1.
Kibera
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Kibera is a division of Nairobi Area, Kenya, and neighbourhood of the city of Nairobi,5 kilometres from the city centre. Kibera is the largest slum in Nairobi, and the largest urban slum in Africa, the 2009 Kenya Population and Housing Census reports Kiberas population as 170,070, contrary to previous estimates of one or two million people. Other sources suggest the total Kibera population may be 500,000 to well over 1,000,000 depending on which slums are included in defining Kibera, most of Kibera slum residents live in extreme poverty, earning less than $1.00 per day. Persons living with HIV in the slum are many, as are AIDS cases, cases of assault and rape are common. There are few schools, and most people cannot afford education for their children, diseases caused by poor hygiene are prevalent. A great majority living in the slum lack access to services, including electricity, running water. The Government initiated a programme to replace the slum with a residential district of high rise apartments. The neighbourhood is divided into a number of villages, including Kianda, Soweto East, Gatwekera, Kisumu Ndogo, Lindi, Laini Saba, Siranga, Makina and Mashimoni. The city of Nairobi, where Kibera is located, was founded in 1899 when the Uganda Railway line was built, thereby creating a need for its headquarters, the colonial administration intended to keep Nairobi as a home for Europeans and temporary migrant workers from Africa and Asia. Within Nairobi, Africans could live in segregated native reserves at the edge of the city, permits to live in Nairobi were necessary, and these permits separated living areas of non-Europeans by ethnic group. One such group were African soldiers who served the interests of the British colonial army. Kibera was situated on the KAR military exercise grounds in close proximity to the KAR headquarters along Thika Road, the British colonial government allowed the settlement to grow informally. The Nubians had no claim on land in Native Reserves and over time, with the increase in railway traffic, Nairobis economy developed, and an increasing number of rural migrants moved to urban Nairobi in search of wage labour. Kibera and other slums developed throughout Nairobi, proposals were made in the late 1920s to demolish and relocate Kibera, as it was within the zone of European residential holdings, however, the residents objected to these proposals. The colonial government considered proposals to reorganize Kibera, and the Kenya Land Commission heard a number of cases referred to the Kibera problem. By then, Kibera was not the only slum, after Kenya became independent in 1963, a number of forms of housing were made illegal by the government. The new ruling affected Kibera on the basis of land tenure, despite this, people continued to live there, and by the early 1970s landlords were renting out their properties in Kibera to significantly greater numbers of tenants than were permitted by law. The tenants, who are impoverished, cannot afford to rent legal housing, finding the rates offered in Kibera to be comparatively affordable
2.
Orlando Power Station
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Orlando Power Station is a decommissioned coal-fired power station in Soweto, South Africa. The power station was commissioned at the end of the Second World War, the location for the station was selected due to its proximity to water supply for coolant and railway lines for the delivery of coal. Construction started in 1939 with Merz & McLellan as consulting engineers, the last phase of construction was completed in 1955. Until 1990 two Hunslet Austerity 0-6-0ST steam engines were used to move incoming coal trains through a wagon tipper at the power plant, the station was decommissioned in 1998 after 56 years of service. In 2006 work was started to transform the site of the station into an entertainment. On 25 June 2014, the power plant collapsed killing 1. The two cooling towers are a prominent landmark in Soweto and they were built in 1951 to supplement the spray pond cooling system as this source of cooling was running at its capacity. Being supplied by sewage effluent from the Klipspruit Sewage Works, the ponds at Orlando were the first in South Africa to make use of this ready supply of coolant liquid. Both towers are painted, one functioning as an advertising billboard, the towers are also used for bungee and BASE jumping from a platform between the top of the two towers as well as a bungee swing into one of the towers. The tower was used for a Fast Forward on the seventh season of The Amazing Race. Their task was for teams to walk across a suspension bridge 9 metres above the ground between the stations towers. In the movie Chappie the power station is the headquarter of the protagonists, list of power stations in South Africa OrlandoTowers
3.
Orlando, Soweto
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Orlando is a township in the urban area of Soweto, in the city of Johannesburg. The township was founded in 1931 and named after Edwin Orlando Leake and it is divided in two main areas, Orlando West and Orlando East. The township of Orlando was directly involved in some of the most important events of the fight against the apartheid system, some of the most dramatic clashes between the South African police and anti-apartheid demonstrators occurred in Orlando West. This includes the Soweto uprising where 12-year-old Hector Pieterson was killed, the Hector Pieterson Memorial Museum was established in Orlando West to commemorate those events. In the surroundings of the museum is the house where Nelson Mandela lived for years while practicing law. Orlando East was also involved in a dramatic shoot-out in the era the same day that Pieterson was killed in West Orlando. It occurred at the Regina Mundi church, which is the main Roman Catholic church in South Africa, the façade of the church and the interior still show bullet holes. After the apartheid system was dismantled, several meetings of the Truth, Orlando Stadium is the home of the soccer team Orlando Pirates of the South African Premier Division. They have won nine total top-flight league titles, and nine national cup championships
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
South Africa
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South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is the southernmost country in Africa. South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world by land area and it is the southernmost country on the mainland of the Old World or the Eastern Hemisphere. About 80 percent of South Africans are of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, divided among a variety of ethnic groups speaking different Bantu languages, the remaining population consists of Africas largest communities of European, Asian, and multiracial ancestry. South Africa is a multiethnic society encompassing a variety of cultures, languages. Its pluralistic makeup is reflected in the recognition of 11 official languages. The country is one of the few in Africa never to have had a coup détat, however, the vast majority of black South Africans were not enfranchised until 1994. During the 20th century, the black majority sought to recover its rights from the dominant white minority, with this struggle playing a role in the countrys recent history. The National Party imposed apartheid in 1948, institutionalising previous racial segregation, since 1994, all ethnic and linguistic groups have held political representation in the countrys democracy, which comprises a parliamentary republic and nine provinces. South Africa is often referred to as the Rainbow Nation to describe the multicultural diversity. The World Bank classifies South Africa as an economy. Its economy is the second-largest in Africa, and the 34th-largest in the world, in terms of purchasing power parity, South Africa has the seventh-highest per capita income in Africa. However, poverty and inequality remain widespread, with about a quarter of the population unemployed, nevertheless, South Africa has been identified as a middle power in international affairs, and maintains significant regional influence. The name South Africa is derived from the geographic location at the southern tip of Africa. Upon formation the country was named the Union of South Africa in English, since 1961 the long form name in English has been the Republic of South Africa. In Dutch the country was named Republiek van Zuid-Afrika, replaced in 1983 by the Afrikaans Republiek van Suid-Afrika, since 1994 the Republic has had an official name in each of its 11 official languages. Mzansi, derived from the Xhosa noun umzantsi meaning south, is a name for South Africa. South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological and human fossil sites in the world, extensive fossil remains have been recovered from a series of caves in Gauteng Province. The area is a UNESCO World Heritage site and has termed the Cradle of Humankind
6.
Gauteng
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Gauteng, which means place of gold, is one of the nine provinces of South Africa. It was formed part of the old Transvaal Province after South Africas first all-race elections on 27 April 1994. It was initially named Pretoria–Witwatersrand–Vereeniging and was renamed Gauteng in December 1994, situated in the Highveld, Gauteng is the smallest province in South Africa, accounting for only 1. 5% of the land area. Nevertheless, it is highly urbanised, containing the countrys largest city, Johannesburg, its capital, Pretoria. As of 2015, it has a population of nearly 13.2 million, the name Gauteng is derived from the Sotho name, gauta meaning gold with the locative suffix -eng. There was a thriving industry in the province following the 1886 discovery of gold in Johannesburg. In Sesotho, the name Gauteng was used for Johannesburg and surrounding areas long before it was adopted in 1994 as the name of a province. Gauteng, formerly known as Pretoria–Witwatersrand–Vereeniging, was carved out of the old Transvaal province in 1994, although the terminology PWV, after the discovery of gold in 1886, the region proceeded to become the single largest gold producer in the world and the city of Johannesburg was founded. The older city Pretoria was not subject to the same attention, Pretoria grew at a slower rate and was highly regarded due to its role in the Second Boer War. The Cullinan Diamond which is the largest diamond ever mined was mined near Pretoria in a town called Cullinan in the year 1905. Gauteng has only been documented since the 1800s and as a result. At the Sterkfontein caves, some of the oldest fossils of hominids have been discovered, such as Mrs. Ples, today, the Apartheid Museum stands testament to these struggles in Johannesburg. Gauteng is governed by the Gauteng Provincial Legislature, a 73-person unicameral legislature elected by party-list proportional representation. The most recent election of the legislature was held on 7 May 2014, and the African National Congress won 53. 59% of the vote. The official opposition is the Democratic Alliance, which won 30. 78% of the vote and 23 seats, other parties represented are the Economic Freedom Fighters with eight seats and the Freedom Front Plus and the Inkatha Freedom Party with one seat each. Premier David Makhura of the ANC was elected on 21 May 2014, the Gauteng Division of the High Court of South Africa, which has seats in Pretoria and Johannesburg, is a superior court with general jurisdiction over the province. Johannesburg is also home to the Constitutional Court, South Africas highest court, Gautengs southern border is the Vaal River, which separates it from the Free State. It also borders on North West to the west, Limpopo to the north, Gauteng is the only landlocked province of South Africa without a foreign border
7.
City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality
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The City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality is a metropolitan municipality that manages the local governance of Johannesburg, South Africa. It is divided into branches and departments in order to expedite services for the city. Johannesburg is a city, the poor mostly live in the southern suburbs or on the peripheries of the far north. As of 2012, unemployment is near 25% and most young people are out of work, around 20% of the city lives in abject poverty in informal settlements that lack proper roads, electricity, or any other kind of direct municipal service. Another 40% live in housing with insufficient municipal housing. During the apartheid era, Johannesburg was divided into 11 local authorities, seven of which were white, the first post-apartheid City Council was created in 1995. The council adopted the slogan One City, One Taxpayer in order to highlight its primary goal of addressing inequal tax revenue distribution, to this end, revenue from wealthy, traditionally white areas would help pay for services needed in poorer, black areas. The City Council was divided into four regions, each with an autonomous local regional authority that was to be overseen by a central metropolitan council. The four councils or Metropolitan Local Councils were the Northern MLCl, Southern MLC, Eastern MLC and Western MLC, in 1999, Johannesburg appointed a city manager in order to reshape the citys ailing financial situation. The manager, together with the Municipal Council, drew up a blueprint called Igoli 2002 and this was a three-year plan that called upon the government to sell non-core assets, restructure certain utilities, and required that all others become self-sufficient. The plan took the city from near insolvency to a surplus of Rand 153 million. The plan was contested by trade unions, who argued that it would result in job losses. The core of Igoli 2002 was to restructure Metro Gas, Rand Airport, the city bus service, the Johannesburg Zoo, the Civic Theatre, the Fresh Produce Market, and the citys property holdings were turned into corporations with the city as the single shareholder. Each was run as a business, with management hired on performance contracts, in 2010/11 the municipality faced a qualified audit from the Auditor-General following a large number of billing issues, as the result of the flawed implementation of a SAP system. The citys call centre also experienced a crisis at the same time, the municipality covers an area of 1,645 square kilometres, stretching from Orange Farm in the south to Midrand in the north. The 2011 census divided the municipality into the main places. In the election of 3 August 2016 the African National Congress won the largest share of the seats on the council with 121 but did not achieve a majority. On 22 August 2016, minority parties voted with the DA to elect its candidate, Herman Mashaba
8.
Coloureds
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Coloureds are a multiracial ethnic group originating in colonial South Africa, who possess ancestry from European, African and Asian ethnic groups. Different families and individuals have a variety of different physical features, there were extensive relationships and unions among these diverse peoples in the Western Cape — in which a distinctive Cape Coloured and affiliated Cape Malay culture developed. In other parts of Southern Africa, people classified as Coloured were usually the descendants of individuals from two distinct ethnicities, genetic studies suggest the group has the highest levels of mixed ancestry in the world. Mitochondrial DNA studies have demonstrated that the lines of the Coloured population are descended mostly from Khoisan women. The Coloured community is descended from numerous interracial sexual unions between Western European men and Khoisan women in the Cape Colony from the 17th century onwards. In KwaZulu-Natal, Coloureds possess a diverse heritage including British, Irish, German, Mauritian, Saint Helenians, Indians, Xhosa, zimbabwean Coloureds are descended from Shona or Ndebele mixing with British and Afrikaner settlers. Griqua, on the hand, are descendants of Khoisan. Despite these major differences, their ancestry from more than one naturalised racial group means that they are coloured in the South African context, such people did not necessarily self-identify this way, some preferred to call themselves black or Khoisan or just South African. The Griqua were subjected to an ambiguity of other people within Southern African social order. With territories beyond the VOC’s administration, Kok provided refuge to deserting soldiers, runaway slaves, the imperial and apartheid governments categorized them as Coloureds. In addition, other groups also traditionally viewed them as a separate group. Coloured people are made up of Indonesian, mixed-race, and people from Khoisan ancestry, the Apartheid government thus treated them as one people, despite their differences. Cape Muslims are also classified as coloured and they generally have Indonesian and black ancestry, as many Indonesian slaves had children with African partners. Many Griqua began to self-identify as Coloureds during the apartheid era, for example, Coloureds did not have to carry a dompas, while the Griqua, who were seen as an indigenous African group, did. Coloured people constitute a plurality of the population in the Western Cape, most speak Afrikaans, while about twenty percent of Coloureds speak English as their mother tongue, mostly in the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal. Virtually all Cape Town Coloureds are bilingual, some can comfortably codeswitch between Kaapse taal and suiwer Afrikaans, and South African English. At least one study indicates that Cape Coloureds have ancestries from the following ethnic groups. This genetic admixture appears to be gender-biased, a majority of maternal genetic material is Khoisan
9.
Indian South African
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Indian South Africans are South Africans of Indian descent. The majority live in and around the city of Durban, making it the largest Indian city outside India, many Indians in South Africa are descendents of migrants from colonial India during late 19th-century through early 20th-century. At times Indians were subsumed in the broader geographical category Asians, there remains a cultural, religious and racial overlap for Asians and Indian South Africans. During the most intense period of segregation and apartheid, Indian, Asian, Coloured, during ideological apartheid from 1948 to 1994, Indians were called, and often voluntarily accepted, terms that ranged from Asians to Indians. Some citizens believed that terms were improvements on the negatively defined identity of Non-White. Politically conscious and nationalistic Indian South Africans wanted to both their heritage and their local roots. Increasingly they self-identified as African, South African and, when necessary, nonetheless, the spread of democratic elections has sometimes heightened ethnic loyalties. Politicians and groups have looked for means to power in the competitive parliamentary democracy which South Africa has become since 1994. A significant proportion of slaves imported into the Cape were from parts of India including Bangladesh, many slaves had no identity as Indians and were conveniently classified by the Dutch in the Cape as part of Cape Coloured and Cape Malay communities. There is no reference to the names of these Indians and were given Christian names for convenience. This all contributed to the loss of identity similar to the Mozambicans, an early Indian to settle in South Africa was Kalaga Prabhu, a Goud Saraswat Brahmin merchant from Cochin. He was the foremost among the Konkani merchants in Cochin, no further record of this individual and his descendants if any exists. The modern South African Indian community is descended from Indians who arrived in South Africa from 1860 onwards. The first 342 of these came on board the Truro from Madras, the indentured labourers tended to speak Tamil, Telugu and Hindi, and the majority were Hindu with Christians and a few Muslims among them. The Mercury newspaper favoured the importation of labour, although other Natal newspapers were against the idea. It should be noted that although 1860 is dated as the beginning of Indian settlement in Natal, indentured labourers on sugar plantations were frequently mistreated, and lived in unsanitary conditions. Indians also became fishermen, and worked as clerks, in the postal service and these immigrant Indians who became traders were from varying religious backgrounds, namely Hindu and Muslims but largely from Gujarat, later joined by Kokanis, and Urdu speakers from Uttar Pradesh. These Muslims played an important part in the establishment of Islam in the areas where they settled, there was also a significant number of Gujarati Hindus in this group
10.
Asian South Africans
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They are largely English speaking, although many also retain the languages of their ancestors. There is also a significant group of Chinese South Africans, of whom the majority are recent immigrants of the last two decades. In total the 1.2 million Asians in South Africa represent about two percent of the nations population, traditionally, the group does not include the Cape Malays, who were descended from South East Asians, who were classified as Coloured under apartheid. The term Indian is far more commonly used than Asian in South Africa and they were hired to work in sugar plantations or mines in the Colony of Natal. Traders, known as Passenger Indians also subsequently immigrated, Indian South Africans form the largest grouping of people of Indian descent born outside India. Since 1994 however, there has been a trickle of immigrants from the Indian subcontinent. Most Indian South Africans live in KwaZulu-Natal, particularly in the cities of Durban, Pietermaritzburg, the smaller Chinese community was initially descended from migrant workers who came to work in the gold mines around Johannesburg in the late nineteenth century. Some of those workers were repatriated, estimates vary, but the Chinese population is reckoned to have increased from 10,000 in the early 1980s to more than 100,000 in the early 2000s. Chinese immigration caused difficulties for the apartheid regime, in late 2006, the Chinese Association of South Africa filed suit to have Chinese South Africans recognised as having been disadvantaged under apartheid, to benefit from Black Economic Empowerment. Complicating this attempt was the presence of recent immigrant Chinese who had not been disadvantaged by apartheid and they much outnumber native Chinese South Africans. Because Chinese under apartheid had somewhat less rigid restrictions than indigenous blacks, in addition, the status of Taiwanese, Japanese and South Koreans as honorary whites under apartheid complicated the case. Nonetheless, in June 2008, Chinese South Africans were fully recognised as having been disadvantaged and entered the BEE ethnic groups if they arrived before 1994. For separate political reasons, the government had classified Taiwanese, Japanese and South Koreans, as honorary white, a number of people from Pakistan have also immigrated to South Africa following the end of apartheid. They often, but not always, live in the areas as the Indian South Africans. The Cape Malays are Indonesian and Malaysian South Africans who were the largest group of immigrants adapted to the society of South Africa, during the apartheid regime, they were both classified as part of the Coloured racial group and thus considered non-white and treated as such
11.
