1.
Orlan space suit
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The Orlan space suit is a series of semi-rigid one-piece space suit models designed and built by NPP Zvezda. They have been used for spacewalks in the Russian space program, the successor to the Soviet space program, the first spacewalk using an Orlan suit took place on December 20,1977, on the Soviet space station Salyut 6, during the Soyuz 26 mission. Yuri Romanenko and Georgi Grechko tested the Orlan-D space suit, the Orlan-DM was used for the first time on August 2,1985, by the cosmonauts Vladimir Dzhanibekov and Viktor Savinykh of Salyut 7. The Orlan-M continued in use on Mir from 1997 until the end of the operational life. Orlan space suits have been used by Russian, American, European, china calls their Orlan-M suits Hǎi yīng. On February 3,2006, a retired Orlan fitted with a radio transmitter, in June 2009, the latest computerized Orlan-MK version was tested during a five-hour spacewalk to install new equipment on the International Space Station. The new suits main improvement is the replacement of the equipment in the Portable Life Support System backpack which contains a mini-computer. This computer processes data from the various systems and provides a malfunction warning. It then outlines a plan which is displayed on an LCD screen on the right chest part of the spacesuit. The Orlan space suit has gone through several models, space-rated designations include the Orlan-D, Orlan-DM, Orlan-DMA, and Orlan-M models, the Orlan-GN, Orlan-T, and Orlan-V are used in training and are used underwater. The latest model, called Orlan-MK, was tested during a spacewalk in June,2009, the Orlan-D expanded the operation time to three hours, the Orlan-M to nine hours. The Orlan space suit is semi-rigid, with a solid torso and it includes a rear hatch entry through the backpack that allows it to be donned relatively quickly. The first Orlan suits were attached to the spacecraft by a tether that supplied power. The Orlan-DM and later models are self-sustaining, Name, Orlan Lunar orbital spacesuit Manufacturer, NPP Zvezda Missions, Development occurred from 1967-1971, no flight models were produced. Function, Extra-vehicular activity Operating pressure,400 hPa Suit weight,59 kg Primary life support,5 hours Name, Orlan-D Manufacturer, NPP Zvezda Missions, Developed from 1969-1977. Function, Extra-vehicular activity Operating Pressure,400 hPa Suit Weight,73.5 kg Primary Life Support,5 hours Name, Orlan-DM Manufacturer, NPP Zvezda Company Missions, Used on Salyut-7 and Mir. Function, Extra-vehicular activity Operating pressure,400 hPa Suit weight,88 kg Primary life support,6 hours Name, Orlan-DMA Manufacturer, NPP Zvezda Missions, Used on Mir. Function, Extra-vehicular activity Operating Pressure,400 hPa Suit Weight,105 kg Primary Life Support,7 hours Name, Orlan-M Manufacturer, NPP Zvezda Missions, Used on Mir and ISS
2.
Astronaut
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An astronaut or cosmonaut is a person trained by a human spaceflight program to command, pilot, or serve as a crew member of a spacecraft. Although generally reserved for professional space travelers, the terms are applied to anyone who travels into space, including scientists, politicians, journalists. Starting in the 1950s up to 2002, astronauts were sponsored and trained exclusively by governments, with the suborbital flight of the privately funded SpaceShipOne in 2004, a new category of astronaut was created, the commercial astronaut. The criteria for what constitutes human spaceflight vary, the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale Sporting Code for astronautics recognizes only flights that exceed an altitude of 100 kilometers. In the United States, professional, military, and commercial astronauts who travel above an altitude of 50 miles are awarded astronaut wings. As of 17 November 2016, a total of 552 people from 36 countries have reached 100 km or more in altitude, of which 549 reached low Earth orbit or beyond. Of these,24 people have traveled beyond Low Earth orbit, to either lunar or trans-lunar orbit or to the surface of the moon, the three astronauts who have not reached low Earth orbit are spaceplane pilots Joe Walker, Mike Melvill, and Brian Binnie. As of 17 November 2016, under the U. S. definition 558 people qualify as having reached space, of eight X-15 pilots who exceeded 50 miles in altitude, only one exceeded 100 kilometers. Space travelers have spent over 41,790 man-days in space, as of 2016, the man with the longest cumulative time in space is Gennady Padalka, who has spent 879 days in space. Peggy A. Whitson holds the record for the most time in space by a woman,377 days, dryden preferred cosmonaut, on the grounds that flights would occur in the cosmos, while the astro prefix suggested flight to the stars. Most NASA Space Task Group members preferred astronaut, which survived by common usage as the preferred American term, when the Soviet Union launched the first man into space, Yuri Gagarin in 1961, they chose a term which anglicizes to cosmonaut. In English-speaking nations, a space traveler is called an astronaut. The term derives from the Greek words ástron, meaning star, the first known use of the term astronaut in the modern sense was by Neil R. Jones in his short story The Deaths Head Meteor in 1930. The word itself had been known earlier, for example, in Percy Gregs 1880 book Across the Zodiac, astronaut referred to a spacecraft. In Les Navigateurs de lInfini of J. -H, rosny aîné, the word astronautique was used. The word may have inspired by aeronaut, an older term for an air traveler first applied to balloonists. An early use in a publication is Eric Frank Russells poem The Astronaut in the November 1934 Bulletin of the British Interplanetary Society. NASA applies the term astronaut to any crew member aboard NASA spacecraft bound for Earth orbit or beyond, NASA also uses the term as a title for those selected to join its Astronaut Corps
3.
Michael Fincke
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Edward Michael Mike/Spanky Fincke is an American astronaut who formerly held the American record for the most time in space. His record was broken by Scott Kelly on October 16,2015 and he was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, but considers its suburb Emsworth to be his hometown. He is a United States Air Force officer and a NASA astronaut and he flew on one Space Shuttle mission, STS-134 as a Mission Specialist. Fincke is conversant in Japanese and Russian and he is married to Renita Saikia, and together they have three children, son Chandra and daughters Tarali and Surya. Fincke logged just under 382 days in space, placing him second among American astronauts for the most time in space and he completed nine spacewalks in Russian Orlan spacesuits and American EMUs. His total EVA time is 48 hours and 37 minutes placing him 9th all time on the list of spacewalkers, Fincke graduated from Sewickley Academy in Sewickley, Pennsylvania, in 1985. He also attended El Camino College in Torrance, California, where he studied Japanese, immediately after graduating from MIT in 1989, Fincke attended a summer exchange program with the Moscow Aviation Institute in the former Soviet Union, now Russia, where he studied Cosmonautics. There he served as a Space Systems Engineer and a Space Test Engineer, in 1994, upon completion of the U. S. In January 1996, he reported to the Gifu Test Center, Fincke as of 2005 has over 800 flight hours in more than 30 different varieties of aircraft and holds the rank of Colonel. Fincke belongs to the Geological Society of America and the British Interplanetary Society, Fincke was selected by NASA in April 1996 to be an astronaut. He reported to the Johnson Space Center in August 1996, in July 1999, Fincke was assigned as backup crewmember for the International Space Station Expedition 4 crew. Additionally he served as a backup for the ISS Expedition 6 crew and is qualified to fly as a left-seat Flight Engineer on the Russian Soyuz spacecraft. He was the commander of the second NASA Extreme Environment Mission Operations mission, Fincke was the space station science officer and flight engineer for ISS Expedition 9 from April 18 through October 23,2004. Expedition 9 was launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome, Kazakhstan aboard the Soyuz TMA-4 spacecraft, Fincke spent six-months aboard the ISS continuing ISS science operations, maintaining station systems, and performing four spacewalks. The Expedition-9 mission concluded with undocking from the station and safe landing back in Kazakhstan on October 23,2004. Fincke completed his first mission in 187 days,21 hours and 17 minutes, Fincke was the back-up Commander for Expedition 13 and Expedition 16. Fincke was commander of Expedition 18 and he arrived at the International Space Station aboard the Soyuz TMA-13 on October 14,2008 with Cosmonaut Yuri Lonchakov and space flight participant Richard Garriott. While Richard Garriott was aboard, Fincke participated during his time in filming and starring in the first science-fiction movie made in space
4.
International Space Station
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The International Space Station is a space station, or a habitable artificial satellite, in low Earth orbit. Its first component launched into orbit in 1998, and the ISS is now the largest man-made body in space, the ISS consists of pressurised modules, external trusses, solar arrays, and other components. ISS components have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets, the ISS serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in which crew members conduct experiments in biology, human biology, physics, astronomy, meteorology, and other fields. The station is suited for the testing of systems and equipment required for missions to the Moon. The ISS maintains an orbit with an altitude of between 330 and 435 km by means of reboost manoeuvres using the engines of the Zvezda module or visiting spacecraft and it completes 15.54 orbits per day. The ISS is the space station to be inhabited by crews, following the Soviet and later Russian Salyut, Almaz. The station has continuously occupied for 16 years and 156 days since the arrival of Expedition 1 on 2 November 2000. This is the longest continuous presence in low Earth orbit. It has been visited by astronauts, cosmonauts and space tourists from 17 different nations, Soyuz has very limited downmass capability. The ISS programme is a joint project among five participating space agencies, NASA, Roscosmos, JAXA, ESA, the ownership and use of the space station is established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements. The station is divided two sections, the Russian Orbital Segment and the United States Orbital Segment, which is shared by many nations. As of January 2014, the American portion of ISS is being funded until 2024, Roscosmos has endorsed the continued operation of ISS through 2024 but has proposed using elements of the Russian Orbital Segment to construct a new Russian space station called OPSEK. On 28 March 2015, Russian sources announced that Roscosmos and NASA had agreed to collaborate on the development of a replacement for the current ISS. NASA later issued a statement expressing thanks for Russias interest in future co-operation in space exploration. According to the original Memorandum of Understanding between NASA and Rosaviakosmos, the International Space Station was intended to be a laboratory, observatory and factory in low Earth orbit. It was also planned to provide transportation, maintenance, and act as a base for possible future missions to the Moon, Mars. In the 2010 United States National Space Policy, the ISS was given roles of serving commercial, diplomatic. The ISS provides a platform to conduct scientific research, the ISS simplifies individual experiments by eliminating the need for separate rocket launches and research staff
5.
Apollo/Skylab A7L
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The A7L designation is used by NASA as the seventh Apollo spacesuit designed and built by ILC Dover. The A7L is an evolution of ILCs initial design A5L and the A6L. After the deadly Apollo 1 fire, the suit was upgraded to be fire-resistant, metal rings at the neck and forearms allowed for the connection of the pressure gloves and the famous Apollo fishbowl helmet. A cover layer, which was designed to be fireproof after the deadly Apollo 1 fire, was attached to the pressure garment assembly and was removable for repairs and inspection. All A7L suits featured a vertical zipper that went from the assembly of the suit down to the crotch for donning and doffing the suit. The 4 lower connectors passed oxygen, an electrical headset/biomed connector was on the right. Covering the Torso Limb Suit Assembly was an Integrated Thermal Micrometeoroid Garment and this garment protected the suit from abrasion and protected the astronaut from thermal solar radiation and micrometeoroids which could puncture the suit. Additionally, the ITMG also used a patch of Chromel-R woven steel for abrasion protection from the Portable Life Support System backpack, Chromel-R was also used on the uppers of the lunar boots and on the EVA gloves. Finally, patches of Teflon were used for additional protection on the knees waist. Starting with Apollo 13, a red band of Beta cloth was added to the commanders ITMG on each arm and leg, water was supplied to the LCG from the PLSS backpack, where the circulating water was chilled by an ice sublimator. The Command Module pilot had a TSLA similar to the commander and lunar module pilot, for example, the CMPs TSLA had only one set of gas connectors instead of two, and had no water cooling connector. Also deleted was the relief valve in the sleeve of the suit. The TSLA for the CMP also deleted an arm bearing that allowed the arm to rotate above the elbow, Command module pilots only wore a three-layer Intravehicular Cover Layer of nomex and beta cloth for fire and abrasion protection. The CMP wore a cotton fabric union suit called the Constant Wear Garment underneath the TSLA instead of the water cooled Liquid Cooling Garment. His cooling came directly from the flow of oxygen into his suit via an umbilical from the environmental control system. When not performing lunar EVAs, the LMP and CDR also wore a CWG instead of the LCG, originally developed by ILC-Dover as the A9L, but given the designation A7LB by NASA, the new suit incorporated two new joints at the neck and waist. The waist joint was added to allow the astronaut to sit on the LRV, in addition, the EVA backpacks were modified to carry more oxygen, lithium hydroxide, more power, and cooling water for the longer EVAs.7 psi IVA Suit Weight,64. The suit had a simplified and less expensive Integrated Thermal and Micrometeroid Garment, the assembly was worn on the astronauts waist and served as the interface between the umbilical and the suit
6.
Buzz Aldrin
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Buzz Aldrin is an American engineer and former astronaut. As the Lunar Module Pilot on Apollo 11, he was one of the first two humans to land on the Moon, and the person to walk on it. He set foot on the Moon at 03,15,16 on July 21,1969 and he is a former U. S. Air Force officer with the Command Pilot rating. Aldrin was born January 20,1930, in Mountainside Hospital, in Glen Ridge and his parents were Edwin Eugene Aldrin Sr. a career military man, and Marion Aldrin, who lived in neighboring Montclair. He is of Scottish, Swedish, and German ancestry, Aldrin was a Boy Scout and earned the rank of Tenderfoot Scout. The nickname Buzz originated in childhood, the younger of his two elder sisters mispronounced brother as buzzer, and this was shortened to Buzz, Aldrin made it his legal first name in 1988. Aldrin graduated third in his class at West Point in 1951 with a Bachelor of Science degree in mechanical engineering and he was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant in the United States Air Force and served as a jet fighter pilot during the Korean War. He flew 66 combat missions in F-86 Sabres and shot down two Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 aircraft, the June 8,1953, issue of Life magazine featured gun camera photos taken by Aldrin of one of the Soviet pilots ejecting from his damaged aircraft. That same year, he graduated from the Squadron Officer School at Maxwell Air Force Base in Alabama and he flew F-100 Super Sabres as a flight commander at Bitburg Air Base, West Germany, in the 22d Fighter Squadron. In January 1963, Aldrin earned a Sc. D. degree in astronautics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, if only I could join them in their exciting endeavors. On completion of his doctorate, he was assigned to the Gemini Target Office of the Air Force Space Systems Division in Los Angeles before his selection as an astronaut, Aldrin was selected as a member of the third group of NASA astronauts in October 1963. Because test pilot experience was no longer a requirement, this was the first selection for which he was eligible, after the deaths of the original Gemini 9 prime crew, Elliot See and Charles Bassett, Aldrin and Jim Lovell were promoted to backup crew for the mission. He was confirmed as pilot on Gemini 12, the last Gemini mission and he set a record for EVA, demonstrating that astronauts could work outside spacecraft. Aldrin was chosen for the crew of Apollo 11 and made the first lunar landing with commander Neil Armstrong on July 20,1969. The next day, Aldrin became the person to walk on the Moon. Aldrins first words on the Moon were Beautiful view, then, in response to Armstrong asking, Isnt it magnificent. He was also the first person to urinate while on the Moon, there has been speculation about the extent of Aldrins desire at the time to be the first astronaut to walk on the Moon and its impact on his pre-flight, in-mission and post-flight actions. Also, Armstrong was the Mission Commander, and other astronauts who would command later Apollo missions were not sympathetic to Aldrins views
7.
Apollo 11
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Apollo 11 was the spaceflight that landed the first two humans on the Moon. Mission commander Neil Armstrong and pilot Buzz Aldrin, both American, landed the lunar module Eagle on July 20,1969, at 20,18 UTC. Armstrong became the first to step onto the lunar surface six hours later on July 21 at 02,56,15 UTC and they spent about two and a quarter hours together outside the spacecraft, and collected 47.5 pounds of lunar material to bring back to Earth. Michael Collins piloted the command module Columbia alone in lunar orbit while they were on the Moons surface, Armstrong and Aldrin spent just under a day on the lunar surface before rendezvousing with Columbia in lunar orbit. Apollo 11 was launched by a Saturn V rocket from Kennedy Space Center in Merritt Island, Florida, on July 16, and was the fifth manned mission of NASAs Apollo program. After being sent toward the Moon by the Saturn Vs upper stage, Armstrong and Aldrin then moved into the lunar module Eagle and landed in the Sea of Tranquility. They stayed a total of about 21.5 hours on the lunar surface, the astronauts used Eagles upper stage to lift off from the lunar surface and rejoin Collins in the command module. They jettisoned Eagle before they performed the maneuvers that blasted them out of orbit on a trajectory back to Earth. They returned to Earth and landed in the Pacific Ocean on July 24, broadcast on live TV to a worldwide audience, Armstrong stepped onto the lunar surface and described the event as one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind. Apollo 11 was the second all-veteran multi-person crew in human spaceflight history, a previous solo veteran flight had been made on Soyuz 1 in 1967 by Soviet cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov. Collins was originally slated to be the Command Module Pilot on Apollo 8 but was removed when he required surgery on his back and was replaced by Jim Lovell, his backup for that flight. In early 1969, Anders accepted a job with the National Space Council effective August 1969, charlie Duke, Capsule Communicator Ronald Evans Owen K. Garriott Don L. Low to suggest the Apollo 11 crew be less flippant in naming their craft. During early mission planning, the names Snowcone and Haystack were used and put in the news release, the Command Module was named Columbia after the Columbiad, the giant cannon shell spacecraft fired by a giant cannon in Jules Vernes 1865 novel From the Earth to the Moon. The Lunar Module was named Eagle for the bird of the United States, the bald eagle. The Apollo 11 mission insignia was designed by Collins, who wanted a symbol for peaceful lunar landing by the United States and he chose an eagle as the symbol, put an olive branch in its beak, and drew a lunar background with the Earth in the distance. NASA officials said the talons of the eagle looked too warlike and after some discussion, All colors are natural, with blue and gold borders around the patch. When the Eisenhower dollar coin was released in 1971, the design provided the eagle for its reverse side. The design was used for the smaller Susan B
8.
Outer space
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Outer space or just space, is the void that exists between celestial bodies, including Earth. The baseline temperature, as set by the radiation from the Big Bang, is 2.7 kelvins. In most galaxies, observations provide evidence that 90% of the mass is in a form, called dark matter. Data indicates that the majority of the mass-energy in the universe is a poorly understood vacuum energy of space which astronomers label dark energy. Intergalactic space takes up most of the volume of the Universe, there is no firm boundary where outer space starts. However the Kármán line, at an altitude of 100 km above sea level, is used as the start of outer space in space treaties. The framework for international law was established by the Outer Space Treaty. This treaty precludes any claims of sovereignty and permits all states to freely explore outer space. Despite the drafting of UN resolutions for the uses of outer space. Humans began the exploration of space during the 20th century with the advent of high-altitude balloon flights. Earth orbit was first achieved by Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union in 1961, due to the high cost of getting into space, manned spaceflight has been limited to low Earth orbit and the Moon. Outer space represents an environment for human exploration because of the dual hazards of vacuum. Microgravity also has an effect on human physiology that causes both muscle atrophy and bone loss. In addition to health and environmental issues, the economic cost of putting objects, including humans. In 350 BCE, Greek philosopher Aristotle suggested that nature abhors a vacuum and this concept built upon a 5th-century BCE ontological argument by the Greek philosopher Parmenides, who denied the possible existence of a void in space. Based on this idea that a vacuum could not exist, in the West it was held for many centuries that space could not be empty. As late as the 17th century, the French philosopher René Descartes argued that the entirety of space must be filled, in ancient China, there were various schools of thought concerning the nature of the heavens, some of which bear a resemblance to the modern understanding. In the 2nd century, astronomer Zhang Heng became convinced that space must be infinite, extending well beyond the mechanism that supported the Sun, the surviving books of the Hsüan Yeh school said that the heavens were boundless, empty and void of substance
9.
Vacuum
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Vacuum is space void of matter. The word stems from the Latin adjective vacuus for vacant or void, an approximation to such vacuum is a region with a gaseous pressure much less than atmospheric pressure. In engineering and applied physics on the hand, vacuum refers to any space in which the pressure is lower than atmospheric pressure. The Latin term in vacuo is used to describe an object that is surrounded by a vacuum, the quality of a partial vacuum refers to how closely it approaches a perfect vacuum. Other things equal, lower gas pressure means higher-quality vacuum, for example, a typical vacuum cleaner produces enough suction to reduce air pressure by around 20%. Ultra-high vacuum chambers, common in chemistry, physics, and engineering, operate below one trillionth of atmospheric pressure, outer space is an even higher-quality vacuum, with the equivalent of just a few hydrogen atoms per cubic meter on average. In the electromagnetism in the 19th century, vacuum was thought to be filled with a medium called aether, in modern particle physics, the vacuum state is considered the ground state of matter. Vacuum has been a frequent topic of debate since ancient Greek times. Evangelista Torricelli produced the first laboratory vacuum in 1643, and other techniques were developed as a result of his theories of atmospheric pressure. A torricellian vacuum is created by filling a glass container closed at one end with mercury. Vacuum became an industrial tool in the 20th century with the introduction of incandescent light bulbs and vacuum tubes. The recent development of human spaceflight has raised interest in the impact of vacuum on human health, the word vacuum comes from Latin an empty space, void, noun use of neuter of vacuus, meaning empty, related to vacare, meaning be empty. Vacuum is one of the few words in the English language that contains two consecutive letters u. Historically, there has been dispute over whether such a thing as a vacuum can exist. Ancient Greek philosophers debated the existence of a vacuum, or void, in the context of atomism, Aristotle believed that no void could occur naturally, because the denser surrounding material continuum would immediately fill any incipient rarity that might give rise to a void. Almost two thousand years after Plato, René Descartes also proposed a geometrically based alternative theory of atomism, without the problematic nothing–everything dichotomy of void, by the ancient definition however, directional information and magnitude were conceptually distinct. The explanation of a clepsydra or water clock was a topic in the Middle Ages. Although a simple wine skin sufficed to demonstrate a partial vacuum, in principle and he concluded that airs volume can expand to fill available space, and he suggested that the concept of perfect vacuum was incoherent. However, according to Nader El-Bizri, the physicist Ibn al-Haytham and the Mutazili theologians disagreed with Aristotle and Al-Farabi, using geometry, Ibn al-Haytham mathematically demonstrated that place is the imagined three-dimensional void between the inner surfaces of a containing body
10.
Spacecraft
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A spacecraft is a vehicle, or machine designed to fly in outer space. Spacecraft are used for a variety of purposes, including communications, earth observation, meteorology, navigation, space colonization, planetary exploration, on a sub-orbital spaceflight, a spacecraft enters space and then returns to the surface, without having gone into an orbit. For orbital spaceflights, spacecraft enter closed orbits around the Earth or around other celestial bodies, robotic spacecraft used to support scientific research are space probes. Robotic spacecraft that remain in orbit around a body are artificial satellites. Only a handful of interstellar probes, such as Pioneer 10 and 11, Voyager 1 and 2, orbital spacecraft may be recoverable or not. By method of reentry to Earth they may be divided in non-winged space capsules, Sputnik 1 was the first artificial satellite. It was launched into an elliptical low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957, the launch ushered in new political, military, technological, and scientific developments, while the Sputnik launch was a single event, it marked the start of the Space Age. Apart from its value as a technological first, Sputnik 1 also helped to identify the upper atmospheric layers density and it also provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere. Pressurized nitrogen in the satellites false body provided the first opportunity for meteoroid detection, Sputnik 1 was launched during the International Geophysical Year from Site No. 1/5, at the 5th Tyuratam range, in Kazakh SSR. The satellite travelled at 29,000 kilometers per hour, taking 96.2 minutes to complete an orbit and this altitude is called the Kármán line. In particular, in the 1940s there were several test launches of the V-2 rocket, as of 2016, only three nations have flown manned spacecraft, USSR/Russia, USA, and China. The first manned spacecraft was Vostok 1, which carried Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin into space in 1961, there were five other manned missions which used a Vostok spacecraft. The second manned spacecraft was named Freedom 7, and it performed a sub-orbital spaceflight in 1961 carrying American astronaut Alan Shepard to an altitude of just over 187 kilometers, there were five other manned missions using Mercury spacecraft. Other Soviet manned spacecraft include the Voskhod, Soyuz, flown unmanned as Zond/L1, L3, TKS, China developed, but did not fly Shuguang, and is currently using Shenzhou. Except for the shuttle, all of the recoverable manned orbital spacecraft were space capsules. Manned space capsules The International Space Station, manned since November 2000, is a joint venture between Russia, the United States, Canada and several other countries, some reusable vehicles have been designed only for manned spaceflight, and these are often called spaceplanes. The first example of such was the North American X-15 spaceplane, the first reusable spacecraft, the X-15, was air-launched on a suborbital trajectory on July 19,1963. The first partially reusable spacecraft, a winged non-capsule, the Space Shuttle, was launched by the USA on the 20th anniversary of Yuri Gagarins flight
11.
Pressure
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Pressure is the force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object per unit area over which that force is distributed. Gauge pressure is the relative to the ambient pressure. Various units are used to express pressure, Pressure may also be expressed in terms of standard atmospheric pressure, the atmosphere is equal to this pressure and the torr is defined as 1⁄760 of this. Manometric units such as the centimetre of water, millimetre of mercury, Pressure is the amount of force acting per unit area. The symbol for it is p or P, the IUPAC recommendation for pressure is a lower-case p. However, upper-case P is widely used. The usage of P vs p depends upon the field in one is working, on the nearby presence of other symbols for quantities such as power and momentum. Mathematically, p = F A where, p is the pressure, F is the normal force and it relates the vector surface element with the normal force acting on it. It is incorrect to say the pressure is directed in such or such direction, the pressure, as a scalar, has no direction. The force given by the relationship to the quantity has a direction. If we change the orientation of the element, the direction of the normal force changes accordingly. Pressure is distributed to solid boundaries or across arbitrary sections of normal to these boundaries or sections at every point. It is a parameter in thermodynamics, and it is conjugate to volume. The SI unit for pressure is the pascal, equal to one newton per square metre and this name for the unit was added in 1971, before that, pressure in SI was expressed simply in newtons per square metre. Other units of pressure, such as pounds per square inch, the CGS unit of pressure is the barye, equal to 1 dyn·cm−2 or 0.1 Pa. Pressure is sometimes expressed in grams-force or kilograms-force per square centimetre, but using the names kilogram, gram, kilogram-force, or gram-force as units of force is expressly forbidden in SI. The technical atmosphere is 1 kgf/cm2, since a system under pressure has potential to perform work on its surroundings, pressure is a measure of potential energy stored per unit volume. It is therefore related to density and may be expressed in units such as joules per cubic metre. Similar pressures are given in kilopascals in most other fields, where the prefix is rarely used
12.
Extravehicular activity
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Extravehicular activity is any activity done by an astronaut or cosmonaut outside a spacecraft beyond the Earths appreciable atmosphere. On each of the last three of these missions, astronauts also performed deep-space EVAs on the return to Earth, to retrieve film canisters from the outside of the spacecraft, astronauts also used EVA in 1973 to repair launch damage to Skylab, the United States first space station. A Stand-up EVA is where the astronaut does not fully leave a spacecraft and its name derives from the astronaut standing up in the open hatch, usually to record or assist a spacewalking astronaut. EVAs may be tethered, or untethered. S. The Soviet Union/Russia, the United States, and China have conducted EVAs, to support this, and other Apollo objectives, the Gemini program was spun off to develop the capability for astronauts to work outside a two-man Earth orbiting spacecraft. The Soviets were able to launch two Voskhod capsules before U. S. was able to launch its first manned Gemini, by contrast, the Gemini avionics did not require air cooling, allowing the spacewalking astronaut to exit and re-enter the depressurized cabin through an open hatch. Because of this, the American and Soviet space programs developed different definitions for the duration of an EVA, the Soviet definition begins when the outer airlock hatch is open and the cosmonaut is in vacuum. An American EVA began when the astronaut had at least his head outside the spacecraft, the USA has changed its EVA definition since. The first EVA was performed on March 18,1965 by Soviet cosmonaut Alexey Leonov, carrying a white metal backpack containing 45 minutes worth of breathing and pressurization oxygen, Leonov had no means to control his motion other than pulling on his 15.35 m tether. At the end of his walk, the suit stiffening caused a more serious problem. He improperly entered the airlock head-first and got stuck sideways and he could not get back in without reducing the pressure in his suit, risking the bends. This added another 12 minutes to his time in vacuum, and it would be almost four years before the Soviets tried another EVA. They misrepresented to the press how difficult Leonov found it to work in weightlessness, the first American spacewalk was performed on June 3,1965, by Edward H. White, II from the second manned Gemini flight, Gemini 4, for 21 minutes. White was tethered to the spacecraft, and his oxygen was supplied through a 25-foot umbilical and he was the first to control his motion in space with a Hand-Held Maneuvering Unit, which worked well but only carried enough propellant for 20 seconds. White found his tether useful for limiting his distance from the spacecraft but difficult to use for moving around, no EVAs were planned on the next three Gemini flights. The next EVA was planned to be made by David Scott on Gemini 8, astronauts on the next three Gemini flights, performed several EVAs, but none was able to successfully work for long periods outside the spacecraft without tiring and overheating. Cernan attempted but failed to test an Air Force Astronaut Maneuvering Unit which included a self-contained oxygen system, on November 13,1966, Edwin Buzz Aldrin became the first to successfully work in space without tiring, on the Gemini 12 last flight. Aldrin worked outside the spacecraft for 2 hours and 6 minutes, on January 16,1969, Soviet cosmonauts Aleksei Yeliseyev and Yevgeny Khrunov transferred from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4, which were docked together
13.
Moon
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The Moon is an astronomical body that orbits planet Earth, being Earths only permanent natural satellite. It is the fifth-largest natural satellite in the Solar System, following Jupiters satellite Io, the Moon is second-densest satellite among those whose densities are known. The average distance of the Moon from the Earth is 384,400 km, the Moon is thought to have formed about 4.51 billion years ago, not long after Earth. It is the second-brightest regularly visible celestial object in Earths sky, after the Sun and its surface is actually dark, although compared to the night sky it appears very bright, with a reflectance just slightly higher than that of worn asphalt. Its prominence in the sky and its cycle of phases have made the Moon an important cultural influence since ancient times on language, calendars, art. The Moons gravitational influence produces the ocean tides, body tides, and this matching of apparent visual size will not continue in the far future. The Moons linear distance from Earth is currently increasing at a rate of 3.82 ±0.07 centimetres per year, since the Apollo 17 mission in 1972, the Moon has been visited only by uncrewed spacecraft. The usual English proper name for Earths natural satellite is the Moon, the noun moon is derived from moone, which developed from mone, which is derived from Old English mōna, which ultimately stems from Proto-Germanic *mǣnōn, like all Germanic language cognates. Occasionally, the name Luna is used, in literature, especially science fiction, Luna is used to distinguish it from other moons, while in poetry, the name has been used to denote personification of our moon. The principal modern English adjective pertaining to the Moon is lunar, a less common adjective is selenic, derived from the Ancient Greek Selene, from which is derived the prefix seleno-. Both the Greek Selene and the Roman goddess Diana were alternatively called Cynthia, the names Luna, Cynthia, and Selene are reflected in terminology for lunar orbits in words such as apolune, pericynthion, and selenocentric. The name Diana is connected to dies meaning day, several mechanisms have been proposed for the Moons formation 4.51 billion years ago, and some 60 million years after the origin of the Solar System. These hypotheses also cannot account for the angular momentum of the Earth–Moon system. This hypothesis, although not perfect, perhaps best explains the evidence, eighteen months prior to an October 1984 conference on lunar origins, Bill Hartmann, Roger Phillips, and Jeff Taylor challenged fellow lunar scientists, You have eighteen months. Go back to your Apollo data, go back to computer, do whatever you have to. Dont come to our conference unless you have something to say about the Moons birth, at the 1984 conference at Kona, Hawaii, the giant impact hypothesis emerged as the most popular. Afterward there were only two groups, the giant impact camp and the agnostics. Giant impacts are thought to have been common in the early Solar System, computer simulations of a giant impact have produced results that are consistent with the mass of the lunar core and the present angular momentum of the Earth–Moon system
14.
Oxygen
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Oxygen is a chemical element with symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the group on the periodic table and is a highly reactive nonmetal. By mass, oxygen is the third-most abundant element in the universe, after hydrogen, at standard temperature and pressure, two atoms of the element bind to form dioxygen, a colorless and odorless diatomic gas with the formula O2. This is an important part of the atmosphere and diatomic oxygen gas constitutes 20. 8% of the Earths atmosphere, additionally, as oxides the element makes up almost half of the Earths crust. Most of the mass of living organisms is oxygen as a component of water, conversely, oxygen is continuously replenished by photosynthesis, which uses the energy of sunlight to produce oxygen from water and carbon dioxide. Oxygen is too reactive to remain a free element in air without being continuously replenished by the photosynthetic action of living organisms. Another form of oxygen, ozone, strongly absorbs ultraviolet UVB radiation, but ozone is a pollutant near the surface where it is a by-product of smog. At low earth orbit altitudes, sufficient atomic oxygen is present to cause corrosion of spacecraft, the name oxygen was coined in 1777 by Antoine Lavoisier, whose experiments with oxygen helped to discredit the then-popular phlogiston theory of combustion and corrosion. One of the first known experiments on the relationship between combustion and air was conducted by the 2nd century BCE Greek writer on mechanics, Philo of Byzantium. In his work Pneumatica, Philo observed that inverting a vessel over a burning candle, Philo incorrectly surmised that parts of the air in the vessel were converted into the classical element fire and thus were able to escape through pores in the glass. Many centuries later Leonardo da Vinci built on Philos work by observing that a portion of air is consumed during combustion and respiration, Oxygen was discovered by the Polish alchemist Sendivogius, who considered it the philosophers stone. In the late 17th century, Robert Boyle proved that air is necessary for combustion, English chemist John Mayow refined this work by showing that fire requires only a part of air that he called spiritus nitroaereus. From this he surmised that nitroaereus is consumed in both respiration and combustion, Mayow observed that antimony increased in weight when heated, and inferred that the nitroaereus must have combined with it. Accounts of these and other experiments and ideas were published in 1668 in his work Tractatus duo in the tract De respiratione. Robert Hooke, Ole Borch, Mikhail Lomonosov, and Pierre Bayen all produced oxygen in experiments in the 17th and the 18th century but none of them recognized it as a chemical element. This may have been in part due to the prevalence of the philosophy of combustion and corrosion called the phlogiston theory, which was then the favored explanation of those processes. Established in 1667 by the German alchemist J. J. Becher, one part, called phlogiston, was given off when the substance containing it was burned, while the dephlogisticated part was thought to be its true form, or calx. The fact that a substance like wood gains overall weight in burning was hidden by the buoyancy of the combustion products
15.
Gemini space suit
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The Gemini space suit is a space suit worn by American astronauts for launch, in-flight activities and landing. It was designed by NASA based on the X-15 high-altitude pressure suit, all Gemini spacesuits were developed and manufactured by the David Clark Company in Worcester, Massachusetts. The G3C and G4C suits were the primary spacesuits worn for all, the G3C consisted of six layers of nylon and Nomex, with a link net retaining layer and an outer layer of white Nomex fabric. It had removable combat-style boots, also made of Nomex fabric, along with a full-pressure helmet, on Gemini 3, the G3C suit was worn by both Gus Grissom and John W. Young and was the only flight to use this suit. The G4C suit was identical to the G3C suit, but came in two different styles, the G4C suit was worn by all subsequent Gemini crews from Gemini 4 to Gemini 12 and it was in this suit that Ed White made the first American spacewalk in 1965. On this version, the Plexiglas helmet faceplate was replaced with one made of higher strength polycarbonate plastic and this version was also worn by Buzz Aldrin on Gemini 12 for a similar AMU test, though this test was canceled two months before the mission. Additional zippers for in-flight adjustment, along with provisions for complete removal of the suit and this configuration was designated the G5C suit. During the mission, Lovell was the first person to take his pressure suit off and this led to the wearing of such flight suits from Apollo 7 to the present day. The G5C suit somewhat resembles the current Soyuz Sokol pressure suits worn by Russian-launched ISS crews, the Gemini space suit was chosen by NASA for the initial Apollo Block I Earth orbital concept demonstrator phase of Apollo. This version added new electrical and environmental disconnects, and a shell over the helmet visor. Since Apollo would use an escape system in place of Geminis ejection seats. Only two Block I flights were planned until December 1966, when the second one, to be flown by Wally Schirra, Donn F. Eisele. Astronauts Grissom, White, and Roger B, since the fire had burned through the suits, NASA added a fireproofing requirement to the new suit, which replaced the outer layer with beta cloth. The Block II suit was designated A7L and manufactured by ILC Dover, the new suit was first used on Apollo 1s replacement flight, Apollo 7 flown by Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham in October 1968. The Gemini suit was looked at for the Manned Orbiting Laboratory program and it was also the basis for NASAs Advance Crew Escape System pressure suit. The suit family system included both parachute and flotation systems, for EVAs Gemini 4 used the Ventilation Control Module, for Gemini 8-12 the Extravehicular Life Support System was used. The AMU was also meant to be launched and flown on-board Gemini 12, Gemini suit evolution is listed below. Astronautix Page on G3C Suit Astronautix Page on G4C Suit Ed Whites spacewalk
16.
Extravehicular Mobility Unit
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It was used by NASAs Space Shuttle astronauts prior to the end of the Shuttle program in 2011. The EMU, like the Apollo/Skylab A7L spacesuit, was the result of years of research, prior to donning the pressure garment, the crew member puts on a Maximum Absorbency Garment, and possibly a Thermal Control Undergarment. After donning the LCVG, the astronaut then puts on the LTA, the astronaut then dons the HUT, connects the LCVG umbilical to the umbilical in the HUT, and then locks the two parts of the suit together using the Body Seal Closure. After donning the Snoopy cap, the gloves and helmet are then locked on, the suits regulator and fans activate when the servicing umbilicals are removed and the suit reaches an internal pressure of 4.3 psi. A typical EMU can support an astronaut for 8.5 hours, to perform an EVA from the shuttle, the cabin pressure was reduced from 14.7 psi to 10.2 psi for 24 hours, after which an astronaut had to pre-breathe for 45 minutes. For EVAs on board the ISS, the astronaut must pre-breathe for about four hours, manufacturer, ILC Dover and Hamilton Standard Missions, STS-6 to STS-110 Function, orbital extra-vehicular activity Operating pressure,4. Upon receiving the contract to build the EMU in 1974, Hamilton United, during the research and development phase, a suit being tested caught fire, injuring a technician and forcing a redesign on the regulator and circulation fan. On STS-4 in July 1982, the astronauts practiced donning and doffing the suit in the Shuttles airlock, the first Shuttle EVA was to occur on STS-5, but an electrical failure on the circulation fan forced the EVA to be cancelled. Other EVAs followed on the Shuttle, notably those on STS-41-B, STS-41-C, and STS-51-A, for those flights, two sets of EVA astronauts would venture out of the orbiter, thus requiring NASA to fly four sets of suits. 41 EVAs using EMUs had been conducted out of the Space Shuttle airlock prior to the start of ISS assembly in November 1998, with the building of the ISS, Hamilton Sundstrand and ILC Dover refined the existing Shuttle EMU by making the suit modular. This allowed the EMU to be left on the ISS for up to two years and resized on-orbit to fit various crew members. They also made provisions for increased capacity, the Simplified Aid For EVA Rescue, improved cameras and radios. Currently, the ISS EMU and the Russian ORLAN are used by crews of all nationalities on the International Space Station, the two EMUs are stored within the Quest Joint Airlock. NASA continues to use the EMU on the ISS but a Z series suit may take its place. Kenneth S. Thomas & Harold J. McMann
17.
Pressure suit
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Such suits may be either full-pressure or partial-pressure. Partial-pressure suits work by providing mechanical counter-pressure to assist breathing at altitude, the region from sea level to around 3,000 m is known as the physiological-efficient zone. Oxygen levels are high enough for humans to function without supplemental oxygen. The physiological-deficient zone extends from 3,600 m to about 15,000 m, there is an increased risk of problems such as hypoxia, trapped-gas dysbarism, and evolved-gas dysbarism. Above approximately 10,000 m oxygen-rich breathing mixture is required to approximate the oxygen available in the lower atmosphere, above 15,000 m, respiration is not possible because the pressure at which the lungs excrete carbon dioxide exceeds outside air pressure. Above 19,000 m, also known as the Armstrong limit, fluids in the throat, generally, 100% oxygen is used to maintain an equivalent altitude of 3,000 m. Suits that only certain parts of the body, they can only provide protection up to a certain altitude. These do not provide protection for extended periods of time at low ambient pressure, suits that pressurize the entire body, these suits have no altitude limit. The human body can survive the hard vacuum of space unprotected. Human flesh expands to about twice its size in such conditions, consciousness is retained for up to 15 seconds as the effects of oxygen starvation set in. No snap freeze effect occurs because all heat must be lost through thermal radiation or the evaporation of liquids, the greatest danger is in attempting to hold ones breath before exposure, as the subsequent explosive decompression can damage the lungs. These effects have been confirmed through various accidents, human skin does not need to be protected from vacuum and is gas-tight by itself. Instead it only needs to be compressed to retain its normal shape. This can be accomplished with an elastic body suit and a helmet for containing breathing gases. In Russia, the first full pressure suit was designed by engineer Yevgeny Chertovsky in Leningrad in 1931, the CH-1 was a simple pressure-tight suit with a helmet which did not have joints, thus requiring substantial force to move the arms and legs when pressurised. This was remedied in later suits, work on full pressure suits was carried out during 1936-41 by the Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute, with similar work being carried out by the Gromov Flight Research Institute after World War II. The LII produced four experimental full pressure suits for aircrews, chertanovskiy used the name skafander for full pressure suits, from the French scaphandre, skafander has since become the term used by Russians to refer to standard diving dresses or space suits. In 1931, American Mark Ridge became obsessed with breaking the world record in an open gondola balloon
18.
Armstrong limit
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The Armstrong limit, often called Armstrongs line, is the altitude that produces an atmospheric pressure so low that water boils at the normal temperature of the human body,37 °C. It is named after Harry George Armstrong, who founded the U. S. Air Forces Department of Space Medicine in 1947 at Randolph Field, Armstrong was the first to recognize this phenomenon, which occurs at an altitude beyond which humans absolutely cannot survive in an unpressurized environment. Above Earth, this begins at an altitude of approximately 18 km to about 19 km. his last conscious memory was of the water on his tongue beginning to boil. At the nominal temperature of 37 °C, water has a vapour pressure of 6.3 kilopascals, which is to say, at an ambient pressure of 6.3 kilopascals. A pressure of 6.3 kPa—the Armstrong limit—is about 1/16 of the standard atmospheric pressure of 101.3 kilopascals.3 kPa is typically found at an altitude of 19,000 m. Blood pressure is a pressure, which means it is measured relative to ambient pressure. To calculate blood pressure, it has to be summed to ambient pressure for calculating when blood will boil.3 kPA pressure level occurs, if one inflates the tire to non-zero gauge pressure, this internal pressure is in addition to those 6.3 kilopascals of ambient pressure. This means that for an individual with a low blood pressure, typically 8.0 kPa, the persons blood pressure would be 14.3 kPa, the sum of the blood pressure. This pressure is more than twice the ambient pressure at the Armstrong limit and this extra pressure is more than sufficient to prevent blood from outright boiling at 18 km while the heart is still beating. Well below the Armstrong limit, humans typically require supplemental oxygen in order to avoid hypoxia, for most people, this is typically needed at altitudes above 4,500 m. Commercial jetliners are required to maintain cabin pressurization at an altitude of not greater than 2,400 m. U. S. regulations on general aviation aircraft require that the pilot, skydivers, who are at altitude only briefly before jumping, do not normally exceed 4,500 m. The Armstrong limit describes the altitude associated with an objective, precisely defined natural phenomenon, Pressure suits had long been worn at altitudes well below the Armstrong limit to avoid hypoxia. In 1936, Francis Swain of the Royal Air Force reached 15,230 m flying a Bristol Type 138 while wearing a pressure suit. A pressure suit is required at around 15,000 m for a well conditioned and experienced pilot to safely operate an aircraft in unpressurized cabins. At 11,900 m, breathing pure oxygen through a face mask. At higher altitudes, oxygen must be delivered through a mask with increased pressure. If the user does not wear a suit or a counter-pressure garment that restricts the movement of their chest
19.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
20.
SK-1 spacesuit
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SK-1 is an initialism of Skafandr Kosmicheskiy #1 is a spacesuit that was developed specially for Yuri Gagarin. As such, it is the first spacesuit ever used, the SK-1 was used from 1961-1963. Almost exactly the same as the SK-1 but designed for a woman, allowed ejections up to 8 km
21.
Yuri Gagarin
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Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin was a Russian Soviet pilot and cosmonaut. He was the first human to journey into space, when his Vostok spacecraft completed an orbit of the Earth on 12 April 1961. Gagarin became a celebrity, and was awarded many medals and titles, including Hero of the Soviet Union. Vostok 1 marked his only spaceflight, but he served as crew to the Soyuz 1 mission. Gagarin later became deputy training director of the Cosmonaut Training Centre outside Moscow, Gagarin died in 1968 when the MiG-15 training jet he was piloting crashed. The Yuri Gagarin Medal is awarded in his honor, Yuri Gagarin was born in the village of Klushino, near Gzhatsk, on 9 March 1934. His parents worked on a farm, Alexey Ivanovich Gagarin as a carpenter and bricklayer. Yuri was the third of four children, older brother Valentin, older sister Zoya, like millions of people in the Soviet Union, the Gagarin family suffered during Nazi occupation in World War II. Klushino was occupied in November 1941 during the German advance on Moscow, and an officer took over the Gagarin residence. The family was allowed to build a mud hut, approximately 3 by 3 metres inside, on the land behind their house and his two older siblings were deported by the Germans to Poland for slave labour in 1943, and did not return until after the war in 1945. In 1946, the moved to Gzhatsk, where Gagarin continued his secondary education. After graduating in 1951 from both the grade and the vocational school, he was selected for further training at the Saratov Industrial Technical School. While in Saratov, Gagarin volunteered for training as a Soviet air cadet at a local flying club. He also earned money as a part-time dock laborer on the Volga River. After graduating from the school in 1955, the Soviet Army drafted Gagarin. On a recommendation, Gagarin was sent to the First Chkalov Air Force Pilots School in Orenburg, post-graduation, he was assigned to the Luostari airbase in Murmansk Oblast, close to the Norwegian border, where terrible weather made flying risky. He became a Lieutenant in the Soviet Air Forces on 5 November 1957, in 1960, after much searching and a selection process, Yuri Gagarin was chosen with 19 other pilots for the Soviet space program. Gagarin was further selected for a training group known as the Sochi Six
22.
Nitrogen
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Nitrogen is a chemical element with symbol N and atomic number 7. It was first discovered and isolated by Scottish physician Daniel Rutherford in 1772, although Carl Wilhelm Scheele and Henry Cavendish had independently done so at about the same time, Rutherford is generally accorded the credit because his work was published first. Nitrogen is the lightest member of group 15 of the periodic table, the name comes from the Greek πνίγειν to choke, directly referencing nitrogens asphyxiating properties. It is an element in the universe, estimated at about seventh in total abundance in the Milky Way. At standard temperature and pressure, two atoms of the element bind to form dinitrogen, a colourless and odorless diatomic gas with the formula N2, dinitrogen forms about 78% of Earths atmosphere, making it the most abundant uncombined element. Nitrogen occurs in all organisms, primarily in amino acids, in the nucleic acids, the human body contains about 3% nitrogen by mass, the fourth most abundant element in the body after oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen. The nitrogen cycle describes movement of the element from the air, into the biosphere and organic compounds, many industrially important compounds, such as ammonia, nitric acid, organic nitrates, and cyanides, contain nitrogen. The extremely strong bond in elemental nitrogen, the second strongest bond in any diatomic molecule. Synthetically produced ammonia and nitrates are key industrial fertilisers, and fertiliser nitrates are key pollutants in the eutrophication of water systems. Apart from its use in fertilisers and energy-stores, nitrogen is a constituent of organic compounds as diverse as Kevlar used in high-strength fabric, Nitrogen is a constituent of every major pharmacological drug class, including antibiotics. Many notable nitrogen-containing drugs, such as the caffeine and morphine or the synthetic amphetamines. Nitrogen compounds have a long history, ammonium chloride having been known to Herodotus. They were well known by the Middle Ages, alchemists knew nitric acid as aqua fortis, as well as other nitrogen compounds such as ammonium salts and nitrate salts. The mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids was known as aqua regia, celebrated for its ability to dissolve gold, the discovery of nitrogen is attributed to the Scottish physician Daniel Rutherford in 1772, who called it noxious air. Though he did not recognise it as a different chemical substance, he clearly distinguished it from Joseph Blacks fixed air. The fact that there was a component of air that does not support combustion was clear to Rutherford, Nitrogen was also studied at about the same time by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Henry Cavendish, and Joseph Priestley, who referred to it as burnt air or phlogisticated air. Nitrogen gas was inert enough that Antoine Lavoisier referred to it as air or azote, from the Greek word άζωτικός. In an atmosphere of nitrogen, animals died and flames were extinguished
23.
Space suit
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A space suit is a garment worn to keep a human alive in the harsh environment of outer space, vacuum and temperature extremes. Space suits are worn inside spacecraft as a safety precaution in case of loss of cabin pressure. Space suits have been worn for work in Earth orbit, on the surface of the Moon. A self-contained oxygen supply and environmental control system is employed to allow complete freedom of movement, independent of the spacecraft. Three types of spacesuits exist for different purposes, IVA, EVA, IVA suits are meant to be worn inside a pressurized spacecraft, and are therefore lighter and more comfortable. IEVA suits are meant for use inside and outside the spacecraft and they include more protection from the harsh conditions of space, such as protection from micrometeorites and extreme temperature change. EVA suits, such as the EMU, are used outside spacecraft and they must protect the wearer against all conditions of space, as well as provide mobility and functionality. Some of these also apply to pressure suits worn for other specialized tasks. Above Armstrongs line, the atmosphere is so thin that pressurized suits are needed, the first full-pressure suits for use at extreme altitudes were designed by individual inventors as early as the 1930s. The first space suit worn by a human in space was the Soviet SK-1 suit worn by Yuri Gagarin in 1961, a space suit must perform several functions to allow its occupant to work safely and comfortably, inside or outside a spacecraft. It must provide, A stable internal pressure and this can be less than earths atmosphere, as there is usually no need for the space suit to carry nitrogen. Lower pressure allows for mobility, but requires the suit occupant to breathe pure oxygen for a time before going into this lower pressure. Movement is typically opposed by the pressure of the suit, mobility is achieved by careful joint design, See the Theories of space suit design section. Supply of breathable oxygen and elimination of carbon dioxide, these gases are exchanged with the spacecraft or a Portable Life Support System Temperature regulation. Since the temperature on the outside of the suit varies greatly between sunlight and shadow, the suit is heavily insulated, and air temperature is maintained at a comfortable level. Experience has shown the greatest chance of exposure occurs near the field of a moon or planet. As part of astronautical hygiene control, a suit is essential for extravehicular activity. This space suit is capable of protecting the astronaut from temperatures ranging from −156 °C to 121 °C, during exploration of the moon or Mars, there will be the potential for lunar/Martian dust to be retained on the space suit
24.
Primary Life Support System
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The PLSS is generally worn like a backpack. When used in a microgravity environment, a propulsion system is generally needed for safety and control. Some of the water was used to remove excess heat from the astronauts breathing air. The PLSS also contained a radio transceiver and antenna for communications, PLSS controls were provided in the Remote Control Unit mounted on the astronauts chest. Oxygen and water were rechargeable for multiple EVAs from the environmental control system. An emergency backup was provided in case the system failed, by a separate unit called the Oxygen Purge System, mounted on top of the PLSS. The OPS maintained suit pressure and removed carbon dioxide, heat and water vapor through a continuous, when activated, the OPS provided oxygen to a separate inlet on the pressure suit, once a vent valve on a separate suit outlet was manually opened. The OPS provided a maximum of about 30 minutes of oxygen for breathing and cooling. This could be extended to 75 to 90 minutes with a buddy system hose that used the other astronauts functional PLSS for cooling and this allowed the vent valve to be partly closed to decrease the oxygen flow rate. The PLSS was 26 inches high,18 inches wide, and 10 inches deep and it was tested in space for the first time by Russell Schweickart in a stand-up EVA in Earth orbit on Apollo 9. His PLSS weighed 84 pounds on Earth, which translated to a weight of only 14 lb on the Moon, the OPS weighed 41 pounds on Earth. The OPS was also used as a backup on tethered in-space EVAs where a spacecraft provided oxygen to the astronaut through an umbilical hose, similar systems have been used by Space Shuttle astronauts, and are currently used by International Space Station crews. The Primary Life Support System for the EMU suit used on the Space Shuttle and it is mounted to the back of the Hard Upper Torso assembly. Oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapor are drawn from the extremities of the suit by the Liquid Cooling and Ventilation Garment or LCVG, when gas enters the PLSS, activated charcoal removes odors and lithium hydroxide removes carbon dioxide. Next, the gas passes through a fan which maintains a flow rate of about six feet per minute. A sublimator then condenses water vapor, which is removed by a slurper, the removed water is stored and used to supplement the water supply used in the LCVG. The sublimator also cools the remaining oxygen to about 55 °F, a flow sensor monitors the flow rate. Extra oxygen is added to the flow from a tank as necessary
25.
Convection
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Convection is the movement of groups of molecules within fluids such as liquids or gases, and within rheids. Convection takes place through advection, diffusion or both, convection cannot take place in solids because neither bulk current flows nor significant diffusion can take place in solids. Diffusion of heat can take place in solids, but that is called heat conduction, convective heat transfer is one of the major types of heat transfer, and convection is also a major mode of mass transfer in fluids. In the context of heat and mass transfer, the convection is used to refer to the sum of advective and diffusive transfer. In common use the term convection may refer loosely to heat transfer by convection, as opposed to mass transfer by convection, sometimes convection is even used to refer specifically to free heat convection as opposed to forced heat convection. However, in mechanics the correct use of the word is the general sense, convection can be qualified in terms of being natural, forced, gravitational, granular, or thermomagnetic. It may also be said to be due to combustion, capillary action, or Marangoni, heat transfer by natural convection plays a role in the structure of Earths atmosphere, its oceans, and its mantle. Discrete convective cells in the atmosphere can be seen as clouds, natural convection also plays a role in stellar physics. The word convection may have different but related usages in different scientific or engineering contexts or applications. The broader sense is in fluid mechanics, where convection refers to the motion of fluid regardless of cause, however, in thermodynamics convection often refers specifically to heat transfer by convection. Additionally, convection includes fluid movement both by bulk motion and by the motion of individual particles, however, in some cases, convection is taken to mean only advective phenomena. Convection occurs on a scale in atmospheres, oceans, planetary mantles. Fluid movement during convection may be slow, or it may be obvious and rapid. On astronomical scales, convection of gas and dust is thought to occur in the disks of black holes. Convective heat transfer is a mechanism of heat transfer occurring because of bulk motion of fluids, heat is the entity of interest being advected, and diffused. Heat is transferred by convection in numerous examples of naturally occurring fluid flow, such as, wind, oceanic currents, convection is also used in engineering practices of homes, industrial processes, cooling of equipment, etc. The rate of heat transfer may be improved by the use of a heat sink. For instance, a typical computer CPU will have a fan to ensure its operating temperature is kept within tolerable limits
26.
Thermal radiation
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Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation generated by the thermal motion of charged particles in matter. All matter with a greater than absolute zero emits thermal radiation. When the temperature of a body is greater than absolute zero, Thermal radiation is different from thermal convection and thermal conduction—a person near a raging bonfire feels radiant heating from the fire, even if the surrounding air is very cold. Sunlight is part of thermal radiation generated by the hot plasma of the Sun, the Earth also emits thermal radiation, but at a much lower intensity and different spectral distribution because it is cooler. The Earths absorption of radiation, followed by its outgoing thermal radiation are the two most important processes that determine the temperature and climate of the Earth. If a radiation-emitting object meets the physical characteristics of a body in thermodynamic equilibrium. Plancks law describes the spectrum of radiation, which depends only on the objects temperature. Wiens displacement law determines the most likely frequency of the radiation. Thermal radiation is one of the mechanisms of heat transfer. Thermal radiation is the emission of electromagnetic waves from all matter that has a greater than absolute zero. It represents a conversion of energy into electromagnetic energy. Thermal energy consists of the energy of random movements of atoms. All matter with a temperature by definition is composed of particles which have kinetic energy, and these atoms and molecules are composed of charged particles, i. e. protons and electrons, and kinetic interactions among matter particles result in charge-acceleration and dipole-oscillation. This results in the generation of coupled electric and magnetic fields, resulting in the emission of photons. Electromagnetic radiation, including light, does not require the presence of matter to propagate, the radiation is not monochromatic, i. e. it does not consist of just a single frequency, but comprises a continuous dispersion of photon energies, its characteristic spectrum. If the radiating body and its surface are in thermodynamic equilibrium, a black body is also a perfect emitter. The radiation of such perfect emitters is called black-body radiation, the ratio of any bodys emission relative to that of a black body is the bodys emissivity, so that a black body has an emissivity of unity. Absorptivity, reflectivity, and emissivity of all bodies are dependent on the wavelength of the radiation, the temperature determines the wavelength distribution of the electromagnetic radiation
27.
Personal Rescue Enclosure
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The personal rescue enclosure or rescue ball was a device for transporting astronauts from one Space Shuttle to another in case of an emergency. It was produced as a prototype but never flew on any missions, the ball was 36 inches in diameter and had a volume of 0.33 cubic meters. The structure comprised three fabric layers and incorporated a window and a zipper to allow the astronaut to enter, the ball enabled one crew member to curl up inside and don an oxygen mask and hold a carbon dioxide scrubber/oxygen supply device with one hour worth of oxygen. The ball would have been connected by an umbilical to the shuttle to supply air until the airlock depressurized, the rescue ball containing the crew member would have been carried to the rescue shuttle by a space suited astronaut. The PRE was designed to protect humans in space in the event of an emergency where not enough full space suits were available and it was developed in the 1970s and 1980s to support the Space Shuttle program. The PRE was designed to be used in conjunction with a suited astronaut that would provide mobility to the person in the ball. The balls life-support systems consisting of oxygen and a CO2 scrubber could support a person for about an hour, the life support system that supplied oxygen was called the Personal Oxygen Supply, or alternatively it could be supplied with oxygen from an external source after being sealed. The ball was made of fabric, and was sealed by way of zippers, dimensions,86 cm diameter sphere As a flexible not rigid item this figure would be subject to some variation, especially if not pressurized. Materials/oconstruction methodsFabric consisting of three layers urethane Kevlar Thermal protective layer Window constructed of Lexan Space suit Rescue Agreement ABSTRACTS/GPN-2002-000207
28.
Liquid Cooling and Ventilation Garment
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A Liquid Cooling and Ventilation Garment has additional crush-resistant ventilation ducts, which draw moist air from the wearers extremities, keeping the wearer dry. In a fully enclosing suit where exhaled breathing air can enter the suit, a single-layer of fabric may be used, with the tubing either on the inside directly contacting the wearers skin, or on the outside separated by the fabric. If two layers of fabric are used, stitched channels can be formed which enclose the tubing between the two fabric layers, where flame resistance is needed, the garment may be constructed out of materials such as nomex. The tubing is typically a few millimeters in diameter, and may be out of any number of flexible plastics such as polyvinyl chloride or silicone. Smaller diameter tubing permits a degree of garment flexibility, but at a cost of lower heat absorption capacity. Making the liquid much colder is not an option since it leads to uncomfortable coldness where the liquid enters the tubes, instead, multiple parallel tubes are used to increase the volume of liquid available to absorb heat. Skin coverage and tubing density can vary depending on the application, the garment may simply be a short-sleeved shirt, or it may be a full-body suit covering the arms and legs. Where the heat removal requirement is low, the tubing may be spaced several centimeters apart across the garment surface, where there is a very large amount of heat to remove, the tubing can be arranged in a dense grid with no gaps between the tubes. The return water is cooled by the ice, and again pumped through the tubes. Regulation of flow is done by varying pump speed or using a flow valve. Ice storage can be achieved using a belt-pack, a backpack, or a duffel bag, in situations where the wearer must stay in place inside a vehicle, heavy but long-term-operation heat exchangers can be used, such as a refrigration system to cool the liquid. When the users movement is hindered through the use of a life-support umbilical. Astronauts commonly wear a Liquid Cooling and Ventilation Garment in order to maintain a core body temperature during extra-vehicular activity. The LCVG accomplishes this task by circulating water through a network of flexible tubes in direct contact with the astronauts skin. The water draws heat away from the body, resulting in a core temperature. The water then returns to the Primary Life Support System, where it is cooled in a heat exchanger before being recirculated, in an independent space suit, the heat is ultimately transferred to a thin sheet of ice. Due to the low pressure in space, the heated ice sublimates directly to water vapor. The ice sublimator consists of sintered nickel plates with microscopic pores which are sized to permit the water to freeze in the plate without damaging it
29.
Ultraviolet
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Ultraviolet is an electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength from 10 nm to 400 nm, shorter than that of visible light but longer than X-rays. UV radiation constitutes about 10% of the light output of the Sun. It is also produced by electric arcs and specialized lights, such as lamps, tanning lamps. Consequently, the effects of UV are greater than simple heating effects. Suntan, freckling and sunburn are familiar effects of over-exposure, along with risk of skin cancer. Living things on dry land would be damaged by ultraviolet radiation from the Sun if most of it were not filtered out by the Earths atmosphere. More-energetic, shorter-wavelength extreme UV below 121 nm ionizes air so strongly that it is absorbed before it reaches the ground, Ultraviolet is also responsible for the formation of bone-strengthening vitamin D in most land vertebrates, including humans. The UV spectrum thus has both beneficial and harmful to human health. Ultraviolet rays are invisible to most humans, the lens in a human eye ordinarily filters out UVB frequencies or higher, and humans lack color receptor adaptations for ultraviolet rays. Under some conditions, children and young adults can see ultraviolet down to wavelengths of about 310 nm, near-UV radiation is visible to some insects, mammals, and birds. Small birds have a fourth color receptor for ultraviolet rays, this gives birds true UV vision, reindeer use near-UV radiation to see polar bears, who are poorly visible in regular light because they blend in with the snow. UV also allows mammals to see urine trails, which is helpful for animals to find food in the wild. The males and females of some species look identical to the human eye. Ultraviolet means beyond violet, violet being the color of the highest frequencies of visible light, Ultraviolet has a higher frequency than violet light. He called them oxidizing rays to emphasize chemical reactivity and to them from heat rays. The terms chemical and heat rays were eventually dropped in favour of ultraviolet and infrared radiation, in 1878 the effect of short-wavelength light on sterilizing bacteria was discovered. By 1903 it was known the most effective wavelengths were around 250 nm, in 1960, the effect of ultraviolet radiation on DNA was established. The discovery of the ultraviolet radiation below 200 nm, named vacuum ultraviolet because it is absorbed by air, was made in 1893 by the German physicist Victor Schumann
30.
Particle radiation
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Particle radiation is the radiation of energy by means of fast-moving subatomic particles. Particle radiation is referred to as a particle beam if the particles are all moving in the same direction, due to the wave–particle duality, all moving particles also have wave character. Higher energy particles more easily exhibit particle characteristics, while lower energy particles more easily exhibit wave characteristics, particles can be electrically charged or uncharged, Particle radiation can be emitted by an unstable atomic nucleus, or it can be the product from some other kind of nuclear reaction. Ion irradiation is used in the semiconductor industry to introduce dopants into materials. Particle accelerators can also produce neutrino beams, neutron beams are mostly produced by nuclear reactors. For the production of electromagnetic radiation, there are many methods, in radiation protection, radiation is often separated into two categories, ionizing and non-ionizing, to denote the level of danger posed to humans. Ionization is the process of removing electrons from atoms, leaving two electrically charged particles behind, the negatively charged electrons and positively charged ions created by ionizing radiation may cause damage in living tissue. Basically, a particle is ionizing if its energy is higher than the energy of a typical substance, i. e. a few eV. The charged particles mentioned above all belong to the ionizing radiations, when passing through matter, they ionize and thus lose energy in many small steps. The distance to the point where the particle has lost all its energy is called the range of the particle. The range depends upon the type of particle, its energy. Similarly, the loss per unit path length, the stopping power, depends on the type and energy of the charged particle. The stopping power and hence, the density of ionization, usually increases toward the end of range and reaches a maximum, the Bragg Peak, shortly before the energy drops to zero
31.
Micrometeoroid
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A micrometeoroid is a tiny meteoroid, a small particle of rock in space, usually weighing less than a gram. A micrometeorite is such a particle that survives passage through the Earths atmosphere, micrometeoroids are very small pieces of rock or metal broken off from larger chunks of rock and debris often dating back to the birth of the Solar System. Micrometeoroids are extremely common in space, tiny particles are a major contributor to space weathering processes. When they hit the surface of the Moon, or any airless body, in order to understand the micrometeoroid population better, a number of spacecraft have carried micrometeoroid detectors. In 1957 Hans Peterson conducted one of the first direct measurements of the fall of space dust on the Earth, if this were true, then the Moon would be covered to a very great depth as there are limited forms of erosion to remove this material. In 1961 Arthur C. Clarke popularized this possibility in his novel A Fall of Moondust and this was cause for some concern among the groups attempting to land on the Moon, so a series of new studies followed to better characterize the issue. This included the launch of spacecraft designed to directly measure the micrometeorite flux or directly measure the dust on the surface of the Moon. These showed that the flux was much lower than earlier estimates, around 10,000 to 20,000 tons per year, most lunar samples returned during the Apollo Program have micrometeorite impacts marks, typically called zap pits, on their upper surfaces. Micrometeoroids have less stable orbits than meteoroids, due to their surface area to mass ratio. Micrometeoroids that fall to Earth can provide information on millimeter scale heating events in the solar nebula, meteorites and micrometeorites can only be collected in areas where there is no terrestrial sedimentation, typically polar regions. Ice is collected and then melted and filtered so the micrometeorites can be extracted under a microscope, sufficiently small micrometeoroids avoid significant heating on entry into the Earths atmosphere. Micrometeoroids pose a significant threat to space exploration, the average velocity of micrometeoroids relative to a spacecraft in orbit is 10 kilometers per second. Resistance to micrometeoroid impact is a significant design challenge for spacecraft, while the tiny sizes of most micrometeoroids limits the damage incurred, the high velocity impacts will constantly degrade the outer casing of spacecraft in a manner analogous to sandblasting. Long term exposure can threaten the functionality of spacecraft systems, impacts by small objects with extremely high velocity are a current area of research in terminal ballistics. The risk is high for objects in space for long periods of time. They also pose major engineering challenges in theoretical low-cost lift systems such as rotovators, space elevators, and orbital airships
32.
Thermal Micrometeoroid Garment
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An Thermal Micrometeoroid Garment is the outer layer of a space suit. The specific design of TMGs varies between different space agencies and different suits, though they all serve the same purpose and this was the innermost layer of protection from micrometeoroids. The outermost layer of PTFE -coated filament Beta cloth was non-flammable and this layer was supplemented with Teflon abrasion patches at the knees and other areas. The construction of the TMG on the EMU suits in use on the Space Shuttle, the EMU TMG includes seven layers of aluminized Mylar laminated with Dacron, rather than five, and eliminates the use of Kapton. The outermost layer is white Ortho-Fabric, made with a blend of Gore-Tex, Kevlar and this layer can withstand temperatures from −300° to +300° Fahrenheit. The outer layer provides both micrometeoroid and thermal protection, by reflecting most of the thermal radiation
33.
Apollo program
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Five subsequent Apollo missions also landed astronauts on the Moon, the last in December 1972. In these six spaceflights, twelve men walked on the Moon, Apollo ran from 1961 to 1972, with the first manned flight in 1968. It achieved its goal of manned lunar landing, despite the setback of a 1967 Apollo 1 cabin fire that killed the entire crew during a prelaunch test. After the first landing, sufficient flight hardware remained for nine follow-on landings with a plan for extended lunar geological and astrophysical exploration, Budget cuts forced the cancellation of three of these. The crew returned to Earth safely by using the Lunar Module as a lifeboat for these functions, Apollo set several major human spaceflight milestones. It stands alone in sending manned missions beyond low Earth orbit, Apollo 8 was the first manned spacecraft to orbit another celestial body, while the final Apollo 17 mission marked the sixth Moon landing and the ninth manned mission beyond low Earth orbit. The program returned 842 pounds of rocks and soil to Earth, greatly contributing to the understanding of the Moons composition. The program laid the foundation for NASAs subsequent human spaceflight capability, Apollo also spurred advances in many areas of technology incidental to rocketry and manned spaceflight, including avionics, telecommunications, and computers. The Apollo program was conceived during the Eisenhower administration in early 1960, while the Mercury capsule could only support one astronaut on a limited Earth orbital mission, Apollo would carry three astronauts. Possible missions included ferrying crews to a station, circumlunar flights. The program was named after the Greek god of light, music, and the sun by NASA manager Abe Silverstein, who later said that I was naming the spacecraft like Id name my baby. Silverstein chose the name at home one evening, early in 1960, in July 1960, NASA Deputy Administrator Hugh L. Dryden announced the Apollo program to industry representatives at a series of Space Task Group conferences. Preliminary specifications were laid out for a spacecraft with a mission module cabin separate from the module. On August 30, a feasibility study competition was announced, and on October 25, meanwhile, NASA performed its own in-house spacecraft design studies led by Maxime Faget, to serve as a gauge to judge and monitor the three industry designs. In November 1960, John F. Kennedy was elected president after a campaign that promised American superiority over the Soviet Union in the fields of space exploration and missile defense. Beyond military power, Kennedy used aerospace technology as a symbol of prestige, pledging to make the US not first but, first and, first if. Despite Kennedys rhetoric, he did not immediately come to a decision on the status of the Apollo program once he became president and he knew little about the technical details of the space program, and was put off by the massive financial commitment required by a manned Moon landing. On April 12,1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to fly in space, Kennedy was circumspect in his response to the news, refusing to make a commitment on Americas response to the Soviets
34.
Suitport
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A suitport or suitlock is an alternative technology to an airlock, designed for use in hazardous environments and in human spaceflight, especially planetary surface exploration. Suitports present advantages over traditional airlocks in terms of mass, volume, in a suitport system, a rear-entry space suit is attached and sealed against the outside of a spacecraft, space habitat, or pressurized rover, facing outward. The astronaut then unseals and separates the suit from the vehicle, to re-enter the vehicle, the astronaut backs up to the suitport and seals the suit to the vehicle, before opening the hatch and backpack and transferring back into the vehicle. If the vehicle and suit do not operate at the same pressure, suitports carry three major advantages over traditional airlocks. First, the mass and volume required for a suitport is significantly less than required for an airlock. Launch mass is at a premium in modern chemical rocket-powered launch vehicles, secondly, suitports can eliminate or minimize the problem of dust mitigation. Lunar dust may be harmful in several ways, The abrasive nature of the dust particles may rub, the dust may damage coatings used on gaskets, optical lenses, solar panels, windows, and wiring. The dust may cause damage to an astronauts lungs as well as nervous and cardiovascular systems, during the Apollo missions, the astronauts donned their space suits inside the Apollo Lunar Module cabin, which was then depressurized to allow them to exit the vehicle. Upon the end of EVA, the astronauts would re-enter the cabin in their suits, several astronauts reported a gunpowder smell and respiratory and/or eye irritation upon opening their helmets and being exposed to the dust. When the suit is attached to the vehicle, any dust which may have adhered to the backpack of the suit is sealed between the outside of the backpack and the vehicle-side hatch, any dust on the suit that is not on the backpack remains sealed outside the vehicle. Likewise, the suitport prevents contamination of the environment by microbes carried by the astronaut. A patent for a suitport was first filed in 1987 by Marc M. Cohen of NASAs Ames Research Center, further patents were filed in 1996 by Philip Culbertson Jr. and in 2003 by Joerg Boettcher, Stephen Ransom, and Frank Steinsiek. A suitport prototype built by Brand Griffin has been used in a lunar gravity test on board NASA Johnsons C-135 aircraft. Suitports may find use as part of future NASA projects aimed at achieving a return to the Moon, NASAs conceptual Space Exploration Vehicle has two suitports on the back of the craft. Testing has been taking place in combination with the Z-1 prototype spacesuit inside NASAs human-rated thermal vacuum chamber B at the Johnson Space Center, early unmanned tests of the suitport were conducted in June 2012. Future manned tests were planned for September and August 2012, where NASA planned to keep the spacesuit at a pressure of 8 psi, suitports may eventually be tested on the International Space Station. Space exploration Project Constellation Lunar outpost Altair Lunar surface Colonization of the Moon Colonization of Mars
35.
NASA
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President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 with a distinctly civilian orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29,1958, disestablishing NASAs predecessor, the new agency became operational on October 1,1958. Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches. NASA shares data with various national and international such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite. Since 2011, NASA has been criticized for low cost efficiency, from 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch a satellite for the International Geophysical Year. An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard, after the Soviet launch of the worlds first artificial satellite on October 4,1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency was created in February 1958 to develop technology for military application. On July 29,1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, a NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959. Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA, earlier research efforts within the US Air Force and many of ARPAs early space programs were also transferred to NASA. In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter, the experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, however, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, to date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude,260,000 feet. The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction with the US Air Force, the design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems
36.
Skylab
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Skylab was the United States first space station, orbiting Earth from 1973 to 1979, when it fell back to Earth amid huge worldwide media attention. Launched and operated by NASA, Skylab included a workshop, a solar observatory and it was launched unmanned by a modified Saturn V rocket, with a weight of 170,000 pounds. Lifting Skylab into low earth orbit was the mission and launch of a Saturn V rocket. Skylabs solar observatory was one aspect of study, and solar science was significantly advanced by the telescope. Each of these missions delivered a three-astronaut crew, carried in the Apollo Command/Service Module launched atop the Saturn IB rocket, which is much smaller than the Saturn V. For the final two manned missions to Skylab, a backup Apollo CSM/Saturn IB was assembled and made ready in case a rescue mission was needed. This deprived Skylab of most of its power, and also removed protection from intense solar heating, threatening to make it unusable. However, the first crew was able to save Skylab by deploying a replacement heat shade and freeing the jammed solar panels, Skylab included the Apollo Telescope Mount, Multiple Docking Adapter, Airlock Module with extravehicular activity hatches, and the Orbital Workshop. Electrical power came from solar arrays, as well as cells in the docked Apollo CSM. The rear of the station included a large tank, propellant tanks for maneuvering jets. Numerous scientific experiments were conducted aboard Skylab during its operational life, the Earth Resources Experiment Package was used to view Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral regions. Plans were made to refurbish and reuse Skylab by using the Space Shuttle to boost its orbit, however, due to delays with the development of the Space Shuttle, Skylabs decaying orbit could not be stopped. In the hours before re-entry, NASA ground controllers attempted to adjust Skylabs trajectory, NASAs attempted target was a spot 810 miles south-southeast of Cape Town, South Africa. Skylab did not burn up as fast as NASA expected, and Skylab debris landed southeast of Perth in Western Australia, over a single property in Esperance,24 pieces of Skylab were found. Analysis of some debris indicated that the Skylab station had disintegrated 10 mi above the Earth, after Skylab, NASA space station/laboratory projects included Spacelab, Shuttle-Mir, and Space Station Freedom. Rocket engineer Wernher von Braun, science fiction writer Arthur C, clarke, and other early advocates of manned space travel, expected until the 1960s that a space station would be an important early step in space exploration. Von Braun participated in the publishing of a series of articles in Colliers magazine from 1952 to 1954. He envisioned a large, circular station 250 feet in diameter that would rotate to generate gravity and require a fleet of 7
37.
