1.
World Heritage Site
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A World Heritage Site is a landmark which has been officially recognized by the United Nations, specifically by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Sites are selected on the basis of having cultural, historical, scientific or some form of significance. UNESCO regards these sites as being important to the interests of humanity. The programme catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common culture, under certain conditions, listed sites can obtain funds from the World Heritage Fund. The program was founded with the Convention Concerning the Protection of the Worlds Cultural and Natural Heritage, since then,192 state parties have ratified the convention, making it one of the most adhered to international instruments. As of July 2016,1052 sites are listed,814 cultural,203 natural, in 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested UNESCO to assist their countries to protect and rescue the endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched an appeal to the Member States for an International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, the campaign, which ended in 1980, was considered a success. The project cost $80 million, about $40 million of which was collected from 50 countries, the projects success led to other safeguarding campaigns, saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. UNESCO then initiated, with the International Council on Monuments and Sites, the United States initiated the idea of cultural conservation with nature conservation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, the Convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of June 2016, it has been ratified by 192 states, including 188 UN member states plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue, a country must first list its significant cultural and natural sites, the result is called the Tentative List. A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on the Tentative List, next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File. The Nomination File is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and these bodies then make their recommendations to the World Heritage Committee. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one of them to be included on the list, up to 2004, there were six criteria for cultural heritage and four criteria for natural heritage. In 2005, this was modified so there is now only one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of outstanding value and meet at least one of the ten criteria. Thus, the Geneva Convention treaty promulgates, Article 53, PROTECTION OF CULTURAL OBJECTS AND OF PLACES OF WORSHIP. There are 1,052 World Heritage Sites located in 165 States Party, of these,814 are cultural,203 are natural and 35 are mixed properties
2.
Wittenberg
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Wittenberg, officially Lutherstadt Wittenberg, is a town in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. Situated on the river Elbe, it has a population of about 50,000. Part of the Augustinian monastery in which Luther dwelt, first as a monk and later as owner with his wife, various Luther and Melanchthon memorial sites were added to the UNESCO world heritage list in 1996. Historical documents first mention the settlement in 1180 as a village founded by Flemish colonists under the rule of the House of Ascania. In 1260 this village became the residence of the dukes of Saxe-Wittenberg, Wittenberg developed into an important trade centre during the following several centuries, because of its central location. When the local branch of the Ascanians died out in 1422, several parts of boundaries of the town were extended soon afterward. The second bridge over the Elbe River was built from 1486 through 1490, the Electors palace was rebuilt at the same time. In 1760, during the Seven Years War, the Austrians bombarded the Prussian-occupied town, the French took control in 1806, and Napoleon commanded the refortification of the town in 1813. In 1814 the Prussian Army under Tauentzien stormed Wittenberg, he received the title of von Wittenberg as a reward, in 1815 Wittenberg became part of Prussia, administered within the Province of Saxony. Wittenberg continued to be a fortress of the class until the reorganisation of German defences after the foundation of the new German Empire led to its dismantling in 1873. Unlike many other historic German cities during World War II, Wittenbergs town centre was spared destruction during the conflict. In actuality, the Luther statue was not even present in the square during much of the war, but in storage at Luther Brunnen. Wittenbergs reputation as a town protected from Allied bombing is also not entirely historically accurate, on the outskirts of Wittenberg stood the Arado Flugzeugwerke, which produced components of airplanes for the Luftwaffe. This factory was staffed by Jews, Russians, Poles, political prisoners, despite the prisoner status of its workers, American and British planes bombed the factory near the end of the war, killing one thousand prisoner workers. The 1995 publication of. und morgen war Krieg. by Renate Gruber-Lieblich attempts to document this tragic bombing of Wittenberg, at the end of the war, Soviet forces occupied Wittenberg, it became part of East Germany in 1949. During the East German period, it formed part of Halle District, by means of the peaceful revolution in 1989, the communist régime dissolved and the town has been governed democratically since 1990. The figures are given for the district at the point in time. Up to 1791 the figures are estimated, later figures are from census or local authorities
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
Martin Luther
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Martin Luther, O. S. A. was a German professor of theology, composer, priest, monk and a seminal figure in the Protestant Reformation. Luther came to reject several teachings and practices of the Roman Catholic Church and he strongly disputed the Catholic view on indulgences as he understood it to be, that freedom from Gods punishment for sin could be purchased with money. Luther proposed a discussion of the practice and efficacy of indulgences in his Ninety-five Theses of 1517. His translation of the Bible into the vernacular made it accessible to the laity. It fostered the development of a version of the German language, added several principles to the art of translation, and influenced the writing of an English translation. His hymns influenced the development of singing in Protestant churches and his marriage to Katharina von Bora, a former nun, set a model for the practice of clerical marriage, allowing Protestant clergy to marry. In two of his works, Luther expressed antagonistic views towards Jews, writing that Jewish homes and synagogues should be destroyed, their money confiscated. Condemned by virtually every Lutheran denomination, these statements and their influence on antisemitism have contributed to his controversial status, Martin Luther was born to Hans Luder and his wife Margarethe on 10 November 1483 in Eisleben, Saxony, then part of the Holy Roman Empire. He was baptized as a Catholic the next morning on the feast day of St. Martin of Tours and his family moved to Mansfeld in 1484, where his father was a leaseholder of copper mines and smelters and served as one of four citizen representatives on the local council. He had several brothers and sisters, and is known to have close to one of them. Hans Luther was ambitious for himself and his family, and he was determined to see Martin, his eldest son, become a lawyer. He sent Martin to Latin schools in Mansfeld, then Magdeburg in 1497, where he attended a school operated by a lay group called the Brethren of the Common Life, the three schools focused on the so-called trivium, grammar, rhetoric, and logic. Luther later compared his education there to purgatory and hell, in 1501, at the age of 19, he entered the University of Erfurt, which he later described as a beerhouse and whorehouse. He was made to wake at four every morning for what has been described as a day of rote learning and he received his masters degree in 1505. In accordance with his fathers wishes, Luther enrolled in law school at the university that year but dropped out almost immediately. Luther sought assurances about life and was drawn to theology and philosophy, expressing particular interest in Aristotle, William of Ockham, philosophy proved to be unsatisfying, offering assurance about the use of reason but none about loving God, which to Luther was more important. Reason could not lead men to God, he felt, for Luther, reason could be used to question men and institutions, but not God. Human beings could learn about God only through divine revelation, he believed and he later attributed his decision to an event, on 2 July 1505, he was returning to university on horseback after a trip home
5.
Johannes Bugenhagen
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Johannes Bugenhagen, also called Doctor Pomeranus by Martin Luther, introduced the Protestant Reformation in the Duchy of Pomerania and Denmark in the 16th century. Among his major accomplishments was organization of Lutheran churches in Northern Germany and he has also been called the second Apostle of the North. Johannes Bugenhagen was pastor to Martin Luther at St. Marys church in Wittenberg and he is also commemorated in the Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod as a pastor on 20 April. Bugenhagen was born in Wollin, Duchy of Pomerania, on 24 June 1485 as one of three children of local Ratsherr Gerhard Bugenhagen, from 1502 to 1504, he studied artes at the University of Greifswald. In 1504, he moved to Treptow an der Rega and became Rector of the local school. Though he had not studied theology, he was ordained as a priest in Treptows St. Marys Church in 1509, and served as a vicar at the Kanonikerkolleg of that church thereafter. In 1517, abbot Johann Boldewan called Bugenhagen to his nearby Belbuck Abbey, where he was appointed Biblical lecturer, duke Bogislav X of Pomerania ordered Bugenhagen to write down the history of Pomerania in Latin. The year 1518 is the beginning of writing of the combined territory Pomerania. Bugenhagen first encountered the theology of Luther in the reformers Prelude on the Babylonian Captivity of the Church in 1520, at first he did not like Luthers thoughts at all. However, once he had studied it more, Bugenhagen became a supporter of the Reformation, in Wittenberg, Bugenhagen was elected parish pastor on October 25,1523, making him Martin Luthers pastor and confessor. He was a member of Luthers team translating the Holy Bible from Greek and Hebrew to German, by 1523, his private lectures had become well known, so he was called to lecture the following years at the Leucorea, the university in Wittenberg. On 17 March 1533, he was promoted doctor of theology at the university of Wittenberg, together with Johannes Aepinus and Kaspar Cruciger. The promotion was supervised by Martin Luther, based on Philipp Melanchthons theses, financed and attended by Frederick III, Elector of Saxony, with the ceremony in Wittenbergs castle church, Aepinus, Bugenhagen and Cruciger became the first three Protestant doctors of theology. After he had outlined his ideas in a letter to the Hamburg community, