSR. In October 1972, fighting erupted between north and south, North Yemen was supplied by Saudi Arabia while South Yemen was supplied by the USSR. Fighting was short-lived and the led to the October 28,1972 Cairo Agreement. Fighting broke out again in February and March 1979, with South Yemen allegedly supplying aid to rebels in the north through the National Democratic Front, Southern forces made it as far as the city of Taizz before withdrawing. The same month, they formed the Yemeni Company for Investment in Mineral, the Republic of Yemen was declared on 22 May 1990. Ali Abdullah Saleh of the north became Head of State, a 30-month transitional period for completing the unification of the two political and economic systems was set. A presidential council was elected by the 26-member Yemen Arab Republic advisory council. The presidential council appointed a Prime Minister, who formed a Cabinet, there was also a 301-seat provisional unified parliament, consisting of 159 members from the north,111 members from the south, and 31 independent members appointed by the chairman of the council. A unity constitution was agreed upon in May 1990 and ratified by the populace in May 1991 and it affirmed Yemens commitment to free elections, a multiparty political system, the right to own private property, equality under the law, and respect of basic human rights. Parliamentary elections were held on April 27,1993, International groups assisted in the organization of the elections and observed actual balloting. The resulting Parliament included 143 General Peoples Congress,69 Yemeni Socialist Party,63 Islaah,6 Baathists,3 Nasserist Unionist Peoples Organisation,2 Al Haq, the new parliament represented the North strongly. The YSP, though it had won the most seats in voting in the south, was considered a minor part of the new coalition government. The head of Islaah, Abdullah ibn Husayn al-Ahmar, became the speaker of Parliament, Islaah was invited into the ruling coalition, and the presidential council was altered to include one Islaah member. The repatriation of these Yemenis immediately increased the population by 7%. Haidar Abu Bakr al-Attas, the former Southern Prime Minister continued to serve as the Yemens Prime Minister, continuous negotiations between northern and southern leaders resulted in the signing of the document of pledge and accord in Amman, Jordan on February 20,1994
Unification of Yemen
–
North Yemen (in orange) and South Yemen (in blue) before 1990.
23.
List of countries by population
–
This is a list of countries and dependent territories by population. For instance, the United Kingdom is considered as a single entity while the constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands are considered separately, in addition, this list includes certain states with limited recognition not found in ISO 3166-1. The population figures do not reflect the practice of countries that report significantly different populations of citizens domestically, some countries, notably Thailand, do not report total population, exclusively counting citizens, for total populations an international agency must issue an estimate. Also given in percent is each countrys population compared to the population of the world, figures used in this chart are based on the most up to date estimate or projections by the national census authority where available, and are usually rounded off. Where updated national data are not available, figures are based on the projections for 2016 by the Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Because the compiled figures are not collected at the time in every country, or at the same level of accuracy. Furthermore, the addition of figures from all countries may not equal the world total, a handful of nations have not conducted a census in over 30 years, providing high error margin estimates only. Areas that form parts of sovereign states, such as the countries of the United Kingdom, are counted as part of the sovereign states concerned. Note, All dependent territories or constituent countries that are parts of states are shown in italics
List of countries by population
–
A map of world population in 2014
24.
South Yemeni dinar
–
The dinar was the currency of South Arabia and then South Yemen between 1965 and 1990. It was subdivided into 1000 fils, after Yemens monetary unification on 1 July 1990, it was one of the two official currencies used in Yemen Republic until 11 June 1996. The dinar was introduced in 1965 as the South Arabian Dinar, replacing the East African shilling at a rate of 1 dinar =20 shillings and it was renamed the South Yemeni dinar after the Aden Protectorate became independent in 1967 as the South Yemen. The South Yemeni dinar was replaced by the following unification with North Yemen. The exchange rate was 1 dinar =26 rial, Dinar banknotes remained legal tender until 1996. For a wider history surrounding currency in the region, see The History of British Currency in the Middle East, in 1965, coins were introduced for South Arabia in denominations of 1,5,25 and 50 fils. The 1 fils was struck in aluminium, the 5 fils in bronze, in 1971, coins were issued in the name of Democratic Yemen, changing to the Peoples democratic Republic of Yemen in 1973. That year, aluminium 2½ fils were introduced, followed by aluminium 10 fils, the 10 fils was scalloped shaped whilst the 100 fils was octagonal. On 1 April 1965, the South Arabian Currency Authority introduced notes in denominations of 250 and 500 fils, a 10-dinar note was issued on 1 July 1967. Article on the banknotes of South Yemen
South Yemeni dinar
–
10 fils
South Yemeni dinar
South Yemeni dinar
South Yemeni dinar
–
50 fils
25.
List of country calling codes
–
Country calling codes or country dial in codes are telephone dialing prefixes for the member countries of the International Telecommunication Union. They are defined by the ITU-T in standards E.123, the prefixes enable international direct dialing, and are also referred to as international subscriber dialing codes. Country codes are a component of the telephone numbering plan. Country codes are dialed before the telephone number. For example, the call prefix in all countries belonging to the North American Numbering Plan is 011. On GSM networks, the prefix may automatically be inserted when the user prefixes a dialed number with the plus sign, Country calling codes are prefix codes, hence, they can be organized as a tree. In each row of the table below, the country codes given in the left-most column share the same first digit, while there is a general geographic grouping to the zones, some exceptions exist for political and historical reasons. Thus, the geographical indicators below are approximations only, countries within NANP administered areas are assigned area codes as if they were all within one country. The codes below in format +1 XXX represent area code XXX within the +1 NANP zone – not a country code. Small countries, such as Iceland, were assigned three-digit codes, since the 1980s, all new assignments have been three-digit regardless of countries’ populations.164 assigned country codes as of 15 November 2016. List of ITU-T Recommendation E.164 Dialling Procedures as of 15 December 2011, complement to Recommendation ITU-T E.164 - List of Recommendation ITU-T E.164 Assigned Country Codes. Telephone and Internet Country Codes in 10 Languages
List of country calling codes
–
Worldwide distribution of country calling codes colored by first digit
26.
Federation of South Arabia
–
The Federation of South Arabia was an organization of states under British protection in what would become South Yemen. It was formed on 4 April 1962 from the 15 protected states of the Federation of Arab Emirates of the South, on 18 January 1963 it was merged with the Crown colony of Aden. In June 1964, the Upper Aulaqi Sultanate was added for a total of 17 states, a team was sent to the 1966 Commonwealth Games in Kingston, Jamaica. The Federation was abolished when it gained independence along with the Protectorate of South Arabia as the Peoples Democratic Republic of Yemen on 30 November 1967. Most of its issues were part of the omnibus issues common to all the Commonwealth territories, but it did issue its own definitive stamps on 1 April 1965. The set of 14 included 10 values, from 5 to 75 fils, each depicting the arms of the Federation in a colour, while the top four values. The stamps referred to above are listed in the Scott Standard Postage Stamp Catalog. A number of stamps have also been issued and are listed in Stanley Gibbons. It is possible, or even likely, that some of the stamps of South Arabia were not issued primarily for postal use, united Nations Security Council Resolution 188 Paul Dresch. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press,2000
Federation of South Arabia
–
Location of the Federation of South Arabia on the
Arabian Peninsula.
Federation of South Arabia
–
Flag
Federation of South Arabia
–
Map showing both the Federation of South Arabia and the Protectorate of South Arabia.
Federation of South Arabia
–
Two values of the 1965 definitives used at Aden
27.
Protectorate of South Arabia
–
The Protectorate of South Arabia was a grouping of 4 states located at the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula under treaties of protection with Britain. The area of the former protectorate is now part of the Republic of Yemen, already before the opening of the Suez Canal, industrial Britain with its rapidly expanding economy, needed improved communication with British India. The coastal plains of the peninsula had been devastated earlier in the 19th century by Wahhabi puritan Muslims from Central Arabia followed by an Egyptian invasion. The Aden Protectorate was established in 1869, the year of the opening of the Suez Canal which heralded a new era of trade. The Protectorate of South Arabia was dissolved on 30 November 1967 and its constituent states quickly collapsed, the territory was absorbed into the newly independent Peoples Republic of South Yemen, which became part of the Republic of Yemen in 1990. South Yemen Official Website of the Al-Quaiti Royal Family of Hadhramaut
Protectorate of South Arabia
–
Map of the Protectorate and the
Federation of South Arabia.
28.
Yemen
–
Yemen, officially known as the Republic of Yemen, is an Arab country in Western Asia, occupying South Arabia, the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula. Yemen is the second-largest country in the peninsula, occupying 527,970 km2, the coastline stretches for about 2,000 km. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the north, the Red Sea to the west, the Gulf of Aden and Arabian Sea to the south, although Yemens constitutionally stated capital is the city of Sanaa, the city has been under rebel control since February 2015. Because of this, Yemens capital has been relocated to the port city of Aden. Yemens territory includes more than 200 islands, the largest of these is Socotra, Yemen was the home of the Sabaeans, a trading state that flourished for over a thousand years and probably also included parts of modern-day Ethiopia and Eritrea. In 275 AD, the region came under the rule of the later Jewish-influenced Himyarite Kingdom, Christianity arrived in the fourth century, whereas Judaism and local paganism were already established. Islam spread quickly in the century and Yemenite troops were crucial in the expansion of the early Islamic conquests. Administration of Yemen has long been notoriously difficult, several dynasties emerged from the ninth to 16th centuries, the Rasulid dynasty being the strongest and most prosperous. The country was divided between the Ottoman and British empires in the twentieth century. The Zaydi Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen was established after World War I in North Yemen before the creation of the Yemen Arab Republic in 1962, South Yemen remained a British protectorate known as the Aden Protectorate until 1967 when it became an independent state and later, a Marxist state. The two Yemeni states united to form the modern republic of Yemen in 1990, Yemen is a developing country, and the poorest country in the Middle East. Under the rule of President Ali Abdullah Saleh, Yemen was described as a kleptocracy, according to the 2009 international corruption Perception Index by Transparency International, Yemen ranked 164 out of 182 countries surveyed. President Saleh stepped down and the powers of the presidency were transferred to Vice President Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi, the transitional process was disrupted by conflicts between the Houthis and al-Islah, as well as the al-Qaeda insurgency. In September 2014, the Houthis took over Sanaa, later declaring themselves in control of the government in a coup détat, since then, a Saudi-led intervention has taken place, however, it could not stop the civil war. Instead, the Saudis and the others have destroyed some hospitals, schools and homes, Yemen was mentioned in Old South Arabian inscriptions as Yamnat. In Arabic literature, the term includes much greater territory than that of the republic of Yemen. It stretches from the northern Asir Region in southwestern Saudi Arabia to Dhofar Governorate in southern Oman, one etymology derives Yemen from yumn, meaning felicity, as much of the country is fertile. The Romans called it Arabia Felix, as opposed to Arabia Deserta, al-Yaman significantly plays on the notion of the land to the right, when in Mecca facing the dawn, complementary to Al-Sham, the Land to the Left, referring to the Levant
Yemen
–
Sabaean gravestone of a woman holding a stylized sheaf of wheat, a symbol of fertility in ancient Yemen
Yemen
–
Flag
Yemen
–
A funerary
stela featuring a musical scene, 1st century AD
Yemen
–
Himyarite King Dhamar Ali Yahbur II
29.
ISO 3166-1
–
The official name of the standard is Codes for the representation of names of countries and their subdivisions – Part 1, Country codes. ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 – three-letter country codes which allow a visual association between the codes and the country names than the alpha-2 codes. The alphabetic country codes were first included in ISO3166 in 1974, as a widely used international standard, ISO 3166-1 is implemented in other standards and used by international organizations to allow facilitation of the exchange of goods and information. However, it is not the standard for country codes. Other country codes used by international organizations are partly or totally incompatible with ISO 3166-1. Currently 249 countries, territories, or areas of geographical interest are assigned codes in ISO 3166-1. Once a country name or territory name appears in either of two sources, it will be added to ISO 3166-1 by default. The ISO 3166/MA may reserve code elements for other entities that do not qualify for inclusion based on the above criteria, ISO 3166-1 is published officially in both English and French. For this reason, common components of names like Republic, Kingdom, United. As a consequence, for example, the United Kingdom is officially assigned the alpha-2 code GB rather than UK, based on its official name United Kingdom of Great Britain, some codes are chosen based on the native names of the countries. For example, Germany is assigned the alpha-2 code DE, based on its native name Deutschland, the following is a complete ISO 3166-1 encoding list of the countries which are assigned official codes. It is listed in order by the English short country name used by the ISO 3166/MA. Note, Each countrys alpha-2 code is linked to information about the assignment of its code elements. Besides the officially assigned codes, code elements may be expanded by using either reserved codes or user-assigned codes. Reserved code elements are codes which have become obsolete, or are required in order to enable a user application of the standard. Codes are usually reserved for countries, overseas territories, international organizations. A country is assigned new ISO 3166-1 codes if it changes its name or its territorial boundaries. In general, new codes are assigned if a country changes a significant part of its name
ISO 3166-1
–
The
International Organization for Standardization uses the country names chosen by the
United Nations, some of which are disputed.
30.
Arabic language
–
Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
Arabic language
–
The Galland Manuscript of
One Thousand and One Nights, 14th century
Arabic language
–
al-ʿArabiyyah in written Arabic (
Naskh script)
Arabic language
–
Bilingual traffic sign in
Qatar.
Arabic language
–
Examples of how the Arabic root and form system works.
31.
South Arabian Federation
–
The Federation of South Arabia was an organization of states under British protection in what would become South Yemen. It was formed on 4 April 1962 from the 15 protected states of the Federation of Arab Emirates of the South, on 18 January 1963 it was merged with the Crown colony of Aden. In June 1964, the Upper Aulaqi Sultanate was added for a total of 17 states, a team was sent to the 1966 Commonwealth Games in Kingston, Jamaica. The Federation was abolished when it gained independence along with the Protectorate of South Arabia as the Peoples Democratic Republic of Yemen on 30 November 1967. Most of its issues were part of the omnibus issues common to all the Commonwealth territories, but it did issue its own definitive stamps on 1 April 1965. The set of 14 included 10 values, from 5 to 75 fils, each depicting the arms of the Federation in a colour, while the top four values. The stamps referred to above are listed in the Scott Standard Postage Stamp Catalog. A number of stamps have also been issued and are listed in Stanley Gibbons. It is possible, or even likely, that some of the stamps of South Arabia were not issued primarily for postal use, united Nations Security Council Resolution 188 Paul Dresch. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press,2000
South Arabian Federation
–
Location of the Federation of South Arabia on the
Arabian Peninsula.
South Arabian Federation
–
Flag
South Arabian Federation
–
Map showing both the Federation of South Arabia and the Protectorate of South Arabia.
South Arabian Federation
–
Two values of the 1965 definitives used at Aden
32.
Socotra
–
Socotra, also spelled Soqotra, is an island and a small archipelago of four islands in the Arabian Sea. The territory is part of Yemen, and had long been a subdivision of the Aden Governorate, in 2004, it became attached to the Hadhramaut Governorate, which is much closer to the island than Aden. In 2013, the archipelago became its own governorate, the Soqatra Governorate, the island of Socotra constitutes around 95% of the landmass of the archipelago. It lies some 240 kilometres east of the Horn of Africa and 380 kilometres south of the Arabian Peninsula, the island is very isolated and a third of its plant life is found nowhere else on the planet. It has been described as the most alien-looking place on Earth, the island measures 132 kilometres in length and 49.7 kilometres in width. In the notes to his translation of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, huntingford remarks that the name Suqotra is not Greek in origin, but from the Sanskrit dvīpa sukhadhara. Another posited origin of the name is the Arabic suq meaning market, there was initially an Oldowan culture in Socotra. Oldowan stone tools were found in the area around Hadibo by V. A, zhukov, a member of the Russian Complex Expedition in 2008. Socotra appears as Dioskouridou in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, in 2001 a group of Belgian speleologists of the Socotra Karst Project investigated a cave on the island Socotra. There, they came across a number of inscriptions, drawings. Further investigation showed that these had left by sailors who visited the island between the 1st century BC and the 6th century AD. Most of the texts are written in the Indian Brāhmī script and this corpus of nearly 250 texts and drawings thus constitutes one of the main sources for the investigation of Indian Ocean trade networks in that time period. A local tradition holds that the inhabitants were converted to Christianity by Thomas the Apostle in AD52, in the 10th century, the Arab geographer Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani stated that in his time most of the inhabitants were Christians. They were Nestorians but also practised ancient magic rituals despite the warnings of their archbishop and he reported in a letter home that the tribesmen, due to lack of missionaries, had only retained a faint knowledge of Christianity. In 1507, a Portuguese fleet commanded by Tristão da Cunha with Afonso de Albuquerque landed at the capital of Suq. Their objective was to set a base in a place on the route to India. Tomás Fernandes started to build a fortress at Suq, the Forte de São Miguel de Socotorá, however, the infertility of the land led to famine and sickness in the garrison. Thus the Portuguese abandoned the island four years later, as it was not advantageous as a base, the islands passed under the control of the Mahra sultans in 1511, and its inhabitants were completely Islamized during their rule
Socotra
–
Landsat view over Socotra
Socotra
–
Halah Cave (كهف حالة) east of the island.
Stalagmites and
stalactites show how high it can reach compared to the 1.7 metres (5.6 ft) man with the torch. It is several hundred metres deep, with total darkness.
Socotra
–
1893 map of the
Bombay Presidency including
Aden Province and Socotra.
Socotra
–
Endemic tree species
Dracaena cinnabari
33.
Yemen Arab Republic
–
The Yemen Arab Republic, also known as North Yemen or Yemen, was a country from 1962 to 1990 in the northwestern part of what is now Yemen. It united with the Peoples Democratic Republic of Yemen, commonly known as South Yemen, on May 22,1990, following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in 1918 after the Great War, northern Yemen became an independent state as the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen. This coup détat marked the beginning of the North Yemen Civil War that pitted YAR troops, assisted by the United Arab Republic, against Badrs royalist forces, supported by Saudi Arabia and Jordan. Conflict continued periodically until 1967, when Egyptian troops were withdrawn to join the conflict of the Six-Day War, by 1968, following a final royalist siege of Sanaa, most of the opposing leaders reached a reconciliation. Saudi Arabia recognized the Republic in 1970, in 1972 the two nations declared that unification would eventually occur. However, these plans were put on hold in 1979, the goal of unity was reaffirmed by the northern and southern heads of state during a summit meeting in Kuwait in March 1979. In May 1988, the YAR and PDRY governments came to an understanding that considerably reduced tensions, official Yemeni unification took place on May 22,1990, with a planned, 30-month process, scheduled for completion in November 1992. The first stamp bearing the inscription Yemen Republic was issued in October 1990, while government ministries proceeded to merge, both currencies remained valid until 11 June 1996. A civil war in 1994 delayed the completion of the final merger, history of Yemen Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen President of North Yemen Prime Minister of North Yemen United Nations Security Council Resolution 188
Yemen Arab Republic
–
Flag
34.
