1.
Pasta
–
Pasta is a staple food of traditional Italian cuisine, with the first reference dating to 1154 in Sicily. It can also be made with flour from other cereals or grains, pastas may be divided into two broad categories, dried and fresh. Most dried pasta is produced via an extrusion process although it can be produced in most homes. Both dried and fresh pasta come in a number of shapes and varieties, in Italy the names of specific pasta shapes or types often vary with locale. For example, the form cavatelli is known by 28 different names depending on region, common forms of pasta include long shapes, short shapes, tubes, flat shapes and sheets, miniature soup shapes, filled or stuffed and specialty or decorative shapes. As a category in Italian cuisine, both fresh and dried pastas are classically used in one of three kinds of prepared dishes, as pasta asciutta cooked pasta is plated and served with a complementary sauce or condiment. A second classification of pasta dishes is pasta in brodo in which the pasta is part of a soup-type dish, a third category is pasta al forno in which the pasta incorporated into a dish that is subsequently baked. Pasta is generally a dish, but comes in many varieties due to its versatility. Some pasta dishes are served as a first course in Italy because the portion sizes are small, Pasta is also prepared in light lunches, such as salads or large portion sizes for dinner. It can be prepared by hand or food processor and served hot or cold, Pasta sauces vary in taste, color and texture. When choosing which type of pasta and sauce to serve together, simple sauces like pesto are ideal for long and thin strands of pasta while tomato sauce combines well with thicker pastas. Thicker and chunkier sauces have the ability to cling onto the holes and cuts of short, tubular. The extra sauce left on the plate after all of the pasta is eaten is often mopped up with a piece of bread. First attested in English in 1874, the word comes from Italian pasta, in turn from Latin pasta dough, pastry cake. In the 1st century AD writings of Horace, lagana were fine sheets of fried dough and were an everyday foodstuff, an early 5th century cookbook describes a dish called lagana that consisted of layers of dough with meat stuffing, a possible ancestor of modern-day lasagna. The first concrete information concerning pasta products in Italy dates from the 13th or 14th century, historians have noted several lexical milestones relevant to pasta, none of which changes these basic characteristics. For example, the works of the 2nd century AD Greek physician Galen mention itrion, homogeneous compounds made of flour, the Jerusalem Talmud records that itrium, a kind of boiled dough, was common in Palestine from the 3rd to 5th centuries AD. A dictionary compiled by the 9th century Arab physician and lexicographer Isho bar Ali defines itriyya and its ever-flowing streams propel a number of mills
Pasta
–
Different types of pasta on display in a shop window in
Venice, Italy
Pasta
–
Pasta made from
durum wheat
Pasta
–
Making pasta; illustration from the 15th century edition of
Tacuinum Sanitatis, a Latin translation of the
Arabic work Taqwīm al-sihha by
Ibn Butlan.
Pasta
–
Boy with Spaghetti by Julius Moser, c. 1808
2.
Italy
–
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
Italy
–
The
Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of
architecture and
engineering of ancient history.
Italy
–
Flag
Italy
–
The
Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the
Kings of Italy.
Italy
–
Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor
Frederick II,
UNESCO World Heritage site
3.
Semolina
–
Semolina is the coarse, purified wheat middlings of durum wheat mainly used in making pasta and couscous. The word semolina can also refer to sweet dessert made from semolina, the term semolina is also used to designate coarse middlings from other varieties of wheat, and from other grains, such as rice and maize. Semolina is derived from the Italian word semola, meaning bran and this is derived from the ancient Latin simila, meaning flour, itself a borrowing from Greek σεμίδαλις, groats. Modern milling of wheat flour is a process that employs grooved steel rollers. The rollers are adjusted so that the space between them is slightly narrower than the width of the wheat kernels, as the wheat is fed into the mill, the rollers flake off the bran and germ while the starch is cracked into coarse pieces in the process. Through sifting, these particles, the semolina, are separated from the bran. The semolina is then ground into flour, different grades of flour can thus be produced. Semolina made from wheat is yellow in color. Semolina is often used as the base for dried products such as couscous, in this case, the correct name is flour, not semolina. In the United States, coarser meal coming from softer types of wheats is known also as farina and it is lower grade and does not hold shape as well as durum. Boiled semolina turns into a porridge, known in areas as Cream of Wheat. In Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Serbia, Slovenia, Romania and Croatia, semolina is known as Grieß and is mixed with egg to make Grießknödel, the particles are fairly coarse, between 0.25 and 0.75 millimeters in diameter. In South India, semolina is used to make savory foods, like Rava dosa and it is sometimes also used to coat slices of fish before it is pan-fried in oil, to give it a crispy coating. In much of North Africa, durum semolina is made into the staple couscous and it is also used to make harsha, a kind of griddle cake often eaten for breakfast, commonly with jam or honey. Semolina is a food in West Africa, especially among Nigerians. It is eaten as lunch or dinner with stew or soup. It is prepared just like eba or fufu with water and boiled for 5 to 10 minutes, the German Grießbrei and the Dutch griesmeelpap usually dont contain chocolate and are rather served as a dessert than a breakfast dish. In English this kind of dessert is known as semolina pudding
Semolina
–
Semolina
Semolina
–
Semolina grains in close-up
Semolina
–
ರವೆ ದೋಸೆ ಚಟ್ನಿ -
rave dōse with
chutney from
Karnataka
Semolina
–
Dutch semolina pudding with a
redcurrant sauce
4.
Flour
–
Flour is a powder made by grinding raw grains or roots and used to make many different foods. While wheat is the most common base for flour, maize flour has been important in Mesoamerican cuisine since ancient times, rye flour is a constituent of bread in central Europe. The English word flour is originally a variant of the word flower, both derive from the Old French fleur or flour, which had the literal meaning blossom, and a figurative meaning the finest. The phrase fleur de farine meant the finest part of the meal, since flour resulted from the elimination of coarse, the earliest archaeological evidence for wheat seeds crushed between simple millstones to make flour dates to 6000 BC. The Romans were the first to grind seeds on cone mills, in 1879, at the beginning of the Industrial Era, the first steam mill was erected in London. In the 1930s, some began to be enriched with iron, niacin, thiamine. In the 1940s, mills started to enrich flour and folic acid was added to the list in the 1990s, an important problem of the industrial revolution was the preservation of flour. Transportation distances and a relatively slow distribution system collided with natural shelf life, the reason for the limited shelf life is the fatty acids of the germ, which react from the moment they are exposed to oxygen. This occurs when grain is milled, the fatty acids oxidize, depending on climate and grain quality, this process takes six to nine months. In the late 19th century, this process was too short for a production and distribution cycle. As vitamins, micronutrients and amino acids were completely or relatively unknown in the late 19th century, without the germ, flour cannot become rancid. Degermation started in densely populated areas and took approximately one generation to reach the countryside, heat-processed flour is flour where the germ is first separated from the endosperm and bran, then processed with steam, dry heat or microwave and blended into flour again. Milling of flour is accomplished by grinding grain between stones or steel wheels, today, stone-ground usually means that the grain has been ground in a mill in which a revolving stone wheel turns over a stationary stone wheel, vertically or horizontally with the grain in between. These terms are now applied broadly to uses of water. More recently, the Unifine mill, a mill, was developed in the mid-20th century. Home users have begun grinding their own flour from organic wheat berries on a variety of electric flour mills, the grinding process is not much different from grinding coffee but the mills are larger. This provides fresh flour with the benefits of wheat germ and fiber without spoilage, Flour contains a high proportion of starches, which are a subset of complex carbohydrates also known as polysaccharides. The kinds of used in cooking include all-purpose flour, self-rising flour
Flour
–
Three different kinds of wheat and rye flour. From left to right: wheat flour Type 550, wheat flour Type 1050, rye flour Type 1150
Flour
–
A field of wheat prior to harvesting
Flour
–
Flour being stored in large cloth sacks
Flour
–
A variety of types of flour and cereals sold at a bazaar in
Bishkek,
Kyrgyzstan
5.
Water
–
Water is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earths streams, lakes, and oceans, and the fluids of most living organisms. Its chemical formula is H2O, meaning that its molecule contains one oxygen, Water strictly refers to the liquid state of that substance, that prevails at standard ambient temperature and pressure, but it often refers also to its solid state or its gaseous state. It also occurs in nature as snow, glaciers, ice packs and icebergs, clouds, fog, dew, aquifers, Water covers 71% of the Earths surface. It is vital for all forms of life. Only 2. 5% of this water is freshwater, and 98. 8% of that water is in ice and groundwater. Less than 0. 3% of all freshwater is in rivers, lakes, and the atmosphere, a greater quantity of water is found in the earths interior. Water on Earth moves continually through the cycle of evaporation and transpiration, condensation, precipitation. Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land, large amounts of water are also chemically combined or adsorbed in hydrated minerals. Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients. There is a correlation between access to safe water and gross domestic product per capita. However, some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the population will be facing water-based vulnerability. A report, issued in November 2009, suggests that by 2030, in developing regions of the world. Water plays an important role in the world economy, approximately 70% of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture. Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a source of food for many parts of the world. Much of long-distance trade of commodities and manufactured products is transported by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, large quantities of water, ice, and steam are used for cooling and heating, in industry and homes. Water is an excellent solvent for a variety of chemical substances, as such it is widely used in industrial processes. Water is also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, Water is a liquid at the temperatures and pressures that are most adequate for life. Specifically, at atmospheric pressure of 1 bar, water is a liquid between the temperatures of 273.15 K and 373.15 K
Water
–
Water in three states: liquid, solid (
ice), and gas (invisible
water vapor in the air).
Clouds are accumulations of water droplets,
condensed from vapor-saturated air.
Water
–
Impact from a water drop causes an upward "rebound" jet surrounded by circular
capillary waves.
Water
–
Snowflakes by
Wilson Bentley, 1902.
Water
–
Dew drops adhering to a
spider web.
6.
Food energy
–
Food energy is chemical energy that animals derive from food and molecular oxygen through the process of cellular respiration. Humans and other animals need a minimum intake of energy to sustain their metabolism. Foods are composed chiefly of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, alcohol, water, vitamins, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, alcohol, and water represent virtually all the weight of food, with vitamins and minerals making up only a small percentage of the weight. Organisms derive food energy from carbohydrates, fats and proteins as well as organic acids, polyols. Some diet components that provide little or no energy, such as water, minerals, vitamins, cholesterol. Water, minerals, vitamins, and cholesterol are not broken down, fiber, a type of carbohydrate, cannot be completely digested by the human body. Ruminants can extract energy from the respiration of cellulose because of bacteria in their rumens. Using the International System of Units, researchers measure energy in joules or in its multiples, the kilojoule is most often used for food-related quantities. An older metric system unit of energy, still used in food-related contexts, is the calorie, more precisely. Within the European Union, both the kilocalorie and kilojoule appear on nutrition labels, in many countries, only one of the units is displayed, in the US and Canada labels spell out the unit as calorie or as Calorie. Fats and ethanol have the greatest amount of energy per gram,37 and 29 kJ/g. Proteins and most carbohydrates have about 17 kJ/g, carbohydrates that are not easily absorbed, such as fiber, or lactose in lactose-intolerant individuals, contribute less food energy. Polyols and organic acids contribute 10 kJ/g and 13 kJ/g respectively, the amount of water, fat, and fiber in foods determines those foods energy density. Theoretically, one could measure food energy in different ways, using the Gibbs free energy of combustion, however, the convention is to use the heat of the oxidation reaction producing liquid water. The American chemist Wilbur Atwater worked these corrections out in the late 19th century, based on the work of Atwater, it became common practice to calculate energy content of foods using 4 kcal/g for carbohydrates and proteins and 9 kcal/g for lipids. The system was improved by Annabel Merrill and Bernice Watt of the USDA. Many governments require food manufacturers to label the energy content of their products, in the European Union, manufacturers of packaged food must label the nutritional energy of their products in both kilocalories and kilojoules, when required. In Australia and New Zealand, the energy must be stated in kilojoules
Food energy
–
The nutritional information label on a pack of
Basmati rice in the United Kingdom
7.