White South African
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White South Africans are people from South Africa who are of European descent and who do not regard themselves, or are not regarded as, being part of another racial group. In 2011, 61% were native Afrikaans speakers, 36% were native English speakers, White South Africans are by far the largest European-descended population group in Africa. The history of European settlement in South Africa started in 1652 with the settlement of the Cape of Good Hope by the Dutch East India Company under Jan van Riebeeck. The colony remained under Dutch rule for two centuries, after which it was annexed by Great Britain around 1806. At that time, South Africa was home to about 26,000 people of European descent, however, beginning in 1818 thousands of British immigrants arrived in the fledgling Cape Colony, looking to join the local workforce or settle directly on the frontier. About a fifth of the Capes original Dutch-speaking white population migrated eastwards during the Great Trek in the 1830s, nevertheless, the population of European origin continued increasing at the Cape as a result of immigration, and by 1865 had reached 181,500 people. Between 1880 and 1910, there was an influx of Eastern Europeans of various nationalities, the first nationwide census in South Africa was held in 1911 and indicated a white population of 1,276,242. By 1936 there were an estimated 2,003,857 white South Africans, South Africas white population increased to over 3,408,000 by 1965, reached 4,050,000 in 1973, and peaked at 5,044,000 in 1990. The number of white South Africans resident in their home country began gradually declining between 1990 and the mid-2000s as a result of increased emigration, whites continue to play a role in the South African economy and across the political spectrum. Whites number approximately 4.5 to 5 million, or nearly 9% of South Africas population and this represents a decline, both numerically and proportionately, since the countrys first multiracial elections in 1994. Just under a million white South Africans are also living as expatriate workers abroad, under the 1950 Population Registration Act, each inhabitant of South Africa was classified into one of several different race groups, of which White was one. Many criteria, both physical and social were used when the decided to classify someone as white or coloured. This was ventral extended to all those considered the children of two White persons, regardless of appearance, the Act was repealed on 17 June 1991. The 1994 Employment Equity legislation favours employment of black South Africans over the white population, however, private enterprise adheres to this legislation voluntarily. This combined with a wave of violent crime has led to vast numbers of Afrikaners, there are 40,000 white farmers in South Africa. Since 1994 close to three thousand farmers have murdered in thousands of farm attacks, with many being brutally tortured and/or raped. Some victims have been burned with smoothing irons or had boiling water poured down their throats, since 1994 there has been significant emigration of white people from South Africa. There are thus currently large Afrikaner and English-speaking South African communities in the UK, between 1995 and 2005, more than one million South Africans have emigrated, citing violent and racially motivated black on white crime as the main reason
12.
First language
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A first language is a language that a person has been exposed to from birth or within the critical period. If there are multiple L1, the designation first language is used for the L1 spoken the best or the one that is the basis for sociolinguistic identity. In some countries, the native language or mother tongue refers to the language of ones ethnic group rather than ones first language. Children brought up speaking more than one language can have more than one native language, by contrast, a second language is any language that one speaks other than ones first language. Native speakers are considered to be an authority on their language because of their natural acquisition process regarding the language. That is achieved by interaction with the language and speakers of the language. Native speakers will not necessarily be knowledgeable about every rule of the language. Sometimes, the mother tongue or mother language is used for the language that a person learned as a child at home. Children growing up in homes can, according to this definition, have more than one mother tongue or native language. It is quite possible that the first language learned is no longer a dominant language. According to Ivan Illich, the mother tongue was first used by Catholic monks to designate a particular language they used, instead of Latin. That is, the mother the Church introduced this term. J. R. R. Tolkien, in his 1955 lecture English and Welsh, on 17 November 1999, UNESCO designated 21 February as International Mother Language Day. The first language of a child is part of the personal, social and cultural identity, another impact of the first language is that it brings about the reflection and learning of successful social patterns of acting and speaking. It is basically responsible for differentiating the linguistic competence of acting and that has implications on the education of non-native speakers. The topic of native speaker also gives way to discussion about what exactly bilingualism is, one definition is that a person is bilingual by being equally proficient in both languages. A person who grows up speaking English and begins learning Spanish for four years is not necessarily bilingual unless he speaks the two languages with equal fluency, one can have two or more native languages, thus being a native bilingual or indeed multilingual. The order in which languages are learned is not necessarily the order of proficiency
13.
Zulu language
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Zulu is the language of the Zulu people, with about 10 million speakers, the vast majority of whom live in South Africa. Zulu is the most widely spoken language in South Africa. It became one of South Africas 11 official languages in 1994, according to Ethnologue, it is the second most widely spoken of the Bantu languages, after Shona. Like many other Bantu languages, it is written with the Latin alphabet, even in English, the language is often referred to by using its native form, isiZulu. Zulu migrant populations have taken it to adjacent regions, especially Zimbabwe, Xhosa, the predominant language in the Eastern Cape, is often considered mutually intelligible with Zulu. Maho lists four dialects, central KwaZulu-Natal Zulu, northern Transvaal Zulu, eastern coastal Qwabe, the Zulu, like Xhosa and other Nguni people, have lived in South Africa for a long time. The Zulu language possesses several click sounds typical of Southern African languages, the Nguni people have coexisted with other Southern tribes like the San and Khoi. Zulu, like most indigenous Southern African languages, was not a written language until the arrival of missionaries from Europe, the first grammar book of the Zulu language was published in Norway in 1850 by the Norwegian missionary Hans Schreuder. The first written document in Zulu was a Bible translation that appeared in 1883, in 1901, John Dube, a Zulu from Natal, created the Ohlange Institute, the first native educational institution in South Africa. He was also the author of Insila kaShaka, the first novel written in Zulu, another pioneering Zulu writer was Reginald Dhlomo, author of several historical novels of the 19th-century leaders of the Zulu nation, U-Dingane, U-Shaka, U-Mpande, U-Cetshwayo and U-Dinizulu. Other notable contributors to Zulu literature include Benedict Wallet Vilakazi and, more recently, the written form of Zulu was controlled by the Zulu Language Board of KwaZulu-Natal. This board has now disbanded and superseded by the Pan South African Language Board which promotes the use of all eleven official languages of South Africa. English, Dutch and later Afrikaans had been the official languages used by all South African governments before 1994. However, in the Kwazulu bantustan the Zulu language was widely used, all education in the country at the high-school level was in English or Afrikaans. Since the demise of apartheid in 1994, Zulu has been enjoying a marked revival, zulu-language television was introduced by the SABC in the early 1980s and it broadcasts news and many shows in Zulu. Zulu radio is very popular and newspapers such as isoLezwe, Ilanga and UmAfrika in the Zulu language are available, mainly available in Kwazulu-Natal province, in January 2005 the first full-length feature film in Zulu, Yesterday, was nominated for an Oscar. South African matriculation requirements no longer specify which South African language needs to be taken as a second language, and some people have made the switch to learning Zulu. However people taking Zulu at high-school level overwhelmingly take it as a first language, according to statistics, in the 1994 film The Lion King, in the Circle of Life song, the phrases Ingonyama nengw enamabala, Nans ingonyama bakithi Baba and Siyonqoba were used
14.
Sotho language
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Like all Bantu languages, Sesotho is an agglutinative language, which uses numerous affixes and derivational and inflexional rules to build complete words. Within the Sotho-Tswana group, Sesotho proper is most closely related to Lozi, the Northern Sotho group is geographical, and includes a number of dialects also closely related to Sesotho-Lozi. Tswana is also known as Western Sesotho, Sotho is a tribal suffix, i. e. the name of the Sotho people or Basotho, while Sesotho is the term for the language of the Basotho. Use of Sesotho rather than Sotho language in English has seen increasing use since the 1980s, especially in South African English, the Nguni language Phuthi has been heavily influenced by Sesotho, its speakers have mixed Nguni and Sotho–Tswana ancestry. It seems that it is sometimes treated erroneously as a dialect of Sesotho called Sephuthi, however, Phuthi is mutually unintelligible with standard Sesotho and thus cannot in any sense be termed a dialect of it. These were the first peoples to be called Basotho, before many of their descendants, the situation is even further complicated by various historical factors, such as members of parent clans joining their descendants or various clans calling themselves by the same names. According to the South African National Census of 2011, there were almost four million first language Sesotho speakers recorded in South Africa – approximately eight per cent of the population. Sesotho is also the language spoken by the people of Lesotho. The census fails, to record other South Africans for whom Sesotho is a second or third language, such speakers are found in all major residential areas of Metropolitan Municipalities - such as Johannesburg, and Tshwane - where multilingualism and polylectalism are very high. Sesotho is one of the official languages of South Africa. Sesotho is one of the languages from which the pseudo-language Tsotsitaal is derived. Tsotsitaal is not a language, as it is primarily a unique vocabulary. It is a part of the culture in most Southern Gauteng townships and is the primary language used in Kwaito music. The sound system of Sesotho is unusual in many respects and it has ejective consonants, click consonants, a uvular trill, a relatively large number of affricate consonants, no prenasalised consonants, and a rare form of vowel-height harmony. In total, the language contains some 39 consonantal and 9 vowel phonemes and it also has a large number of complex sound transformations which often change the phones of words due to the influence of other sounds. The most striking properties of Sesotho grammar, and the most important properties which reveal it as a Bantu language, are its noun gender, the grammatical gender system does not encode sex gender, and indeed, Bantu languages in general are not grammatically marked for gender. Another well-known property of the Bantu languages is their agglutinative morphology, additionally, they tend to lack any grammatical case systems, indicating noun roles almost exclusively through word order. Sotho calendar Sotho people South African Translators Association Sesotho Online A gentle introduction to the Sesotho language, weblog on Sesotho Translate. org. za Project translating Free and Open Source Software into South African languages, including Sesotho
15.