Snoopy
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Snoopy is Charlie Browns pet beagle in the comic strip Peanuts by Charles M. Schulz. He can also be found in all of the Peanuts movies and television specials, since his debut on October 4,1950, Snoopy has become one of the most recognizable and iconic characters in the comic strip. The original drawings of Snoopy were inspired by Spike, one of Schulzs childhood dogs and he is perhaps best known in this last alternate persona, wearing an aviators helmet and goggles and a scarf while carrying a swagger stick. Snoopy can be selfish and/or lazy at times, and had his share of moments where he is mocking his owner, Charlie Brown, but through it all, he has great love, care. All of his fantasies have a formula, Snoopy pretends to be something, usually world famous. His short novels are never published, and his Sopwith Camel is consistently shot down by his imaginary enemy, Schulz said of Snoopys character in a 1997 interview, He has to retreat into his fanciful world in order to survive. Otherwise, he kind of a dull, miserable life. I dont envy dogs the lives they have to live, Snoopy imagines himself to speak, but never actually does, much like with real life animals, the human characters are unaware of his musings. Though very rarely, he talks, but usually to himself and his thoughts are shown in thought balloons. The only exceptions are in the animated adaptions of the musicals Youre a Good Man, Charlie Brown, the Musical in which Snoopys thoughts are verbalized by Robert Towers and Cameron Clarke respectively. Snoopys doghouse defies physics and is shown to be bigger on the inside than the outside and it is also his airplane in his fantasies. In the 90s comic strips, he is obsessed with cookies, Snoopy appeared on the October 4,1950, strip, two days after the first strip. He was called Snoopy for the first time a month later, on March 16,1952, his thoughts were first shown in a thought balloon. Snoopy first appeared upright on his legs on January 9,1956. Despite his history of conflicted loyalties and his inability to remember Charlie Browns name and he joins Charlie Brown in walking out of a game of Ha-Ha Herman when Peppermint Patty insults Charlie Brown, unaware that Charlie Brown is within earshot. He also helps Charlie Brown recover his autographed baseball when a bully takes it, when Charlie Brown has to stop dedicating himself to making Snoopy happy, Snoopy replies, Dont worry about it. In The Peanuts Movie, Snoopy remains loyal to Charlie Brown, in early Peanuts strips, Charlie Brown was not Snoopys owner, and it was initially not clear who his owner actually was. The September 29,1951 strip implied that Snoopy was owned by Shermy, Snoopy frequently tries to kiss Lucy on the cheek and/or nose, which Lucy, who is afraid of dog germs, thoroughly hates
38.
Steve MacLean (astronaut)
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Steven Glenwood MacLean FRCGS is a Canadian astronaut. He was the President of the Canadian Space Agency, from September 1,2008 to February 1,2013 and he was born in Ottawa, Ontario, and is married to Nadine Wielgopolski of Hull, Quebec. He enjoys hiking, canoeing, flying, parachuting and gymnastics and he currently resides in Saint-Lambert, Quebec. MacLean attended Merivale High School in Nepean, Ontario and he received a Bachelor of Science degree in physics in 1977 and a doctorate in physics in 1983 from York University in Toronto. In 1977, he received the Presidents Award at York University and he is an honorary fellow of Norman Bethune College at York University and president of the board of directors for the Mont Megantic Observatory project. From 1974 to 1976, MacLean worked in administration and public relations at York University. From 1976 to 1977, he was a member of the Canadian National gymnastics team and he taught part-time at York University from 1980 to 1983. In 1983, he became a scholar at Stanford University under Nobel Laureate Arthur Leonard Schawlow. He is a laser-physicist, and his research has included work on electro-optics, laser-induced fluorescence of particles and crystals, MacLean served as a Mission Specialist on STS-115, which launched on September 9,2006, and returned on September 21,2006. He became the first Canadian to operate the robotic arm Canadarm2, on September 13, he performed his first spacewalk, a 7-hour EVA to activate the solar panels on the P3/4 truss – the second Canadian to do so, after Chris Hadfield. In 1993, he received a doctorate from the Collège militaire royal de Saint-Jean in Quebec, York University, Acadia University in Wolfville. In September 2006, Steve MacLean Public School was opened in Ottawa, in 2010 he visited the school on the occasion of the principals retirement. MacLean was chosen as one of the first six astronauts in December 1983 and he began to do training in February 1984. From 1987 to 1993 MacLean worked as a manager for CSVS. MacLean was the science advisor for the International Space Station from 1993 to 1994. He was also manager for the Advanced Space Vision System in 1987 to 1993. MacLean is an honorary Fellow of the Royal Canadian Geographical Society, Canadian Space Agency Presidents biography NASA astronaut biography Spacefacts biography of Steven MacLean
39.
Respiratory system
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The respiratory system is a biological system consisting of specific organs and structures used for the process of respiration in an organism. The respiratory system is involved in the intake and exchange of oxygen, in air-breathing vertebrates like human beings, respiration takes place in the respiratory organs called lungs. In humans and other mammals, the features of the respiratory system include trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs. Molecules of oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged, by diffusion. This exchange process occurs in the alveoli in the lungs, in fish and many invertebrates, respiration takes place through the gills. Other animals, such as insects, have respiratory systems with very simple anatomical features, plants also have respiratory systems but the directionality of gas exchange can be opposite to that in animals. The respiratory system in plants also includes features such as holes on the undersides of leaves known as stomata. The elephant is the animal known to have no pleural space. Rather, the parietal and visceral pleura are both composed of connective tissue and joined to each other via loose connective tissue. The respiratory system of birds differs significantly from that found in mammals, the lungs of birds also do not have the capacity to inflate as birds lack a diaphragm and a pleural cavity. Gas exchange in birds occurs between air capillaries and blood capillaries, rather than in alveoli, the anatomical structure of the lungs is less complex in reptiles than in mammals, with reptiles lacking the very extensive airway tree structure found in mammalian lungs. Gas exchange in reptiles still occurs in alveoli however, reptiles do not possess a diaphragm, thus, breathing occurs via a change in the volume of the body cavity which is controlled by contraction of intercostal muscles in all reptiles except turtles. In turtles, contraction of specific pairs of flank muscles governs inspiration or expiration, both the lungs and the skin serve as respiratory organs in amphibians. The ventilation of the lungs in amphibians uses positive pressure ventilation, muscles lower the floor of the oral cavity, enlarging it and drawing in air through the nostrils. While the lungs are of importance to breathing control, the skins unique properties aid rapid gas exchange when amphibians are submerged in oxygen-rich water. In most fish, respiration takes place through gills, lungfish, however, do possess one or two lungs. The labyrinth fish have developed an organ that allows them to take advantage of the oxygen of the air. Some species of crab use an organ called a branchiostegal lung
40.
Partial pressure
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In a mixture of gases, each gas has a partial pressure which is the hypothetical pressure of that gas if it alone occupied the entire volume of the original mixture at the same temperature. The total pressure of a gas mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of each individual gas in the mixture. Gases dissolve, diffuse, and react according to their partial pressures and this general property of gases is also true in chemical reactions of gases in biology. For example, the amount of oxygen for human respiration. This is true across a wide range of different concentrations of oxygen present in various inhaled breathing gases or dissolved in blood. Daltons law expresses the fact that the pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases in the mixture. This equality arises from the fact that in a gas the molecules are so far apart that they do not interact with each other. Most actual real-world gases come very close to this ideal. For example, given an ideal gas mixture of nitrogen, hydrogen and ammonia, the partial volume of a particular gas in a mixture is the volume of one component of the gas mixture. It is useful in gas mixtures, e. g. air, to focus on one particular gas component, most often the term is used to describe a liquids tendency to evaporate. It is a measure of the tendency of molecules and atoms to escape from a liquid or a solid, the higher the vapor pressure of a liquid at a given temperature, the lower the normal boiling point of the liquid. The vapor pressure chart displayed has graphs of the vapor pressures versus temperatures for a variety of liquids, as can be seen in the chart, the liquids with the highest vapor pressures have the lowest normal boiling points. For example, at any temperature, methyl chloride has the highest vapor pressure of any of the liquids in the chart. It also has the lowest normal boiling point, which is where the pressure curve of methyl chloride intersects the horizontal pressure line of one atmosphere of absolute vapor pressure. It is possible to work out the equilibrium constant for a reaction involving a mixture of gases given the partial pressure of each gas. However, the reaction kinetics may either oppose or enhance the equilibrium shift, in some cases, the reaction kinetics may be the overriding factor to consider. Gases will dissolve in liquids to an extent that is determined by the equilibrium between the gas and the gas that has dissolved in the liquid. This statement is known as Henrys law and the constant k is quite often referred to as the Henrys law constant
41.
Pascal (unit)
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The pascal is the SI derived unit of pressure used to quantify internal pressure, stress, Youngs modulus and ultimate tensile strength. It is defined as one newton per square meter and it is named after the French polymath Blaise Pascal. Common multiple units of the pascal are the hectopascal which is equal to one millibar, the unit of measurement called standard atmosphere is defined as 101,325 Pa and approximates to the average pressure at sea-level at the latitude 45° N. Meteorological reports typically state atmospheric pressure in hectopascals, the unit is named after Blaise Pascal, noted for his contributions to hydrodynamics and hydrostatics, and experiments with a barometer. The name pascal was adopted for the SI unit newton per square metre by the 14th General Conference on Weights, one pascal is the pressure exerted by a force of magnitude one newton perpendicularly upon an area of one square metre. The unit of measurement called atmosphere or standard atmosphere is 101325 Pa and this value is often used as a reference pressure and specified as such in some national and international standards, such as ISO2787, ISO2533 and ISO5024. In contrast, IUPAC recommends the use of 100 kPa as a standard pressure when reporting the properties of substances, geophysicists use the gigapascal in measuring or calculating tectonic stresses and pressures within the Earth. Medical elastography measures tissue stiffness non-invasively with ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging, in materials science and engineering, the pascal measures the stiffness, tensile strength and compressive strength of materials. In engineering use, because the pascal represents a small quantity. The pascal is also equivalent to the SI unit of energy density and this applies not only to the thermodynamics of pressurised gases, but also to the energy density of electric, magnetic, and gravitational fields. In measurements of sound pressure, or loudness of sound, one pascal is equal to 94 decibels SPL, the quietest sound a human can hear, known as the threshold of hearing, is 0 dB SPL, or 20 µPa. The airtightness of buildings is measured at 50 Pa, the units of atmospheric pressure commonly used in meteorology were formerly the bar, which was close to the average air pressure on Earth, and the millibar. Since the introduction of SI units, meteorologists generally measure pressures in hectopascals unit, exceptions include Canada and Portugal, which use kilopascals. In many other fields of science, the SI is preferred, many countries also use the millibar or hectopascal to give aviation altimeter settings. In practically all fields, the kilopascal is used instead. Centimetre of water Metric prefix Orders of magnitude Pascals law
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