Carbohydrate
–
A carbohydrate is a biological molecule consisting of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2,1, in other words, with the empirical formula Cmn. This formula holds true for monosaccharides, some exceptions exist, for example, deoxyribose, a sugar component of DNA, has the empirical formula C5H10O4. Carbohydrates are technically hydrates of carbon, structurally it is accurate to view them as polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones. The term is most common in biochemistry, where it is a synonym of saccharide, a group that includes sugars, starch, the saccharides are divided into four chemical groups, monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides and disaccharides, the smallest carbohydrates, are referred to as sugars. The word saccharide comes from the Greek word σάκχαρον, meaning sugar, while the scientific nomenclature of carbohydrates is complex, the names of the monosaccharides and disaccharides very often end in the suffix -ose. For example, grape sugar is the glucose, cane sugar is the disaccharide sucrose. Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living organisms, polysaccharides serve for the storage of energy and as structural components. The 5-carbon monosaccharide ribose is an important component of coenzymes and the backbone of the genetic molecule known as RNA, the related deoxyribose is a component of DNA. Saccharides and their derivatives include many other important biomolecules that play key roles in the system, fertilization, preventing pathogenesis, blood clotting. In food science and in informal contexts, the term carbohydrate often means any food that is particularly rich in the complex carbohydrate starch or simple carbohydrates. Often in lists of information, such as the USDA National Nutrient Database, the term carbohydrate is used for everything other than water, protein, fat, ash. This will include chemical compounds such as acetic or lactic acid, carbohydrates are found in wide variety of foods. The important sources are cereals, potatoes, sugarcane, fruits, table sugar, bread, milk, starch and sugar are the important carbohydrates in our diet. Starch is abundant in potatoes, maize, rice and other cereals, sugar appears in our diet mainly as sucrose which is added to drinks and many prepared foods such as jam, biscuits and cakes. Glucose and fructose are found naturally in fruits and some vegetables. Glycogen is carbohydrate found in the liver and muscles, cellulose in the cell wall of all plant tissue is a carbohydrate. It is important in our diet as fibre which helps to maintain a healthy digestive system, formerly the name carbohydrate was used in chemistry for any compound with the formula Cm n
Carbohydrate
–
Grain products: rich sources of carbohydrates
Carbohydrate
8.
Sugar
–
Sugar is the generic name for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. There are various types of derived from different sources. Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose, fructose, the table sugar or granulated sugar most customarily used as food is sucrose, a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. Sugar is used in prepared foods and it is added to some foods, in the body, sucrose is hydrolysed into the simple sugars fructose and glucose. Other disaccharides include maltose from malted grain, and lactose from milk, longer chains of sugars are called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Some other chemical substances, such as glycerol may also have a sweet taste, low-calorie food substitutes for sugar, described as artificial sweeteners, include aspartame and sucralose, a chlorinated derivative of sucrose. Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants and are present in sufficient concentrations for efficient commercial extraction in sugarcane, the world production of sugar in 2011 was about 168 million tonnes. The average person consumes about 24 kilograms of sugar each year, equivalent to over 260 food calories per person, since the latter part of the twentieth century, it has been questioned whether a diet high in sugars, especially refined sugars, is good for human health. Sugar has been linked to obesity, and suspected of, or fully implicated as a cause in the occurrence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, dementia, macular degeneration, the etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. The English word sugar ultimately originates from the Sanskrit शर्करा, via Arabic سكر as granular or candied sugar, the contemporary Italian word is zucchero, whereas the Spanish and Portuguese words, azúcar and açúcar, respectively, have kept a trace of the Arabic definite article. The Old French word is zuchre and the contemporary French, sucre, the earliest Greek word attested is σάκχαρις. The English word jaggery, a brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar etymological origin – Portuguese jagara from the Sanskrit शर्करा. Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times and it was not plentiful or cheap in early times and honey was more often used for sweetening in most parts of the world. Originally, people chewed raw sugarcane to extract its sweetness, sugarcane was a native of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. Different species seem to have originated from different locations with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule, one of the earliest historical references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating back to 8th century BC that state that the use of sugarcane originated in India. Sugar was found in Europe by the 1st century AD, but only as an imported medicine and it is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut, sugar is used only for medical purposes. Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turning sugarcane juice into granulated crystals that were easier to store, crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas, around the 5th century AD
Sugar
–
Closeup of raw (unrefined, unbleached) sugar
Sugar
–
Ant feeding on sugar crystals.
Sugar
–
Sugar cane plantation
Sugar
–
Still-Life with Bread and Confectionary, by
George Flegel, first half of 17th century
9.
Dietary fiber
–
Dietary fiber or roughage is the indigestible portion of food derived from plants. It has two components, Soluble fiber, which dissolves in water, is readily fermented in the colon into gases and physiologically active byproducts. It delays gastric emptying which in turn can cause a feeling of fullness. Insoluble fiber, which does not dissolve in water, is inert and provides bulking, or it can be prebiotic. Bulking fibers absorb water as they move through the digestive system, Dietary fibers can act by changing the nature of the contents of the gastrointestinal tract and by changing how other nutrients and chemicals are absorbed. Some types of soluble fiber absorb water to become a gelatinous, viscous substance which is fermented by bacteria in the digestive tract, some types of insoluble fiber have bulking action and are not fermented. Lignin, a major dietary insoluble fiber source, may alter the rate, other types of insoluble fiber, notably resistant starch, are fully fermented. A novel position has been adopted by the US Department of Agriculture to include functional fibers as isolated fiber sources that may be included in the diet, the term fiber is something of a misnomer, since many types of so-called dietary fiber are not actually fibrous. Food sources of fiber are often divided according to whether they provide soluble or insoluble fiber. Plant foods contain both types of fiber in varying degrees, according to the plants characteristics, a disadvantage of a diet high in fiber is the potential for significant intestinal gas production and bloating. Originally, fiber was defined to be the components of plants that resist human digestive enzymes, the definition was later changed to also include resistant starch, along with inulin and other oligosaccharides. Official definition of dietary fiber differs a little among different institutions, Dietary fibers are found in fruits, vegetables, the exact amount of fiber contained in the food can be seen in the following table of expected fiber in USDA food groups/subgroups Dietary fiber is found in plants. While all plants contain some fiber, plants with high concentrations are generally the most practical source. Fiber-rich plants can be eaten directly, or, alternatively, they can be used to make supplements and fiber-rich processed foods. The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, formerly the American Dietetic Association, some plants contain significant amounts of soluble and insoluble fiber. For example, plums and prunes have a thick skin covering a juicy pulp, the skin is a source of insoluble fiber, whereas soluble fiber is in the pulp. Grapes also contain an amount of fiber. The root of the plant, or glucomannan, produces results similar to fiber
Dietary fiber
–
Legumes contain healthy dietary fibers.
10.
Fat
–
Fat is one of the three main macronutrients, along with carbohydrate and protein. Fats, also known as triglycerides, are esters of three fatty acid chains and the alcohol glycerol, the terms oil, fat, and lipid are often confused. Oil normally refers to a fat with short or unsaturated fatty acid chains that is liquid at room temperature, lipid is the general term, as a lipid is not necessarily a triglyceride. Fats, like lipids, are generally hydrophobic, and are soluble in organic solvents. Fat is an important foodstuff for many forms of life, and they are a necessary part of the diet of most heterotrophs. Some fatty acids that are set free by the digestion of fats are called essential because they cannot be synthesized in the body from simpler constituents, there are two essential fatty acids in human nutrition, alpha-linolenic acid and linoleic acid. Other lipids needed by the body can be synthesized from these, fats and other lipids are broken down in the body by enzymes called lipases produced in the pancreas. Fats and oils are categorized according to the number and bonding of the atoms in the aliphatic chain. Fats that are saturated fats have no double bonds between the carbons in the chain, unsaturated fats have one or more double bonded carbons in the chain. The nomenclature is based on the end of the chain. This end is called the end or the n-end. Thus alpha-linolenic acid is called an omega-3 fatty acid because the 3rd carbon from that end is the first double bonded carbon in the counting from that end. Some oils and fats have double bonds and are therefore called polyunsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats can be divided into cis fats, which are the most common in nature, and trans fats. Unsaturated fats can be altered by reaction with hydrogen effected by a catalyst and this action, called hydrogenation, tends to break all the double bonds and makes a fully saturated fat. However, trans fats are generated during hydrogenation as contaminants created by a side reaction on the catalyst during partial hydrogenation. Saturated fats can stack themselves in a closely packed arrangement, so they can easily and are typically solid at room temperature. For example, animal fats tallow and lard are high in saturated fatty acid content and are solids, olive and linseed oils on the other hand are unsaturated and liquid
Fat
–
The
obese mouse on the left has large stores of adipose tissue. For comparison, a mouse with a normal amount of adipose tissue is shown on the right.
Fat
–
A fat, or
triglyceride, molecule. Note the three fatty acid chains attached to the central glycerol portion of the molecule.
11.
Saturated fat
–
A saturated fat is a type of fat in which the fatty acids all have single bonds. A fat is made of two kinds of molecules, monoglyceride and fatty acids. Fats are made of chains of carbon atoms. Some carbon atoms are linked by bonds and others are linked by double bonds. Double bonds can react with hydrogen to form single bonds and they are called saturated, because the second bond is broken up and each half of the bond is attached to a hydrogen atom. The fats of plants and fish are generally unsaturated, various fats contain different proportions of saturated and unsaturated fat. Certain vegetable products have high saturated fat content, such as coconut oil, many prepared foods are high in saturated fat content, such as pizza, dairy desserts, and sausage. The effect of saturated fat on risk of disease is controversial, many reviews recommend a diet low in saturated fat and argue it will lower risks of cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, or death. However, other reviews have rejected those arguments or advocated for examining the proportion of saturated to unsaturated fat in the diet, while nutrition labels regularly combine them, the saturated fatty acids appear in different proportions among food groups. Lauric and myristic acids are most commonly found in tropical oils, the saturated fat in meat, eggs, cacao, and nuts is primarily the triglycerides of palmitic and stearic acids. Sources of lower saturated fat but higher proportions of unsaturated fatty acids include olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil, avocados, safflower, corn, sunflower, soy, the effect of saturated fat on cardiovascular disease is controversial. Until the picture becomes clearer, experts recommend people stick to the current guidelines on fat consumption, the consumption of saturated fat is generally considered a risk factor for dyslipidemia, which in turn is a risk factor for some types of cardiovascular disease. There are strong, consistent, and graded relationships between saturated fat intake, blood levels, and the mass occurrence of cardiovascular disease. The relationships are accepted as causal, meta-analyses have found a significant relationship between saturated fat and serum cholesterol levels. High total cholesterol levels, which may be caused by many factors, are associated with a risk of cardiovascular disease. However, other indicators measuring cholesterol such as high total/HDL cholesterol ratio are more predictive than total serum cholesterol, in a study of myocardial infarction in 52 countries, the ApoB/ApoA1 ratio was the strongest predictor of CVD among all risk factors. Different saturated fatty acids have differing effects on various lipid levels, a meta-analysis published in 2003 found a significant positive relationship in both control and cohort studies between saturated fat and breast cancer. However two subsequent reviews have found weak or insignificant associations of saturated fat intake and breast cancer risk, one review found limited evidence for a positive relationship between consuming animal fat and incidence of colorectal cancer
Saturated fat
12.
Trans fat
–
Trans fat has been shown to consistently be associated, in an intake-dependent way, with increased risk of coronary heart disease, a leading cause of death in Western nations. Fats contain long chains, which can either be unsaturated, i. e. have double bonds, or saturated. In nature, unsaturated fatty acids generally have cis as opposed to trans configurations, Trans fats also occur naturally in a limited number of cases. Vaccenyl and conjugated linoleyl containing trans fats occur naturally in trace amounts in meat, most artificial trans fats are chemically different from natural trans fats. A study by the US Department of Agriculture showed that vaccenic acid raises both HDL and LDL cholesterol, whereas industrial trans fats only raise LDL without any effect on HDL. In 2003 the World Health Organisation recommended that trans fats make up no more than 1% of a persons diet. On 16 June 2015, the FDA finalized its determination that trans fats are not generally recognized as safe, in other countries, there are legal limits to trans fat content. Trans fats levels can be reduced or eliminated using saturated fats such as lard, palm oil or fully hydrogenated fats, other alternative formulations can also allow unsaturated fats to be used to replace saturated or partially hydrogenated fats. Hydrogenated oil is not a synonym for trans fat, complete hydrogenation removes all unsaturated fats, nobel laureate Paul Sabatier worked in the late 1890s to develop the chemistry of hydrogenation, which enabled the margarine, oil hydrogenation, and synthetic methanol industries. Whereas Sabatier considered hydrogenation of only vapors, the German chemist Wilhelm Normann showed in 1901 that liquid oils could be hydrogenated, during the years 1905–1910, Normann built a fat-hardening facility in the Herford company. At the same time, the invention was extended to a plant in Warrington, England, at Joseph Crosfield & Sons. It took only two years until the fat could be successfully produced in the plant in Warrington, commencing production in the autumn of 1909. The initial years production totalled nearly 3,000 tonnes, in 1909, Procter & Gamble acquired the US rights to the Normann patent, in 1911, they began marketing the first hydrogenated shortening, Crisco. Further success came from the technique of giving away free cookbooks in which every recipe called for Crisco. Normanns hydrogenation process made it possible to stabilize affordable whale oil or fish oil for human consumption, prior to 1910, dietary fats consisted primarily of butterfat, beef tallow, and lard. During Napoleons reign in France in the early 19th century, a type of margarine was invented to feed the troops using tallow and buttermilk, it did not gain acceptance in the U. S. In the early 20th century, soybeans began to be imported into the U. S. as a source of protein, what to do with that oil became an issue. At the same time, there was not enough available for consumers
Trans fat
–
Margarine, a common product that contains trans fatty acids
Trans fat
–
Cover of original Crisco cookbook, 1912
Trans fat
–
Wilhelm Normann patented the hydrogenation of liquid oils in 1902
Trans fat
–
Salers Cow. Milk and meat from cows and other ruminants contain naturally occurring trans fats in small quantities
13.