Tswana language
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The Tswana language, Setswana, is a language spoken in southern Africa by about five million people. Tswana is a language and lingua franca of Botswana. The two South African provinces with largest number of speakers are Gauteng Province and North West Province, until 1994, South African Tswana people were notionally citizens of Bophuthatswana, one of the bantustans of the apartheid regime. The first European to describe the Tswana language was the German traveller H. Lichtenstein and he mistakenly regarded Tswana as a dialect of the Xhosa language, and the name he used for the language Beetjuana may also have covered the Northern- and Southern Sotho languages. In the following years he published other books of the Bible. Masego was the first to speak the language, the first grammar of the Tswana language was published in 1833 by the missionary James Archbell, although it was modelled on a Xhosa grammar. The first grammar of Tswana which regarded it as a language from Xhosa was published by the French missionary E. Casalis in 1841. He changed his mind later, and in a publication from 1882 he noted that the Northern-, in 1876 the South African intellectual and linguist Solomon Plaatje was born, and he became one of the first writers to extensively write in and about the Tswana language. The vowel inventory of Tswana can be seen below, some dialects have two additional vowels, the close-mid vowels /e/ and /o/. The consonant inventory of Tswana can be seen below, the consonant /d/ is merely an allophone of /l/, when the latter is followed by the vowels /i/ or /u/. Tswana also has three click consonants, but these are used in interjections or ideophones, and tend only to be used by the older generation. The three click consonants are the dental click /ǀ/, orthographically ⟨c⟩, the lateral click /ǁ/, orthographically ⟨x⟩, there are some minor dialectal variations among the consonants between speakers of Tswana. For instance, /χ/ is realised as either /x/ or /h/ by many speakers, /f/ is realised as /h/ in most dialects, and /tɬ/ and /tɬʰ/ are realised as /t/ and /tʰ/ in northern dialects. Stress is fixed in Tswana and thus falls on the penult of a word. The syllable on which the falls is lengthened. Tswana has two tones, high and low, although the latter has a wider distribution in words than the former. Tones are not marked orthographically which may lead to ambiguity, if a syllable bears a high tone, the following two syllables will also get high tones, unless they are at the end of the word. The nine classes and their respective prefixes can be seen below, some nouns may be found in several classes
16.
Tsonga language
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Tsonga is a southern African Bantu language spoken by the Tsonga people. It was officially created in 1875 at the Valdezia Mission Station, the Swiss Missionaries refused to recognise Tswa and Ronga as independent languages from Xitsonga because, according to them, Tswa and Ronga are 99% related to Xitsonga. At Valdezia Mission Station and the Elim Mission Station, Tswa, but in Mozambique, Tswa, Ronga and Xitsonga continue to exist as independent languages. The name Tsonga is the root of Xitsonga, Mutsonga, Vatsonga, in the language of the Vatsonga themselves, the root never appears by itself. It is Tsonga for the ease and accessibility of the international community. As for the origins of the name, there are three theories, the first states that Tsonga is another pronunciation for Dzonga, which means south and also the name of one of the dialects of Xitsonga. The second theory is that is comes from Thonga, the Zulu way of saying slave, why the people would be called slaves is unclear. The other Zulu explanation is that Zulu people have difficulty pronouncing r, however, rh in Tsonga becomes th in Zulu. An example is rhuma becomes thuma, the third and most accepted is that it is another pronunciation for Rhonga, the root for the word vurhonga for east or the direction where the sun rises. Vurhonga also means morning in Xitsonga, Rhonga is one of the Tsonga languages. The physical evidence of most Tsonga people residing along the eastern coast of Africa in the south, extending inland in a westward direction, Tsonga people and languages are, Chopi, Gwamba, Ndau, Ronga, Tonga and Tswa. Among these languages, three groups can be identified. These are S50, S60, and Ndau language, currently falling under the Shona group, in total there are six recognised languages. Chope Group Chopi dialects are Copi, Khambani, Lambwe, Lenge, Ndonge, Ndau Group Ndau dialects are Changa, Danda, Dondo, Gova, Ndau, and Tswa-Ronga Group Ronga dialects are Kalanga, Konde, Putru, and Ssonge. Gwamba dialects are Bila, Changana, Djonga, Hlanganu, Hlave, Kande, Khosa, Luleke, Nwalungu, Nkuma, Songa, Valoyi, Xika, Tswa dialects are Dzibi, Dzibi-Dzonga, Tshwa, Hlengwe, Khambani, Makwakwe-Khambani, Mandla, Ndxhonge, and Nhayi. Some dialects are subdialects but have been mentioned here for completeness, for example, Valoyi and Luleke comprise the Nwalungu dialect. There is no Gwamba dialect as Gwamba is another name for Xitsonga itself, formally Xitsonga has been called Gwamba. Tswa-Ronga dialects not considered part of the family include Pulana and it has been said that the two dialects that unite all Tswa-Ronga languages are Nkuna and Khosa
17.
South African Standard Time
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South African Standard Time is the time zone used by all of South Africa, as well as Swaziland and Lesotho. The zone is two hours ahead of UTC and is the same as Central Africa Time, daylight saving time is not observed in either time zone. Thus, most of South Africas population experience true solar noon at approximately 12,00 daily, the western Northern Cape and Western Cape differ however. Everywhere on land west of 22°30′ E effectively experiences year-round daylight saving time because of its location in true UTC+1, sunrise and sunset are thus relatively late in Cape Town compared to the rest of the country. Before 8 February 1892, there was no uniformity of time in South Africa, in 1892, a railway conference was held in Bloemfontein and discussed difficulty of working a railway system, in the absence of a uniform time system. The governments of the Orange Free State, Transvaal and the Cape Colony officially adopted a standard time of Greenwich Mean Time +01,30 which was defined as mean time 22. 5° east of Greenwich. On 1 March 1903 GMT+02,00 was adopted, which became the current UTC+02,00 when UTC replaced GMT for most purposes, prior to 1 March 1903, the Colony of Natal was already using a uniform time supplied by the Natal Observatory. The observatorys local mean time was GMT+1,57, South Africa observed a daylight saving time of GMT+3,00 between 20 September 1942 to 21 March 1943 and 19 September 1943 to 21 March 1944. South African Standard Time is defined as Coordinated Universal Time plus two hours
18.
Apartheid
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Apartheid was a system of institutionalised racial segregation and discrimination in South Africa between 1948 and 1991, when it was abolished. The countrys first multiracial elections under a universal franchise were held three years later in 1994, Apartheid as a policy was embraced by the South African government shortly after the ascension of the National Party during the countrys 1948 general elections. Apartheid was also enforced in South West Africa until it gained independence as Namibia in 1990, with the rapid growth and industrialisation of the British Cape Colony in the nineteenth century, racial policies and laws became increasingly rigid. Cape legislation that discriminated specifically against black Africans began appearing shortly before 1900, the policies of the Boer republics were also racially exclusive, for instance, the Transvaal constitution barred nonwhite participation in church and state. Places of residence were determined by racial classification, from 1960 to 1983,3.5 million nonwhite South Africans were removed from their homes, and forced into segregated neighbourhoods, in one of the largest mass removals in modern history. Most of these targeted removals were intended to restrict the population to ten designated tribal homelands, also known as bantustans. The government announced that relocated persons would lose their South African citizenship as they were absorbed into the bantustans, Apartheid sparked significant international and domestic opposition, resulting in some of the most influential global social movements of the twentieth century. It was the target of frequent condemnation in the United Nations, some reforms of the apartheid system were undertaken, including allowing for Indian and coloured political representation in parliament, but these measures failed in appeasing most activist groups. In 1990, prominent ANC leaders such as Nelson Mandela were released from detention, Apartheid legislation was abolished in mid-1991, pending multiracial elections set for April 1994. Apartheid is an Afrikaans word meaning separateness, or the state of being apart and its first recorded use was in 1929. The governors and assemblies that governed the process in the various colonies of South Africa were launched on a different and independent legislative path from the rest of the British Empire. In the days of slavery, slaves required passes to travel away from their masters, in 1797 the Landdrost and Heemraden of Swellendam and Graaff-Reinet extended pass laws beyond slaves and ordained that all Khoikhoi moving about the country for any purpose should carry passes. Ordinance No.49 of 1828 decreed that prospective black immigrants were to be granted passes for the purpose of seeking work. These passes were to be issued for Coloureds and Khoikhoi, but not for other Africans, the United Kingdoms Slavery Abolition Act 1833 abolished slavery throughout the British Empire and overrode the Cape Articles of Capitulation. To comply with the act the South African legislation was expanded to include Ordinance 1 in 1835 and this was followed by Ordinance 3 in 1848, which introduced an indenture system for Xhosa that was little different from slavery. The Glen Grey Act of 1894, instigated by the government of Prime Minister Cecil John Rhodes limited the amount of land Africans could hold, in 1905 the General Pass Regulations Act denied blacks the vote, limited them to fixed areas and inaugurated the infamous Pass System. The Asiatic Registration Act required all Indians to register and carry passes, one of the first pieces of segregating legislation enacted by Jan Smuts United Party government was the Asiatic Land Tenure Bill, which banned land sales to Indians. The United Party government began to move away from the enforcement of segregationist laws during World War II
19.