1994 civil war in Yemen
–
The May–July 1994 civil war in Yemen was a civil conflict waged between the two Yemeni forces of the pro-union northern and the socialist separatist southern Yemeni states and their supporters. The war resulted in the defeat of the armed forces, the reunification of Yemen. The Republic of Yemen was declared on 22 May 1990 with Ali Abdullah Saleh becoming President, greater Yemen had been politically united for the first time in centuries. A unification of the two political and economic systems was to take place over 30 months. In that time, a parliament was formed and a unity constitution was agreed upon. Elections were held in April 1993, Vice President Ali Salim Al-Beidh withdrew to Aden in August 1993 and said he would not return to the government until his grievances were addressed. These included northern violence against his Yemeni Socialist Party, as well as the marginalization of the south. Negotiations to end the political deadlock dragged on into 1994, the government of Prime Minister Haydar Abu Bakr Al-Attas, the former PDRY Prime Minister, became ineffective due to political infighting. An accord between northern and southern leaders was signed in Amman, Jordan on 20 February 1994, during these tensions, both the northern and southern armies–which had never integrated–gathered on their respective frontiers. On 27 April, a tank battle erupted in Amran. Both sides accused the other of starting it, on 4 May, the southern air force bombed Sana and other areas in the north, the northern air force responded by bombing Aden. President Saleh declared a 30-day state of emergency, and foreign nationals began evacuating the country, Vice President al-Beidh was officially dismissed. South Yemen also fired Scud missiles into Sana, killing dozens of civilians, Prime Minister Haidar Abu Bakr al-Attas was dismissed on May 10 after appealing for outside forces to help end the war. Southern leaders seceded and declared the Democratic Republic of Yemen on 21 May 1994, no international government recognized the DRY. In mid-May, northern forces began a push toward Aden, the key city of Ataq, which allowed access to the countrys oil fields, was seized on May 24. The United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 924 calling for an end to the fighting, a cease-fire was called on 6 June, but lasted only six hours, concurrent talks to end the fighting in Cairo collapsed as well. The north entered Aden on 4 July, supporters of Ali Nasir Muhammad greatly assisted military operations against the secessionists and Aden was captured on 7 July 1994. Most resistance quickly collapsed and top military and political leaders fled into exile
1994 civil war in Yemen
–
Map of Yemen
35.
History of Yemen
–
Yemen is one of the oldest centers of civilization in the Near East. Yemenis had developed the South Arabian alphabet by the 12th to 8th centuries BC, Islam arrived in AD630, and Yemen became part of the Muslim realm. With its long sea border between early civilizations, Yemen has long existed at a crossroads of cultures with a location in terms of trade on the west of the Arabian Peninsula. Large settlements for their era existed in the mountains of northern Yemen as early as 5000 BC, little is known about ancient Yemen and how exactly it transitioned from nascent Bronze Age civilizations to more trade-focussed caravan kingdoms. This may be due to social or official discouragement of research into pre-Islamic civilizations in Arabia, the Sabaean Kingdom came into existence from at least the eleventh century BC. There were four kingdoms or tribal confederations in South Arabia, Saba, Hadramout, Qataban. Saba is believed to be biblical Sheba and was the most prominent federation, the Sabaean rulers adopted the title Mukarrib generally thought to mean unifier, or a priest-king. The role of the Mukarrib was to bring the various tribes under the kingdom, the Sabaens built the Great Dam of Marib around 940 BC. The dam was built to withstand the seasonal flash floods surging down the valley, between 700 and 680 BC, the Kingdom of Awsan dominated Aden and its surroundings. Sabaean Mukarrib Karibil Watar I changed his title to that of a king. Lack of water in the Arabian Peninsula prevented the Sabaeans from unifying the entire peninsula, instead, they established various colonies to control trade routes. Evidence of Sabaean influence is found in northern Ethiopia, where the South Arabian alphabet religion and pantheon, the Sabaean created a sense of identity through their religion. They worshipped El-Maqah and believed themselves to be his children, for centuries, the Sabaeans controlled outbound trade across the Bab-el-Mandeb, a strait separating the Arabian Peninsula from the Horn of Africa and the Red Sea from the Indian Ocean. By the 3rd century BC, Qataban, Hadramout and Main became independent from Saba, minaean rule stretched as far as Dedan, with their capital at Baraqish. The Sabaeans regained their control over Main after the collapse of Qataban in 50 BC, by the time of the Roman expedition to Arabia Felix in 25 BC, the Sabaeans were once again the dominating power in Southern Arabia. Aelius Gallus was ordered to lead a campaign to establish Roman dominance over the Sabaeans. The Romans had a vague and contradictory geographical knowledge about Arabia Felix or Yemen, the Roman army of ten thousand men was annihilated before Marib. Strabos close relationship with Aelius Gallus led him to attempt to justify his friends defeat in his writings and it took the Romans six months to reach Marib and sixty days to return to Egypt
History of Yemen
–
Sabaean inscription addressed to the moon-god
Almaqah, mentioning five South
Arabian gods, two reigning sovereigns and two governors, 7th century BC.
History of Yemen
–
Sabaean gravestone of a woman holding a stylized sheaf of wheat, a symbol of fertility in ancient Yemen
History of Yemen
–
A funerary
stela featuring a musical scene, 1st century AD
History of Yemen
–
Himyarite King Dhamar Ali Yahbur II
36.
Sultanate of Lahej
–
Lahej, the Sultanate of Lahej, or, sometimes, the Abdali Sultanate, was a Sheikdom based in Lahej in Southern Arabia. The Sultanate became self-ruled in 1728 and gained independence in 1740, in 1839, the Sultanate became Aden Protectorate of the British Empire, though nominally the Abdali Sultan retained his status. The Aden protectorate was briefly ruled again by the Ottomans during World War I, the Abdali dynasty was officially abolished in 1967, with the proclamation of South Yemen. Lahej was sultanate of the Abdali dynasty, in 1740 the Abdali sultan became independent. The Sultanate of Lahej became an independent entity, from 1728 to 1839, the Sultanate of Lahej lost its independence to the British, after the Royal Navy Aden Expedition attack in 1839. The Sultan signed several treaties with the British, the Suez Canal also opened in 1869. During World War I, the Ottoman Empire subjugated the Sultanate area, in 1918 Lahej was liberated from Ottoman Empire suzerainty and restored as a British protectorate. Lahej typically enjoyed good relations with the British, despite the killing of Sultan Fadhl ibn Ali al Abdali by British troops in 1918 who mistook him for an enemy Ottoman Turk soldier. In 1948, the Subayhi tribal area was absorbed into their sultanate, Lahej ended up joining the Federation and later the Federation of South Arabia in 1963. In 1967 the new Communist regime expelled the Abdali Sultan, the dynasty of the Sultanate of Lahej was abolished with the founding of the Socialist state of Peoples Democratic Republic of Yemen. The former territory of the Sultanate has been within the Republic of Yemen since its unification in 1990, the Sultans of Lahej had the title of Sultan Lahj. Early 19th century industrial Britain, with its rapidly expanding economy, needed improved and reliable communication with British India and the East India Company operations. The 1863 opening of the Suez Canal initiated further British trade protection strategies, securing the port of Adan, as of 1920, the Lahej region was producing salt, from salt mines owned by the Ottoman government, that passed through the Sultanate for shipping. Aden Protectorate Colony of Aden — Crown colony, fadhli Sultanate Federation of Arab Emirates of the South Federation of South Arabia Protectorate of South Arabia Media related to Colony of Aden at Wikimedia Commons
Sultanate of Lahej
–
Map of the Federation of South Arabia, with Lahej at bottom left
Sultanate of Lahej
–
Flag
Sultanate of Lahej
–
Guest House of the Sultan of Lahej, from an 1898 photograph by
Henry Ogg Forbes.
37.
Aden Province
–
Aden, essentially the port of Aden, was governed and organized as a Province of the British India between 1839 and 1937, while physically located on the southern Arabian Peninsula. After British occupation Aden soon became an important transit port and coaling station for trade between Europe, India and the Far East, the commercial and strategic importance of Aden increased considerably after the Red Sea was surveyed and the Suez Canal opened in 1869. From then and until the 1960s, the Port of Aden was to be one of the busiest ship-bunkering, duty-free shopping, Aden was to remain under British control until 1967. Under British rule Aden was governed as the Aden Settlement after occupation and it was placed under the Bombay Presidency and all foreign affairs were conducted through the Indian Political Service, being treated in practice as if it was a province of British India. In 1609 The Ascension was the first English ship to visit Aden, after Ottoman rule, Aden was ruled by the Sultanate of Lahej, under suzerainty of the Zaidi imams of Yemen. In 1838, under Muhsin bin Fadl, Lahej ceded 194 km² including Aden to the British, despite the above-mentioned cession, the British needed to resort to force the establish their rule. On 19 January 1839, the British East India Company landed the Royal Marines of the 24th Regiment of Bombay Native Infantry at Aden who stormed and captured the city. The British secured the territory for its importance because of its location on the main British shipping route to India. Aden port lies about equidistant from the Suez Canal, Mumbai, and Zanzibar, traditionally Aden had been an entrepôt and a way-station for seafarers since ancient times where supplies, particularly water, were replenished. In the mid-19th century it became necessary to replenish coal and boiler water, thus Aden acquired a coaling station at Steamer Point. The British Armed Forces also considered Aden an important place due to its location, the Aden Settlement consisted of the port city of Aden and its immediate surroundings, an area of 192 km²,75 sq. miles. The Aden Brigade of the British Indian Army based in Aden was formed after 1903, in 1932 Aden was made a province of British India in its own right. In 1937 Aden was separated from British India and was transferred to the Colonial Office as a Crown Colony, for previous British ruling officers see List of British representatives at Aden Sir Bernard Rawdon Reilly, first as resident in 1931, then as Chief Commissioner. M. Hunter, An account of the British settlement of Aden in Arabia
Aden Province
–
1893 map of the
Bombay Presidency.
Aden Province
–
Flag
Aden Province
–
The territory of Aden Province in pink on a 1922 map.
Aden Province
–
The Aden crescent in 1931.
38.
British Empire
–
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the population at the time. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread, during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, after the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain, the British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies, during the 19th Century, Britains population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britains economic lead, subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain, although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britains colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan, despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire, fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again
British Empire
–
A replica of The Matthew,
John Cabot 's ship used for his second voyage to the
New World.
British Empire
–
Flag
British Empire
–
African slaves working in 17th-century
Virginia, by an unknown artist, 1670.
British Empire
–
Fort St. George was founded at
Madras in 1639.
39.
British East India Company
–
The company also ruled the beginnings of the British Empire in India. The company received a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600, wealthy merchants and aristocrats owned the Companys shares. Initially the government owned no shares and had only indirect control, during its first century of operation the focus of the Company was trade, not the building of an empire in India. The company eventually came to rule large areas of India with its own armies, exercising military power. Despite frequent government intervention, the company had recurring problems with its finances, the official government machinery of British India had assumed its governmental functions and absorbed its armies. Soon after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, London merchants presented a petition to Queen Elizabeth I for permission to sail to the Indian Ocean, one of them, Edward Bonventure, then sailed around Cape Comorin to the Malay Peninsula and returned to England in 1594. In 1596, three ships sailed east, however, these were all lost at sea. Two days later, on 24 September, the Adventurers reconvened and resolved to apply to the Queen for support of the project, the Adventurers convened again a year later. For a period of fifteen years the charter awarded the newly formed company a monopoly on trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. Anybody who traded in breach of the charter without a licence from the Company was liable to forfeiture of their ships and cargo, the governance of the company was in the hands of one governor and 24 directors or committees, who made up the Court of Directors. They, in turn, reported to the Court of Proprietors, ten committees reported to the Court of Directors. According to tradition, business was transacted at the Nags Head Inn, opposite St Botolphs church in Bishopsgate. Sir James Lancaster commanded the first East India Company voyage in 1601, in March 1604 Sir Henry Middleton commanded the second voyage. Early in 1608 Alexander Sharpeigh was appointed captain of the Companys Ascension, thereafter two ships, Ascension and Union sailed from Woolwich on 14 March 1607–8. Initially, the company struggled in the trade because of the competition from the already well-established Dutch East India Company. The company opened a factory in Bantam on the first voyage, the factory in Bantam was closed in 1683. During this time belonging to the company arriving in India docked at Surat. In the next two years, the company established its first factory in south India in the town of Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal
British East India Company
–
Imperial entities of India
British East India Company
–
Company flag after 1801
British East India Company
–
James Lancaster commanded the first East India Company voyage in 1601
British East India Company
–
Red Dragon fought the Portuguese at the
Battle of Swally in 1612, and made several voyages to the
East Indies.
40.