Protein (nutrient)
–
Proteins are essential nutrients for the human body. They are one of the blocks of body tissue. As a fuel, proteins provide as much energy density as carbohydrates,4 kcal per gram, in contrast, the most important aspect and defining characteristic of protein from a nutritional standpoint is its amino acid composition. Proteins are polymer chains made of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds, during human digestion, proteins are broken down in the stomach to smaller polypeptide chains via hydrochloric acid and protease actions. This is crucial for the synthesis of the amino acids that cannot be biosynthesized by the body. There are nine amino acids which humans must obtain from their diet in order to prevent protein-energy malnutrition. They are phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, there are five dispensable amino acids which humans are able to synthesize in the body. These five are alanine, aspartic acid, asparagine, glutamic acid and these six are arginine, cysteine, glycine, glutamine, proline and tyrosine. Humans need the essential amino acids in certain ratios, some protein sources contain amino acids in a more or less complete sense. This has given rise to various ranking systems for protein sources, Dietary sources of protein include both animals and plants, meats, dairy products, fish and eggs as well as grains, legumes and nuts. Vegetarians and vegans can get enough essential amino acids by eating a variety of plant proteins and it is commonly believed that athletes should consume a higher-than-normal protein intake to maintain optimal physical performance. Protein is a nutrient needed by the body for growth. Aside from water, proteins are the most abundant kind of molecules in the body, Protein can be found in all cells of the body and is the major structural component of all cells in the body, especially muscle. This also includes body organs, hair and skin, proteins are also used in membranes, such as glycoproteins. When broken down into amino acids, they are used as precursors to acid, co-enzymes, hormones, immune response, cellular repair. Additionally, protein is needed to form blood cells, proteins are believed to increase performance in terms of athletics. Amino acids, the blocks of proteins, are used for building muscle tissue. Protein is only used as fuel when carbohydrates are low
Protein (nutrient)
–
Protein milkshakes, made from protein powder (center) and milk (left), are a common
bodybuilding supplement.
Protein (nutrient)
–
Amino acids are the building blocks of protein.
Protein (nutrient)
–
An education campaign launched by the United States Department of Agriculture about 100 years ago, on cottage cheese as a lower-cost protein substitute for meat.
Protein (nutrient)
–
A child in Nigeria during the
Biafra War suffering from
kwashiorkor – one of the
three protein energy malnutrition ailments afflicting over 10 million children in developing countries.
14.
Vitamin
–
A vitamin is an organic compound and a vital nutrient that an organism requires in limited amounts. For example, ascorbic acid is a vitamin for humans, supplementation is important for the treatment of certain health problems, but there is little evidence of nutritional benefit when used by otherwise healthy people. Thirteen vitamins are universally recognized at present, Vitamins are classified by their biological and chemical activity, not their structure. Thus, each vitamin refers to a number of compounds that all show the biological activity associated with a particular vitamin. Such a set of chemicals is grouped under an alphabetized vitamin generic descriptor title, such as vitamin A, which includes the compounds retinal, retinol, and four known carotenoids. Vitamers by definition are convertible to the form of the vitamin in the body. Some, such as vitamin D, have hormone-like functions as regulators of mineral metabolism, or regulators of cell and tissue growth and differentiation. The largest number of vitamins, the B complex vitamins, function as cofactors or the precursors for them. In this role, vitamins may be bound to enzymes as part of prosthetic groups, For example. They may also be less tightly bound to enzyme catalysts as coenzymes, for example, folic acid may carry methyl, formyl, and methylene groups in the cell. Although these roles in assisting enzyme-substrate reactions are vitamins best-known function, study of structural activity, function and their role in maintaining health is called vitaminology. Each vitamin is typically used in reactions, and therefore most have multiple functions. Vitamins are essential for the growth and development of a multicellular organism. Using the genetic blueprint inherited from its parents, a fetus begins to develop from the nutrients it absorbs and it requires certain vitamins and minerals to be present at certain times. These nutrients facilitate the chemical reactions that produce among other things, skin, bone, if there is serious deficiency in one or more of these nutrients, a child may develop a deficiency disease. Even minor deficiencies may cause permanent damage, for the most part, vitamins are obtained with food, but a few are obtained by other means. Humans can produce some vitamins from precursors they consume, examples include vitamin A, produced from beta carotene, and niacin, from the amino acid tryptophan. In those who are healthy, there is little evidence that supplements have any benefits with respect to cancer or heart disease
Vitamin
–
A bottle of high potency B-complex vitamin supplement pills.
Vitamin
–
500 mg calcium supplement tablets, with vitamin D, made from
calcium carbonate,
maltodextrin,
mineral oil,
hypromellose,
glycerin,
cholecalciferol,
polyethylene glycol, and
carnauba wax.
Vitamin
–
The
Ancient Egyptians knew that feeding a person
liver would help cure
night blindness.
15.
Vitamin A
–
Vitamin A is a group of unsaturated nutritional organic compounds that includes retinol, retinal, retinoic acid, and several provitamin A carotenoids. Vitamin A has multiple functions, it is important for growth and development, for the maintenance of the immune system and good vision. Vitamin A is needed by the retina of the eye in the form of retinal, which combines with protein opsin to form rhodopsin, Vitamin A also functions in a very different role as retinoic acid, which is an important hormone-like growth factor for epithelial and other cells. In foods of animal origin, the form of vitamin A is an ester, primarily retinyl palmitate. The retinol form functions as a form of the vitamin. All forms of vitamin A have a ring to which an isoprenoid chain is attached, called a retinyl group. Both structural features are essential for vitamin activity, the orange pigment of carrots can be represented as two connected retinyl groups, which are used in the body to contribute to vitamin A levels. Alpha-carotene and gamma-carotene also have a single group, which give them some vitamin activity. None of the other carotenes have vitamin activity, the carotenoid beta-cryptoxanthin possesses an ionone group and has vitamin activity in humans. Vitamin A can be found in two forms in foods, Retinol, the form of vitamin A absorbed when eating animal food sources, is a yellow. Since the pure form is unstable, the vitamin is found in tissues in a form of retinyl ester. It is also produced and administered as esters such as retinyl acetate or palmitate. Vitamin A deficiency is estimated to approximately one third of children under the age of five around the world. It is estimated to claim the lives of 670,000 children under five annually, approximately 250, 000–500,000 children in developing countries become blind each year owing to vitamin A deficiency, with the highest prevalence in Southeast Asia and Africa. Vitamin A deficiency is the cause of preventable childhood blindness. It also increases the risk of death from common childhood conditions such as diarrhea, UNICEF regards addressing vitamin A deficiency as critical to reducing child mortality, the fourth of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals. Vitamin A deficiency can occur as either a primary or a secondary deficiency, early weaning from breastmilk can also increase the risk of vitamin A deficiency. Vitamin A is a vitamin and depends on micellar solubilization for dispersion into the small intestine
Vitamin A
–
carrots
16.
Vitamin C
–
Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid and L-ascorbic acid, is a vitamin found in food and used as a dietary supplement. As a supplement it is used to treat and prevent scurvy, evidence does not support use in the general population for the prevention of the common cold. It may be taken by mouth or by injection, large doses may cause gastrointestinal discomfort, headache, trouble sleeping, and flushing of the skin. Normal doses are safe during pregnancy, Vitamin C is an essential nutrient involved in the repair of tissue. Foods that contain vitamin C include citrus fruit, tomatoes, Vitamin C was discovered in 1912, isolated in 1928, and first made in 1933. It is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, Vitamin C is available as a generic medication and over the counter. In 2015, the wholesale cost in the world was about 0.003 to 0.007 USD per tablet. In some countries, ascorbic acid may be added to such as breakfast cereal. A2012 Cochrane review found no effect of vitamin C supplementation on overall mortality, although rare in modern times, scurvy and its associated destabilization of collagen, connective tissue, and bone can be prevented by adequate vitamin C intake. A2014 review found that, Currently, the use of high-dose IV vitamin C cannot be recommended outside of a clinical trial, a 2013 Cochrane review found no evidence that vitamin C supplementation reduces the risk of lung cancer in healthy or high risk people. A2014 meta-analysis found that vitamin C intake might protect against lung cancer risk, a second meta-analysis found no effect on the risk of prostate cancer. Two meta-analyses evaluated the effect of vitamin C supplementation on the risk of colorectal cancer, one found a weak association between vitamin C consumption and reduced risk, and the other found no effect of supplementation. A2013 meta-analysis found no evidence that vitamin C supplementation reduces the risk of myocardial infarction, stroke, cardiovascular mortality, however, a second analysis found an inverse relationship between circulating vitamin C levels or dietary vitamin C and the risk of stroke. A meta-analysis of 44 clinical trials has shown a significant positive effect of vitamin C on endothelial function when taken at doses greater than 500 mg per day. The researchers noted that the effect of vitamin C supplementation appeared to be dependent on health status, a 2010 review found no role for vitamin C supplementation in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Studies examining the effects of vitamin C intake on the risk of Alzheimers disease have reached conflicting conclusions, maintaining a healthy dietary intake is probably more important than supplementation for achieving any potential benefit. Vitamin C supplementation above the RDA has been used in trials to study a potential effect on preventing and slowing the progression of age-related cataract, however, no significant effects were found from the research. Vitamin Cs effect on the cold has been extensively researched
Vitamin C
–
Rose hips are a particularly rich source of vitamin C
Vitamin C
–
Vitamin C
Vitamin C
–
Goats, like almost all animals, make their own vitamin C. An adult goat, weighing approx. 70 kg, will manufacture more than 13,000 mg of vitamin C per day in normal health, and levels manyfold higher when faced with stress.
Vitamin C
–
James Lind, a British Royal Navy surgeon who, in 1747, identified that a quality in fruit prevented the disease of scurvy in what was the first
recorded controlled experiment.
17.
Dietary element
–
In the context of nutrition, a mineral is a chemical element required as an essential nutrient by organisms to perform functions necessary for life. Minerals originate in the earth and cannot be made by living organisms, most of the minerals in a human diet come from eating plants and animals or from drinking water. As a group, minerals are one of the four groups of essential nutrients, the others of which are vitamins, essential fatty acids, the five major minerals in the human body are calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and magnesium. All of the elements in a human body are called trace elements. The trace elements that have a specific function in the human body are iron, cobalt, copper, zinc, manganese, molybdenum, iodine. Most chemical elements that are ingested by organisms are in the form of simple compounds, plants absorb dissolved elements in soils, which are subsequently ingested by the herbivores that eat them, and the elements move up the food chain. Larger organisms may also consume soil or use mineral resources, such as salt licks, one element, cobalt, is available for use by animals only after having been processed into complex molecules by bacteria. Minerals are used by animals and microorganisms for the process of mineralizing structures, called biomineralization, used to construct bones, seashells, eggshells, exoskeletons and mollusc shells. At least twenty chemical elements are known to be required to support human biochemical processes by serving structural and functional roles as well as electrolytes, however, as many as twenty-nine elements in total are suggested to be used by mammals, as inferred by biochemical and uptake studies. Phosphorus makes up about 1% of a body weight. The last four major minerals make up only about 0. 85% of the weight of the body, together these eleven chemical elements make up 99. 85% of the body. Minerals are present in a human beings blood at certain mass. The figure below presents the concentrations of each of the elements discussed in this article. Depending on the concentrations, some are in part of the picture. The figure includes the values of other constituents of blood such as hormones. In the figure, minerals are color highlighted in purple, dietitians may recommend that minerals are best supplied by ingesting specific foods rich with the chemical element of interest. The elements may be present in the food or added to the food. The dietary focus on chemical elements derives from an interest in supporting the biochemical reactions of metabolism with the elemental components
Dietary element
–
Reference ranges for blood tests, sorted logarithmically by
mass above the scale and by
molarity below.
