1.
Marylebone
–
Marylebone is an affluent inner-city area of central London, England, located within the City of Westminster and part of the West End. It is sometimes written as St. Marylebone, Marylebone is roughly bounded by Oxford Street to the south, Marylebone Road to the north, Edgware Road to the west and Great Portland Street to the east. The area east of Great Portland Street up to Cleveland Street and this stream rose further north in what is now Swiss Cottage, eventually running along what is now Marylebone Lane, which preserves its curve within the grid pattern. The church and the area later became known as St Mary at the Bourne which, over time, became shortened to its present form. It is a common misunderstanding that the name is a corruption of Marie la Bonne, the manor of Tyburn is mentioned in the Domesday Book as a possession of Barking Abbey valued at 52 shillings, with a population no greater than 50. Early in the 13th century it was held by Robert de Vere, 3rd Earl of Oxford. Tyburn manor remained with the Crown until the part was sold in 1611 by James I, who retained the deer park, to Edward Forest. Forests manor of Marylebone then passed by marriage to the Austen family, the deer park, Marylebone Park Fields, was let out in small holdings for hay and dairy produce. The Harley heiress Lady Margaret Cavendish Harley married William, 2nd Duke of Portland, such place names in the neighbourhood as Cavendish Square and Portland Place reflect the Dukes of Portland landholdings and Georgian-era developments there. In 1879 the fifth Duke died without issue and the estate passed through the line to his sister, Lucy Joan Bentinck. A large part of the area directly to the west was constructed by the Portman family and is known as the Portman Estate, both estates have aristocratic antecedents and are still run by members of the aforementioned families. The Crown repurchased the northern part of the estate in 1813, mansfield Street is a short continuation of Chandos Street built by the Adam brothers in 1770, on a plot of ground which had been underwater. Most of its houses are fine buildings with exquisite interiors, which if put on the market now would have a price in excess of £10 million. Immediately across the road at 61 New Cavendish Street lived Natural History Museum creator Alfred Waterhouse, Queen Anne Street is an elegant cross-street which unites the northern end of Chandos Street with Welbeck Street. The painter JMW Turner moved to 47 Queen Anne Street in 1812 from 64 Harley Street, now divided into numbers 22 and 23, the building is one of the finest surviving Adam houses in London, and now lets rooms. Wimpole Street runs from Henrietta Place north to Devonshire Street, becoming Upper Wimpole en route – the latter where Arthur Conan Doyle opened his practice at number 2 in 1891. Today, at the end of Wimpole at Wigmore can be found a sandwich shop named Barretts. Bentinck Street leaves Welbeck Street and touches the middle of winding Marylebone Lane, more recently, Cambridge spies Anthony Blunt and Guy Burgess lived at 5 Bentinck Street during the Second World War
2.
Bow Church
–
Bow Church is the parish church of St Mary and Holy Trinity, Stratford, Bow. It is located on a site in Bow Road, in Bow. There has been a church on the site for approximately 700 years. The church was bombed in the Second World War, and the tower was reconstructed just after the war. The church was licensed by Bishop Ralph Baldock of London on 17 November 1311 for the people of Bow, before this, local people were obliged to travel to St Dunstans, Stepney, to attend church. This was a difficult journey - especially in winter - when the road was cut off by flooding, in the 14th century, they felt confident and wealthy enough to petition for their own place of worship. The chapel of ease allowed them to practise their religion locally and these included the thirteen Stratford Martyrs. In 1719, the parish became independent and St Mary, Stratford, the parish also included the Old Ford area which has also been known as North Bow. In 1767, the became the resting place of Colonel Philip Ludwell III. Although the church was Anglican, he was buried according to the rites of the Orthodox Church. The present building is thought to have a 14th-century structure, the tower was added in the 15th century and it is constructed of Kentish Ragstone with brick additions. Many of the windows are in the perpendicular style. Inside the church, there are monuments including those to Grace Amcottes, died 1551, Alice Coborn, died 1689, the south aisle was replaced in 1794. In 1896, the roof collapsed, prompting a major restoration by the architect Osborn C Hills. The church suffered bomb damage during the London Blitz. The site was visited by Queen Elizabeth in 1951 to mark the start of a campaign to restore the church, the gothic-style iron railings around the churchyard were reinstated in 1984. The church was given Grade B listed building designation on 19 July 1950. and is now Grade II* and it gives its name to the nearby Bow Church DLR station. The church is used as the central image in the crest for the Bow masonic lodge, founded by Rev Francis Mettrick
3.
City of London
–
The City of London is a city and county within London. It constituted most of London from its settlement by the Romans in the 1st century AD to the Middle Ages, the City is now only a tiny part of the metropolis of London, though it remains a notable part of central London. Administratively, it one of the 33 local authority districts of Greater London, however, the City of London is not a London borough. The City of London is widely referred to simply as the City and is colloquially known as the Square Mile. Both of these terms are often used as metonyms for the United Kingdoms trading and financial services industries. The name London is now used for a far wider area than just the City. London most often denotes the sprawling London metropolis, or the 32 London boroughs and this wider usage of London is documented as far back as 1888, when the County of London was created. The local authority for the City, namely the City of London Corporation, is unique in the UK and has some unusual responsibilities for a local council and it is also unusual in having responsibilities and ownerships beyond its boundaries. The Corporation is headed by the Lord Mayor of the City of London, the current Lord Mayor, as of November 2016, is Andrew Parmley. The City is a business and financial centre. Throughout the 19th century, the City was the primary business centre. London came top in the Worldwide Centres of Commerce Index, published in 2008, the insurance industry is focused around the eastern side of the City, around Lloyds building. A secondary financial district exists outside of the City, at Canary Wharf,2.5 miles to the east, the City has a resident population of about 7,000 but over 300,000 people commute to and work there, mainly in the financial services sector. It used to be held that Londinium was first established by merchants as a trading port on the tidal Thames in around 47 AD. However, this date is only supposition, many historians now believe London was founded some time before the Roman conquest of Britain in 43 AD. They base this notion on evidence provided by both archaeology and Welsh literary legend, archaeologists have claimed that as much as half of the best British Iron Age art and metalwork discovered in Britain has been found in the London area. One of the most prominent examples is the famously horned Waterloo Helmet dredged from the Thames in the early 1860s and now exhibited at the British Museum. Also, according to an ancient Welsh legend, a king named Lud son of Heli substantially enlarged and improved a pre-existing settlement at London which afterwards came to be renamed after him, the same tradition relates how this Lud son of Heli was later buried at Ludgate
4.
Christian denomination
–
A Christian denomination is a distinct religious body within Christianity, identified by traits such as a name, organisation, leadership and doctrine. Individual bodies, however, may use alternative terms to describe themselves, groups of denominations—often sharing broadly similar beliefs, practices, and historical ties—are sometimes known as branches of Christianity or denominational families. Individual Christian groups vary widely in the degree to which they recognize one another, several groups claim to be the direct and sole authentic successor of the church founded by Jesus Christ in the 1st century AD. Others, however, believe in denominationalism, where some or all Christian groups are legitimate churches of the same regardless of their distinguishing labels, beliefs. Because of this concept, some Christian bodies reject the term denomination to describe themselves, however, the Catholic Church does not view itself as a denomination, but as the original pre-denominational church. This view is rejected by other Christian denominations, Protestant denominations account for approximately 37 percent of Christians worldwide. Together, Catholicism and Protestantism comprise Western Christianity, Western Christian denominations prevail in Western, Northern, Central and Southern Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa, the Americas and Oceania. The Eastern Orthodox Church, with an estimated 225–300 million adherents, is the second-largest Christian organization in the world, unlike the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church is itself a communion of fully independent autocephalous churches that mutually recognize each other to the exclusion of others. The Eastern Orthodox Church, together with Oriental Orthodoxy and the Assyrian Church of the East, Eastern Christian denominations are represented mostly in Eastern Europe, North Asia, the Middle East and Northeast Africa. Christians have various doctrines about the Church and about how the church corresponds to Christian denominations. Both Catholics and Eastern Orthodox hold that their own organizations faithfully represent the One Holy catholic and Apostolic Church to the exclusion of the other, sixteenth-century Protestants separated from the Catholic Church because of theologies and practices that they considered to be in violation of their own interpretation. But some non-denominational Christians do not follow any particular branch, though regarded as Protestants. Each group uses different terminology to discuss their beliefs and this section will discuss the definitions of several terms used throughout the article, before discussing the beliefs themselves in detail in following sections. A denomination within Christianity can be defined as an autonomous branch of the Christian Church, major synonyms include religious group, sect, Church. Some traditional and evangelical Protestants draw a distinction between membership in the church and fellowship within the local church. Becoming a believer in Christ makes one a member of the universal church, a related concept is denominationalism, the belief that some or all Christian groups are legitimate churches of the same religion regardless of their distinguishing labels, beliefs, and practices. Protestant leaders differ greatly from the views of the leaders of the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church, each church makes mutually exclusive claims for itself to be the direct continuation of the Church founded by Jesus Christ, from whom other denominations later broke away. These churches, and a few others, reject denominationalism, Christianity can be taxonomically divided into five main groups, the Church of the East, Oriental Orthodoxy, Eastern Orthodoxy, Roman Catholicism, and Protestantism
5.
Church of England
–
The Church of England is the state church of England. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the most senior cleric, although the monarch is the supreme governor, the Church of England is also the mother church of the international Anglican Communion. It dates its establishment as a church to the 6th-century Gregorian mission to Kent led by Augustine of Canterbury. The English church renounced papal authority when Henry VIII sought to secure an annulment from Catherine of Aragon in the 1530s, the English Reformation accelerated under Edward VIs regents before a brief restoration of papal authority under Queen Mary I and King Philip. This is expressed in its emphasis on the teachings of the early Church Fathers, as formalised in the Apostles, Nicene, in the earlier phase of the English Reformation there were both Catholic martyrs and radical Protestant martyrs. The later phases saw the Penal Laws punish Roman Catholic and nonconforming Protestants, in the 17th century, political and religious disputes raised the Puritan and Presbyterian faction to control of the church, but this ended with the Restoration. Papal recognition of George III in 1766 led to religious tolerance. Since the English Reformation, the Church of England has used a liturgy in English, the church contains several doctrinal strands, the main three known as Anglo-Catholic, Evangelical and Broad Church. Tensions between theological conservatives and progressives find expression in debates over the ordination of women and homosexuality, the church includes both liberal and conservative clergy and members. The governing structure of the church is based on dioceses, each presided over by a bishop, within each diocese are local parishes. The General Synod of the Church of England is the body for the church and comprises bishops, other clergy. Its measures must be approved by both Houses of Parliament, according to tradition, Christianity arrived in Britain in the 1st or 2nd century, during which time southern Britain became part of the Roman Empire. The earliest historical evidence of Christianity among the native Britons is found in the writings of such early Christian Fathers as Tertullian, three Romano-British bishops, including Restitutus, are known to have been present at the Council of Arles in 314. Others attended the Council of Sardica in 347 and that of Ariminum in 360, Britain was the home of Pelagius, who opposed Augustine of Hippos doctrine of original sin. Consequently, in 597, Pope Gregory I sent the prior of the Abbey of St Andrews from Rome to evangelise the Angles and this event is known as the Gregorian mission and is the date the Church of England generally marks as the beginning of its formal history. A later archbishop, the Greek Theodore of Tarsus, also contributed to the organisation of Christianity in England, the Church of England has been in continuous existence since the days of St Augustine, with the Archbishop of Canterbury as its episcopal head. Despite the various disruptions of the Reformation and the English Civil War, while some Celtic Christian practices were changed at the Synod of Whitby, the Christian Church in the British Isles was under papal authority from earliest times. The Synod of Whitby established the Roman date for Easter and the Roman style of monastic tonsure in Britain and this meeting of the ecclesiastics with Roman customs with local bishops was summoned in 664 at Saint Hildas double monastery of Streonshalh, later called Whitby Abbey
6.