South African general election, 1948
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The parliamentary election in South Africa on 26 May 1948 represented a turning point in the countrys history. During the election battle, both the UP and the NP formed coalitions with smaller parties, the UP was aligned with the left-leaning Labour Party, while the Afrikaner Party sought to advance Afrikaner rights by allying with the HNP. The HNP, realising that many White South Africans felt threatened by black political aspirations, the Nationalists labelled this new system of social organisation apartheid, the name by which it became universally known. The HNP also took advantage of white fear of crime. In contrast to the HNPs consistent, straightforward platform, the UP supported vague notions of slowly integrating the different racial groups within South Africa. Together, the HNP and the Afrikaner Party won 79 seats in the House of Assembly against a total of 74 won by the UP. By a quirk of the First Past the Post system the NP had won more seats, the Nationalist coalition subsequently formed a new government and ushered in the era of formal, legally binding apartheid. In 1951, the HNP and the Afrikaner Party merged, returning to the name National Party, one of the central issues facing the white electorate in the 1948 election was that of race. The United Party and the National Party presented voters with differing answers to questions relating to racial integration in SA, in contrast to this seemingly vague ideology, the NP advanced the notion of further strictly enforced segregation between races and the total dis-empowerment of black South Africans. Rural to urban movement by blacks was to be discouraged, the UP position was supported by the Fagan Commission while the Sauer Commission informed the NPs stance. The putative policy of apartheid proposed by the NP served the interests of certain groups of white South Africans. Many commercial and financial Afrikaner interests based on saw the value of apartheid in promoting growth in this sector. The UP failed to realise the economic benefits of apartheid to these large and influential groups. As regards election tactics, the NP was extremely adroit at exploiting white fears while campaigning in the 1948 election, NP propaganda linked black political power to Communism, an anathema to many white South Africans at the time. Slogans such as Swart Gevaar, Rooi Gevaar, Die kaffer op sy plek, much was made of the fact that Smuts had developed a good working relationship with Joseph Stalin during World War II, when South Africa and the USSR were allies in the fight against Nazi Germany. Smuts had once remarked that he doffs his cap to Stalin, the Smuts governments controversial immigration programme served to further inflame Afrikaner disquiet. Under this programme, numerous British immigrants had moved to South Africa and were perceived to have taken homes, in preparation for the 1948 election, the NP moderated its stance on republicanism. English speaking South Africans tended to favour a relationship with the UK
20.
Coloured vote constitutional crisis
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The crisis ended when the government enlarged the Senate and altered its method of election, allowing the amendment to be successfully enacted. Before the creation of the Union of South Africa, elections in the Cape Colony were conducted on the basis of the qualified franchise and this meant that the right to vote was limited to men meeting property and literacy qualifications, but not restricted on the basis of race. The South Africa Act, which was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, unified these four colonies to form the Union but preserved their franchise arrangements unchanged. Section 35 was entrenched by section 152, which provided that neither section 35 nor section 152 itself could be amended without a similar supermajority in joint session. Although this Act was passed by the required joint-session supermajority, its validity was challenged by a voter in the case of Ndlwana v Hofmeyr. In 1948, the National Party, campaigning on a platform of apartheid, the following year, Prime Minister D. F. The bill attracted much opposition both inside and outside Parliament, the United Party leader J. G. N. A group of Coloured activists formed the National Convention Co-ordinating Committee to oppose the bill within constitutional limits, the Franchise Action Council, a multi-racial organisation, led a campaign of rallies, strikes and civil disobedience. The Torch Commando was founded by white Second World War veterans in response to the bill, the Governor-General gave his assent on 15 June 1951 and the act was promulgated on 18 June. G. Harris, E. Franklin, W. D. Collins and this decision was immediately taken on appeal to the Appellate Division. The governments first contention was that the act did not disqualify voters on the basis of race, as all voters previously qualified were still able to vote, the court dismissed this argument as untenable. The governments claim regarding the Statute of Westminster was based on two principal theories, the first was based on the repeal of the application of the Colonial Laws Validity Act to South Africa. The Colonial Laws Validity Act provided that any act of a parliament would be valid within the colony unless it contradicted a British act applying to the colony. The second theory was that, by expanding the powers of the dominion parliaments. Section 2 of the Statute of Westminster gave a dominion parliament the power to repeal or amend any act of the British Parliament as it applied in the dominion. This did not affect the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty, as Parliament was fully sovereign over South Africa, the court ruled that it was entitled to overrule its own previous decisions if they were clearly wrong. In Ndlwana there had been no discussion of the Statute of Westminster nor any argument for or against the conclusion drawn by the court, and the court therefore felt free to overrule it. The resulting order of the Appellate Division was that the Separate Representation of Voters Act was invalid, null and void and of no legal force, the ruling, authored by Chief Justice Albert van der Sandt Centlivres and handed down on 20 March 1952, was unanimous
21.
Sharpeville massacre
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The Sharpeville massacre was an event which occurred on 21 March 1960, at the police station in the South African township of Sharpeville in Transvaal. After a day of demonstrations against pass laws, a crowd of about 5,000 to 7,000 black protesters went to the police station, the South African Police opened fire on the crowd, killing 69 people. In present-day South Africa,21 March is celebrated as a holiday in honour of human rights. South African governments since the century had enacted measures to restrict the flow of black South Africans into cities. Pass laws intended to control and direct their movement and employment were updated in the 1950s, under the countrys National Party government, black residents in urban districts were subject to influx control measures. From the 1960s, the laws were the primary instrument used by the state to detain. The African National Congress prepared to initiate a campaign of protests against pass laws. On March 21, a group of between 5,000 and 10,000 people converged on the police station in the township of Sharpeville. The Sharpeville police were not completely unprepared for the demonstration, as they had already forced to drive smaller groups of more militant activists away the previous night. By 10,00, a crowd had gathered. Fewer than 20 police officers were present in the station at the start of the protest. Later the crowd grew to about 20,000, and the mood was described as ugly, prompting about 130 police reinforcements, supported by four Saracen armoured personnel carriers, the police were armed with firearms, including Sten submachine guns and Lee–Enfield rifles. There was no evidence that anyone in the gathering was armed with anything other than rocks, f-86 Sabre jets and Harvard Trainers approached to within a hundred feet of the ground, flying low over the crowd in an attempt to scatter it. The protesters responded by hurling stones and menacing the police barricades, tear gas proved ineffectual, and policemen elected to repel these advances with their batons. At about 13,00 the police tried to arrest a protestor, resulting in a scuffle, the official figure is that 69 people were killed, including 8 women and 10 children, and 180 injured, including 31 women and 19 children. Many were shot in the back as they turned to flee, Police reports in 1960 claimed that young and inexperienced police officers panicked and opened fire spontaneously, setting off a chain reaction that lasted about forty seconds. It is likely that the police were nervous as two months before the massacre nine constables had been assaulted and killed during a raid at Cato Manor, in addition, few of the policemen present had received public order training. Some of them had been on duty for over twenty-four hours without respite, for them to gather means violence
22.
Rivonia Trial
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The Rivonia Trial took place in South Africa between 9 October 1963 and 12 June 1964. The Rivonia Trial led to the imprisonment of Nelson Mandela and the others among the accused who were convicted on life sentences in the Palace of Justice, Pretoria. The Rivonia Trial was named after Rivonia, the suburb of Johannesburg where leaders had arrested at Liliesleaf Farm, privately owned by Arthur Goldreich. The farm had been used as a hideout for the African National Congress, among others, Nelson Mandela had moved onto the farm in October 1961 and evaded security police while masquerading as a gardener and cook called David Motsamayi. Most of the Rivonia defendants were to be convicted, and in turn sentenced to life imprisonment, the government took advantage of legal provisions allowing for accused persons to be held for 90 days without trial, and the defendants were held incommunicado. Withstanding beatings and torture, Goldreich and Wolpe escaped from jail on 11 August and their escape infuriated the prosecutors and police who considered Goldreich to be the arch-conspirator. The chief prosecutor was Dr. Percy Yutar, deputy attorney-general of the Transvaal, the presiding judge was Dr. Quartus de Wet, judge-president of the Transvaal. The first trial indictment document listed 11 names as the accused, the trial began in October 1963. Counsel for the accused successfully challenged the legal sufficiency of the document, the second indictment thus only listed 10 out of the original 11 names, referring to them as Accused 1 through 10. Hilda Bernstein approached Joffe, after being rebuffed by other lawyers who claimed to be too busy or afraid to act for her husband, Joffe was subsequently also approached by Albertina Sisulu, Annie Goldberg and Winnie Mandela. Joffe agreed to act as attorney for all of the accused except Kantor, who would require separate counsel, Joffe initially secured the services of advocates Arthur Chaskalson and George Bizos, then persuaded Bram Fischer to act as lead counsel. Vernon Berrangé was also recruited to join the team of advocates. He thus arranged a separate defence team, while Harold Hanson primarily represented Kantor, he was also invited to deliver the plea for mitigation for the other 9 accused. The defence line-up for Kantor was John Coaker Harold Hanson George Lowen H. C, production requirements for munitions for a six-month period were sufficient, the prosecutor Percy Yutar said in his opening address, to blow up a city the size of Johannesburg. Kantor was discharged at the end of the prosecutions case, the trial was condemned by the United Nations Security Council and nations around the world, leading to international sanctions against the South African government in some cases. Arthur Goldreich and Harold Wolpe escaped from The Fort prison in Johannesburg while on remand after bribing a prison guard. After hiding in safe houses for two months they escaped to Swaziland dressed as priests with the aid of Manni Brown who posed as a tour operator as a cover to deliver weapons to the ANC. From Swaziland, Vernon Berrangé was to charter a plane to take them on to Lobatse, wolpes escape saw his brother-in-law James Kantor, who had been serving as a member of the defence team, arrested and charged with the same crimes as Mandela and his co-accused
23.
Soweto uprising
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The Soweto uprising was a series of protests led by black school children in South Africa that began on the morning of 16 June 1976. Students from numerous Sowetan schools began to protest in the streets of Soweto in response to the introduction of Afrikaans as the medium of instruction in local schools and it is estimated that 20,000 students took part in the protests. They were met with police brutality. The number of killed by police is usually given as 176. In remembrance of these events, the 16th of June is now a holiday in South Africa. The Regional Director of Bantu Education, J. G, indigenous languages would only be used for religious instruction, music, and physical culture. The association of Afrikaans with apartheid prompted black South Africans to prefer English, even the Bantustan regimes chose English and an indigenous African language as official languages. In addition, English was gaining prominence as the language most often used in commerce, the 1974 decree was intended to forcibly reverse the decline of Afrikaans among black Africans. The Afrikaner-dominated government used the clause of the 1909 Union of South Africa Act that recognised only English, while all schools had to provide instruction in both Afrikaans and English as languages, white South African students learned other subjects in their home language. Punt Janson, the Deputy Minister of Bantu Education at the time, was quoted as saying and he may work for an employer who is either English-speaking or Afrikaans-speaking and the man who has to give him instructions may be either English-speaking or Afrikaans-speaking. Why should we now start quarrelling about the medium of instruction among the Black people as well, no, I have not consulted them and I am not going to consult them. Teacher organisations, such as the African Teachers Association of South Africa, a change in language of instruction forced the students to focus on understanding the language instead of the subject material. This made critical analysis of the content difficult and discouraged critical thinking, the resentment grew until 30 April 1976, when children at Orlando West Junior School in Soweto went on strike, refusing to go to school. Their rebellion then spread to other schools in Soweto. Black South African students protested because they believed that they deserved to be treated, a student from Morris Isaacson High School, Teboho Tsietsi Mashinini, proposed a meeting on 13 June 1976 to discuss what should be done. Students formed an Action Committee, which organised a rally for 16 June. On the morning of 16 June 1976, between 10,000 and 20,000 black students walked from their schools to Orlando Stadium for a rally to protest against having to learn through Afrikaans in school. Many students who participated in the protest arrived at school that morning without prior knowledge of the protest
24.
Alexander Sinton Secondary School
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Alexander Sinton Secondary School, also known as Alexander Sinton High School, is an English-medium school in Crawford, a suburb of Cape Town, South Africa. The school is located in the Cape Flats, a designated as non-white under the Group Areas Act during apartheid. The school was involved in the student uprisings of the 1970s and 1980s. Staff and students at the school made headlines when they barricaded the police into their school in September 1985, the following month, three youths were killed near the school by police officers who opened fire on protesters in the Trojan Horse Incident. It was the first school to be visited by Nelson Mandela after his release from prison, as of 2014, the school has 1,100 pupils, half boys and half girls. The school employs 40 teachers and six non-teaching staff, the school was named for its benefactor Alexander Sinton, who bequeathed money to found the school in 1951. In 1976 Nabil Swart, a teacher at the school, was arrested after helping a student who had shot during the protests. Swart was released on bail after being detained for a weekend, internal resistance to apartheid intensified, and a state of emergency was declared in parts of the country in 1985. The Committee of 81, a student organisation representing coloured schools in the Western Cape which organised student boycotts and protests, held some meetings at the school in 1985. The school effectively stopped teaching from February and was closed on 6 September when the government ordered more than 400 schools to close as a result of civil unrest. Some teachers resigned their positions and others were confused as to their role, the Teachers League of South Africa, a professional association for coloured teachers, encouraged its members not to resign for the sake of the children. Teachers decided to teach, but not to co-operate with the authorities, the school defiantly re-opened on 17 September 1985 when the principal, Khalied Desai, led teachers, uniformed students and parents who sang protest songs. The police were aware of the plans, and arrived quickly. The students threw stones, built barricades and the police replied with armoured vehicles, tear gas, rubber bullets, Teachers and parents supported the students and their protests against injustice. The police had difficulty taking away the people they had arrested, the New York Times noted that the action taken by coloured teachers and students at the school was remarkably different to the boycotts taking place at black schools. Swart was again jailed for two weeks in 1985 for helping to re-open the school, the state of emergency was extended to include Cape Town on 25 October 1985, giving the police and army greater powers to deal with instability in the area. Swart was again jailed for eighteen months in 1986 for his involvement in the school unrest, on 15 October 1985 three male youths, aged 11,15 and 21, were killed by the police nearby in Belgravia Road in Athlone in what was called the Trojan Horse Incident. Students and activists had gathered where they regularly had battles with the police and were stoning vehicles, most of the people in the crowd were from the school
25.
Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa
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The apartheid system in South Africa was ended through a series of negotiations between 1990 and 1993 and through unilateral steps by the de Klerk government. These negotiations took place between the governing National Party, the African National Congress, and a variety of other political organisations. Negotiations took place against a backdrop of violence in the country. The negotiations resulted in South Africas first non-racial election, which was won by the African National Congress, apartheid was a system of racial discrimination and segregation in South African government. It was formalised in 1948, forming a framework for political and economic dominance by the white population, between 1960 and 1990, the African National Congress and other mainly black opposition political organisations were banned. As the National Party cracked down on opposition to apartheid, most leaders of ANC. The declarations purpose was to provide a blueprint for government of South Africa for racial peace in South Africa and it called for negotiations involving all peoples, in order to draw up constitutional proposals stressing opportunity for all with a Bill of Rights to safeguard these rights. It suggested that the concept was the appropriate framework for such changes to take place. It also affirmed that change must take place through non-violent means. The declaration was the first of such agreements by acknowledged black, the commitment to the peaceful pursuit of political change was declared at a time when neither the National Party nor the African National Congress were looking to peaceful solutions or dialogue. The declaration was heralded by the English speaking press as a breakthrough in race relations in South Africa, shortly after it was issued, the declaration was endorsed by several chief ministers of the black homelands, including Cedric Phatudi, Lucas Mangope and Hudson Nisanwisi. These meetings were secret in nature and were designed to develop an understanding about whether there were sufficient common grounds for peace talks. As these meetings evolved, a level of trust developed between the key actors, to facilitate future talks while preserving secrecy needed to protect the process, Barnard arranged for Mandela to be moved off Robben Island to Pollsmoor Prison in 1982. This provided Mandela with more comfortable lodgings, but also gave access in a way that could not be compromised. Barnard therefore brokered an agreement in principle about what became known as talks about talks. It was at this stage that the process was elevated from an engagement to a more public engagement. The first less-tentative meeting between Mandela and the National Party government came while P. W. Botha was State President, in November 1985, Minister Kobie Coetsee met Mandela in the hospital while Mandela was being treated for prostate surgery. This new phase was designed to test public opinion about a negotiated solution, when F. W. de Klerk became President in 1989, he was able to build on the previous secret negotiations with the imprisoned Mandela
26.
Chris Hani
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Chris Hani, born Martin Thembisile Hani, was the leader of the South African Communist Party and chief of staff of Umkhonto we Sizwe, the armed wing of the African National Congress. He was an opponent of the apartheid government, and was assassinated on 10 April 1993. Thembisile Hani was born on 28 June 1942 in the town of Cofimvaba. He was the fifth of six children and he attended Lovedale school in 1957, to finish his last two years. He twice finished two school grades in a single year, when Hani was 12 years old, after hearing his fathers explanations about apartheid and the African National Congress, he wished to join the ANC but was still too young to be accepted. In Lovedale school, Hani joined the ANC Youth League when he was 15 years old and he influenced other students to join the ANC. In 1959, at the University of Fort Hare in Alice, Eastern Cape, Hani studied English, Latin and modern and he did not participate in any sport, saying I would rather fight apartheid than play sport. Hani, in an interview on the Wankie campaign, mentioned that he was a Rhodes University graduate, at age 15 he joined the ANC Youth League. As a student he was active in protests against the Bantu Education Act, following his graduation, he joined Umkhonto we Sizwe, the armed wing of the ANC. Following his arrest under the Suppression of Communism Act, he went into exile in Lesotho in 1963, because of Hanis involvement with Umkhonto we Sizwe he was forced into hiding by the South African government during which time he changed his first name to Chris. He received military training in the Soviet Union and served in campaigns in the Zimbabwean War of Liberation and they were joint operations between Umkhonto we Sizwe and the Zimbabwe Peoples Revolutionary Army in the late 1960s. The Luthuli Detachment operation consolidated Hanis reputation as a soldier in the army that took the field against apartheid. His role as a fighter from the earliest days of MKs exile was an important part in the fierce loyalty Hani enjoyed in some quarters later as MKs Deputy Commander. In 1969 he co-signed, with six others, the Hani Memorandum which was critical of the leadership of Joe Modise, Moses Kotane. In Lesotho he organised guerrilla operations of the MK in South Africa, by 1982, Hani had become prominent enough that he was the target of assassination attempts, and he eventually moved to the ANCs headquarters in Lusaka, Zambia. He supported the suspension of the ANCs armed struggle in favour of negotiations, Chris Hani was assassinated on 10 April 1993 outside his home in Dawn Park, a racially mixed suburb of Boksburg. He was accosted by a Polish far-right anti-communist immigrant named Janusz Waluś, Waluś fled the scene, but was arrested soon afterwards after Hanis neighbour, a white Afrikaner woman, called the police. Clive Derby-Lewis, a senior South African Conservative Party M. P. and Shadow Minister for Economic Affairs at the time, the Conservative Party of South Africa had broken away from the ruling National Party out of opposition to the reforms of P. W. Botha
27.
African National Congress
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The African National Congress is the Republic of South Africas governing social democratic political party. It has been the party of post-apartheid South Africa on the national level, beginning with the election of Nelson Mandela in the 1994 election. Today, the ANC remains the dominant political party in South Africa and its leader Jacob Zuma is the incumbent head of state, with Atul Gupta being the official head of government. On 8 April 1960, the administration of Charles Robberts Swart, banned the ANC, after the ban, the ANC formed the Umkhonto we Sizwe to fight against apartheid utilizing guerrilla warfare and sabotage. On 3 February 1990, State President F. W. de Klerk lifted the ban on the ANC, on 17 March 1992, the apartheid referendum was passed by the voters removing apartheid and allowing the ANC to run in the 1994 election. Since the 1994 election the ANC has performed better than 60% in all general elections, the founding of the SANNC was in direct response to injustice against black South Africans at the hands of the government then in power. It can be said that the SANNC had its origins in a pronouncement by Pixley ka Isaka Seme who said in 1911, Forget all the past differences among Africans, the SANNC was founded the following year on 8 January 1912. The government of the newly formed Union of South Africa began a systematic oppression of people in South Africa. The Land Act was promulgated in 1913 forcing many non-whites from their farms into the cities and towns to work, by 1919, the SANNC was leading a campaign against passes. However, it became dormant in the mid-1920s. During that time, black people were represented by the ICU. In 1923, the became the African National Congress. By 1927, J. T. Gumede proposed co-operation with the Communists in a bid to revitalise the organisation and this led to the ANC becoming largely ineffectual and inactive, until the mid-1940s when the ANC was remodelled as a mass movement. The ANC responded to attacks on the rights of black South Africans, as well as calling for strikes, boycotts and this led to a later Defiance Campaign in the 1950s, a mass movement of resistance to apartheid. The government tried to stop the ANC by banning party leaders and enacting new laws to stop the ANC, the government claimed that this was a communist document, and consequently leaders of the ANC and Congress were arrested. 1960 saw the Sharpeville massacre, in which 69 people were killed when police opened fire on anti-apartheid protesters, in 1961, partly in response to the Sharpeville massacre, Umkhonto we Sizwe was established as the military wing to launch bomb attacks. It was considered as terrorist group by South African government, later the United States government, MK commenced the military struggle against apartheid with acts of sabotage aimed at the installations of the state, and in the early stages was reluctant to target civilian targets. MK was responsible for the deaths of civilians and members of the military
28.
Azanian People's Liberation Army
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The Azanian Peoples Liberation Army, formerly known as Poqo, was the military wing of the Pan Africanist Congress, an African nationalist movement in South Africa. After attacks on and the murder of white families the APLA was subsequently classified as a terrorist organisation by the South African National government and the United States. APLA was disbanded and integrated into the South African National Defence Force in June 1994, in 1968 the Azanian Peoples Liberation Army replaced defunct Poqo as the armed wing of the PAC. Its name was derived from Azania, the ancient Greek name for Southern Africa, Azania is the name that has been applied to various parts of southeastern tropical Africa. In the Roman period and perhaps earlier, the referred to a portion of the Southeast African coast extending from Kenya. Poqo was founded in 1961 following the massacre of PAC-led protestors at the hands of police outside the Sharpeville police station the previous year. Potlako Leballo, the chairman of the PAC at the time of the formation of its wing in the 1960s, modelled APLA on the Chinese Peoples Liberation Army. Two white residents, Frans Richard and Rencia Vermeulen were killed and this attack was followed by the murder of a family camping at Bashee River in the Transkei on 4 February 1963. Norman and Elizabeth Grobbelaar, their teenage daughters Edna and Dawn, after the Soweto uprising in 1976, a number of students went into exile in APLA camps elsewhere on the African continent. Ntantalas original group of 70 APLA soldiers felt threatened by the influx of new recruits, leading Ntantala to attempt a coup against then commander and this was prevented by LLA soldiers, a move which exacerbated tensions within two PAC factions, the Diplomat-Reformist and Maoist-Revolutionary factions. Leballo himself relocated to Zimbabwe in late 1980 along with senior intelligence, pressure from Tanzania, however, resulted in his deportation in May–June 1981, as well as the deportation or imprisonment of the others. Make was replaced by John Nyathi Pokela, but his term of office was marred by further mutinies. Following Pokela’s death, Leballo made a comeback through support from Libya, North Korea, after his sudden death in January 1986, the DR faction, outmaneuvered by the ANC, fell into disarray leaving behind the legacy of a semi-national socialist political front. After 1986, APLA rejected the MR factions concept of the guerrilla as a reformer and instead adopted an ultimately disastrous rallying cry of One Settler. In the 1990–94 period, the became known for its attacks on civilians despite the progress in negotiations at the Convention for a Democratic South Africa. In 1993, the APLA’s chief commander, Sabelo Phama, declared that he would aim his guns at children - to hurt whites where it hurts most. Phama proclaimed 1993 as The Year of the Great Storm and sanctioned the attacks on civilians, King William’s Town Golf Club on 28 November 1992. Highgate Hotel in East London on 1 May 1993, killing five people, st James Church massacre in Kenilworth on 25 July 1993, killing 11 people during a church service
29.
Inkatha Freedom Party
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The Inkatha Freedom Party is a political party in South Africa. Since its founding, it has been led by Mangosuthu Buthelezi, gatsha Mangosuthu Buthelezi, a former member of the ANC Youth League, founded the Inkatha National Cultural Liberation Movement, which later became the IFP, on 21 March 1975. Buthelezi used a structure rooted in Inkatha, a 1920s cultural organisation for Zulus established by Zulu King Solomon kaDinuzulu. The party was established in what is now KwaZulu-Natal, after which branches of the party quickly sprang up in the Transvaal, the Orange Free State and the Western Cape. Because of Buthelezis former position in the African National Congress, the two organisations were very close and each supported the other in the anti-apartheid struggle. As a Homeland leader, the power of Buthelezi depended on the South African state, with anti-apartheid leaders inside South Africa and abroad demanding sanctions, Buthelezi came to be regarded more and more as a government puppet, along with other Bantustan leaders. His tribal loyalties and focus on ethnic interests over national unity were also criticised as contributing to the programme of the IFP. This led to a civil war between Zulu loyalist supporters and ANC members in KwaZulu-Natal. During the phase of establishing a constitution for South Africa and prior to the first free elections in South African history, both the IFP and ANC attempted to campaign in each others KwaZulu-Natal strongholds, and were met with resistance, sometimes violent, by members of the opposing party. As a result, the IFP abstained from registering its party for the 1994 election, however, once it became obvious that its efforts were not going to stop the election, the party was registered at the eleventh hour. On election day, the IFP displayed its political strength by taking the majority of the votes for KwaZulu-Natal, after the dismantling of apartheid system in 1994, the IFP formed an uneasy coalition in KwaZulu-Natal with their traditional political rival, the ANC. This coalition was to last until 2004, when the IFP joined the Democratic Alliance, the ANC/IFP rivalry, characterised by sporadic acts of political violence, has been firm since 1993. In 2004, while campaigning in Vulindlela, an IFP bastion in the Pietermaritzburg Midlands region, previously the stronghold of Moses Mabhida, this area has long been the site of heated clashes between the parties. The IFP also states that Our proposals are designed to give control over their lives. We also have the political will to deal effectively with these problems, gavin Woods, one of the partys most respected MPs, drew up a highly critical 11 page internal discussion document at the request of the parliamentary caucus after a discussion in October 2004. Woods also warned the party that it must treat Buthelezi as the leader of a political party, Woods pinpointed 1987 as the year when the IFP started losing ground as a political force. Before 1987, Woods contends, the party had a strong, Woods criticized the IFPs inability to end the ANCs campaign of violence against it, and an impotent attitude towards the attacks conducted against it by the ANC. At the first caucus discussion, Woods read out the 11-page paper in full, IFP president Mangosuthu Buthelezi was absent from that meeting but raised it at a meeting of the partys national council, which Woods did not attend
30.
Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging
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The Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging is a South African neo-nazi separatist political and paramilitary organisation, often described as a white supremacist group. Since its founding in 1973, it has dedicated to secessionist Afrikaner nationalism. In its heyday in the 1980s and 1990s, when the nation was moving toward sharing political power with Black people, when the Afrikaners National Party gained control of the government in the elections of 1948, it began to introduce official apartheid. The AWB was formed in 1973 by Eugène TerreBlanche and six other far-right Afrikaners, terreblanche remained the leader until he was murdered on his farm in 2010. TerreBlanche was succeeded as leader by Steyn van Ronge, by the late 20th century, media reported that the AWB represented Afrikaners who were not able to make the leap from the isolated dirt farms even with the huge boost of apartheid. On 7 July 1973 Eugène TerreBlanche, a police officer, called a meeting of several men in Heidelberg, Gauteng. TerreBlanche also worried about what he characterized as communist influences in South African society and he decided to form a group with six other like-minded persons, which they named the Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging, to promote Afrikaner nationalism. His associates elected him as head of the group, a position he held until he was killed on his farm in April 2010 and their objective was to establish an independent Boerestaat for Boer-Afrikaner people only. It was to be independent of apartheid South Africa, which they considered too left wing, during the 1970s and 1980s, the AWB attracted several thousand white South Africans as members. They opposed the reform of laws during the 1980s, harassing liberal politicians. TerreBlanche used his flamboyant oratorial skills and forceful personality to win converts, during the State of Emergency, AWB violence and murders of unarmed non-whites were reported. The AWB especially opposed the then-banned African National Congress, which worked to achieve rights for the indigenous native South Saharan Africans. The ruling National Party considered the AWB to be more than a fringe group. The group operated relatively unhindered until 1986, when police officers took the unprecedented step of using tear gas against the AWB when they disrupted a National Party rally. In 1988, the organisation was estimated to have had support amongst 5 to 7 percent of the white South African population, in the Nick Broomfield documentary film, His Big White Self, he claimed the organisation reached a peak of half a million supporters in its heyday. In the mid-1980s, the AWB instituted a Voedingskema, later called the Volkshulpskema, the scheme delivered a meal every day to 14,000 poor Afrikaner children in Pretoria. Certain farmers also donated vegetables on an almost weekly basis, in the winter, bedding was donated as well. Sympathetic mine owners and farmers arranged jobs for unemployed Afrikaners on the farms, Afrikaans singer Bles Bridges held a concert on 3 March 1987 in Pretoria and gave the 10,000 rand raised to the project
31.