18.
Calcium
–
Calcium is a chemical element with symbol Ca and atomic number 20. Calcium is a soft grayish-yellow alkaline earth metal, fifth-most-abundant element by mass in the Earths crust, the ion Ca2+ is also the fifth-most-abundant dissolved ion in seawater by both molarity and mass, after sodium, chloride, magnesium, and sulfate. Free calcium metal is too reactive to occur in nature, Calcium is produced in supernova nucleosynthesis. Calcium is a trace element in living organisms. It is the most abundant metal by mass in animals, and it is an important constituent of bone, teeth. In cell biology, the movement of the calcium ion into, Calcium carbonate and calcium citrate are often taken as dietary supplements. Calcium is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, Calcium has a wide variety of applications, almost all of which are associated with calcium compounds and salts. Calcium metal is used as a deoxidizer, desulfurizer, and decarbonizer for production of ferrous and nonferrous alloys. In steelmaking and production of iron, Ca reacts with oxygen, Calcium carbonate is used in manufacturing cement and mortar, lime, limestone and aids in production in the glass industry. It also has chemical and optical uses as mineral specimens in toothpastes, Calcium hydroxide solution is used to detect the presence of carbon dioxide in a gas sample bubbled through a solution. The solution turns cloudy where CO2 is present, Calcium arsenate is used in insecticides. Calcium carbide is used to make acetylene gas and various plastics, Calcium chloride is used in ice removal and dust control on dirt roads, as a conditioner for concrete, as an additive in canned tomatoes, and to provide body for automobile tires. Calcium citrate is used as a food preservative, Calcium cyclamate is used as a sweetening agent in several countries. In the United States, it has been outlawed as a suspected carcinogen, Calcium gluconate is used as a food additive and in vitamin pills. Calcium hypochlorite is used as a swimming pool disinfectant, as an agent, as an ingredient in deodorant. Calcium permanganate is used in rocket propellant, textile production, as a water sterilizing agent. Calcium phosphate is used as a supplement for animal feed, fertilizer, in production for dough and yeast products, in the manufacture of glass. Calcium phosphide is used in fireworks, rodenticide, torpedoes, Calcium sulfate is used as common blackboard chalk, as well as, in its hemihydrate form, Plaster of Paris
Calcium
–
Calcium, 20 Ca
Calcium
–
Travertine terraces
Pamukkale, Turkey
Calcium
–
'Ain Ghazal figure
Calcium
–
500 milligram calcium supplements made from
calcium carbonate
19.
Iron
–
Iron is a chemical element with symbol Fe and atomic number 26. It is a metal in the first transition series and it is by mass the most common element on Earth, forming much of Earths outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earths crust, like the other group 8 elements, ruthenium and osmium, iron exists in a wide range of oxidation states, −2 to +6, although +2 and +3 are the most common. Elemental iron occurs in meteoroids and other low oxygen environments, but is reactive to oxygen, fresh iron surfaces appear lustrous silvery-gray, but oxidize in normal air to give hydrated iron oxides, commonly known as rust. Unlike the metals that form passivating oxide layers, iron oxides occupy more volume than the metal and thus flake off, Iron metal has been used since ancient times, although copper alloys, which have lower melting temperatures, were used even earlier in human history. Pure iron is soft, but is unobtainable by smelting because it is significantly hardened and strengthened by impurities, in particular carbon. A certain proportion of carbon steel, which may be up to 1000 times harder than pure iron. Crude iron metal is produced in blast furnaces, where ore is reduced by coke to pig iron, further refinement with oxygen reduces the carbon content to the correct proportion to make steel. Steels and iron alloys formed with metals are by far the most common industrial metals because they have a great range of desirable properties. Iron chemical compounds have many uses, Iron oxide mixed with aluminium powder can be ignited to create a thermite reaction, used in welding and purifying ores. Iron forms binary compounds with the halogens and the chalcogens, among its organometallic compounds is ferrocene, the first sandwich compound discovered. Iron plays an important role in biology, forming complexes with oxygen in hemoglobin and myoglobin. Iron is also the metal at the site of many important redox enzymes dealing with cellular respiration and oxidation and reduction in plants. A human male of average height has about 4 grams of iron in his body and this iron is distributed throughout the body in hemoglobin, tissues, muscles, bone marrow, blood proteins, enzymes, ferritin, hemosiderin, and transport in plasma. The mechanical properties of iron and its alloys can be evaluated using a variety of tests, including the Brinell test, Rockwell test, the data on iron is so consistent that it is often used to calibrate measurements or to compare tests. An increase in the content will cause a significant increase in the hardness. Maximum hardness of 65 Rc is achieved with a 0. 6% carbon content, because of the softness of iron, it is much easier to work with than its heavier congeners ruthenium and osmium. Because of its significance for planetary cores, the properties of iron at high pressures and temperatures have also been studied extensively
Iron
–
Iron, 26 Fe
Iron
–
Spectral lines of iron
Iron
–
Iron meteorites, similar in composition to the Earth's inner- and outer core
Iron
–
Hydrated
iron(III) chloride, also known as ferric chloride
20.
Sodium
–
Sodium is a chemical element with symbol Na and atomic number 11. It is a soft, silvery-white, highly reactive metal, Sodium is an alkali metal, being in group 1 of the periodic table, because it has a single electron in its outer shell that it readily donates, creating a positively charged atom—the Na+ cation. Its only stable isotope is 23Na, the free metal does not occur in nature, but must be prepared from compounds. Sodium is the sixth most abundant element in the Earths crust, Sodium was first isolated by Humphry Davy in 1807 by the electrolysis of sodium hydroxide. Among many other useful compounds, sodium hydroxide is used in soap manufacture, and sodium chloride is a de-icing agent. Sodium is an element for all animals and some plants. Sodium ions are the major cation in the fluid and as such are the major contributor to the ECF osmotic pressure. Loss of water from the ECF compartment increases the sodium concentration, isotonic loss of water and sodium from the ECF compartment decreases the size of that compartment in a condition called ECF hypovolemia. In nerve cells, the charge across the cell membrane enables transmission of the nerve impulse—an action potential—when the charge is dissipated. The melting and boiling points of sodium are lower than those of lithium but higher than those of the alkali metals potassium, rubidium. All of these high-pressure allotropes are insulators and electrides.3 nm, spin-orbit interactions involving the electron in the 3p orbital split the D line into two, at 589.0 and 589.6 nm, hyperfine structures involving both orbitals cause many more lines. Twenty isotopes of sodium are known, but only 23Na is stable, 23Na is created in the carbon-burning process in stars by fusing two carbon atoms together, this requires temperatures above 600 megakelvins and a star of at least three solar masses. Two nuclear isomers have been discovered, the one being 24mNa with a half-life of around 20.2 milliseconds. Sodium atoms have 11 electrons, one more than the stable configuration of the noble gas neon. This process requires so little energy that sodium is oxidized by giving up its 11th electron. In contrast, the ionization energy is very high, because the 10th electron is closer to the nucleus than the 11th electron. As a result, sodium usually forms ionic compounds involving the Na+ cation, the most common oxidation state for sodium is +1. It is generally less reactive than potassium and more reactive than lithium, Sodium metal is highly reducing, with the reduction of sodium ions requiring −2.71 volts, though potassium and lithium have even more negative potentials
Sodium
–
Sodium, 11 Na
Sodium
–
Spectral lines of sodium
Sodium
–
Emission spectrum for sodium, showing the
D line.
Sodium
–
A positive
flame test for sodium has a bright yellow color.
21.
Milligram
–
The kilogram or kilogramme is the base unit of mass in the International System of Units and is defined as being equal to the mass of the International Prototype of the Kilogram. The avoirdupois pound, used in both the imperial and US customary systems, is defined as exactly 0.45359237 kg, making one kilogram approximately equal to 2.2046 avoirdupois pounds. Other traditional units of weight and mass around the world are also defined in terms of the kilogram, the gram, 1/1000 of a kilogram, was provisionally defined in 1795 as the mass of one cubic centimetre of water at the melting point of ice. The final kilogram, manufactured as a prototype in 1799 and from which the IPK was derived in 1875, had an equal to the mass of 1 dm3 of water at its maximum density. The kilogram is the only SI base unit with an SI prefix as part of its name and it is also the only SI unit that is still directly defined by an artifact rather than a fundamental physical property that can be reproduced in different laboratories. Three other base units and 17 derived units in the SI system are defined relative to the kilogram, only 8 other units do not require the kilogram in their definition, temperature, time and frequency, length, and angle. At its 2011 meeting, the CGPM agreed in principle that the kilogram should be redefined in terms of the Planck constant, the decision was originally deferred until 2014, in 2014 it was deferred again until the next meeting. There are currently several different proposals for the redefinition, these are described in the Proposed Future Definitions section below, the International Prototype Kilogram is rarely used or handled. In the decree of 1795, the term gramme thus replaced gravet, the French spelling was adopted in the United Kingdom when the word was used for the first time in English in 1797, with the spelling kilogram being adopted in the United States. In the United Kingdom both spellings are used, with kilogram having become by far the more common, UK law regulating the units to be used when trading by weight or measure does not prevent the use of either spelling. In the 19th century the French word kilo, a shortening of kilogramme, was imported into the English language where it has used to mean both kilogram and kilometre. In 1935 this was adopted by the IEC as the Giorgi system, now known as MKS system. In 1948 the CGPM commissioned the CIPM to make recommendations for a practical system of units of measurement. This led to the launch of SI in 1960 and the subsequent publication of the SI Brochure, the kilogram is a unit of mass, a property which corresponds to the common perception of how heavy an object is. Mass is a property, that is, it is related to the tendency of an object at rest to remain at rest, or if in motion to remain in motion at a constant velocity. Accordingly, for astronauts in microgravity, no effort is required to hold objects off the cabin floor, they are weightless. However, since objects in microgravity still retain their mass and inertia, the ratio of the force of gravity on the two objects, measured by the scale, is equal to the ratio of their masses. On April 7,1795, the gram was decreed in France to be the weight of a volume of pure water equal to the cube of the hundredth part of the metre
Milligram
–
A domestic-quality one-kilogram weight made of
cast iron (the
credit card is for scale). The shape follows
OIML recommendation R52 for cast-iron hexagonal weights
Milligram
–
Measurement of weight – gravitational attraction of the measurand causes a distortion of the spring
Milligram
–
Measurement of mass – the gravitational force on the measurand is balanced against the gravitational force on the weights.
Milligram
–
The Arago kilogram, an exact copy of the "Kilogramme des Archives" commissioned in 1821 by the US under supervision of French physicist
François Arago that served as the US's first kilogram standard of mass until 1889, when the US converted to primary metric standards and received its current kilogram prototypes, K4 and K20.
22.
Staple food
–
The staple food of a specific society may be eaten as often as every day or every meal, and most people live on a diet based on just a small number of staples. Typical examples of staples include tubers and roots, and grains, legumes, such nonperishable foods are the only possible staples during seasons of shortage, such as dry seasons or cold temperate winters, against which times harvests have been stored. During seasons of plenty, wider choices of foods may be available. Most staple plant foods are derived either from cereals such as wheat, barley, rye, maize, or rice, or starchy tubers or root vegetables such as potatoes, yams, taro, arrowroot, other staple foods include pulses, sago, and fruits. Staple foods may contain, sorghum, olive oil, coconut oil. Most staples are plant materials, but in some fishing is the primary source of nutrition. Of the more than 50,000 edible plant species in the world, although there are over 10,000 species in the cereal family, just a few have been widely cultivated over the past 2,000 years. The staple food in different parts of the world is a function of weather patterns, local terrain, farming constraints, acquired tastes, for example, the main energy source staples in the average African diet are cereals, roots and tubers and animal products. In Western Europe the main staples in the diet are animal products, cereals and roots. Regional staples include rye, soybeans, barley, oats and teff, just 15 crop plants provide 90 percent of the worlds food energy intake, with rice, maize and wheat comprising two-thirds of human food consumption. The three are the staples of about 80% of the population, and rice feeds almost half of humanity. Roots and tubers, meanwhile, are important staples for over 1 billion people in the developing world, roots and tubers are high in carbohydrates, calcium and vitamin C but low in protein. Cassava root is a staple food in the developing world. With economic development and free trade, many countries have shifted away from low-nutrient-density staple foods to higher-nutrient-density staples, despite this trend, there is growing recognition of the importance of traditional staple crops in nutrition. Efforts are underway to identify better strains with superior nutrition, disease resistance, some foods like quinoa—a pseudocereal grain that originally came from the Andes—were also staple foods centuries ago. Oca, ulluco and amaranth seed are other foods claimed to be staples in Andean history, pemmican was a staple of the Plains Indians of North America. In 2010, the consumption of speciality grains such as quinoa was very small compared to other staples such as rice, wheat. These grains, once popular but then forgotten, are being reevaluated and reintroduced, most staple food is produced using modern and conventional farming practices
Staple food
–
Grains
Staple food
–
Various types of
potatoes
Staple food
–
Maize, the most produced food staple in the world.