Roman Catholic
–
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
7.
Architect
–
An architect is someone who plans, designs, and reviews the construction of buildings. Etymologically, architect derives from the Latin architectus, which derives from the Greek, practical, technical, and academic requirements for becoming an architect vary by jurisdiction. The terms architect and architecture are used in the disciplines of landscape architecture, naval architecture. In most jurisdictions, the professional and commercial uses of the terms architect, throughout ancient and medieval history, most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans—such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Until modern times, there was no distinction between architect and engineer. In Europe, the architect and engineer were primarily geographical variations that referred to the same person. It is suggested that various developments in technology and mathematics allowed the development of the gentleman architect. Paper was not used in Europe for drawing until the 15th century, pencils were used more often for drawing by 1600. The availability of both allowed pre-construction drawings to be made by professionals, until the 18th-century, buildings continued to be designed and set out by craftsmen with the exception of high-status projects. In most developed countries, only qualified people with appropriate license, certification, or registration with a relevant body, such licensure usually requires an accredited university degree, successful completion of exams, and a training period. To practice architecture implies the ability to independently of supervision. In many places, independent, non-licensed individuals may perform design services outside the professional restrictions, such design houses, in the architectural profession, technical and environmental knowledge, design and construction management, and an understanding of business are as important as design. However, design is the force throughout the project and beyond. An architect accepts a commission from a client, the commission might involve preparing feasibility reports, building audits, the design of a building or of several buildings, structures, and the spaces among them. The architect participates in developing the requirements the client wants in the building, throughout the project, the architect co-ordinates a design team. Structural, mechanical, and electrical engineers and other specialists, are hired by the client or the architect, the architect hired by a client is responsible for creating a design concept that meets the requirements of that client and provides a facility suitable to the required use. In that, the architect must meet with and question the client to ascertain all the requirements, often the full brief is not entirely clear at the beginning, entailing a degree of risk in the design undertaking. The architect may make proposals to the client which may rework the terms of the brief
8.
Christopher Wren
–
Sir Christopher Wren PRS is one of the most highly acclaimed English architects in history. The principal creative responsibility for a number of the churches is now commonly attributed to others in his office. Other notable buildings by Wren include the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, the Wren Building, the main building at the College of William and Mary, Virginia, is attributed to Wren. Educated in Latin and Aristotelian physics at the University of Oxford, Wren was a notable anatomist, astronomer, geometer and he was a founder of the Royal Society, and his scientific work was highly regarded by Isaac Newton and Blaise Pascal. Wren was born in East Knoyle in Wiltshire, the surviving son of Christopher Wren Sr. and Mary Cox. Christopher Sr. was at time the rector of East Knoyle. Their son Christopher was born in 1632 then, two later, another daughter named Elizabeth was born. Mary must have died shortly after the birth of Elizabeth, although there does not appear to be any surviving record of the date, through Mary Cox, however, the family became well off financially for, as the only heir, she had inherited her fathers estate. As a child Wren seemd consumptive, although a sickly child, he would survive into robust old age. He was first taught at home by a tutor and his father. After his fathers appointment as Dean of Windsor in March 1635, his family spent part of each year there. He spent his first eight years at East Knoyle and was educated by the Rev. William Shepherd and it was a tough time in his life, but one which would go on to have a significant impact upon his later works. Some of Wrens youthful exercises preserved or recorded showed that he received a grounding in Latin. According to Parentalia, he was initiated in the principles of mathematics by Dr William Holder, who married Wrens elder sister Susan in 1643. His drawing was put to use in providing many of the anatomical drawings for the anatomy textbook of the brain, Cerebri Anatome, published by Thomas Willis. During this time period, Wren manifested an interest in the design and it was probably through Holder that Wren met Sir Charles Scarburgh whom Wren assisted in his anatomical studies. On 25 June 1650, Wren entered Wadham College, Oxford, where he studied Latin and it is anachronistic to imagine that he received scientific training in the modern sense. However, Wren became closely associated with John Wilkins, the Warden of Wadham, the Wilkins circle was a group whose activities led to the formation of the Royal Society, comprising a number of distinguished mathematicians, creative workers and experimental philosophers
9.
Sacred architecture
–
Many cultures devoted considerable resources to their sacred architecture and places of worship. Religious and sacred spaces are amongst the most impressive and permanent monolithic buildings created by humanity, conversely, sacred architecture as a locale for meta-intimacy may also be non-monolithic, ephemeral and intensely private, personal and non-public. Sacred, religious and holy structures often evolved over centuries and were the largest buildings in the world, while the various styles employed in sacred architecture sometimes reflected trends in other structures, these styles also remained unique from the contemporary architecture used in other structures. With the rise of Abrahamic monotheisms, religious buildings increasingly became centres of worship, prayer, the Western scholarly discipline of the history of architecture itself closely follows the history of religious architecture from ancient times until the Baroque period, at least. Sacred geometry, iconography, and the use of sophisticated semiotics such as signs, symbols, Sacred and/or religious architecture is sometimes called sacred space. Architect Norman L. Koonce has suggested that the goal of sacred architecture is to make transparent the boundary between matter and mind, flesh and the spirit, meanwhile, Richard Kieckhefer suggests that entering into a religious building is a metaphor for entering into spiritual relationship. Sacred architecture spans a number of ancient architectural styles including Neolithic architecture, ancient Egyptian architecture, ancient religious buildings, particularly temples, were often viewed as the dwelling place, the temenos, of the gods and were used as the site of various kinds of sacrifice. Ancient tombs and burial structures are examples of architectural structures reflecting religious beliefs of their various societies. The Temple of Karnak at Thebes, Egypt was constructed across a period of 1300 years, ancient Egyptian religious architecture has fascinated archaeologists and captured the public imagination for millennia. Around 600 BCE the wooden columns of the Temple of Hera at Olympia were replaced by stone columns, with the spread of this process to other sanctuary structures a few stone buildings have survived through the ages. Greek architecture preceded Hellenistic and Roman periods, since temples are the only buildings which survive in numbers, most of our concept of classical architecture is based on religious structures. The Parthenon which served as a building as well as a place for veneration of deity, is widely regarded as the greatest example of classical architecture. Indian architecture is related to the history and religions of the time periods as well as to the geography, the diversity of Indian culture is represented in its architecture. Indian architecture comprises a blend of ancient and varied native traditions, with building types, forms and technologies from West, Central Asia, buddhist architecture developed in South Asia beginning in the third century BCE. Two types of structures are associated with early Buddhism, viharas and stupas, an existing example is at Nalanda. The initial function of the stupa was the veneration and safe-guarding of the relics of the Buddha, the earliest existing example of a stupa is in Sanchi. In accordance with changes in practice, stupas were gradually incorporated into chaitya-grihas. These reached their highpoint in the first century BCE, exemplified by the cave complexes of Ajanta, the pagoda is an evolution of the Indian stupa that is marked by a tiered tower with multiple eaves common in China, Japan, Korea, Nepal and other parts of Asia
10.
Baroque
–
The style began around 1600 in Rome and Italy, and spread to most of Europe. The aristocracy viewed the dramatic style of Baroque art and architecture as a means of impressing visitors by projecting triumph, power, Baroque palaces are built around an entrance of courts, grand staircases, and reception rooms of sequentially increasing opulence. However, baroque has a resonance and application that extend beyond a reduction to either a style or period. It is also yields the Italian barocco and modern Spanish barroco, German Barock, Dutch Barok, others derive it from the mnemonic term Baroco, a supposedly laboured form of syllogism in logical Scholastica. The Latin root can be found in bis-roca, in informal usage, the word baroque can simply mean that something is elaborate, with many details, without reference to the Baroque styles of the 17th and 18th centuries. The word Baroque, like most periodic or stylistic designations, was invented by later critics rather than practitioners of the arts in the 17th, the term Baroque was initially used in a derogatory sense, to underline the excesses of its emphasis. In particular, the term was used to describe its eccentric redundancy and noisy abundance of details, although it was long thought that the word as a critical term was first applied to architecture, in fact it appears earlier in reference to music. Another hypothesis says that the word comes from precursors of the style, Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola and he did not make the distinctions between Mannerism and Baroque that modern writers do, and he ignored the later phase, the academic Baroque that lasted into the 18th century. Long despised, Baroque art and architecture became fashionable between the two World Wars, and has remained in critical favour. In painting the gradual rise in popular esteem of Caravaggio has been the best barometer of modern taste, William Watson describes a late phase of Shang-dynasty Chinese ritual bronzes of the 11th century BC as baroque. The term Baroque may still be used, usually pejoratively, describing works of art, craft, the appeal of Baroque style turned consciously from the witty, intellectual qualities of 16th-century Mannerist art to a visceral appeal aimed at the senses. It employed an iconography that was direct, simple, obvious, germinal ideas of the Baroque can also be found in the work of Michelangelo. Even more generalised parallels perceived by some experts in philosophy, prose style, see the Neapolitan palace of Caserta, a Baroque palace whose construction began in 1752. In paintings Baroque gestures are broader than Mannerist gestures, less ambiguous, less arcane and mysterious, more like the stage gestures of opera, Baroque poses depend on contrapposto, the tension within the figures that move the planes of shoulders and hips in counterdirections. Baroque is a style of unity imposed upon rich, heavy detail, Baroque style featured exaggerated lighting, intense emotions, release from restraint, and even a kind of artistic sensationalism. There were highly diverse strands of Italian baroque painting, from Caravaggio to Cortona, the most prominent Spanish painter of the Baroque was Diego Velázquez. The later Baroque style gradually gave way to a more decorative Rococo, while the Baroque nature of Rembrandts art is clear, the label is less often used for Vermeer and many other Dutch artists. Flemish Baroque painting shared a part in this trend, while continuing to produce the traditional categories
11.
Parish
–
A parish is a church territorial unit constituting a division within a diocese. A parish is under the care and clerical jurisdiction of a parish priest, who might be assisted by one or more curates. Historically, a parish often covered the same area as a manor. By extension the term refers not only to the territorial unit. In England this church property was technically in ownership of the parish priest ex-officio, the eighth Archbishop of Canterbury Theodore of Tarsus appended the parish structure to the Anglo-Saxon township unit, where it existed, and where minsters catered to the surrounding district. In the wider picture of ecclesiastical polity, a parish comprises a division of a diocese or see, parishes within a diocese may be grouped into a deanery or vicariate forane, overseen by a dean or vicar forane, or in some cases by an archpriest. Some churches of the Anglican Communion have deaneries as units of an archdeaconry, in the Roman Catholic Church, each parish normally has its own parish priest, who has responsibility and canonical authority over the parish. These are called assistant priests, parochial vicars, curates, or, in the United States, associate pastors, each diocese is divided into parishes, each with their own central church called the parish church, where religious services take place. An example is that of personal parishes established in accordance with the 7 July 2007 motu proprio Summorum Pontificum for those attached to the form of the Roman Rite. Most Catholic parishes are part of Latin Rite dioceses, which cover the whole territory of a country. There can also be overlapping parishes of eparchies of Eastern Catholic Churches, the Church of England geographical structure uses the local parish church as its basic unit. The parish system survived the Reformation with the Anglican Churchs secession from Rome remaining largely untouched, Church of England parishes nowadays all lie within one of 44 dioceses divided between the provinces of Canterbury,30 and York,14. A chapelry was a subdivision of a parish in England. It had a status to a township but was so named as it had a chapel which acted as a subsidiary place of worship to the main parish church. In England civil parishes and their parish councils evolved in the 19th century as ecclesiastical parishes began to be relieved of what became considered to be civic responsibilities. Thus their boundaries began to diverge, the word parish acquired a secular usage. Since 1895, a council elected by public vote or a parish meeting administers a civil parish and is formally recognised as the level of local government below a district council. The parish is also the level of church administration in the Church of Scotland
12.
Diocese
–
The word diocese is derived from the Greek term διοίκησις meaning administration. When now used in a sense, it refers to a territorial unit of administration. This structure of governance is known as episcopal polity. The word diocesan means relating or pertaining to a diocese and it can also be used as a noun meaning the bishop who has the principal supervision of a diocese. An archdiocese is more significant than a diocese, an archdiocese is presided over by an archbishop whose see may have or have had importance due to size or historical significance. The archbishop may have authority over any other suffragan bishops. In the Latter Day Saint movement, the bishopric is used to describe the bishop himself. Especially in the Middle Ages, some bishops held political as well as religious authority within their dioceses, in the later organization of the Roman Empire, the increasingly subdivided provinces were administratively associated in a larger unit, the diocese. With the adoption of Christianity as the Empires official religion in the 4th century, a formal church hierarchy was set up, parallel to the civil administration, whose areas of responsibility often coincided. With the collapse of the Western Empire in the 5th century, a similar, though less pronounced, development occurred in the East, where the Roman administrative apparatus was largely retained by the Byzantine Empire. In modern times, many dioceses, though later subdivided, have preserved the boundaries of a long-vanished Roman administrative division, modern usage of diocese tends to refer to the sphere of a bishops jurisdiction. As of January 2015, in the Catholic Church there are 2,851 regular dioceses,1 papal see,641 archdioceses and 2,209 dioceses in the world, in the Eastern rites in communion with the Pope, the equivalent unit is called an eparchy. Eastern Orthodoxy calls dioceses metropoleis in the Greek tradition or eparchies in the Slavic tradition, after the Reformation, the Church of England retained the existing diocesan structure which remains throughout the Anglican Communion. The one change is that the areas administered under the Archbishop of Canterbury and Archbishop of York are properly referred to as provinces and this usage is relatively common in the Anglican Communion. Certain Lutheran denominations such as the Church of Sweden do have individual dioceses similar to Roman Catholics and these dioceses and archdioceses are under the government of a bishop. Other Lutheran bodies and synods that have dioceses and bishops include the Church of Denmark, the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland, the Evangelical Church in Germany, rather, it is divided into a middle judicatory. The Lutheran Church-International, based in Springfield, Illinois, presently uses a traditional diocesan structure and its current president is Archbishop Robert W. Hotes. The Church of God in Christ has dioceses throughout the United States, in the COGIC, each state is divided up into at least three dioceses that are all led by a bishop, but some states as many as seven dioceses
13.
Diocese of London
–
The Diocese of London forms part of the Church of Englands Province of Canterbury in England. Historically the diocese covered an area north of the Thames and bordered the dioceses of Norwich and Lincoln to the north. The present diocese covers 177 square miles and 17 London boroughs, covering most of Greater London north of the River Thames and this area covers nearly all of the historic county of Middlesex. It includes the City of London in which lies its cathedral, St Pauls, essex formed part of the diocese until 1846 when the county became part of the Diocese of Rochester. It is further divided into archdeaconries and deaneries, as shown below, the suffragan see of Stepney was created in 1895, Kensington in 1901, Willesden in 1911 and Edmonton in 1970. The suffragan see of Marlborough existed from 1888 to 1918, on 1 May 2015, it was announced that Chartres proposal to take the See of Islington out of abeyance for the appointment of a bishop for church plants would go ahead. Ric Thorpe was consecrated Bishop suffragan of Islington on 29 September 2015, alternative episcopal oversight is provided by a fifth suffragan bishop, Jonathan Baker, Bishop of Fulham, who has the same ministry in the Southwark and Rochester dioceses. During a lengthy vacancy in that see, alternative episcopal oversight was offered by the area Bishop of Edmonton, 2002–present, Edward Holland, retired Bishop of Colchester, lives in Hammersmith and is also licensed in the Diocese in Europe. 2003–present, Walter Makhulu, Archbishop emeritus of Central Africa and retired Bishop of Botswana, 2006–present, Sandy Millar, a former vicar of Holy Trinity Brompton, lives in Alderburgh, Suffolk and is also an honorary assistant bishop in the Diocese of St Edmundsbury and Ipswich. 2009–present, Robert Ladds, former Bishop suffragan of Whitby, lives in Hendon, 2013–present, Michael Colclough, retired Canon Pastor of St Pauls Cathedral and former Bishop of Kensington, lives in Chelsea. He is also licensed in the Diocese in Europe
14.
Great Fire of London
–
The Great Fire of London was a major conflagration that swept through the central parts of the English city of London from Sunday,2 September to Wednesday,5 September 1666. The fire gutted the medieval City of London inside the old Roman city wall and it threatened but did not reach the aristocratic district of Westminster, Charles IIs Palace of Whitehall, and most of the suburban slums. It consumed 13,200 houses,87 parish churches, St Pauls Cathedral and it is estimated to have destroyed the homes of 70,000 of the Citys 80,000 inhabitants. The death toll is unknown but traditionally thought to have been small, a melted piece of pottery on display at the Museum of London found by archaeologists in Pudding Lane, where the fire started, shows that the temperature reached 1250 °C. The Great Fire started at the bakery of Thomas Farriner on Pudding Lane shortly after midnight on Sunday,2 September, by the time that large-scale demolitions were ordered on Sunday night, the wind had already fanned the bakery fire into a firestorm that defeated such measures. The fire pushed north on Monday into the heart of the City, order in the streets broke down as rumours arose of suspicious foreigners setting fires. The fears of the focused on the French and Dutch, Englands enemies in the ongoing Second Anglo-Dutch War. The social and economic problems created by the disaster were overwhelming, evacuation from London and resettlement elsewhere were strongly encouraged by Charles II, who feared a London rebellion amongst the dispossessed refugees. Despite numerous radical proposals, London was reconstructed on essentially the same street plan used before the fire, by the 1660s, London was by far the largest city in Britain, estimated at half a million inhabitants. By inartificial, Evelyn meant unplanned and makeshift, the result of organic growth, London had been a Roman settlement for four centuries and had become progressively more crowded inside its defensive city wall. It had also pushed outwards beyond the wall into squalid extramural slums such as Shoreditch, Holborn, and Southwark, the City was surrounded by a ring of inner suburbs where most Londoners lived. The City was then, as now, the heart of the capital. The aristocracy shunned the City and lived either in the countryside beyond the suburbs, or in the exclusive Westminster district. The relationship was tense between the City and the Crown. The City magistrates were of the generation that had fought in the Civil War and they were determined to thwart any similar tendencies in his son, and when the Great Fire threatened the City, they refused the offers that Charles made of soldiers and other resources. Even in such an emergency, the idea of having the unpopular Royal troops ordered into the City was political dynamite, by the time that Charles took over command from the ineffectual Lord Mayor, the fire was already out of control. The City was essentially medieval in its plan, an overcrowded warren of narrow, winding. It had experienced major fires before 1666, the most recent in 1632
15.
Cheapside
–
Cheapside is a street in the City of London, the historic and modern financial centre of London, which forms part of the A40 London to Fishguard road. It links St. Martins Le Grand with Poultry, near its eastern end at Bank junction, where it becomes Poultry, is Mansion House, the Bank of England, and Bank station. To the west is St. Pauls Cathedral, St. Pauls tube station, in the Middle Ages, it was known as Westcheap, as opposed to Eastcheap, another street in the City, near London Bridge. The contemporary Cheapside is widely known as the location of a range of retail and food outlets and offices, as well as the Citys only major shopping centre, One New Change. Cheapside is a common English street name, meaning place, from Old English ceapan, to buy, whence also chapman. There was originally no connection to the meaning of cheap. There is also a Cheapside in Bridgetown, Barbados, Lexington, Kentucky, US, Greenfield, Massachusetts, US, Saint Helier, Jersey, Cheapside is the former site of one of the principal produce markets in London, cheap broadly meaning market in medieval English. Many of the streets feeding into the thoroughfare are named after the produce that was once sold in those areas of the market, including Honey Lane, Milk Street, Bread Street. In medieval times, the processional route from the Tower of London to the Palace of Westminster would include Cheapside. During state occasions such as the first entry of Margaret of France, into London in September 1299, during the reign of Edward III in the 14th century, tournaments were held in adjacent fields. No one died, but the King was greatly displeased, Meat was brought in to Cheapside from Smithfield market, just outside Newgate. Further down, on the right, was Goldsmiths Row, an area of commodity dealers, from the 14th century to the Great Fire, the eastern end of Cheapside was the location of the Great Conduit. Cheapside was the birthplace of John Milton, and Robert Herrick and it was for a long time one of the most important streets in London. It is also the site of the Bow Bells, the church of St. Mary-le-Bow, which has played a part in Londons Cockney heritage, geoffrey Chaucer grew up around Cheapside and there are a scattering of references to the thoroughfare and its environs throughout his work. The first chapter of Peter Ackroyds Brief Lives series on Chaucer also colourfully describes the street at that time, thomas Middletons play A Chaste Maid in Cheapside both satirises and celebrates the citizens of the neighbourhood during the Renaissance, when the street hosted the citys goldsmiths. William Wordsworth, in his 1797 poem The Reverie of Poor Susan, imagines a naturalistic Cheapside of past and that is capital, added her sister, and they both laughed heartily. If they had enough to fill all Cheapside, cried Bingley. But it must very materially lessen their chance of marrying men of any consideration in the world, charles Dickens, Jr. wrote in his 1879 book Dickenss Dictionary of London, Cheapside remains now what it was five centuries ago, the greatest thoroughfare in the City of London
16.
Cockney
–
The term cockney has had several distinct geographical, social, and linguistic associations. More recently, it is used to refer to those in Londons East End. Linguistically, cockney English refers to the accent or dialect of English traditionally spoken by working-class Londoners, in recent years, many aspects of cockney English have become part of general South East English speech, producing a variant known as Estuary English. The earliest recorded use of the term is 1362 in passus VI of William Langlands Piers Plowman, concurrently, the mythical land of luxury Cockaigne appeared under a variety of spellings—including Cockayne, Cocknay, and Cockney—and became humorously associated with the English capital London. This may have developed from the sources above or separately, alongside such terms as cock, by 1600, this meaning of cockney was being particularly associated with the Bow Bells area. In 1617, the travel writer Fynes Moryson stated in his Itinerary that Londoners, the same year, John Minsheu included the term in this newly restricted sense in his dictionary Ductor in Linguas. The use of the term to describe all Londoners generally, however, survived into the 19th century before becoming restricted to the working class, the term is now used loosely to describe all East Londoners, although some distinguish the areas that were added to London in 1964. The region in which cockneys are thought to reside is not clearly defined, a common view is that in order to be a cockney, one must have been born within earshot of Bow Bells, the bells of St Mary-le-Bow. However, the church of St Mary-le-Bow was destroyed in 1666 by the Great Fire of London, although the bells were destroyed again in 1941 in the Blitz, they had fallen silent on 13 June 1940 as part of the British anti-invasion preparations of World War II. Before they were replaced in 1961, there was a period when, by the within earshot definition, the East London Maternity Hospital in Stepney, which was 2.5 miles from St Mary-le-Bow, was in use from 1884 to 1968. There is a maternity unit still in use at the Royal London Hospital in Whitechapel, Home births were very common until the late 1960s. According to the legend of Dick Whittington the bells could once be heard from as far away as the Highgate Archway, thus while all East Enders are cockneys, not all cockneys are East Enders. The area north of the Thames gradually expanded to include East Ham, Stratford, West Ham, loach has a reputation for using genuine dialect speakers in films,3 Clear Sundays Up the Junction Cathy Come Home Poor Cow Bronco Bullfrog The Long Good Friday. The DVD of this film has a feature that explains the rhyming slang used. Nevertheless, the stop, double negatives, and the vocalisation of the dark L. The study, funded by the Economic and Social Research Council, said that the accent, conversely, migration of cockney speakers has led to migration of the dialect. In Essex, planned towns that grew from post-war migration out of London often have a strong influence on local speech. In recent years the dialect has moved out of inner-city London towards the outskirts of suburban London, today cockney-speaking areas include parts of Dagenham, Barking, Billericay, Brentwood, Romford, Chigwell, Loughton, Harlow, Basildon, Thurrock
17.
Bow, London
–
Bow is a district in the East End of London, England, in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets. It is built-up and mostly residential, and 4.6 miles east of Charing Cross, the area was formerly known as Stratford, and Bow is an abbreviation of the medieval name Stratford-atte-Bow, in which Bow refers to a bridge built in the early 12th century. Bow is adjacent to the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park and a section of the district is part of the park, Old Ford, and with it Fish Island, are usually taken to be part of Bow, but Bromley-by-Bow immediately to the south, is a separate locality. These distinctions have their roots in historic parish boundaries, stratforde was first recorded as a settlement in 1177, the name derived from its Old English meaning of paved way to a ford. The paved way is likely to refer to the presence of a causeway across the marshes. Land and Abbey Mill were given to Barking Abbey for maintenance of the bridge and this endowment was later administered by Stratford Langthorne Abbey. By 1549, this route had become known as The Kings Way and this has since been expanded to a four-lane road. In 1311 Bow remained a village, often cut off from St Dunstans. Permission was given to build a chapel of ease to allow the residents a place to worship. The land was granted by Edward III, on the Kings highway, in 1719, the parish became independent of Stepney and St Mary Stratford Bow consecrated. The parish included the Old Ford area, which has also known as North Bow. Located at 117 Bow Common Lane, E3 the church building by Frederick Arthur Walters opened in 1894, the parish is home to the Vietnamese chaplaincy in the Archdiocese of Westminster. Located at 179 Bow Road, E3, the building by Gilbert Blount opened in 1870. Formerly the parish was run by a community of Dominican nuns, a convent of Benedictine nuns was established at the nearby Priory of St Leonards, in modern Bromley-by-Bow. Ful weel she soong the service dyvyne, Entuned in hir nose ful semely, And frenssh she spak ful faire and fetisly, After the scole of stratford atte bowe, For frenssh of parys was to hire unknowe. This was a reference to the Prioress having learned the distinctive Anglo-Norman dialect of French. French still had the cachet of being the language of the royal court, Fairfield Road commemorates the Green Goose fair, held there on the Thursday after Pentecost. A Green Goose was a young or mid-summer goose, and a term for a cuckold or a low woman
18.
Dick Whittington and His Cat
–
However, the real Whittington did not come from a poor family of common stock, and there is no compelling evidence supporting the stories about the cat, or even whether he owned one. Written forms date from the early 1600s, long after the death of the historical Whittington, a drama play and ballad are lost, and Richard Johnsons ballad of 1612 is the earliest surviving piece. A prose rendition occurs in The Famous and Remarkable History of Sir Richard Whittington by T. H. first published 1656, chapbook editions of the legend more or less after T. H. s version appeared after 1730 into the 19th century. However, the legend has propagated among the populace exactly in embellished forms such as this, thus, the landmark Whittington Stone at the foot of Highgate Hill is commonly perceived to be place where Dick Whittingon stopped and heard the famous bells. The story was adapted into play by Martin Powell in the early 18th century. Later, it has performed as stage pantomimes and childrens plays. It has also been retold as a story by a number of printers and authors to this day. The tale represents Aarne–Thompson tale type 1651, Whittingtons Cat, a number of foreign and medieval analogues exist to such a tale where the protagonist obtains his riches as recompense for his cat ridding some infested place of its rodent population. The following summary gives a comparison of three sources, Dick Whittington was a poor orphan boy, languishing in Lancashire, or some unnamed place in the country. He set off to seek his fortune in London, enticed by the rumour that its streets were paved with gold, but he soon found himself cold and hungry, and fell asleep at the gate of the home of a wealthy merchant named Fitzwarren. Fitzwarren hired him to be the scullion in the kitchen, giving him lodging, in the prose versions, an account of the Dick Whittingtons cat subsequently follows, but in the ballad, it is preceded by Dicks flight and church bells episode. In the prose legend, Dick is provided quarter at the Fitzwarrens garret, but Dick owned a cat, that the prose versions say he had bought for a penny which he made shining shoes. The cat controlled his rodent problem, which made her an indispensable companion, when Fitzwarren organized a trade expedition sending the merchant ship Unicorn, Dicks cat was ventured to this mission to be sold for profit abroad. He ran as far away as Bunhill or Holloway, where he heard London Bells, Bow bells, or the bells of Bow Church, that seemed to be telling him, which persuaded him to retrace his steps. The ship was driven off course to the Barbary Coast, where the Moorish king purchased the cargo for a load of gold. But the banquet was swarmed with rats and mice, whereby the English factor informed their hosts that they were in possession of a creature which could exterminate these vermin, thus Dick Whittingtons cat was immediately put to the test, chasing and destroying the rodents. The Moors, even more pleased to learn that the cat was pregnant, Dick was upset at first that this was being done in mockery, but Fitzwarren insisted it was all in earnest, explaining that the profits from the ship now made Dick a richer man than himself. Dick married his masters daughter Alice Fitzwarren, and joined his father-in-law in his business
19.
Highgate
–
Highgate is a suburban area of north London at the north-eastern corner of Hampstead Heath,4.5 miles north north-west of Charing Cross. Highgate is one of the most expensive London suburbs in which to live and it has an active conservation body, the Highgate Society, to protect its character. Until late Victorian times it was a village outside London. The area retains many green expanses including the part of Hampstead Heath. The village is at the top of North Hill which provides views across London, the area is divided between three London boroughs, Haringey in the north, Camden in the south and west, and Islington in the south and east. Historically, Highgate adjoined the Bishop of Londons hunting estate, Highgate gets its name from these hunting grounds, as there was a high, deer-proof hedge surrounding the estate, the gate in the hedge. The bishop kept a toll-house where one of the main roads out of London entered his land. A number of pubs sprang up along the route, one of which, in later centuries Highgate was associated with the highwayman Dick Turpin. Hampstead Lane and Highgate Hill contain the red brick Victorian buildings of Highgate School, the school has played a paramount role in the life of the village and has existed on its site since its founding was permitted by letters patent from Queen Elizabeth I in 1565. The area north of the High Street and Hampstead Lane was part of Hornsey parish and also later the Municipal Borough of Hornsey, Highgate Hill, the steep street linking Archway and Highgate village, was the route of the first cable car to be built in Europe. It operated between 1884 and 1909, like much of London, Highgate suffered damage during World War II by German air raids. The local tube station was used as a bomb shelter, some notable favourites are the Angel, the Flask, the Dukes Head and the Wrestlers. The 2011 census showed that the Highgate ward of Haringey was 82% white, the Highgate ward of Camden meanwhile was 80% white, and 3% Black African. For details of education in the Haringey portion of Highgate see the London Borough of Haringey article, on Friday 26 August 1988, Michael Williams, a 43-year-old father from Highgate who worked for the Home Office in Pimlico, disappeared whilst travelling back home after an employee social. His body was found at Highgate Wood the next day and his killer has never been found. The case remains unsolved despite being featured heavily in the national press, between 1930 and 1939, the wife and son of Adolf Hitlers half-brother, Alois, lived in Highgate, before moving to the United States. Bridget and Patrick Hitler lived at 26 Priory Gardens, leslie Compton, formerly an Arsenal footballer and a Middlesex cricketer, owned a pub in Highgate after he retired from sports. Singer George Michael owned an ₤8 million house in Highgate, southend United striker Nile Ranger was born in Highgate
20.
Lord Mayor of London
–
The Lord Mayor of London is the City of Londons mayor and leader of the City of London Corporation. This office differs from the Mayor of London, which is an elected position. However, the legal and commonly used title remains Lord Mayor of London, the Lord Mayor is elected at Common Hall each year on Michaelmas, and takes office on the Friday before the second Saturday in November, at The Silent Ceremony. One of the worlds oldest continuously elected civic offices, the Lord Mayors main role nowadays is to represent, support and promote the businesses and residents in the City of London. As leader of the Corporation of the City of London, the Lord Mayor serves as the key spokesman for the local authority, all Lord Mayors of London are apolitical. The Lord Mayor of London typically delivers dozens of speeches and addresses per year, many incumbents of the office make overseas visits while Lord Mayor of London. Currently serving is the 689th Lord Mayor Dr Andrew Parmley Of the 69 cities in the United Kingdom, the City of London is among the 30 that have Lord Mayors. The Lord Mayor is entitled to the style The Right Honourable, the same privilege extends only to the Lord Mayors of York, Cardiff and Belfast, the latter prefix applies only to Privy Counsellors. A woman who holds the office is known as a Lord Mayor. The wife of a male Lord Mayor is styled as Lady Mayoress, a female Lord Mayor or an unmarried male Lord Mayor may appoint a female consort, usually a fellow member of the corporation, to the role of Lady Mayoress. In speech, a Lord Mayor is referred to as My Lord Mayor, and it was once customary for Lord Mayors to be appointed knights upon taking office and baronets upon retirement, unless they already held such a title. This custom was followed with a few inconsistencies from the 16th until the 19th centuries, however, from 1964 onwards, the regular creation of hereditary titles such as baronetcies was phased out, so subsequent Lord Mayors were offered knighthoods. Furthermore, foreign Heads of State visiting the City of London on a UK State Visit, for example, in 2001, Sir David Howard was created a Grand Cordon of the Order of Independence of Jordan by King Abdullah II. Recently Lord Mayors have been appointed at the beginning of their term of office Knights or Dames of St John, as a mark of respect, by HM The Queen, Sovereign Head of the Order of St John. The office of Lord Mayor was instituted in 1189, the first holder of the office being Henry Fitz-Ailwin de Londonestone. The Mayor of the City of London has been elected by the City, rather than appointed by the Sovereign, the title Lord Mayor came to be used after 1354, when it was granted to Thomas Legge by King Edward III. Lord Mayors are elected for terms, by custom, they do not now serve more than one consecutive term. Almost 700 people have served as Lord Mayor, Dame Mary Donaldson, elected in 1983, and Dame Fiona Woolf, elected in 2013, are the only women to have held the office
21.
Whitechapel Bell Foundry
–
The Whitechapel Bell Foundry is a business in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, and is the oldest manufacturing company in Great Britain. The bell foundry primarily makes church bells and their fittings and accessories, although it also provides single tolling bells, the Whitechapel premises are a Grade II* listed building. The foundry will close in May 2017, after nearly 450 years of making and 250 years at its present site. The building is to be sold, and owners Alan and Kathryn Hughes are looking for a buyer who could continue operation at another site, the Whitechapel Bell Foundry company dates back to 1570. The present premises at 32–34 Whitechapel Road, backing on to Plumbers Row, the Artichoke ceased trading in 1738 and the following year the Whitechapel Bell Foundry moved into the premises. The foundry will remain at the site until May 2017, its future uncertain and it is one of only two bell foundries left in the UK and has been in continuous production for almost 450 years. The Master Founders of Aldgate and Whitechapel, however, can be traced back to 1420, the three bells manufacturers mark can be seen on the bells and the three bells sign hangs over the door. According to present owners Alan and Kathryn Hughes, the foundry has been a family-owned company throughout its history continuing when Alan Hughess grandfather bought the company in 1904. The business has had to adapt throughout the centuries and in times, with new churches being built less frequently. It responded to a surge in orders for table bells, following the popularity of the BBC period drama Downton Abbey, in 2013 the foundry launched an online shop selling house bells, musical instruments and personalised merchandise. The large bell business has been unaffected by periods of financial depression. During the second war the foundry was used as a munitions production line where they made casings for the Ministry of War. The foundry was particularly busy after the war, replacing bells lost or damaged by fire in bombing raids across London, Hughes said “Our business runs counter to the national economy. If the economy goes down and unemployment rises, we start to get busy, last year was our busiest in thirty years, an increase of 27% on the previous year. Similarly, the nineteen twenties were very busy, Hughes also tells a story of an order requested of his grandfather in the 1890s which his father quoted again for in the 1950s and he himself gave a quote for in the 1970s. The order was completed in 1998. Many churches across the world have bells cast by the Whitechapel Bell Foundry, in 1752 the foundry cast the Liberty Bell, which was commissioned to celebrate the 50th anniversary of William Penns 1701 Charter of Privileges, Pennsylvanias original constitution. As a result of damage sustained during its passage across the Atlantic
22.
Pound (mass)
–
The pound or pound-mass is a unit of mass used in the imperial, United States customary and other systems of measurement. The international standard symbol for the pound is lb. The unit is descended from the Roman libra, the English word pound is cognate with, among others, German Pfund, Dutch pond, and Swedish pund. All ultimately derive from a borrowing into Proto-Germanic of the Latin expression lībra pondō, usage of the unqualified term pound reflects the historical conflation of mass and weight. This accounts for the modern distinguishing terms pound-mass and pound-force, the United States and countries of the Commonwealth of Nations agreed upon common definitions for the pound and the yard. Since 1 July 1959, the avoirdupois pound has been defined as exactly 0.45359237 kg. In the United Kingdom, the use of the pound was implemented in the Weights and Measures Act 1963.9144 metre exactly. An avoirdupois pound is equal to 16 avoirdupois ounces and to exactly 7,000 grains, the conversion factor between the kilogram and the international pound was therefore chosen to be divisible by 7, and an grain is thus equal to exactly 64.79891 milligrams. The US has not adopted the system despite many efforts to do so. Historically, in different parts of the world, at different points in time, and for different applications, the libra is an ancient Roman unit of mass that was equivalent to approximately 328.9 grams. It was divided into 12 unciae, or ounces, the libra is the origin of the abbreviation for pound, lb. A number of different definitions of the pound have historically used in Britain. Amongst these were the avoirdupois pound and the tower, merchants. Historically, the sterling was a tower pound of silver. In 1528, the standard was changed to the Troy pound, the avoirdupois pound, also known as the wool pound, first came into general use c. It was initially equal to 6992 troy grains, the pound avoirdupois was divided into 16 ounces. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth, the pound was redefined as 7,000 troy grains. Since then, the grain has often been a part of the avoirdupois system
23.
Full circle ringing
–
Full circle ringing is a method of ringing a bell such that it swings in a complete circle from mouth upwards around to mouth upwards and then back again repetitively. By ringing in a circle, it was found historically that the speed of the bell could be altered. A set of bells rung in this manner can be made to strike in different accurate, normally there is one ringer per bell, due to the bell weights involved. The sets of range from a few hundredweight up to a few tons and are most commonly associated with churches as a means of calling the congregation to worship. There are a few sets in secular buildings, however, smaller sets of bells, usually known as mini-rings have come recently into existence for training, demonstration or leisure purposes, with bells weighing just a few kilogrammes. The bell is attached to a headstock, historically made of wood and this has to withstand the dynamic force of the bell as it swings, up to three times its static weight. At each end of the headstock are protruding trunnions or bearing pins which are located in bearings attached to the frame, the frame itself is rigidly attached to the fabric of the tower. Within the bell is a clapper which consists of a shaft, a clapper ball. The size of the flight determines the rate at which the clapper swings, bells are normally left mouth down Before ringing, the bells are swung in increasing arcs until the bell is mouth uppermost. When the ringer desires to make a stroke, the bell is swung around a full circle, in English full-circle ringing there is no counter-balancing, so the bell accelerates rapidly to its maximum velocity when mouth downwards, and slows down as it rises to mouth upwards. In Veronese full-circle ringing there is an amount of counter-balancing, so there is little net gravitation pull. The small out-of-balance weight makes it easier than English bells to stop the bells mouth upwards. However, English full-circle ringing is capable of better control of bell speed. The Bolognese style of bell hanging does not have any counter-balancing, in English full circle ringing Mini-rings are used to demonstrate how full-circle ringing on large bells works. These rings can be assembled quickly, but the bells are light, however, they demonstrate a difficult concept visually, as both the actions of the ringers and the bells can be seen simultaneously. The sound made by a bell rung full-circle has two unique features, rapid strike decay and the doppler effect. This enables rapid successive strikes of multiple bells, such as in change ringing, without excessive overlap, in addition, the movement of the bell imparts a doppler effect to the sound, as the strike occurs whilst the bell is still moving. Both these effects give full circle ringing of bells in a sequence an distinctive sound which cannot be simulated by stationary chimed bells
24.
Ring of bells
–
A Ring of bells is the name bell ringers give to a set of bells hung in the English full circle ringing style. The term peal of bells is often used, but a peal refers to a change ringing performance of more than about 5,000 changes. A set of bells rung in this manner can be made to strike in different sequences and this ability to control the speed of bells soon led to the development of change ringing where the striking sequence of the bells is changed to give variety and musicality to the sound. The vast majority of rings are in church towers in the Anglican church in England and they are tuned to the notes of a diatonic scale, and range from a few hundredweight up to a few tons in weight. They are most commonly associated with churches as a means of calling the congregation to worship, smaller rings of bells, known as mini-rings have come recently into existence for training, demonstration or leisure purposes, with bells weighing just a few kilogrammes. The full-circle bell is hung from bearings at the headstock and can be swung through an arc of over 360 degrees using a rope wrapping round a circular bell wheel in alternate directions. This allows the speed of the bell to be changed, by controlling the arc of the swing, the larger the arc, the slower the rate of striking. The bells are mounted within a bellframe of steel or wood, each bell is suspended from a headstock fitted on trunnions mounted to the belfry framework so that the bell assembly can rotate. The headstock is fitted with a stay, which, in conjunction with a slider. To the headstock a large wheel is fitted and to which a rope is attached. The rope wraps and unwraps as the bell rotates backwards and forwards and this is full circle ringing and quite different from fixed or limited motion bells, which chime. Within the bell the clapper is constrained to swing in the direction that the bell swings, the clapper is a rigid steel or wrought iron bar with a large ball to strike the bell. The thickest part of the mouth of bell is called the soundbow, beyond the ball is a flight, which controls the speed of the clapper. In very small bells this can be nearly as long as the rest of the clapper, the rope is attached to one side of the wheel so that a different amount of rope is wound on and off as it swings to and fro. The first stroke is the handstroke with an amount of rope on the wheel. The ringer pulls on the sally and when the bell swings up it draws up more rope onto the wheel and the sally rises to, or beyond, the ringer keeps hold of the tail-end of the rope to control the bell. After a controlled pause with the bell, on or close to its balancing point, as the sally rises, the ringer catches it to pause the bell at its balance position. Each time it is pulled, a motion begins in the mouth-upwards position
25.
Robert Greene (dramatist)
–
He is said to have been born in Norwich. He attended Cambridge, receiving a BA in 1580, and an M. A. in 1583 before moving to London, Greene was prolific and published in many genres including romances, plays and autobiography. According to Richardson, The chief problem in compiling a biography of Robert Greene is the name, Robert must have been almost the most popular Elizabethan Christian name and Greene is no unusual surname. Newcomb states that Robert Greene, was probably the Robert Greene, son of Robert Greene, baptized on 11 July 1558 at St Georges, Tombland, Norwich. Greene later described himself as from Norwich on his title-pages, however, in his will proved in 1591, the innkeeper did not mention a son Robert, although he may have disinherited that son. Both the Norwich cordwainer turned innkeeper and the Norwich saddler left wills, proved in 1591 and 1596 respectively, Greene is thought to have attended the Norwich Grammar School, although this cannot be confirmed as enrolment documents for the relevant years are lost. He apparently transferred to Clare College for his 1583 MA, where he placed 5th out of 12 students in his college, from my Studie in Clarehall the vii. According to Newcomb, Other events of youth must be derived from autobiographical remarks that may not be reliable. In The Repentance Greene claimed to have married a daughter, whom he abandoned after having had a child by her and spent her dowry, after which she went to Lincolnshire. In Four Letters, Gabriel Harvey prints a letter written by Greene to his wife in which he addresses her as Doll. However xtensive searches of London and Norwich records by successive biographers have failed finally to locate the record of Greenes marriage, after his move to London Greene published over twenty-five works in prose in a variety of genres, becoming Englands first celebrity author. In 1588 he was granted an MA from Oxford University, almost certainly a courtesy degree, thereafter the title pages of some of his published works bore the phrase Utruisq. Academiae in Artibus Magister, Master of Arts in both Universities, Harvey attributed Greenes demise to a surfeit of pickle herring and Rhenish wine, and claimed he had been buried in the new churchyard near Bedlam on 4 September. No record of Greenes burial has been found, no record of Greenes son by his wife has been found, however in Four Letters Gabriel Harvey claimed that Greene kept a mistress, the sister of a criminal known as Cutting Ball hanged at Tyburn. Harvey described her as a sorry ragged quean of whom had his base son Infortunatus Greene, according to Newcomb, a Fortunatus Greene was buried at Shoreditch on 12 August 1593, whose folk-tale name might lie behind Harveys jest. According to Newcomb works evince an inexhaustible linguistic facility, grounded in wide reading in the classics, Greenes literary career began with the publication of a long romance, Mamillia, entered in the Stationers Register on 3 October 1580. Greenes romances were written in a highly wrought style which reached its highest level in Pandosto, short poems and songs incorporated in some of the romances attest to his ability as a lyric poet. One song from Menaphon, Weep not my wanton, smile upon my knee, enjoyed immense success, however, according to Newcomb, in his later prose works Greene himself built his persona around a myth of prodigal decline that cannot be taken at face value
26.
Christopher Marlowe
–
Christopher Marlowe, also known as Kit Marlowe, was an English playwright, poet and translator of the Elizabethan era. Marlowe was the foremost Elizabethan tragedian of his day and he greatly influenced William Shakespeare, who was born in the same year as Marlowe and who rose to become the pre-eminent Elizabethan playwright after Marlowes mysterious early death. Marlowes plays are known for the use of verse and their overreaching protagonists. A warrant was issued for Marlowes arrest on 18 May 1593, no reason was given for it, though it was thought to be connected to allegations of blasphemy—a manuscript believed to have been written by Marlowe was said to contain vile heretical conceipts. On 20 May, he was brought to the court to attend upon the Privy Council for questioning, there is no record of their having met that day, however, and he was commanded to attend upon them each day thereafter until licensed to the contrary. Ten days later, he was stabbed to death by Ingram Frizer, whether the stabbing was connected to his arrest has never been resolved. Marlowe was born in Canterbury to shoemaker John Marlowe and his wife Catherine and his date of birth is not known, but he was baptised on 26 February 1564, and is likely to have been born a few days before. Thus, he was just two months older than his contemporary William Shakespeare, who was baptised on 26 April 1564 in Stratford-upon-Avon. Marlowe attended The Kings School in Canterbury and Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, however, his degree was awarded on schedule when the Privy Council intervened on his behalf, commending him for his faithful dealing and good service to the Queen. No direct evidence supports this theory, although the Councils letter is evidence that Marlowe had served the government in some secret capacity, of the dramas attributed to Marlowe, Dido, Queen of Carthage is believed to have been his first. It was performed by the Children of the Chapel, a company of boy actors, the play was first published in 1594, the title page attributes the play to Marlowe and Thomas Nashe. Marlowes first play performed on the stage in London, in 1587, was Tamburlaine the Great, about the conqueror Tamburlaine. It is among the first English plays in verse, and, with Thomas Kyds The Spanish Tragedy. Tamburlaine was a success, and was followed with Tamburlaine the Great, the two parts of Tamburlaine were published in 1590, all Marlowes other works were published posthumously. The sequence of the writing of his four plays is unknown. The Jew of Malta, about a Maltese Jews barbarous revenge against the city authorities, has a prologue delivered by a character representing Machiavelli and it was probably written in 1589 or 1590, and was first performed in 1592. It was a success, and remained popular for the fifty years. The play was entered in the Stationers Register on 17 May 1594, Edward the Second is an English history play about the deposition of King Edward II by his barons and the Queen, who resent the undue influence the kings favourites have in court and state affairs
27.
Charing Cross
–
Charing Cross denotes the junction of Strand, Whitehall and Cockspur Street, just south of Trafalgar Square in central London. It gives its name to several landmarks, including Charing Cross railway station, Charing Cross is named after the Eleanor cross that stood on the site, in what was once the hamlet of Charing. The site of the cross has been occupied since 1675 by a statue of King Charles I. A loose Victorian replica of the cross, the Queen Eleanor Memorial Cross, was erected a short distance to the east outside the railway station. Until 1931, Charing Cross referred to the part of Whitehall between Great Scotland Yard and Trafalgar Square, at least one property retains a Charing Cross postal address, Drummonds Bank, on the corner of Whitehall and The Mall, which is designated 49 Charing Cross. Since the early 19th century, Charing Cross has often been regarded as the centre of London. Erect a rich and stately carved cross, Whereon her statue shall with glory shine, George Peele The Famous Chronicle of King Edward the First The name of the area, Charing, is derived from the Old English word cierring, referring to a bend in the River Thames. Folk etymology suggests the name derives from chère reine — dear queen in French — and this wooden sculpted cross was the work of the medieval sculptor, Alexander of Abingdon. It was destroyed in 1647 on the orders of Parliament during the Civil War, a 70 ft -high stone sculpture in front of Charing Cross railway station is a copy of the original cross. Erected in 1865, it is situated a few hundred yards to the east of the original cross and it was designed by the architect E. M. Barry and carved by Thomas Earp of Lambeth out of Portland stone, Mansfield stone and Aberdeen granite. It is not a replica, being more ornate than the original. A variation on the name appears to be Charygcrouche, near St Martin in the Fields, since 1675 the site of the cross has been occupied by a statue of King Charles I mounted on a horse. The site is recognised by convention as the centre of London for the purpose of indicating distances by road in favour of other measurement points. Charing Cross is marked on maps as a road junction. Since 1 January 1931 this section of road has been designated part of the Whitehall thoroughfare, the cross has given its name to a railway station, a tube station, police station, hospital, a hotel, a theatre, and a music hall. Charing Cross Road the main route from the north was named after the railway station, at some time between 1232 and 1236, the Chapel and Hospital of St Mary Rounceval was founded at Charing. It occupied land at the corner of the modern Whitehall and into the centre of Northumberland Avenue and it was an Augustinian house, tied to a mother house at Roncesvalles in the Pyrenees. The house and lands were seized for the king in 1379, protracted legal action returned some rights to the prior, but in 1414, Henry V suppressed the alien houses
28.
Cannon Street
–
Cannon Street is a road in the City of London, the historic nucleus of London and its modern financial centre. It runs roughly parallel with the River Thames, about 250 metres north of it and it is the site of the ancient London Stone and gave its name to Cannon Street station, a mainline railway terminus and connected London Underground station. The area around Cannon Street was initially the place of residence of the candle-makers, the name first appears as Candelwrichstrete Street in 1190. The name was shortened over 60 times as a result of the cockney dialect and settled on Cannon Street in the 17th century. A Cannon Street in Birmingham, according to the archives of Birmingham Central Library, is named after the London street, in the west, Cannon Street starts at St. In the late 19th century Cannon Street was occupied by large wholesale warehouses, especially of cotton goods, the London Stone, from which it has been suggested distances were measured in Roman times, was originally situated in the middle of Cannon Street. It was later set into the wall of St. Swithins Church, the Roman governors palace Praetorium may also have been located in this area, between the principal street of Roman Londinium and the River Thames. The remains of a large high status building were found with a garden, water pools and several large halls. The plan of the building is partly preserved, but was erected in the second part of the 1st century and was in use until around 300, rebuilt. It is the street upon which singer Marc Almond suffered a fatal crash in 2004 whilst riding pillion on a motorcycle. Where Queen Street crosses Cannon Street there is a pedestrian-priority Central Plaza area and this was part of an award-winning public realm improvement scheme undertaken in 2006. Cannon Street formed part of the course of the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games. Cannon Street has eight pubs in and around the area which is one of the largest concentrations in the City of London, Cannon Street also appeared in scene VI of William Shakespeares Henry IV, Part 2. Cannon Street station is served by the District and Circle lines on the London Underground, the street is also the location of Mansion House tube station, also on the District and Circle lines. London Buses routes 15,17,521 and night route N15 serve Cannon Street, herbert Fry, Cannon Street, London in 1880, London, David Bogue
29.
Cornhill, London
–
Cornhill is a ward and street in the City of London, the historic nucleus and financial centre of modern London. The street runs between Bank junction and Leadenhall Street, the hill from which it takes its name is one of the three ancient hills of London, the others are Tower Hill, site of the Tower of London, and Ludgate Hill, crowned by St Pauls Cathedral. The highest point of Cornhill is at 17.7 metres above sea level, Cornhill is one of the traditional divisions of the City. At its other end it meets Threadneedle Street, Poultry, Lombard Street, the mechanism, a force pump driven by a water wheel under the northernmost arch of London Bridge, transferred water from the Thames through lead pipes to four outlets. The service was discontinued in 1603 and this became the mark from which many distances to and from London were measured and the name still appears on older mileposts. In 1652, Pasqua Rosée, possibly a native of Ragusa, Italy, opened Londons first coffeehouse, the publishers Smith, Elder and Co, based at No. 65, published the literary journal Cornhill Magazine from 1860 to 1975. The magazine was first edited by William Makepeace Thackeray, in Charles Dickens A Christmas Carol, Bob Cratchit slides down Cornhill 20 times in honour of it being Christmas Eve. Today, the street is associated with opticians and makers of optical apparatus such as microscopes and telescopes. A statue of the engineer James Henry Greathead was erected in 1994 in the road beside the Royal Exchange, underneath the modern pavement is the worlds first underground public toilet, which opened in 1855. Users were charged a fee of 1d, reputedly giving rise to the saying to spend a penny. Cornhill formed part of the course of the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games. The womens Olympic marathon took place on 5 August and the mens Olympic marathon on 12 August, the four Paralympic marathons were held on 9 September. The postcode for the street is EC3V, Cornhill is one of 25 wards in the City of London, and each elects an Alderman to the Court of Aldermen, and Commoners to the Court of Common Council of the City of London Corporation. Only electors who are Freeman of the City of London are eligible to stand, the current Alderman is Robert Howard and the current Members of Common Council are Reverend Stephen Haines, Peter Dunphy and Ian Seaton. Cornhill Ward The Official Ward Website City of London Corporation Map of Cornhill ward The English coffee houses Cornhill, after a London map of 1750
30.
Lewes
–
Lewes /ˈluːᵻs/ is the county town of the administrative county of East Sussex, in England, and historically all of Sussex. It is a parish and is the centre of the Lewes local government district. The settlement has a history as a point and as a market town. The town was the site of the Battle of Lewes in 1264, the town has landmarks including Lewes Castle and a 15th-century bookshop. At the 2001 census it had a population of 15,988, Archaeological evidence points to prehistoric dwellers in the area. Scholars think that the Roman settlement of Mutuantonis was here, as quantities of artefacts have been discovered in the area, the Saxons built a castle, having first constructed its motte as a defensive point over the river, they gave the town its name. After the Norman invasion, William the Conqueror rewarded William de Warenne, 1st Earl of Surrey, with the Rape of Lewes, a swathe of land along the River Ouse from the coast to the Surrey boundary. He built Lewes Castle on the Saxon site, and he and his wife, Gundred also founded the Priory of St Pancras, Lewes was the site of a mint during the Late Anglo-Saxon period and thereafter a mint during the early years after the Norman invasion. In 1148 the town was granted a charter by King Stephen, the town became a port with docks along the Ouse River. The town was the site of the Battle of Lewes between the forces of Henry III and Simon de Montfort in the Second Barons War in 1264, the battle took place in fields now just west of Landport. At the time of the Marian Persecutions of 1555–1557, Lewes was the site of the execution of seventeen Protestant martyrs and this structure is now the Town Hall. A memorial to the martyrs was unveiled on Cliffe Hill in 1901, through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Lewes developed as the county town of East Sussex, expanding beyond the line of the town wall. It was a port and developed related iron, brewing. In 1846 the town became a junction, with lines constructed from the north, south. The development of Newhaven ended Lewess period as a major port, during the Crimean War, some 300 Finns serving in the Russian army captured at Bomarsund were imprisoned at Lewes. Lewes became a borough in 1881, the name Lewes is also the name of the parliamentary constituency and the local district council as well as Lewes Town Council. Lewes is also where the East Sussex County Council has its main offices, Lewes District Council is administered from offices in Southover House on Southover Road. Lewes Town Council is based in the Town Hall on Lewes High Street, for many years, Lewes was dominated by the Conservatives, both at local and national levels
31.
Rebus
–
A rebus is an allusional device that uses pictures to represent words or parts of words. It was a form of heraldic expression used in the Middle Ages to denote surnames. For example, in its form, three salmon are used to denote the surname Salmon. A more sophisticated example was the rebus of Bishop Walter Lyhart of Norwich, Rebuses are used extensively as a form of heraldic expression as a hint to the name of the bearer, they are not synonymous with canting arms. A man might have a rebus as an identification device entirely separate from his armorials. An example of canting arms proper are those of the Borough of Congleton in Cheshire consisting of an eel, a lion. This word sequence conger-leo-tun enunciates the towns name, similarly, the coat of arms of St. Ignatius Loyola contains wolves and a kettle, said by some to be a rebus for Loyola. The arms of Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon feature bows and lions, a modern example of the rebus used as a form of word play is, H + = Hear, or Here. By extension, it uses the positioning of words or parts of words in relation to each other to convey a hidden meaning, for example, p walk ark. A rebus made up solely of letters is known as a gramogram, grammagram, the term rebus also refers to the use of a pictogram to represent a syllabic sound. A precursor to the development of the alphabet, this process one of the most important developments of writing. Fully developed hieroglyphs read in rebus fashion were in use at Abydos in Egypt as early as 3400 BCE, the writing of correspondence in rebus form became popular in the 18th century and continued into the 19th century. Lewis Carroll wrote the children he befriended picture-puzzle rebus letters, nonsense letters, and looking-glass letters, Rebus letters served either as a sort of code or simply as a pastime. In linguistics, the principle is the use of existing symbols, such as pictograms, purely for their sounds regardless of their meaning. Many ancient writing systems used the principle to represent abstract words. An example that illustrates the Rebus principle is the representation of the sentence I can see you by using the pictographs of eye—can—sea—ewe, some linguists believe that the Chinese developed their writing system according to the rebus principle, and Egyptian hieroglyphs sometimes used a similar system. A famous rebus statue of Ramses II uses three hieroglyphs to compose his name, Horus, for Ra, the child, mes, and the plant, su. Canada 1980s childrens game show Kidstreet featured a rebus during the bonus round, united Kingdom Catchphrase was a long-running game show which required contestants to decipher a rebus
32.
Woodcut map of London
–
The Woodcut map of London, formally titled Civitas Londinum, and often referred to as the Agas map of London, is one of the earliest true maps of the City of London and its environs. The original map probably dated from the early 1560s, but it only in later. It was printed from woodcut blocks on eight sheets, and in its present state measures approximately 2 feet 4 inches high by 6 feet wide. The Woodcut map is a slightly smaller-scale, cruder and lightly modified copy of the so-called Copperplate map, the Woodcut map was traditionally attributed to the surveyor and cartographer Ralph Agas, but this attribution is no longer upheld. Three impressions of the Woodcut map survive in its earliest known state of c.1633 and they are held in London Metropolitan Archives, the Pepys Library at Magdalene College, Cambridge, and The National Archives at Kew. The three early copies of the map are dated by an inscription to c.1633, however, it is evident that the map in this form has been updated from an earlier state. Similarly, the Royal Exchange appears on the map, but is clearly an insertion. The Woodcut map is now dated with a reasonable degree of probability to the 1560s. A reference in the Stationers Register for 1562–3 to the Carde of London may possibly refer to it. It is therefore closer to a view of the City, seen from an imaginary viewpoint above the south bank of the Thames. Stephen Powys Marks suggests that this adjustment may be an indication of an appeal to a sophisticated public than that which would buy the fine copper engraving. The Woodcut map was traditionally attributed to the surveyor and cartographer Ralph Agas and this attribution has its roots in a claim made by Agas in 1588 to the effect that for ten years past he had been hoping to undertake a survey of London. Nevertheless, the map is often referred to as the Agas map. Reproductions of the map have been published on several occasions in modern times, an edition based on the pewter copy was published by Taperell & Innes in 1849. A facsimile of the Woodcut map was published in 1874, with an introduction by W. H. Overall. A zoomable online digitised version is published by British History Online, the Map of Mid Sixteenth Century London. Prockter, Adrian, Taylor, Robert, Fisher, John, the A to Z of Elizabethan London. Tudor London, a map and a view, Map of Early Modern London, The Agas Map
33.
Saxons
–
The Saxons were a group of Germanic tribes first mentioned as living near the North Sea coast of what is now Germany, in the late Roman empire. They were soon mentioned as raiding and settling in many North Sea areas, as well as pushing south inland towards the Franks. Significant numbers settled in parts of Great Britain in the early Middle Ages. Many Saxons however remained in Germania, where they resisted the expanding Frankish Empire through the leadership of the semi-legendary Saxon hero, the Saxons earliest area of settlement is believed to have been Northern Albingia, an area approximately that of modern Holstein. This general area also included the probable homeland of the Angles, Saxons, along with the Angles and other continental Germanic tribes, participated in the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain during and after the 5th century. The British-Celtic inhabitants of the isles tended to refer to all of these collectively as Saxons. It is unknown how many Saxons migrated from the Continent to Britain, the Saxons may have derived their name from seax, a kind of knife for which they were known. The seax has a symbolic impact in the English counties of Essex and Middlesex. Their names, along with those of Sussex and Wessex, contain a remnant of the word Saxon. The Elizabethan era play Edmund Ironside suggests the Saxon name derives from the Latin saxa, Their names discover what their natures are, More hard than stones, in the Celtic languages, the words designating English nationality derive from the Latin word Saxones. The most prominent example, a loanword in English, is the Scottish Gaelic Sassenach and it derives from the Scottish Gaelic Sasunnach meaning, originally, Saxon, from the Latin Saxones. Scots- or Scottish English-speakers in the 21st century usually use it as a term for an English person. The Oxford English Dictionary gives 1771 as the date of the earliest written use of the word in English. Sasanach, the Irish word for an Englishman, has the same derivation, as do the words used in Welsh to describe the English people, Cornish terms the English Sawsnek, from the same derivation. In the 16th century Cornish-speakers used the phrase Meea navidna cowza sawzneck to feign ignorance of the English language, England in Scottish Gaelic is Sasainn. Other examples include the Welsh Saesneg, Irish Sasana, Breton saoz, and Cornish Sowson, Sowsnek, the label Saxons was also applied to German settlers who migrated during the 13th century to southeastern Transylvania. From Transylvania, some Saxons migrated to neighbouring Moldavia, as the name of the town, Sas-cut, sascut is located in the part of Moldavia that is today part of Romania. The Finns and Estonians have changed their usage of the term Saxony over the centuries to denote now the country of Germany
34.
Tornado
–
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that spins while in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour, are about 250 feet across, the most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour, are more than two miles in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles. Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout, waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water and these spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes. Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, downbursts are frequently confused with tornadoes, though their action is dissimilar. Tornadoes have been observed and documented on every continent except Antarctica, however, the vast majority of tornadoes occur in the Tornado Alley region of the United States, although they can occur nearly anywhere in North America. There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes, the Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, an F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes, Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating. The word tornado is a form of the Spanish word tronada. This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning to thunder and it most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar, however, this may be a folk etymology. A tornado is also referred to as a twister, and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone. The term cyclone is used as a synonym for tornado in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz, the term twister is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister. A tornado is a rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud. For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a definition of the word, for example. Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud and this results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel. There is some disagreement over the definition of cloud and condensation funnel
35.
John Stow
–
John Stow was an English historian and antiquarian, best known for his Survey of London. John Stow was born in about 1525 in the City parish of St Michael, Cornhill and his father, Thomas Stow, was a tallow chandler. In about 1560 he started upon his work, the Survey of London. An inventory was made of all the books at his home, especially those in defence of papistry, a second attempt to incriminate him was made in 1570 also without success. In about 1570 he moved to the parish of St Andrew Undershaft in the Ward of Lime Street and this was followed in 1565 by his Summarie of Englyshe Chronicles which was reprinted several times, with slight variations, during his lifetime. Grenvilles Library is believed to have had a first-edition of Stows Summarie, Stows 1567 edition makes mention in its frontispiece of a rival publication by Richard Grafton, a dispute which later magnified. Editions amended by Edmund Howes appeared in 1615 and 1631, in the Chronicle of England 1590 Stow writes, To The Honorable Sir John Hart, Lord Maior. At the request of Archbishop Parker he compiled a farre larger volume, a history of Britain, but circumstances were unfavourable to its publication and the manuscript was lost. Additions to the published works of Chaucer were twice made through Stows own painful labours in the edition of 1561, referred to above. A number of Stows manuscripts are in the Harley Collection in the British Library and he published a second revised edition in 1603. The edition of 1598 was reprinted, edited by William John Thoms, in 1842, in 1846, an edition based on that of 1598, edited by Henry Morley, was published in 1889, and has been reprinted on several occasions since. A critical edition, based on that of 1603 and edited in two volumes by C. L. Kingsford, was published in 1908, and republished with additional notes in 1927 and this remains the standard scholarly edition. A more popular single-volume edition was published in Everymans Library, with an introduction by H. B, wheatley, in 1912, and has been frequently reprinted. Whilst such royal approval was welcome it reaped dividend too slowly for Stow to enjoy any substantial benefit during his lifetime, Stow died on 5 April 1605, and was buried in the Church of St Andrew Undershaft on the corner of Leadenhall Street and St. Mary Axe. Stows widow commissioned a monument to him in the church, made of Derbyshire marble. The work has been attributed to Nicholas Johnson. It includes an effigy of Stow, which was coloured, he is represented seated at a desk, writing in a book. Above him is the motto, based on a phrase of Pliny the Younger, Aut scribenda agere, in acknowledgement of Stows continuing reputation as the founding father of London history, the quill held by his effigy has been periodically renewed
36.
Crown steeple
–
A crown steeple, or crown spire, is a traditional form of church steeple in which curved stone flying buttresses form the open shape of a rounded crown. It appeared in medieval architecture in England and Scotland. The crown steeple on Newcastle Cathedral, in Newcastle upon Tyne, was erected in 1448 and is possibly the earliest example of form of steeple. The crown spire of St. Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh, was erected in 1495, another medieval crown steeple was built at Kings College, Aberdeen, although this too was rebuilt in the 17th century, after the original blew down. The crown steeple of the Tolbooth Steeple, in Glasgows Merchant City, was built in 1626-1634 by John Boyd, in 1698, Sir Christopher Wren added a tower with a crown steeple to St Dunstan-in-the-East, London. Crown steeples were often incorporated into Gothic Revival churches, the open spire of Faversham Parish Church, Kent was built in 1797, and a crown steeple was added to Tillington Parish Church, Susssex, in 1807. Others include those at Tarbert, Argyll and Bute, and the Kelvin Stevenson Memorial Church, Glasgow, a secular example tops the Wallace Monument, near Stirling, erected in 1869 to a design by the architect John Thomas Rochead. The north facade of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, is a hybrid of gothic and classical architectural forms and this part of the building was designed by Aston Webb, and completed in 1909. One of the most recent examples is at St. Michaels Parish Church, Linlithgow, where an aluminium crown spire was added in 1964. A crown steeple was proposed for the top of Westminster Abbey, scheduled to be completed in 2013, however, this project has now been discontinued
37.
Caen stone
–
Caen stone or Pierre de Caen, is a light creamy-yellow Jurassic limestone quarried in north-western France near the city of Caen. The limestone is a fine grained oolitic limestone formed in shallow lagoons in the Bathonian Age about 167 million years ago. The stone is homogeneous, and therefore suitable for carving, the stone was first used for building in the Gallo-Roman period with production from open cast quarries restarting in the 11th century. Shipped to England, Canterbury Cathedral, Westminster Abbey and the Tower of London were all built from Caen stone. Underground mining developed in the 19th century, but the trade declined in the 20th century eventually ceasing in the 1960s. Excavation restarted in the 1980s with the stone being used for building the Caen Memorial, a 2004 decree by Caen City council authorised the annual quarrying of 9000 tonnes of stone. The Norman Romanesque Church of La Trinité, at the Abbaye-aux-Dames, was founded by Williams wife, used by the Normans for the cathedral and castle in Norwich, where it was brought by boat up the River Wensum. Caen stone was used extensively in Canterbury cathedral. It was used by Henry I of England at Reading Abbey, perhaps the most famous building in Caen stone built in Norman times is the Tower of London. Caen stone continued to be a material in Britain after the Norman period. For example, it was used for parts of the 19th century clock tower at the Palace of Westminster, Caen stone has also been exported to the USA, Bermuda and recently Saudi Arabia. The narthex screen on the east wall of the sanctuary at Old South Church in Boston, List of types of limestone Geology of Normandy List of buildings which have used Caen Stone Notes
38.