Royal Marines
–
The Corps of Royal Marines is the United Kingdoms amphibious light infantry force, forming part of the Naval Service, along with the Royal Navy. The Royal Marines were formed in 1755 as the Royal Navys infantry troops, as a highly specialised and adaptable light infantry force, the Royal Marines are trained for rapid deployment worldwide and capable of dealing with a wide range of threats. The Royal Marines have close ties with allied marine forces, particularly the United States Marine Corps. Today, the Royal Marines are a fighting force within the British Armed forces. The Royal Marines can trace its origins back as far as 28 October 1664 when at the grounds of the Honourable Artillery Company the Duke of York and Albanys maritime regiment of foot was first formed. On 5 April 1755, His Majestys Marine Forces, fifty Companies in three Divisions, headquartered at Chatham, Portsmouth, and Plymouth, were formed by Order of Council under Admiralty control. Initially all field officers were Royal Navy officers as the Royal Navy felt that the ranks of Marine field officers were largely honorary and this meant that the furthest a Marine officer could advance was to lieutenant colonel. It was not until 1771 that the first Marine was promoted to colonel and this attitude persisted well into the 1800s. During the rest of the 18th century, they served in numerous landings all over the world and they also served in the American War of Independence, being particularly courageous in the Battle of Bunker Hill led by Major John Pitcairn. In 1788 a detachment of four companies of marines, under Major Robert Ross, due to an error the Fleet left Portsmouth without its main supply of ammunition, and were not resupplied until the Fleet docked in Rio de Janeiro midway through the voyage. In 1802, largely at the instigation of Admiral the Earl St. Vincent, the Royal Marines Artillery was formed as a separate unit in 1804 to man the artillery in bomb ketches. These had been manned by the Armys Royal Regiment of Artillery, during the Napoleonic Wars the Royal Marines participated in every notable naval battle on board the Royal Navys ships and also took part in multiple amphibious actions. In the Caribbean theatre volunteers from freed French slaves on Marie-Galante were used to form Sir Alexander Cochranes first Corps of Colonial Marines and these men bolstered the ranks, helping the British to hold the island until reinforcements arrived. This practice was repeated during the War of 1812, where escaped American slaves were formed into Cochranes second Corps of Colonial Marines and these men were commanded by Royal Marines officers and fought alongside their regular Royal Marines counterparts at the Battle of Bladensburg. Throughout the war Royal Marines units raided up and down the east coast of America including up the Penobscot River and they fought in the Battle of New Orleans and later helped capture Fort Bowyer in Mobile Bay in what was the last action of the war. In 1855 the Infantry forces were renamed the Royal Marines Light Infantry, during the Crimean War in 1854 and 1855, three Royal Marines earned the Victoria Cross, two in the Crimea and one in the Baltic. In 1862 the name was altered to Royal Marine Light Infantry. The Royal Navy did not fight any other ships after 1850, in these Naval Brigades, the function of the Royal Marines was to land first and act as skimishers ahead of the sailor Infantry and Artillery
Royal Marines
–
Major General John Tupper His Majesty's Marine Forces.
Royal Marines
–
Crest
Royal Marines
–
Royal Marines parade in the streets of
Chania in spring 1897, following British occupation.
Royal Marines
–
British Commandos in action during
Operation Archery, Norway.
41.
Pirate
–
Piracy is an act of robbery or criminal violence by ship- or boat-borne attackers upon another ship or a coastal area, typically with the goal of stealing cargo and other valuable items or properties. Those who engage in acts of piracy are called pirates, the earliest documented instances of piracy were in the 14th century BC, when the Sea Peoples, a group of ocean raiders, attacked the ships of the Aegean and Mediterranean civilizations. Narrow channels which funnel shipping into predictable routes have long created opportunities for piracy, as well as for privateering and commerce raiding. Historic examples include the waters of Gibraltar, the Strait of Malacca, Madagascar, the Gulf of Aden, a land-based parallel is the ambushing of travelers by bandits and brigands in highways and mountain passes. While the term can include acts committed in the air, on land, or in major bodies of water or on a shore. It does not normally include crimes committed against people traveling on the vessel as the perpetrator. Piracy or pirating is the name of a crime under customary international law. They also use larger vessels, known as ships, to supply the smaller motorboats. The international community is facing challenges in bringing modern pirates to justice. In the 2000s, a number of nations have used their naval forces to protect ships from pirate attacks. The English pirate is derived from the Latin term pirata and that from Greek πειρατής, brigand, in turn from πειράομαι, I attempt, from πεῖρα, attempt, the meaning of the Greek word peiratēs literally is one who attacks. The word is cognate to peril. The term is first attested to c, spelling was not standardised until the eighteenth century, and spellings such as pirrot, pyrate and pyrat were used until this period. It may be reasonable to assume that piracy has existed for as long as the oceans were plied for commerce, the earliest documented instances of piracy are the exploits of the Sea Peoples who threatened the ships sailing in the Aegean and Mediterranean waters in the 14th century BC. In classical antiquity, the Phoenicians, Illyrians and Tyrrhenians were known as pirates, the ancient Greeks condoned piracy as a viable profession, it apparently was widespread and regarded as an entirely honourable way of making a living. References are made to its perfectly normal occurrence many texts including in Homers Iliad and Odyssey, by the era of Classical Greece, piracy was looked upon as a disgrace to have as a profession. In the 3rd century BC, pirate attacks on Olympos brought impoverishment, among some of the most famous ancient pirateering peoples were the Illyrians, a people populating the western Balkan peninsula. Constantly raiding the Adriatic Sea, the Illyrians caused many conflicts with the Roman Republic and it was not until 229 BC when the Romans finally decisively beat the Illyrian fleets that their threat was ended
Pirate
–
French pirate
Jacques de Sores looting and burning Havana in 1555
Pirate
–
Mosaic of a
Roman trireme in Tunisia
Pirate
–
A fleet of
Vikings, painted mid-12th century
Pirate
–
The Vitalienbrüder. Piracy became endemic in the
Baltic sea in the
Middle Ages.
42.
India
–
India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
India
–
Flag
India
–
The granite
tower of
Brihadeeswarar Temple in
Thanjavur was completed in 1010 CE by
Raja Raja Chola I.
India
–
Writing the will and testament of the Mughal king court in Persian, 1590–1595
43.
British India
–
Provinces of India, earlier Presidencies of British India and still earlier, Presidency towns, were the administrative divisions of British governance in the subcontinent. Collectively, they were called British India, in one form or other they existed between 1612 and 1947, conventionally divided into three historical periods. During 1612–1757, the East India Company set up factories in several locations, mostly in coastal India and its rivals were the merchant trading companies of Holland and France. By the mid-18th century, three Presidency towns, Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta had grown in size, during the period of Company rule in India, 1757–1858, the Company gradually acquired sovereignty over large parts of India, now called Presidencies. However, it increasingly came under British government oversight, in effect sharing sovereignty with the Crown. At the same time it gradually lost its mercantile privileges, following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the Companys remaining powers were transferred to the Crown. In the new British Raj, sovereignty extended to a few new regions, increasingly, however, unwieldy presidencies were broken up into Provinces. In 1608, the English East India Company established a settlement at Surat, and it was followed in 1611 by a permanent factory at Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast, and in 1612 the company joined other already established European trading companies in Bengal. Company rule in Bengal, however, ended with the Government of India Act 1858 following the events of the Bengal Rebellion of 1857 and these rulers were allowed a measure of internal autonomy in exchange for British suzerainty. British India constituted a significant portion of India both in area and population, in 1910, for example, it covered approximately 54% of the area, in addition, there were Portuguese and French exclaves in India. Independence from British rule was achieved in 1947 with the formation of two nations, the Dominions of India and Pakistan, the latter also including East Bengal, present-day Bangladesh. The term British India also applied to Burma for a time period, starting in 1824, a small part of Burma. This arrangement lasted until 1937, when Burma commenced being administered as a separate British colony, British India did not apply to other countries in the region, such as Sri Lanka, which was a British Crown colony, or the Maldive Islands, which were a British protectorate. It also included the Colony of Aden in the Arabian Peninsula, the original seat of government was at Allahabad, then at Agra from 1834 to 1868. Bombay Presidency, East India Companys headquarters moved from Surat to Bombay in 1687, the East India Company, which was incorporated on 31 December 1600, established trade relations with Indian rulers in Masulipatam on the east coast in 1611 and Surat on the west coast in 1612. The company rented a trading outpost in Madras in 1639, meanwhile, in eastern India, after obtaining permission from the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan to trade with Bengal, the Company established its first factory at Hoogly in 1640. Almost a half-century later, after Emperor Aurengzeb forced the Company out of Hooghly, by the mid-18th century the three principal trading settlements, now called the Madras Presidency, the Bombay Presidency, and the Bengal Presidency were each administered by a Governor. After Robert Clives victory in the Battle of Plassey in 1757, in 1772, the Company also obtained the Nizāmat of Bengal and thereby full sovereignty of the expanded Bengal Presidency
British India
–
Imperial entities of India
British India
–
A
mezzotint engraving of Fort William,
Calcutta, the capital of the
Bengal Presidency in British India 1735
British India
–
India in 1700 showing the
Mughal Empire and the European trading settlements.
British India
–
The presidency town of Madras in a 1908 map. Madras was established as
Fort St. George in 1640.
44.
Red Sea
–
The Red Sea is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait, to the north lie the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez. The Red Sea is a Global 200 ecoregion, the sea is underlain by the Red Sea Rift which is part of the Great Rift Valley. The Red Sea has an area of roughly 438,000 km2, is about 2250 km long and. It has a depth of 2211 m in the central median trench. However, there are also extensive shallow shelves, noted for their marine life, the sea is the habitat of over 1,000 invertebrate species, and 200 soft and hard corals. It is the worlds northernmost tropical sea, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Red Sea as follows, On the North. The Southern limits of the Gulfs of Suez and Aqaba, a line joining Husn Murad and Ras Siyyan. Red Sea is a translation of the Greek Erythra Thalassa, Latin Mare Rubrum, Arabic, البحر الأحمر. Al-Baḥr Al-Aḥmar, Somali Badda Cas and Tigrinya Qeyyiḥ bāḥrī, the name of the sea may signify the seasonal blooms of the red-coloured Trichodesmium erythraeum near the waters surface. A theory favored by modern scholars is that the name red is referring to the direction south. The basis of this theory is that some Asiatic languages used color words to refer to the cardinal directions, herodotus on one occasion uses Red Sea and Southern Sea interchangeably. Historically, it was known to western geographers as Mare Mecca. Some ancient geographers called the Red Sea the Arabian Gulf or Gulf of Arabia. C, in that version, the Yam Suph is translated as Erythra Thalassa. The Red Sea is one of four seas named in English after common color terms — the others being the Black Sea, the White Sea and the Yellow Sea. The direct rendition of the Greek Erythra thalassa in Latin as Mare Erythraeum refers to the part of the Indian Ocean. The earliest known exploration of the Red Sea was conducted by ancient Egyptians, one such expedition took place around 2500 BC, and another around 1500 BC. Both involved long voyages down the Red Sea, historically, scholars argued whether these trips were possible
Red Sea
–
Red Sea
Red Sea
–
Tihama on the Red Sea near Khaukha,
Yemen
Red Sea
–
Annotated view of the Nile and Red Sea, with a dust storm
Red Sea
–
Dust storm over the Red Sea
45.
Suez canal
–
The Suez Canal is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea through the Isthmus of Suez. It was constructed by the Suez Canal Company between 1859 and 1869, after 10 years of construction, it was officially opened on November 17,1869. It extends from the terminus of Port Said to the southern terminus of Port Tewfik at the city of Suez. Its length is 193.30 km, including its northern and southern access channels, in 2012,17,225 vessels traversed the canal. The original canal was a waterway with passing locations in the Ballah Bypass. It contains no locks system, with seawater flowing freely through it, in general, the canal north of the Bitter Lakes flows north in winter and south in summer. South of the lakes, the current changes with the tide at Suez, the canal is owned and maintained by the Suez Canal Authority of Egypt. Under the Convention of Constantinople, it may be used in time of war as in time of peace, by every vessel of commerce or of war, without distinction of flag. In August 2014, construction was launched to expand and widen the Ballah Bypass for 35 km to speed the canals transit time, the expansion was planned to double the capacity of the Suez Canal from 49 to 97 ships a day. At a cost of $8.4 billion, this project was funded with interest-bearing investment certificates issued exclusively to Egyptian entities, the New Suez Canal, as the expansion was dubbed, was opened with great fanfare in a ceremony on 6 August 2015. On 24 February 2016, the Suez Canal Authority officially opened the new side channel and this side channel, located at the northern side of the east extension of the Suez Canal, serves the East Terminal for berthing and unberthing vessels from the terminal anytime of day and night. Ancient west–east canals were built to travel from the Nile River to the Red Sea. One smaller canal is believed to have been constructed under the auspices of Senusret II or Ramesses II. Another canal, probably incorporating a portion of the first, was constructed under the reign of Necho II, the legendary Sesostris may have started work on an ancient canal joining the Nile with the Red Sea. In his Meteorology, Aristotle wrote, One of their kings tried to make a canal to it, so he first, and Darius afterwards, stopped making the canal, lest the sea should mix with the river water and spoil it. Strabo wrote that Sesostris started to build a canal, and Pliny the Elder wrote,165. Later the Persian king Darius had the idea, and yet again Ptolemy II. This proved to be the canal made by the Persian king Darius I
Suez canal
–
Suez Canal
Suez canal
–
Northern outlet of the Suez
Suez canal
–
Bathymetric chart, northern
Gulf of Suez, route to
Cairo, 1856.
Suez canal
–
1881 drawing of the Suez Canal.
46.
Coal
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Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. Coal is composed primarily of carbon, along with quantities of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen. A fossil fuel, coal forms when plant matter is converted into peat, which in turn is converted into lignite, then sub-bituminous coal, after that bituminous coal. This involves biological and geological processes that take place over time, throughout history, coal has been used as an energy resource, primarily burned for the production of electricity and heat, and is also used for industrial purposes, such as refining metals. Coal is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide, the extraction of coal, its use in energy production and its byproducts are all associated with environmental and health effects including climate change. Coal is extracted from the ground by coal mining, since 1983, the worlds top coal producer has been China. In 2015 China produced 3,747 million tonnes of coal –47. 7% of 7,861 million tonnes world coal production, in 2015 other large producers were United States, India, European Union and Australia. The word originally took the col in Old English, from Proto-Germanic *kula. In Old Turkic languages, kül is ash, cinders, öčür is quench, the compound charcoal in Turkic is öčür kül, literally quenched ashes, cinders, coals with elided anlaut ö- and inflection affixes -ülmüş. At various times in the geologic past, the Earth had dense forests in low-lying wetland areas, due to natural processes such as flooding, these forests were buried underneath soil. As more and more soil deposited over them, they were compressed, the temperature also rose as they sank deeper and deeper. As the process continued the plant matter was protected from biodegradation and oxidation and this trapped the carbon in immense peat bogs that were eventually covered and deeply buried by sediments. Under high pressure and high temperature, dead vegetation was slowly converted to coal, as coal contains mainly carbon, the conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called carbonization. The wide, shallow seas of the Carboniferous Period provided ideal conditions for coal formation, the exception is the coal gap in the Permian–Triassic extinction event, where coal is rare. Coal is known from Precambrian strata, which predate land plants — this coal is presumed to have originated from residues of algae, in its dehydrated form, peat is a highly effective absorbent for fuel and oil spills on land and water. It is also used as a conditioner for soil to make it able to retain. Lignite, or brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal, jet, a compact form of lignite, is sometimes polished and has been used as an ornamental stone since the Upper Palaeolithic
Coal
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Anthracite coal
Coal
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Bituminous coal
Coal
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Coastal exposure of the Point Aconi Seam (Nova Scotia)
Coal
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Coal miner in Britain, 1942
47.
Colony of Aden
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The Colony of Aden or Aden Colony was a British Crown colony from 1937 to 1963 located in the south of contemporary Yemen. It consisted of the port of Aden and its immediate surroundings, prior to 1937, Aden had been governed as part of British India. Under the Government of India Act 1935 the territory was detached from British India, and was established as a colony of the United Kingdom. On 18 January 1963, the colony was reconstituted as the State of Aden within the new Federation of South Arabia, the federation in turn became the Peoples Republic of South Yemen on 30 November 1967, marking the end of British rule. The hinterland of the Colony of Aden was separately governed as the Aden Protectorate, on 19 January 1839, the British East India Company landed Royal Marines at Aden to occupy the territory and stop attacks by pirates against British shipping to India. The British Army considered Aden an important place due to its location, later, British influence extended progressively into the hinterland, both west and east, with the establishment of the Aden Protectorate. Aden soon became an important transit port and coaling station for trade between British India and the Far East, and Europe, the commercial and strategic importance of Aden increased considerably when the Suez Canal opened in 1869. From then and until the 1960s, the Port of Aden was to be one of the busiest ship-bunkering, duty-free shopping, in 1937, Aden was separated from British India to become a Crown Colony, a status that it retained until 1963. It consisted of the city of Aden and its immediate surroundings. The Aden Settlement, and later Aden Colony, also included the islands of Kamaran, Perim. Prior to 1937, Aden had been governed as part of British India, through the latter years of its existence, the Colony of Aden was plagued by civil unrest. Population of Aden Colony 1955 “The town of Aden was tied more closely into the fabric of the British Empire. The fundamental law for the Crown Colony of Aden is the Order of Council 28 September 1936, Aden was notable in that Sharia law was not used in the Colony. All suits, including dealing with personal status and inheritance of Muslims, are entertained in the ordinary secular courts of the colony. Within the Aden Colony there were three local government bodies, all of these bodies were under the overall control of the Executive Council, which in turn was kept in check by the Governor. Until 1 December 1955, the Executive Council was entirely unelected, the situation improved only slightly after this date, as four members were elected. Judicial administration was entirely in British hands. Compared with other British possessions, the development towards self-government and greater local participation has been rather slow, education was provided for all children, both boys and girls, until at least intermediate level
Colony of Aden
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Esplanade Road in the late 1930s.
Colony of Aden
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Flag
Colony of Aden
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Unloading cargo in Maala, Aden
Colony of Aden
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Map of British Aden, 1922.
48.
Suez Canal
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The Suez Canal is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea through the Isthmus of Suez. It was constructed by the Suez Canal Company between 1859 and 1869, after 10 years of construction, it was officially opened on November 17,1869. It extends from the terminus of Port Said to the southern terminus of Port Tewfik at the city of Suez. Its length is 193.30 km, including its northern and southern access channels, in 2012,17,225 vessels traversed the canal. The original canal was a waterway with passing locations in the Ballah Bypass. It contains no locks system, with seawater flowing freely through it, in general, the canal north of the Bitter Lakes flows north in winter and south in summer. South of the lakes, the current changes with the tide at Suez, the canal is owned and maintained by the Suez Canal Authority of Egypt. Under the Convention of Constantinople, it may be used in time of war as in time of peace, by every vessel of commerce or of war, without distinction of flag. In August 2014, construction was launched to expand and widen the Ballah Bypass for 35 km to speed the canals transit time, the expansion was planned to double the capacity of the Suez Canal from 49 to 97 ships a day. At a cost of $8.4 billion, this project was funded with interest-bearing investment certificates issued exclusively to Egyptian entities, the New Suez Canal, as the expansion was dubbed, was opened with great fanfare in a ceremony on 6 August 2015. On 24 February 2016, the Suez Canal Authority officially opened the new side channel and this side channel, located at the northern side of the east extension of the Suez Canal, serves the East Terminal for berthing and unberthing vessels from the terminal anytime of day and night. Ancient west–east canals were built to travel from the Nile River to the Red Sea. One smaller canal is believed to have been constructed under the auspices of Senusret II or Ramesses II. Another canal, probably incorporating a portion of the first, was constructed under the reign of Necho II, the legendary Sesostris may have started work on an ancient canal joining the Nile with the Red Sea. In his Meteorology, Aristotle wrote, One of their kings tried to make a canal to it, so he first, and Darius afterwards, stopped making the canal, lest the sea should mix with the river water and spoil it. Strabo wrote that Sesostris started to build a canal, and Pliny the Elder wrote,165. Later the Persian king Darius had the idea, and yet again Ptolemy II. This proved to be the canal made by the Persian king Darius I
Suez Canal
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Suez Canal
Suez Canal
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Northern outlet of the Suez
Suez Canal
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Bathymetric chart, northern
Gulf of Suez, route to
Cairo, 1856.
Suez Canal
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1881 drawing of the Suez Canal.
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This article incorporates public domain material from the CIA World Factbook website https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html.