Staple food
–
Boiled white
rice
23.
Italian cuisine
–
Italian cuisine is the culinary typical or originating from Italy. It has developed through centuries of social and political changes, with roots stretching to antiquity, Italian cuisine is characterized by its simplicity, with many dishes having only four to eight ingredients. Italian cooks rely chiefly on the quality of the rather than on elaborate preparation. Ingredients and dishes vary by region, many dishes that were once regional, however, have proliferated with variations throughout the country. Cheese and wine are a part of the cuisine, with many variations. Coffee, specifically espresso, has become important in Italian cuisine, Italian cuisine has developed over the centuries. Although the country known as Italy did not unite until the 19th century, Italian food started to form after the fall of the Roman Empire, when different cities began to separate and form their own traditions. Many different types of bread and pasta were made, and there was a variation in cooking techniques and preparation. For example, the north of Italy is known for its risottos, the central/middle of the country is known for its tortellini, the first known Italian food writer was a Greek Sicilian named Archestratus from Syracuse in the 4th century BCE. He wrote a poem that spoke of using top quality and seasonal ingredients and he said that flavors should not be masked by spices, herbs or other seasonings. He placed importance on simple preparation of fish, simplicity was abandoned and replaced by a culture of gastronomy as the Roman Empire developed. By the time De re coquinaria was published in the 1st century CE, it contained 470 recipes calling for heavy use of spices, the Romans employed Greek bakers to produce breads and imported cheeses from Sicily as the Sicilians had a reputation as the best cheesemakers. The Romans reared goats for butchering, and grew artichokes and leeks, with culinary traditions from Rome and Athens, a cuisine developed in Sicily that some consider the first real Italian cuisine. Arabs invaded Sicily in the 9th century, introducing spinach, almonds, Normans also introduced casseroles, salt cod and stockfish, which remain popular. Food preservation was either chemical or physical, as refrigeration did not exist, meats and fish would be smoked, dried or kept on ice. Brine and salt were used to pickle items such as herring, root vegetables were preserved in brine after they had been parboiled. Other means of preservation included oil, vinegar or immersing meat in congealed, rendered fat, for preserving fruits, liquor, honey and sugar were used. The northern Italian regions show a mix of Germanic and Roman culture while the south reflects Arab influence, the oldest Italian book on cuisine is the 13th century Liber de coquina written in Naples
Italian cuisine
–
Italian cuisine
Italian cuisine
–
Apicius ',
De re coquinaria ("On the Subject of Cooking"), 1709 edition.
Italian cuisine
–
Saffron
Italian cuisine
–
Bartolomeo Scappi, personal chef to
Pope Pius V
24.
Milling (grinding)
–
A mill is a device that breaks solid materials into smaller pieces by grinding, crushing, or cutting. Such comminution is an important unit operation in many processes, there are many different types of mills and many types of materials processed in them. Historically mills were powered by hand, working animal, wind or water, today they are usually powered by electricity. The grinding of solid matters occurs under exposure of mechanical forces that trench the structure by overcoming of the interior bonding forces, after the grinding the state of the solid is changed, the grain size, the grain size disposition and the grain shape. Milling also refers to the process of breaking down, separating, sizing, aggregate milling processes are also used to remove or separate contamination or moisture from aggregate or soil and to produce dry fills prior to transport or structural filling. To calculate the needed grinding work against the grain size changing three half-empirical models are used and these can be related to the Hukki relationship between particle size and the energy required to break the particles. In stirred mills, the Hukki relationship does not apply and instead, a reliable value for the grain sizes dA and dE is d80. This value signifies that 80% of the matter has a smaller grain size. The Bonds grinding coefficient for different materials can be found in various literature, to evaluate the grinding results the grain size disposition of the source material and of the ground material is needed. Grinding degree is the ratio of the sizes from the grain disposition, pretended grinding degree Z a = d 1 a The discharge die gap a of the grinding machine is used for the ground solid matter in this formula. In materials processing a grinder is a machine for producing fine particle size reduction through attrition, see also crusher for mechanisms producing larger particles. A typical type of grinder is the ball mill. Ball mills normally operate with a ball charge of 30%. Ball mills are characterized by their diameter and longer length. The feed is at one end of the cylinder and the discharge is at the other, ball mills are commonly used in the manufacture of Portland cement and finer grinding stages of mineral processing, one example being the Sepro tyre drive Grinding Mill. Industrial ball mills can be as large as 8.5 m in diameter with a 22 MW motor, however, small versions of ball mills can be found in laboratories where they are used for grinding sample material for quality assurance. A rotating drum causes friction and attrition between steel rods and ore particles, but note that the term rod mill is also used as a synonym for a slitting mill, which makes rods of iron or other metal. Rod mills are less common than ball mills for grinding minerals, the rods used in the mill, usually a high-carbon steel, can vary in both the length and the diameter
Milling (grinding)
–
A tabletop hammer mill
Milling (grinding)
–
Principle of SAG Mill operation
25.
Wheat
–
Wheat is a cereal grain, originally from the Levant region but now cultivated worldwide. In 2016, world production of wheat was 749 million tonnes, making it the second most-produced cereal after maize, since 1960, world production of wheat and other grain crops has tripled and is expected to grow further through the middle of the 21st Century. This grain is grown on land area than any other commercial food. World trade in wheat is greater than for all other crops combined, globally, wheat is the leading source of vegetal protein in human food, having a protein content of about 13%, which is relatively high compared to other major cereals and staple foods. The archaeological record suggests that wheat was first cultivated in the regions of the Fertile Crescent around 9600 BCE. In a small part of the population, gluten – the major part of wheat protein – can trigger coeliac disease, non-coeliac gluten sensitivity, gluten ataxia. Cultivation and repeated harvesting and sowing of the grains of wild grasses led to the creation of domestic strains, in domesticated wheat, grains are larger, and the seeds remain attached to the ear by a toughened rachis during harvesting. In wild strains, a more fragile rachis allows the ear to easily shatter, as the traits that improve wheat as a food source also involve the loss of the plants natural seed dispersal mechanisms, highly domesticated strains of wheat cannot survive in the wild. Cultivation of wheat began to spread beyond the Fertile Crescent after about 8000 BCE, jared Diamond traces the spread of cultivated emmer wheat starting in the Fertile Crescent sometime before 8800 BCE. Archaeological analysis of wild emmer indicates that it was first cultivated in the southern Levant with finds dating back as far as 9600 BCE, Genetic analysis of wild einkorn wheat suggests that it was first grown in the Karacadag Mountains in southeastern Turkey. Dated archeological remains of wheat in settlement sites near this region, including those at Abu Hureyra in Syria. With the anomalous exception of two grains from Iraq ed-Dubb, the earliest carbon-14 date for einkorn wheat remains at Abu Hureyra is 7800 to 7500 years BCE. Remains of harvested emmer from several sites near the Karacadag Range have been dated to between 8600 and 8400 BCE, that is, in the Neolithic period and these remains were dated by Willem van Zeist and his assistant Johanna Bakker-Heeres to 8800 BCE. They also concluded that the settlers of Tell Aswad did not develop this form of emmer themselves, the cultivation of emmer reached Greece, Cyprus and India by 6500 BCE, Egypt shortly after 6000 BCE, and Germany and Spain by 5000 BCE. The early Egyptians were developers of bread and the use of the oven, by 3000 BCE, wheat had reached the British Isles and Scandinavia. A millennium later it reached China, the oldest evidence for hexaploid wheat has been confirmed through DNA analysis of wheat seeds, dating to around 6400-6200 BCE, recovered from Çatalhöyük. The first identifiable bread wheat with sufficient gluten for yeasted breads has been identified using DNA analysis in samples from a dating to approximately 1350 BCE at Assiros in Macedonia. From Asia, wheat continued to spread throughout Europe, in the British Isles, wheat straw was used for roofing in the Bronze Age, and was in common use until the late 19th century
Wheat
–
Wheat
Wheat
–
Spikelets of a hulled wheat,
einkorn
Wheat
–
Green wheat a month before harvest
Wheat
–
Wheat harvest on the
Palouse,
Idaho, United States
26.
Durum
–
Durum wheat, pasta wheat or macaroni wheat is the only tetraploid species of wheat of commercial importance that is widely cultivated today. It was developed by selection of the domesticated emmer wheat strains formerly grown in Central Europe and the Near East around 7000 BC. Like emmer, durum wheat is awned and it is the predominant wheat that grows in the Middle East. Durum in Latin means hard, and the species is the hardest of all wheats and this refers to the resistance of the grain to milling, in particular of the starchy endosperm, implying dough made from its flour is weak or soft. This makes durum favorable for semolina and pasta and less practical for flour, despite its high protein content, durum is not a strong wheat in the sense of giving strength to dough through the formation of a gluten network. Durum contains 27% extractable, wet gluten, about 3% higher than in common wheat. Durum wheat is a wheat, having 4 sets of chromosomes for a total of 28, unlike hard red winter and hard red spring wheats. Commercially produced dry pasta, or pasta secca, is made almost exclusively from durum semolina, most home made fresh pastas, such as orecchiette and tagliatelle, also use durum wheat or a combination of soft and hard wheats. Husked but unground, or coarsely ground, it is used to produce the semolina in the couscous of North Africa and it is also used for Levantine dishes such as tabbula, kishk, kibba, bitfun and the bulghur for pilafs. In North African cuisine and Levantine cuisine, it forms the basis of many soups, gruels, stuffings, puddings, when ground as fine as flour, it is used for making bread. In the Middle East, it is used for flat round breads and it is not, however, good for cakes, which are made from soft wheat to ensure softness. Durum flour and semolina are good for making pasta because it does not create doughs hard to shape, technically, the dough is relatively plastic, contrasting with the strong elastic doughs obtained from bread flours. Durum wheat is thus used in breadmaking. Its protein content is almost as high as that of spring or winter wheat and so is its gluten content. Pure durum wheat breads are often dense, containing little air bubbles, the uncooked dough splits easily and is easier to shape, as for instance to make pies or pastas. The use of wheat to produce pasta was described as early as the 10th century by Ibn Wahshīya of Cairo, the North Africans called the product itrīya, from which Italian sources derived the term tria during the 15th century. Another type of pasta, al-fidawsh, was popular in al-Andalus, from there it was transmitted to Christian Spain, and it frequently appears in Hispano-Muslim cookbooks. From al-fidawsh was derived the Spanish word for noodles, fideos, in the American Great Plains, durum wheat is used almost exclusively for making pasta products such as spaghetti and macaroni
Durum
–
Durum
Durum
–
History
27.
Dish (food)
–
A dish in gastronomy is a specific food preparation, a distinct article or variety of food, with cooking finished, and ready to eat, or be served. A dish may be served on tableware, or may be out of hand. Instructions for preparing a dish are called recipes, some dishes, for example vanilla ice cream with fudge sauce, rarely have their own recipes, as they are made by simply combining two ready to eat preparations of foods. Many dishes have specific names, while others are simply described, many are named for particular places, sometimes because of a specific association with that place like Boston baked beans or bistecca alla fiorentina. Sometimes not, poached eggs Florentine ends up meaning essentially with spinach, because of the many stories that have been told about the names of different dishes, it is often hard to know exactly where the names came from. Entrée Food presentation Garnish Famous Food Dishes and How they Got Their Names
Dish (food)
–
Baked
Tapioca root in a pot
Dish (food)
–
A Chinese rice dish on a plate
28.