Roof lantern
–
A roof lantern is a daylighting cupola architectural element. Architectural lanterns are atop a roof and provide natural light into the space or room below. In contemporary use it is an architectural skylight structure, the term roof top lantern is used to describe the lighted decorative lanterns atop taxi cabs in Japan, designed to reflect the cultural heritage of Japanese paper lanterns. The glazed lantern was developed during the Middle Ages, roof lanterns of masonry and glass were used in Renaissance architecture, such as in principal cathedrals. Post-Renaissance roof lanterns were made of timber and glass and were prone to leaking. “Initially wood-framed in the 18th and 19th centuries, skylights became even more popular in construction with the advent of sheet-metal shops during the Victorian era. Virtually every urban row house of the late-19th and early-20th centuries relied upon a skylight to illuminate its enclosed stairwell. Typically, roof lanterns are constructed using wood, UPVC or aluminium and they serve as an architectural feature, distinguished from commercial manufactured skylights by their custom design, providing unique views to the outdoors. Traditional architectural styles characterise most roof lanterns in the UK, in the U. S. where the term custom skylight is often used, modern styles of roof lanterns are also common in the building vernacular. Daylighting Passive daylighting Cupola Conservatory Britannica Online Encyclopedia, Lantern
39.
Palace of Westminster
–
The Palace of Westminster is the meeting place of the House of Commons and the House of Lords, the two houses of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Commonly known as the Houses of Parliament after its occupants, the Palace lies on the bank of the River Thames in the City of Westminster. The palace is owned by the monarch in right of the Crown and for ceremonial purposes, the building is managed by committees appointed by both houses, which report to the Speaker of the House of Commons and the Lord Speaker. The first royal palace was built on the site in the 11th century, part of the New Palaces area of 3.24 hectares was reclaimed from the Thames, which is the setting of its nearly 300-metre long façade, called the River Front. Barry was assisted by Augustus Pugin, an authority on Gothic architecture and style. The Palace is one of the centres of political life in the United Kingdom, Westminster has become a metonym for the UK Parliament, the Palace of Westminster has been a Grade I listed building since 1970 and part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1987. The Palace of Westminster site was important during the Middle Ages. Known in medieval times as Thorney Island, the site may have been first-used for a residence by Canute the Great during his reign from 1016 to 1035. St Edward the Confessor, the penultimate Anglo-Saxon monarch of England, Thorney Island and the surrounding area soon became known as Westminster. Neither the buildings used by the Anglo-Saxons nor those used by William I survive, the oldest existing part of the Palace dates from the reign of William Is successor, King William II. The Palace of Westminster was the principal residence in the late Medieval period. The predecessor of Parliament, the Curia Regis, met in Westminster Hall, simon de Montforts parliament, the first to include representatives of the major towns, met at the Palace in 1265. The Model Parliament, the first official Parliament of England, met there in 1295, in 1512, during the early years of the reign of King Henry VIII, fire destroyed the royal residential area of the palace. In 1534, Henry VIII acquired York Place from Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, renaming it the Palace of Whitehall, Henry used it as his principal residence. Although Westminster officially remained a royal palace, it was used by the two Houses of Parliament and by the various law courts. Because it was originally a residence, the Palace included no purpose-built chambers for the two Houses. Important state ceremonies were held in the Painted Chamber which had originally built in the 13th century as the main bedchamber for King Henry III. The House of Commons, which did not have a chamber of its own, the Commons acquired a permanent home at the Palace in St Stephens Chapel, the former chapel of the royal palace, during the reign of Edward VI
40.
Augustus Pugin
–
Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin was an English architect, designer, artist, and critic who is principally remembered for his pioneering role in the Gothic Revival style of architecture. His work culminated in designing the interior of the Palace of Westminster in Westminster, London, Pugin designed many churches in England and some in Ireland and Australia. He was the son of Auguste Pugin, and the father of Edward Welby and Peter Paul Pugin, Augustus was born at his parents house in Bloomsbury, London, England. As a child, his mother took Pugin each Sunday to the services of the fashionable Scottish Presbyterian preacher Edward Irving, at his chapel in Cross Street, Hatton Garden, Camden, London, Pugin learned drawing from his father, and for a while attended Christs Hospital. After leaving school he worked in his fathers office, and in 1825 and 1827 accompanied him on visits to France, in 1831, at the age of 19, Pugin married the first of his three wives, Anne Garnet. Anne died a few months later in childbirth, leaving him a daughter and he had a further six children, including the architect Edward Welby Pugin, with his second wife, Louisa Button, who died in 1844. His third wife, Jane Knill, kept a journal of their life, from their marriage in 1848 to Pugins death. Their son was Peter Paul Pugin, following his second marriage in 1833, Pugin moved to Salisbury, Wilshire, England with his wife, and in 1835 bought half an acre of land in Alderbury, circa one and a half miles outside the town. On this he built a Gothic Revival style house for his family, of it, Charles Locke Eastlake said he had not yet learned the art of combining a picturesque exterior with the ordinary comforts of an English home. In 1834, Pugin converted to the Roman Catholic Church and was received into it the following year, a number of reforms in the early 19th century relieved these restrictions, the most important of which was the Roman Catholic Relief Act of 1829, which specifically abolished the restrictions. After 1829 it became, at least theoretically, possible for Roman Catholics to have a successful career, however, his conversion also acquainted him with new patrons and employers. Shrewsbury commissioned him to build St, in 1836, Pugin published Contrasts, a polemical book which argued for the revival of the medieval Gothic style, and also a return to the faith and the social structures of the Middle Ages. Each plate in the book selected a type of urban building, each structure was the built expression of a particular view of humanity, Christianity versus Utilitarianism. Pugins biographer, Rosemary Hill, wrote, The drawings were all calculatedly unfair, but the cumulative rhetorical force was tremendous. In 1841 he published his illustrated The True Principles of Pointed or Christian Architecture and he conceived of Christian architecture as synonymous with medieval, Gothic, or pointed, architecture. In the work he wrote that contemporary craftsmen seeking to emulate the style of medieval workmanship should reproduce its methods. In 1841 he left Salisbury, having found it an inconvenient base for his architectural practice. He sold St. Maries Grange at a financial loss
41.
Royal Peculiar
–
A Royal Peculiar is a Church of England parish or church exempt from the jurisdiction of the diocese in which it lies and subject to the direct jurisdiction of the monarch. A peculiar is applied to those districts, parishes, chapels or churches that are outside the jurisdiction of the bishop. They include the separate or peculiar jurisdiction of the monarch, another archbishop, bishop or the dean, an Archbishops Peculiar is subject to the direct jurisdiction of an archbishop and a Royal Peculiar is subject to the direct jurisdiction of the monarch. The concept dates from Anglo-Saxon times, later, it reflected the relationship between the Norman and Plantagenet kings and the English Church. The majority of Royal Peculiars that remain are situated within the Diocese of London, London The Collegiate Church of St Peter, Westminster commonly known as Westminster Abbey, and containing the Henry VII Chapel which is the chapel of the Order of the Bath. It is the chapel of The Royal Victorian Order, the Chapel of St Mary Undercroft, the crypt of the former St Stephens Chapel in the Palace of Westminster. In 2010 the Speaker of the House of Commons used his right of appointment to nominate an outsider, the Royal Foundation of St Katharine founded in 1147 by Queen Matilda of England as a religious community and medieval hospital for poor infirm people next to the Tower of London. Edinburgh Chapel Royal, Holyrood Palace Cambridge The Church of St. Edward, King and Martyr, Cambridge Windsor St Georges Chapel, Windsor Castle, moores Introduction to English Canon Law, Fourth Edition. Denton, Jeffrey H. English Royal Free Chapels, 1100-1300, the Oxford Companion to Family History. Hoskin, Philippa, Brooke, Christopher, Dobson, Barrie, the Foundations of Medieval English Ecclesiastical History, Studies Presented to David Smith. Deanery of Westminster - extra-parochial places Report of Review Group on the Royal Peculiars 2001 The British Monarchy – Royal Victorian Order Listing and description from Anglicans Online
42.
Diocese of Canterbury
–
The Diocese of Canterbury is a Church of England diocese covering eastern Kent which was founded by St. Augustine of Canterbury in 597. The diocese is centred on Canterbury Cathedral and is the oldest see of the Church of England, the diocesan bishop is the Archbishop of Canterbury, presently Justin Welby. Therefore, one of his bishops, the Bishop of Dover, is in many ways empowered to act almost as if he were the diocesan bishop. There was, until 2009, another bishop, the Bishop of Maidstone. Two further suffragans whose sees are located in the diocese – Ebbsfleet, besides the Archbishop and the Bishop of Dover, several other men are licensed as bishops in the diocese. Alternative episcopal oversight is provided by the provincial episcopal visitor, the Bishop suffragan of Richborough, unlike most in dioceses, Banks does not need to be licensed as an honorary assistant bishop since he is a suffragan in the diocese. There are four honorary assistant bishops licensed in the diocese, 2000–present, Michael Gear, retired former Bishop suffragan of Doncaster, 2003–present, A retired former Bishop of Durham and Bishop of Rochester, Michael Turnbull, lives in Sandwich. John Wallis Academy — school in Ashford sponsored by the diocese Official website Church of England Statistics 2002
43.
Arches Court
–
The Arches Court, presided over by the Dean of Arches, is an ecclesiastical court of the Church of England covering the Province of Canterbury. Its equivalent in the Province of York is the Chancery Court, the Court of Arches is the provincial court for Canterbury. It has both appellate and original jurisdiction and it is presided over by the Dean of the Arches, who is styled The Right Honourable and Right Worshipful the Official Principal and Dean of the Arches. The dean must be a barrister of ten years High Court standing or the holder or former holder of high judicial office, the appointment is made by the two archbishops jointly. At various times the court has sat in the church of St Mary-le-Bow, later it was held in Doctors Commons and also at 1 The Sanctuary, Westminster and St Pauls Cathedral. Its permanent home remains St Mary le Bow, where regular sittings include those to confirm the election of each new diocesan bishop in the province, the Provincial Registry is at 16 Beaumont Street, Oxford OX1 2LZ. The proper jurisdiction of the court is only the 13 peculiar parishes belonging to the archbishop in London. Many original suits are heard, where lesser courts waive jurisdiction by letters of request. Appeal lies with the Privy Council, except on matters of doctrine, ritual or ceremony, there may also be a Deputy Dean. Such appointees will have had experience and be diocesan chancellors. Since 1991 there have been two diocesan chancellors appointed by the dean, all these are assistant provincial court judges. Original jurisdiction was exercised by a separate provincial court, known as the Court of Audience. The Provincial Registrar of Canterbury is appointed by the archbishop, after consultation with the Standing Committee of the General Synod, there may be a deputy provincial registrar. The provincial registrar acts as advisor to the archbishop, the registrar of the provincial court. Archives of the Court of Arches at Lambeth Palace Library