Democratic Party (South Africa)
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The Democratic Party was the name of the South African political party now called the Democratic Alliance. The Progressive Federal Party had formed the parliamentary opposition to the Apartheid regime in the whites only House of Assembly since 1977. This led to disillusionment amongst South Africas white liberal community. The new party had three co-leaders from each of the parties that had entered the merger, Zach de Beer, Denis Worrall, de Beer, from the dominant PFP-faction, eventually became the sole leader, however. It went on to win 34 seats in the 1989 election, in 1990, the NP shifted towards the center. This shift narrowed the political space available to the DP, in the 1994 election, the party won a disappointing 7 seats in the democratic parliament. Following the election, Tony Leon became the sole leader. Under Leons leadership, the DP would become the most active and influential opposition party in the National Assembly, in 1998, political columnist Howard Barrell wrote that Seven DP MPs make their National Party counterparts look like 80 feather dusters. The DP won its first local by-election against the NP in March 1997, in the Western Cape province, it achieved kingmaker status and became the junior partner in a governing coalition with the renamed New National Party. This electoral success came at a price, however, the partys new supporters largely came from the National Party and consisted overwhelmingly of ethnic minorities, mainly whites. Leon and other party leaders dismissed this, however, to unify national opposition against the ANC government, the DP and the NNP began to plan a merger of the two parties. Accordingly, the DP was renamed Democratic Alliance in June 2000, the merger agreement was short-lived, with the NNP leaving the alliance in 2001, but DA chose to retain its new name, adopting it at all levels of government from 2003 onwards. Contributions to liberal theory Liberal democracy Liberalism Liberalism in South Africa Liberalism worldwide List of liberal parties Democratic Alliance website
32.
End Conscription Campaign
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The End Conscription Campaign was an anti-apartheid organisation allied to the United Democratic Front and composed of conscientious objectors and their supporters in South Africa. It was formed in 1983 to oppose the conscription of all white South African men into service in the South African Defence Force. Valid reasons included conscientious objection based on beliefs, but these exceptions were tightened in 1974. Increasingly stringent laws were passed increasing periods of service, broadening the base of white men who could be called up. Conscripts comprised a significant part of South African Defence Force, the End Conscription Campaign was formed in 1983, in protest against compulsory military service. The ECC was founded in response to a passed by Black Sash at their annual conference. Conscientious objection was a choice as the consequences were severe. The reasons for conscientious objection included political, ethical and religious reasons, some religious organisations, parent groups and student organisations such as the National Union of South African Students also engaged in anti-conscription activities. At its peak, conscription in South Africa consisted of two years of military service, followed by camps at intervals. Under apartheid, the applied to all white men after completing their schooling or further studies. Objections to military service and the War in Angola were generally based on the role of the military, the military had also become increasingly active in suppressing a civil war in South Africas black townships. Many conscripts simply went Absent Without Leave, failed to arrive at BASICS or got lost in the system and it was announced in parliament that 7589 conscripts failed to report for National Service in January 1985, as opposed to only 1596 in the whole of 1984. As there were two intakes annually, in January and July, this would suggest an increase in non-reportees over the previous year. An estimated additional 7000 draft-dodgers were also said to be living in Europe in 1985, the motion was passed unanimously. He proposed the same motion at the Annual Conference of the PFP in Cape Town a few months later which passed with little opposition. 1452 people opted for the Alternative to Conscription between 1984 and the cancelling of Conscription in South Africa in 1993, January 1985 and July 1985 were the first so-called immigrant intakes after the involuntary nationalisation of white immigrant men of a predetermined age group in November 1984. Handlers objection was based upon the notion of an Unjust War as opposed to the Pacifist position held by many Christian students, the organisation was banned in August 1988 under emergency regulations. The same month, an issue of a newspaper, the Weekly Mail, was confiscated by security police, on the grounds that it had covered. News coverage included a cartoon, an advertisement from War Resisters International, as a result of the banning of the ECC and confiscation of the Weekly Mail, protests at the University of Cape Town and other campuses were held
33.
Federation of South African Trade Unions
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The Federation of South African Trade Unions was a trade union federation formed at a congress over the weekend of 14–15 April 1979 in Hammanskraal and officially launched five days later on 20 April. Its roots lay in the unions which had emerged from the spontaneous 1973 strike wave by black workers in Durban, fOSATUs constitution enshrined the principles of workers control of their trade unions, non-racialism, worker independence from party politics, international worker solidarity and trade union unity. It strove to build a national federation to work towards an industrial workers bloc firmly based in strong grassroots organisation on the factory floor. It became the first truly national non-racial trade union federation in South African history, building unity, as part of its commitment to trade union unity, FOSATU was prepared to disband its structures if wider unity could be attained. Industrial and Commercial Workers Union Internal resistance to South African apartheid Trade unions in South Africa
34.
Progressive Party (South Africa)
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The Progressive Party was a liberal party in South Africa that opposed the ruling National Partys policies of apartheid, and championed the Rule of Law. For 13 years its only member of parliament was Helen Suzman and it was later renamed the Progressive Reform Party in 1975, and then Progressive Federal Party in 1977. The modern Democratic Alliance name the party as its earliest predecessor, the Progressive Party was formed by members who had left the United Party following the United Party Union Congress held in Bloemfontein starting on 11 August 1959. The delegates at the Party Congress passed policy resolutions about the rights the party wished to give to Natives. The Progressives found these resolutions unacceptable, a Progressive Group of MPs led by Dr Bernard Friedman, began to organize a new party. The first meeting of the Group took place at the home of Helen Suzman and this meeting took place on 23–24 August 1959. The Progressive Party began its founding Congress on 13 November 1959, jan Steytler, a former Cape leader of the United Party, was elected the first leader of the new Party. At the session of Parliament in 1960, the Progressive Party had twelve MPs, eleven had been first elected for the United Party and one defected from the Liberal Party of South Africa. At the General Election, held on 18 October 1961, Helen Suzman was the only Progressive Party candidate to be elected and it would be thirteen years before she again had party colleagues in Parliament. In that time Mrs Suzman was re-elected in 1966 and 1970, jan Steytler continued as party leader until December 1970, but being outside Parliament he was far less visible than the member for Houghton. Harry Lawrence, a former Minister and the most senior of the MPs who had left the United Party in 1959, in February 1971 Colin Eglin from Cape Town was elected party leader. At the next General Election, on 24 April 1974, the Progressive Party made a major advance, in addition to Mrs Suzman, re-elected for Houghton, five other members won seats including Colin Eglin. A seventh member of the caucus was elected at a by-election soon after, a group of reformists broke away from the left wing of the United Party in February 1975. Four MPs led by Harry Schwarz, formed the Reform Party, the Reform Party merged with the Progressive Party to form the Progressive Reform Party, following Congresses held in Johannesburg on 25 and 26 July 1975. Subsequently the PRP merged with another group from the United Party
35.
Reform Party (South Africa)
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The Reform Party was an anti-apartheid political party that existed for just five months in 1975 and is one of the predecessor parties to the Democratic Alliance. Schwarz and others were opposed to apartheid and called for a much more rigorous opposition to the National Party. They said that no longer felt the UP was the vehicle in which we can travel the path of verligtheid. The party had four MPs, two senators, ten members of the Transvaal Provincial Council,14 out of the 36 Johannesburg City Councillors and this made it the official opposition in the Transvaal Provincial Council. There was much division in the United party, between liberals and conservatives in the 1960s and early 1970s. Divisions came to a head in 1972 when Harry Schwarz, leader of the liberal Young Turks within the party and his victory was a visible sign of strength from the liberals within the party. At the Reform Partys first meeting it mapped out the partys objectives, among the main ones were,1. The Reform Party believes in equality of opportunity and must create the conditions in which equality of opportunity can be exercised, the Reform Party stands for the removal of discrimination based on colour. It must get together with the people of other races to evolve a way in which discrimination will be removed, although closer to the Progressives agenda, the new Reform Party made no immediate move to merge the two parties. Eventually the party merged with the Progressive Party on 25 July 1975 to form the Progressive Reform Party with Colin Eglin as the new leader and this proved to realign the opposition in South Africa, as the PRP became the official opposition party following the demise of the UP. In 1977 another group of United Party members left the Party to form the Committee for a United Opposition, which then joined the Progressive Reform Party to form the Progressive Federal Party
36.
Progressive Federal Party
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The Progressive Federal Party was a South African political party formed in 1977. It advocated power-sharing in South Africa through a constitution, in place of apartheid. The party was preceded by the Progressive Party as the opposition to the National Party. While the main opposition United Party contained liberal factions, the PP had for years been the only purely liberal party represented in parliament. A realignment began when members of the UP left to found the Reform Party in 1975. The PFP would become the opposition in the 1977 election, winning 17 seats. Another well known parliamentarian and prominent member of the party was Harry Schwarz who had led the Reform Party and he was the chairman of the Federal Executive, finance spokesman and defence spokesman. He was regarded as the PFPs greatest parliamentary performer and was amongst the most prominent and it was ousted as the official opposition by the far-right Conservative Party in the whites-only parliamentary elections held on May 6,1987. This electoral blow led many of the PFPs leaders to question the value of participating in the whites-only parliament, in 1989, the PFP and NDM merged with another small white reformist party, the Independent Party, to form the Democratic Party, predecessor to the modern Democratic Alliance. Leaders of the Progressive Federal Party, Federalism Liberalism Contributions to liberal theory Liberalism worldwide List of liberal parties Liberal democracy Liberalism in South Africa
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Soweto travel guide from Wikivoyage