Italian language
–
By most measures, Italian, together with Sardinian, is the closest to Latin of the Romance languages. Italian is a language in Italy, Switzerland, San Marino, Vatican City. Italian is spoken by minorities in places such as France, Montenegro, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Crimea and Tunisia and by large expatriate communities in the Americas. Many speakers are native bilinguals of both standardized Italian and other regional languages, Italian is the fourth most studied language in the world. Italian is a major European language, being one of the languages of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe. It is the third most widely spoken first language in the European Union with 65 million native speakers, including Italian speakers in non-EU European countries and on other continents, the total number of speakers is around 85 million. Italian is the working language of the Holy See, serving as the lingua franca in the Roman Catholic hierarchy as well as the official language of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. Italian is known as the language of music because of its use in musical terminology and its influence is also widespread in the arts and in the luxury goods market. Italian has been reported as the fourth or fifth most frequently taught foreign language in the world, Italian was adopted by the state after the Unification of Italy, having previously been a literary language based on Tuscan as spoken mostly by the upper class of Florentine society. Its development was influenced by other Italian languages and to some minor extent. Its vowels are the second-closest to Latin after Sardinian, unlike most other Romance languages, Italian retains Latins contrast between short and long consonants. As in most Romance languages, stress is distinctive, however, Italian as a language used in Italy and some surrounding regions has a longer history. What would come to be thought of as Italian was first formalized in the early 14th century through the works of Tuscan writer Dante Alighieri, written in his native Florentine. Dante is still credited with standardizing the Italian language, and thus the dialect of Florence became the basis for what would become the language of Italy. Italian was also one of the recognised languages in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Italy has always had a dialect for each city, because the cities. Those dialects now have considerable variety, as Tuscan-derived Italian came to be used throughout Italy, features of local speech were naturally adopted, producing various versions of Regional Italian. Even in the case of Northern Italian languages, however, scholars are not to overstate the effects of outsiders on the natural indigenous developments of the languages
Italian language
–
Dante Alighieri (above) and
Petrarch (below) were influential in establishing their
Tuscan dialect as the most prominent literary language in all of
Italy in the
Late Middle Ages
Italian language
–
The geographic distribution of the Italian language in the world: large Italian-speaking communities are shown in green; light blue indicates areas where the Italian language was used officially during the Italian colonial period.
Italian language
Italian language
–
Pietro Bembo was an influential figure in the development of the Italian language from the Tuscan dialect, as a literary medium, codifying the language for standard modern usage
29.
Talmud
–
The Talmud is a central text of Rabbinic Judaism. It is also referred to as Shas, a Hebrew abbreviation of shisha sedarim, the six orders. Talmud translates literally as instruction in Hebrew, and the term may refer to either the Gemara alone, or the Mishnah, the entire Talmud consists of 63 tractates, and in standard print is over 6,200 pages long. The Talmud is the basis for all codes of Jewish law, Rabbis expounded and debated the Torah and discussed the Tanakh without the benefit of written works, though some may have made private notes, for example of court decisions. It is during this period that rabbinic discourse began to be recorded in writing, the earliest recorded oral Torah may have been of the midrashic form, in which halakhic discussion is structured as exegetical commentary on the Pentateuch. But an alternative form, organized by subject matter instead of by biblical verse, became dominant about the year 200 CE, the Oral Torah was far from monolithic, rather, it varied among various schools. The most famous two were the School of Shammai and the School of Hillel, in general, all valid opinions, even the non-normative ones, were recorded in the Talmud. The oldest full manuscript of the Talmud, known as the Munich Talmud, each tractate is divided into chapters,517 in total, that are both numbered according to the Hebrew alphabet and given names, usually using the first one or two words in the first mishnah. A perek may continue over several pages, each perek will contain several mishnayot with their accompanying exchanges that form the building-blocks of the Gemara, the name for a passage of gemara is a sugya. A sugya, including baraita or tosefta, will comprise a detailed proof-based elaboration of a Mishnaic statement. A sugya may, and often does, range widely off the subject of the mishnah, in a given sugya, scriptural, Tannaic and Amoraic statements are cited to support the various opinions. In so doing, the Gemara will highlight semantic disagreements between Tannaim and Amoraim, and compare the Mishnaic views with passages from the Baraita. Rarely are debates formally closed, in instances, the final word determines the practical law. There is a literature on the procedural principles to be used in settling the practical law when disagreements exist, see under #Logic. The Mishnah is a compilation of legal opinions and debates, statements in the Mishnah are typically terse, recording brief opinions of the rabbis debating a subject, or recording only an unattributed ruling, apparently representing a consensus view. The rabbis recorded in the Mishnah are known as the Tannaim, the Mishnahs topical organization thus became the framework of the Talmud as a whole. But not every tractate in the Mishnah has a corresponding Gemara, also, the order of the tractates in the Talmud differs in some cases from that in the Mishnah. In addition to the Mishnah, other tannaitic teachings were current at about the time or shortly thereafter
Talmud
–
Talmud Readers by
Adolf Behrman
Talmud
–
The first page of the
Vilna Edition of the Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Berachot, folio 2a.
Talmud
–
A page of a medieval Jerusalem Talmud manuscript, from the
Cairo Genizah.
Talmud
–
A full set of the Babylonian Talmud.
30.
Boiling
–
Transition boiling is an intermediate, unstable form of boiling with elements of both types. The boiling point of water is 100 °C or 212 °F, boiling water is used as a method of making it potable by killing microbes that may be present. Clostridium spores can survive this treatment, but as the infection caused by this microbe is not water-borne, boiling is also used in cooking. Foods suitable for boiling vegetables, starchy foods such as rice, noodles and potatoes, eggs, meats, sauces, stocks. As a cooking method it is simple and suitable for large scale cookery, tough meats or poultry can be given a long, slow cooking and a nutritious stock is produced. Disadvantages include loss of water-soluble vitamins and minerals, commercially prepared foodstuffs are sometimes packed in polythene sachets and sold as boil-in-the-bag products. Nucleate boiling is characterized by the growth of bubbles or pops on a heated surface, in general, the number of nucleation sites are increased by an increasing surface temperature. An irregular surface of the vessel or additives to the fluid can create additional nucleation sites, while an exceptionally smooth surface, such as plastic. Under these conditions, a liquid may show boiling delay. As the boiling surface is heated above a temperature, a film of vapor forms on the surface. Since this vapor film is less capable of carrying heat away from the surface. The point at which this occurs is dependent on the characteristics of boiling fluid, transition boiling may be defined as the unstable boiling, which occurs at surface temperatures between the maximum attainable in nucleate and the minimum attainable in film boiling. If a surface heating the liquid is significantly hotter than the liquid then film boiling will occur, where a layer of vapor. This condition of a vapor film insulating the surface from the liquid characterizes film boiling, in distillation, boiling is used in separating mixtures. This is possible because the rising from a boiling fluid generally has a ratio of components different from that in the liquid. The elimination of micro-organisms by boiling follows first-order kinetics—at high temperatures it is achieved in time and at lower temperatures. Boiling does not ensure the elimination of all micro-organisms, the bacterial spores Clostridium can survive at 100 °C but are not water-borne or intestine affecting, thus for human health, complete sterilization of water is not required. Though the boiling point decreases with increasing altitude, it is not enough to affect the disinfecting process, boiling is the method of cooking food in boiling water, or other water-based liquids such as stock or milk
Boiling
–
Nucleate boiling of water over a kitchen stove burner
Boiling
–
Boiling milk
31.
Sicily
–
Sicily is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. It is an autonomous Region of Italy, along with surrounding minor islands, Sicily is located in the central Mediterranean Sea, south of the Italian Peninsula, from which it is separated by the narrow Strait of Messina. Its most prominent landmark is Mount Etna, the tallest active volcano in Europe, the island has a typical Mediterranean climate. The earliest archaeological evidence of activity on the island dates from as early as 12,000 BC. It became part of Italy in 1860 following the Expedition of the Thousand, a revolt led by Giuseppe Garibaldi during the Italian unification, Sicily was given special status as an autonomous region after the Italian constitutional referendum of 1946. Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially regard to the arts, music, literature, cuisine. It is also home to important archaeological and ancient sites, such as the Necropolis of Pantalica, the Valley of the Temples, Sicily has a roughly triangular shape, earning it the name Trinacria. To the east, it is separated from the Italian mainland by the Strait of Messina, about 3 km wide in the north, and about 16 km wide in the southern part. The northern and southern coasts are each about 280 km long measured as a line, while the eastern coast measures around 180 km. The total area of the island is 25,711 km2, the terrain of inland Sicily is mostly hilly and is intensively cultivated wherever possible. Along the northern coast, the ranges of Madonie,2,000 m, Nebrodi,1,800 m. The cone of Mount Etna dominates the eastern coast, in the southeast lie the lower Hyblaean Mountains,1,000 m. The mines of the Enna and Caltanissetta districts were part of a leading sulphur-producing area throughout the 19th century, Sicily and its surrounding small islands have some highly active volcanoes. Mount Etna is the largest active volcano in Europe and still casts black ash over the island with its ever-present eruptions and it currently stands 3,329 metres high, though this varies with summit eruptions, the mountain is 21 m lower now than it was in 1981. It is the highest mountain in Italy south of the Alps, Etna covers an area of 1,190 km2 with a basal circumference of 140 km. This makes it by far the largest of the three volcanoes in Italy, being about two and a half times the height of the next largest, Mount Vesuvius. In Greek Mythology, the deadly monster Typhon was trapped under the mountain by Zeus, Mount Etna is widely regarded as a cultural symbol and icon of Sicily. The Aeolian Islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea, to the northeast of mainland Sicily form a volcanic complex, the three volcanoes of Vulcano, Vulcanello and Lipari are also currently active, although the latter is usually dormant
Sicily
–
Mount Etna rising over suburbs of Catania
Sicily
–
Sicily Sicilia
Sicily
–
Sicilian landscape
Sicily
–
Location of the
Salso
32.
Tabula Rogeriana
–
The Nuzhat al-mushtāq fikhtirāq al-āfāq, most often known as the Tabula Rogeriana, is a description of the world and world map created by the Arab geographer, Muhammad al-Idrisi, in 1154. Al-Idrisi worked on the commentaries and illustrations of the map for fifteen years at the court of the Norman King Roger II of Sicily, the map is oriented with the North at the bottom. It remained the most accurate world map for the three centuries. The text incorporates exhaustive descriptions of the physical, cultural, political and socioeconomic conditions of each region, to produce the work, al-Idrisi interviewed experienced travelers individually and in groups on their knowledge of the world and compiled only that part. On which there was complete agreement and seemed credible, excluding what was contradictory, Roger II had his map engraved on a silver disc weighing about 300 pounds. It showed, in words, the seven climatic regions, with their respective countries and districts, coasts and lands, gulfs and seas, watercourses. It was to all available data on the location and climate of the world’s main centers of population. King Roger himself enthusiastically interviewed travelers passing through his kingdom, and agents, in 1154, just a few weeks before the king died, al-Idrisi’s book was finally complete. Written in Arabic and Latin and accompanied by maps, it presented the world as a sphere and it calculated the circumference to be 37,000 kilometres — an error of less than 10 percent — and it hinted at the concept of gravity. This was complemented by a smaller, circular world map in which the south was drawn at the top and Arabia, al-Idrisi’s book came to be known as Kitab Rujar and the circular world map was engraved onto a silver tablet. Sadly, both the book and the map appear to have been destroyed during civil unrest shortly afterward. Thus our understanding today of al-Idrisi’s conclusions is based on a version of a second book that he wrote for Roger’s son. Manuscripts of this so-called “Little Idrisi” are held today in a handful of European libraries, on the work of al-Idrisi, S. P. Scott commented, The compilation of Edrisi marks an era in the history of science. Not only is its historical information most interesting and valuable, for three centuries geographers copied his maps without alteration. The mechanical genius of the author was not inferior to his erudition, ten manuscript copies of the Book of Roger currently survive, five of which have complete text and eight of which have maps. Two are in the Bibliothèque nationale de France, including the oldest, another copy, made in Cairo in 1553, is in the Bodleian Library in Oxford. The most complete manuscript, which includes the map and all seventy sectional maps, is kept in Istanbul. Bacharach, Jere L. Medieval Islamic Civilization, An Encyclopedia, ISBN 978-0-415-96690-0 Harley, John Brian and Woodward, David
Tabula Rogeriana
–
The modern copy of the Tabula Rogeriana, upside-down with North oriented up.
Tabula Rogeriana
–
A world map (with South at the top) from a 14th or 15th-century copy of Tabula Rogeriana held by the
Bodleian Library
33.
Muhammad al-Idrisi
–
Muhammed al-Idrisi was born in Ceuta, then belonging to the Almoravids. Al-Idrisi was born into the large Hammudid family of North Africa and Al-Andalus, Al-Idrisi was born in the city of Ceuta, where his great-grandfather had been forced to settle after the fall of Hammudid Málaga to the Zirids of Granada. He spent much of his life travelling through North Africa and Al-Andalus. He visited Anatolia when he was barely 16 and his travels took him to many parts of Europe including Portugal, the Pyrenees, the French Atlantic coast, Hungary, and Jórvík. Because of conflict and instability in Al-Andalus al-Idrisi joined contemporaries such as Abu al-Salt in Sicily, for Roger it was inscribed on a massive disc of solid silver, two metres in diameter. On the geographical work of al-Idrisi, S. P. Scott wrote in 1904, not only is its historical information most interesting and valuable, but its descriptions of many parts of the earth are still authoritative. For three centuries geographers copied his maps without alteration, the mechanical genius of the author was not inferior to his erudition. Al-Idrisi inspired Islamic geographers such as Ibn Battuta, Ibn Khaldun and his map also inspired Christopher Columbus and Vasco Da Gama. Al-Idrisi in his famous Tabula Rogeriana mentioned Irlandah-al-Kabirah, according to him, from the extremity of Iceland to that of Great Ireland, the sailing time was one day. Although historians note that both al-Idrisi and the Norse tend to understate distances, the location this reference is thought to have possibly pointed to. Al-Idrisi mentioned that Chinese junks carried leather, swords, iron and he mentions the glassware of the city of Hangzhou and labels Quanzhous silk as the best. As well as the maps, al-Idrisi produced a compendium of information with the title Kitab nuzhat al-mushtaq fikhtiraq al-afaq. The title has been translated as The book of pleasant journeys into faraway lands or The pleasure of him who longs to cross the horizons and it has been preserved in nine manuscripts, seven of which contain maps. The translated title of this work attracted favourable comment from the team selecting lists of names for features expected to be discovered by the New Horizons probe reconnoitring the Pluto system, the Al-Idrisi Montes is a geographical feature in that system named after him. This was one of the first Arabic books ever printed, the first translation from the original Arabic was into Latin. The Maronites Gabriel Sionita and Joannes Hesronita translated a version of the text which was published in Paris in 1619 with the rather misleading title of Geographia nubiensis. Not until the middle of the 19th century was a translation of the Arabic text published. This was a translation into French by Pierre Amédée Jaubert, more recently sections of the text have been translated for particular regions
Muhammad al-Idrisi
–
Statue of Al-Idrisi in
Ceuta
Muhammad al-Idrisi
–
The
Tabula Rogeriana, drawn by al-Idrisi for
Roger II of Sicily in 1154, one of the most advanced
ancient world maps. Modern consolidation, created from the 70 double-page spreads of the original atlas.
Muhammad al-Idrisi
–
Al-Idrisi's map of the Indian Ocean.
Muhammad al-Idrisi
–
Al-Idrisi's map of what is modern day
Azerbaijan and the
Caspian Sea.
34.
Sicilian kingdom
–
The Kingdom of Sicily was a state that existed in the south of the Apennine peninsula from its founding by Roger II in 1130 until 1816. It was a state of the County of Sicily, which had been founded in 1071 during the Norman conquest of the southern peninsula. Until 1282 the Kingdom covered not only the island of Sicily, but also the whole Mezzogiorno region of the southern Apennines, the island was divided into three regions, Val di Mazara, Val Demone and Val di Noto, val being the Arabic word meaning district. In 1282, a revolt against Angevin rule, known as the Sicilian Vespers, the island became a separate kingdom under the Crown of Aragon. After 1302 the island kingdom was called the Kingdom of Trinacria. Often the kingship was vested in another such as the King of Aragon. In 1816 the island Kingdom of Sicily merged with the Kingdom of Naples to form the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. In 1860 the Two Sicilies were amalgamated with Sardinia and several northern city-states and duchies to form the Kingdom of Sardinia which in 1861 renamed itself the Kingdom of Italy, after taking Apulia and Calabria, Roger occupied Messina with an army of 700 knights. In 1068, Roger I of Sicily and his men defeated the Muslims at Misilmeri but the most crucial battle was the siege of Palermo, which led to Sicily being completely under Norman control by 1091. The Norman Kingdom was created on Christmas Day,1130, by Roger II of Sicily, with the agreement of Pope Innocent II, Roger threw his support behind the Antipope Anacletus II, who enthroned him as King of Sicily on Christmas Day 1130. In 1136, the rival of Anacletus, Pope Innocent II, convinced Lothair III, Two main armies, one led by Lothair, the other by Duke of Bavaria Henry the Proud, invaded Sicily. On the river Tronto, William of Loritello surrendered to Lothair and this was followed by Count Hugh II of Molise. The two armies were united at Bari, from where in 1137 they continued their campaign, Roger offered to give Apulia as a fief to the Empire, which Lothair refused after being pressured by Innocent. At the same period the army of Lothair revolted, then Lothair, who had hoped for the complete conquest of Sicily, gave Capua and Apulia from the Kingdom of Sicily to Rogers enemies. Innocent protested, claiming that Apulia fell under papal claims, Lothair turned north, but died while crossing the Alps on December 4,1137. At the Second Council of the Lateran in April 1139, Innocent excommunicated Roger for maintaining a schismatic attitude, on March 22,1139, at Galluccio, Rogers son Roger III, Duke of Apulia ambushed the papal troops with a thousand knights and captured the pope. On March 25,1139, Innocent was forced to acknowledge the kingship and it was through his admiral George of Antioch that Roger then proceeded to conquer the Mahdia in Africa, taking the unofficial title King of Africa. At the same time Rogers fleet attacked the Byzantine Empire, making Sicily the leading power in the Mediterranean Sea for almost a century
Sicilian kingdom
–
Roger II the first king of Sicily
Sicilian kingdom
–
Flag
Sicilian kingdom
–
The royal mantle
Sicilian kingdom
–
Imperial troops storming
Salerno in 1194
35.
Mass production
–
Mass production, flow production or continuous production is the production of large amounts of standardized products, including and especially on assembly lines. Together with job production and batch production, it is one of the three main production methods, the term mass production was popularized by a 1926 article in the Encyclopedia Britannica supplement that was written based on correspondence with Ford Motor Company. The New York Times used the term in the title of an article that appeared before publication of the Britannica article, the concepts of mass production are applied to various kinds of products, from fluids and particulates handled in bulk to discrete solid parts to assemblies of such parts. Mass production is a field, but it can generally be contrasted with craft production or distributed manufacturing. Mass production of fluid matter typically involves pipes with centrifugal pumps or screw conveyors to transfer raw materials or partially complete products between vessels, materials on pallets are handled with forklifts. Also used for handling heavy items like reels of paper, steel or machinery are electric overhead cranes, sometimes called bridge cranes because they span large factory bays. Mass production is intensive and energy intensive, as it uses a high proportion of machinery. It is also usually automated while total expenditure per unit of product is decreased, however, the machinery that is needed to set up a mass production line is so expensive that there must be some assurance that the product is to be successful to attain profits. One of the descriptions of mass production is that the skill is built into the tool, for example, in the 19th or early 20th century, this could be expressed as the craftsmanship is in the workbench itself. Later, once computerized control came about, jigs were obviated and this is the specialized capital required for mass production, each workbench and set of tools is different. Crossbows made with bronze parts were produced in China during the Warring States period, the Qin Emperor unified China at least in part by equipping large armies with these weapons, which were equipped with a sophisticated trigger mechanism made of interchangeable parts. Ships of war were produced on a scale at a moderate cost by the Carthaginians in their excellent harbors. The Venetians themselves also produced ships using prefabricated parts and assembly lines many centuries later, the Venetian Arsenal apparently produced nearly one ship every day, in what was effectively the worlds first factory which, at its height, employed 16,000 people. Mass production in the industry has been commonplace since the Gutenberg Bible was published using a printing press in the mid-15th century. In the Industrial Revolution simple mass production techniques were used at the Portsmouth Block Mills in England to make ships pulley blocks for the Royal Navy in the Napoleonic Wars. It was achieved in 1803 by Marc Isambard Brunel in cooperation with Henry Maudslay under the management of Sir Samuel Bentham, the Navy was in a state of expansion that required 100,000 pulley blocks to be manufactured a year. Bentham had already achieved remarkable efficiency at the docks by introducing power-driven machinery, by 1805, the dockyard had been fully updated with the revolutionary, purpose-built machinery at a time when products were still built individually with different components. A total of 45 machines were required to perform 22 processes on the blocks, the machines were almost entirely made of metal thus improving their accuracy and durability
Mass production
–
Mass production of
Consolidated B-32 Dominator airplanes at
Consolidated Aircraft Plant No. 4, near Fort Worth, Texas, during World War II.
Mass production
–
A modern
automobile assembly line.
Mass production
–
The assembly plant of the Bell Aircraft Corporation in 1944. Note parts of
overhead crane at both sides of photo near top.
Mass production
–
Ford assembly line, 1913. The magneto assembly line was the first.
36.
Al dente
–
In cooking, al dente /ælˈdɛnteɪ/ describes pasta that are cooked to be firm to the bite. The etymology is Italian to the tooth, in contemporary Italian cooking, the term identifies the ideal consistency for pasta and involves a brief cooking time. Molto al dente is the term for slightly undercooked pasta. Undercooking pasta is used in the first round of cooking when a dish is going to be cooked twice. Pasta that is cooked al dente has a glycemic index than pasta that is cooked soft. When cooking commercial pasta, the al dente phase occurs right after the white of the pasta center disappears and it could be interpreted as cooking them until they almost lose their raw taste, as a way to avoid overcooking them. Food science Molecular gastronomy Culinary art
Al dente
–
Carbonara Penne served al dente
37.
Cloves
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Cloves are the aromatic flower buds of a tree in the family Myrtaceae, Syzygium aromaticum. They are native to the Maluku Islands in Indonesia, and are used as a spice. Cloves are commercially harvested primarily in Bangladesh, Indonesia, India, Madagascar, Zanzibar, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, cloves are available throughout the year. The clove tree is an evergreen that grows up to 8–12 m tall, with large leaves, the flower buds initially have a pale hue, gradually turn green, then transition to a bright red when ready for harvest. Cloves are harvested at 1. 5–2.0 cm long, and consist of a calyx that terminates in four spreading sepals. Cloves are used in the cuisine of Asian, African, and the Near and Middle East countries, lending flavor to meats, curries, cloves may be used to give aromatic and flavor qualities to hot beverages, often combined with other ingredients such as lemon and sugar. They are an element in spice blends such as pumpkin pie spice. In Mexican cuisine, cloves are best known as clavos de olor and they are also used in Peruvian cuisine, in a wide variety of dishes as carapulcra and arroz con leche. A major component of clove taste is imparted by the chemical eugenol, and it pairs well with cinnamon, allspice, vanilla, red wine and basil, as well as onion, citrus peel, star anise, or peppercorns. The spice is used in a type of cigarette called kretek in Indonesia, clove cigarettes have been smoked throughout Europe, Asia and the United States. Starting in 2009, clove cigarettes must be classified as cigars in the US, because of the bioactive chemicals of clove, the spice may be used as an ant repellent. Cloves can be used to make a fragrance pomander when combined with an orange, when given as a gift in Victorian England, such a pomander indicated warmth of feeling. Cloves are used in Indian Ayurvedic medicine, Chinese medicine, and western herbalism, cloves are used as a carminative, to increase hydrochloric acid in the stomach and to improve peristalsis. Cloves are also said to be a natural anthelmintic, the essential oil is used in aromatherapy when stimulation and warming are needed, especially for digestive problems. Topical application over the stomach or abdomen are said to warm the digestive tract, applied to a cavity in a decayed tooth, it also relieves toothache. Because the herb is so warming, it is contraindicated in any persons with fire symptoms, the U. S. Food and Drug Administration has reclassified eugenol, downgrading its effectiveness rating. The FDA now believes not enough evidence indicates clove oil or eugenol is effective for toothache pain or a variety of types of pain. Studies to determine its effectiveness for fever reduction, as a mosquito repellent and it remains unproven whether clove may reduce blood sugar levels
Cloves
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Clove
Cloves
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Dried cloves
Cloves
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Clove model of a
proa
38.
Bay leaves
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Bay leaf refers to the aromatic leaves of several plants used in cooking. Fresh or dried bay leaves are used in cooking for their distinctive flavor, the leaves should be removed from the cooked food before eating. The leaves are used to flavor soups, stews, braises and pâtés in Mediterranean cuisine. The fresh leaves are very mild and do not develop their full flavor until several weeks after picking and drying. California bay leaf – the leaf of the California bay tree, also known as California laurel, Oregon myrtle, and pepperwood, is similar to the Mediterranean bay laurel, but has a stronger flavor. Indian bay leaf or malabathrum is somewhat similar in appearance to the leaves of bay laurel, but is quite different, having a fragrance and taste similar to cinnamon bark. Indonesian bay leaf or Indonesian laurel is not commonly found outside of Indonesia, West Indian bay leaf, the leaf of the West Indian bay tree, used culinarily and to produce the cologne called bay rum. If eaten whole, bay leaves are pungent and have a sharp, as with many spices and flavorings, the fragrance of the bay leaf is more noticeable than its taste. When dried, the fragrance is herbal, slightly floral, and somewhat similar to oregano, myrcene, which is a component of many essential oils used in perfumery, can be extracted from the bay leaf. They also contain the essential oil eugenol, in Indian and Pakistani cuisine, bay laurel leaves are sometimes used in place of Indian bay leaf, although they have a different flavor. They are most often used in dishes like biryani and as an ingredient in garam masala. Bay leaves are packaged as tejpatta, creating confusion between the two herbs. In the Philippines, dried bay leaves are added as a spice in the Filipino dish Adobo. Bay leaves were used for flavoring by the ancient Greeks and they are a fixture in the cooking of many European cuisines, as well as in the Americas. They are used in soups, stews, meat, seafood, vegetable dishes, the leaves also flavor many classic French dishes. The leaves are most often used whole and removed before serving, thai cuisine employs bay leaf in a few Arab-influenced dishes, notably massaman curry. Bay leaves can also be crushed or ground before cooking, crushed bay leaves impart more fragrance than whole leaves, but are more difficult to remove, and thus they are often used in a muslin bag or tea infuser. Ground bay laurel may be substituted for whole leaves, and does not need to be removed, bay leaves can also be used scattered in a pantry to repel meal moths, flies, cockroaches, mice, and silverfish
Bay leaves
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Indian bay leaf
Cinnamomum tamala
Bay leaves
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Indonesian bay leaf
Syzygium polyanthum
Bay leaves
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Animal products
39.
Garlic
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Garlic is a species in the onion genus, Allium. Its close relatives include the onion, shallot, leek, chive, with a history of several thousand years of human consumption and use, garlic is native to the region between the Mediterranean and China, and has long been a common seasoning worldwide. It was known to Ancient Egyptians, and has used both as a food flavoring and as a traditional medicine. Allium sativum is a bulbous plant and it grows up to 1.2 m in height. Its hardiness is USDA Zone 8 and it is pollinated by bees and other insects. Allium sativum grows in the wild in areas where it has become naturalized, the wild garlic, crow garlic, and field garlic of Britain are members of the species Allium ursinum, Allium vineale, and Allium oleraceum, respectively. In North America, Allium vineale and Allium canadense, known as garlic or wild garlic. So-called elephant garlic is actually a wild leek, and not a true garlic, single clove garlic originated in the Yunnan province of China. A. sativum var. ophioscorodon Döll, called Ophioscorodon, or hard-necked garlic, includes porcelain garlics, rocambole garlic and it is sometimes considered to be a separate species, Allium ophioscorodon G. Don. A. sativum var. sativum, or soft-necked garlic, includes artichoke garlic, silverskin garlic, Garlic is easy to grow and can be grown year-round in mild climates. While sexual propagation of garlic is possible, nearly all of the garlic in cultivation is propagated asexually, in colder climates, cloves are planted in the autumn, about six weeks before the soil freezes, and harvested in late spring or early summer. The cloves must be planted deep enough to prevent freeze/thaw, which causes mold or white rot, Garlic plants can be grown closely together, leaving enough space for the bulbs to mature, and are easily grown in containers of sufficient depth. Garlic does well in loose, dry, well-drained soils in sunny locations, when selecting garlic for planting, it is important to pick large bulbs from which to separate cloves. Large cloves, along with proper spacing in the planting bed, Garlic plants prefer to grow in a soil with a high organic material content, but are capable of growing in a wide range of soil conditions and pH levels. There are different varieties or subspecies of garlic, most notably hardneck garlic, the latitude where the garlic is grown affects the choice of type, as garlic can be day-length sensitive. Hardneck garlic is grown in cooler climates and produces relatively large cloves, whereas softneck garlic is generally grown closer to the equator and produces small. Garlic scapes are removed to all the garlics energy into bulb growth. The scapes can be eaten raw or cooked, Garlic plants are usually hardy and not affected by many pests or diseases
Garlic
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Garlic
Garlic
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Flower head
Garlic
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Italian garlic PDO (Aglio Bianco Polesano)
Garlic
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Bulbils
40.
Oregano
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Oregano (US /ɔːˈrɛɡənoʊ/ or /əˈrɛɡənoʊ/, UK /ˌɒrɪˈɡɑːnoʊ/, scientific name Origanum vulgare, is a flowering plant in the mint family. It is native to western and southwestern Eurasia and the Mediterranean region. Oregano is a herb, growing from 20–80 cm tall. The flowers are purple, 3–4 mm long, produced in erect spikes and it is sometimes called wild marjoram, and its close relative O. majorana is known as sweet marjoram. Oregano is the form of the Italian word origano, or possibly of the medieval Latin organum. The etymology of the Greek term is given as oros ὄρος mountain + ganos γάνος brightness. Oregano is related to the herb marjoram, sometimes being referred to as wild marjoram, oregano has purple flowers and spade-shaped, olive-green leaves. It is a perennial, although it is grown as an annual in colder climates, oregano is planted in early spring, the plants being spaced 30 cm apart in fairly dry soil, with full sun. Oregano will grow in a pH range between 6.0 and 9.0, with a range between 6.0 and 8.0. It prefers a hot, relatively dry climate, but does well in other environments, many subspecies and strains of oregano have been developed by humans over centuries for their unique flavours or other characteristics. Tastes range from spicy or astringent to more complicated and sweet and it can pollinate other more sophisticated strains, but the offspring are rarely better in quality. The related species, Origanum onites and O. syriacum, have similar flavours, a closely related plant is marjoram from Turkey, which differs significantly in taste though, because phenolic compounds are missing from its essential oil. Some varieties show an intermediate between oregano and marjoram. - Tunisia, Algeria O. v. subsp, gracile Ietsw. has glossy green leaves and pink flowers. It grows well in pots or containers, and is often grown for added ornamental value than other oregano. The flavor is pungent and spicy, - Central Asia, Iran, India, Turkey, Afghanistan, Pakistan. Hirtum Ietsw. - is a source of cultivars with a different aroma from those of O. v. gracile. Growth is vigorous and very hardy, with green, slightly hairy foliage
Oregano
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Oregano
Oregano
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Syrian oregano (Origanum syriacum)
Oregano
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Pollination with
white-tailed bumblebee
Oregano
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Dried oregano for culinary use
41.
Basil
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Basil UK /ˈbæzəl/, US /ˈbeɪzəl/, also called great basil or Saint-Josephs-wort, is a culinary herb of the family Lamiaceae. It is also called the king of herbs and the royal herb, the name basil comes from Greek βασιλικόν φυτόν, royal/kingly plant. Basil is possibly native to India, and has been cultivated there for more than 5,000 years and it was thoroughly familiar to the Greek authors Theophrastus and Dioscorides. Depending on the species and cultivar, the leaves may taste somewhat like anise, with a strong, pungent, there are many varieties of Ocimum basilicum, as well as several related species or species hybrids also called basil. The type used in Italian food is called sweet basil, as opposed to Thai basil, lemon basil, and holy basil. While most common varieties of basil are treated as annuals, some are perennial in warm, tropical climates, including holy basil, the Oxford English Dictionary quotes speculations that basil may have been used in some royal unguent, bath, or medicine. Basil is still considered the king of herbs by many cookery authors, most commercially available basils are cultivars of sweet basil. There are over 160 named cultivars available, with new ones appearing every year, there are also a number of species sold. Here are some basils commonly sold in the US, in general, it is added at the last moment, as cooking quickly destroys the flavor. The fresh herb can be kept for a time in plastic bags in the refrigerator, or for a longer period in the freezer, after being blanched quickly in boiling water. The dried herb also loses most of its flavor, and what little flavor remains tastes very different, with a weak coumarin flavor, Basil is one of the main ingredients in pesto—a green Italian oil-and-herb sauce. The most commonly used Mediterranean basil cultivars are Genovese, Purple Ruffles, Mammoth, Cinnamon, Lemon, Globe, the Chinese also use fresh or dried basils in soups and other foods. In Taiwan, people add fresh basil leaves to thick soups and they also eat fried chicken with deep-fried basil leaves. Basil is commonly steeped in cream or milk to create a flavor in ice cream or chocolates. The leaves are not the part of basil used in culinary applications. Thai basil is also a condiment in the Vietnamese noodle soup, when soaked in water, the seeds of several basil varieties become gelatinous, and are used in Asian drinks and desserts such as faluda, sharbat-e-rihan, or hột é. Several other basils, including some other Ocimum species, are grown in regions of Asia. Most of the Asian basils have a flavor that is, in general
Basil
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Basil
Basil
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Dried basil leaves
Basil
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Basil growing in the sun
Basil
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Basil sprout at an early stage
42.
Food extrusion
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Food extrusion is a form of extrusion used in food processing. It is a process by which a set of mixed ingredients are forced through an opening in a plate or die with a design specific to the food. The machine which forces the mix through the die is an extruder, the extruder consists of a large, rotating screw tightly fitting within a stationary barrel, at the end of which is the die. Extrusion enables mass production of food via a continuous, efficient system that ensures uniformity of the final product, Food products manufactured using extrusion usually have a high starch content. In the extrusion process, raw materials are first ground to the particle size. The dry mix is passed through a pre-conditioner, in which ingredients are added depending on the target product. Steam is injected to start the process, and the preconditioned mix is then passed through an extruder. The extruder consists of a large, rotating screw tightly fitting within a stationary barrel, the extruders rotating screw forces the extrudate toward the die, through which it then passes. The amount of time the extrudate is in the extruder is the residence time, the extruded product usually puffs and changes texture as it is extruded because of the reduction of forces and release of moisture and heat. The extent to which it does so is known as the expansion ratio, the extrudate is cut to the desired length by blades at the output of the extruder, which rotate about the die openings at a specific speed. The product is cooled and dried, becoming rigid while maintaining porosity. The cooking process takes place within the extruder where the product produces its own friction, the process can induce both protein denaturation and starch gelatinization under some conditions. Many food extrusion processes involve a high temperature over a short time, important factors of the extrusion process are the composition of the extrudate, screw length and rotating speed, barrel temperature and moisture, die shape, and rotating speed of the blades. These are controlled based on the product to ensure uniformity of the output. Moisture is the most important of factors, and affects the mix viscosity. Increasing moisture will decrease viscosity, torque, and product temperature and this will also reduce the pressure at the die. Most extrusion processes for food processing maintain a level below 40%. High-moisture extrusion is known as wet extrusion, but it was not used much before the introduction of twin screw extruders, the most important rheological factor in the wet extrusion of high-starch extrudate is temperature
Food extrusion
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Macaroni is an extruded hollow pasta
Food extrusion
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A non-vacuum short goods pasta extruder from 1958
43.
Demaco
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Demaco was founded in 1914 making it the oldest pasta equipment manufacturer in the United States and the only one that makes industrial capacity machines in America. In the 1960s, Demaco pioneered the sanitary extruder for washdown food plants, originally located in Brooklyn, New York, the company moved its headquarters to Melbourne, Florida in 1998 where it is today. The company became Consolidated Macaroni Machine Corporation in 1926 and changed the name to Demaco in 1952, in World War II, Consolidated made tooling for the Norden bombsight, Grumman aircraft fighter wings and Worthington pumps as part of the war effort. Also in the 1940s and early 1950s, DEMACO made significant improvements to pasta dryer automation, the company makes the Demaco extruder and dry, fresh and frozen pasta lines
Demaco
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Demaco
44.
Colander
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A colander is a bowl-shaped kitchen utensil with holes in it used for draining food such as pasta or rice. A colander is also used to rinse vegetables, the perforated nature of the colander allows liquid to drain through while retaining the solids inside. It is sometimes called a pasta strainer or kitchen sieve. Conventionally, colanders are made of a metal, such as aluminium or thinly rolled stainless steel. Colanders are also made of plastic, silicone, ceramic, the word colander comes from the Latin colum meaning sieve. The colander in the form of pasta strainer was adopted as a religious headgear of the parody religion Pastafarianism in mock obedience to the Flying Spaghetti Monster
Colander
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A typical household colander
Colander
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A plastic colander
Colander
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Pastafarian protester wears a colander while showing an icon of the Flying Spaghetti Monster
45.
Capellini
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Capellini is a very thin variety of Italian pasta, with a diameter between 0.85 and 0.92 millimetres. Like spaghetti, it is rod-shaped, in the form of long strands, capelli dangelo is a thinner variant with a diameter between 0.78 and 0.88 millimetres. It is often sold in a nest-like shape, capelli dangelo has been popular in Italy since at least the 14th century. As a very light pasta, it well in soups or with seafood or light sauces. Vermicelli Fideo List of pasta Italian cuisine
Capellini
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Capellini served on Japanese green chili
peppers and
whitebait
Cookbook: Spaghetti 
Media: Spaghetti
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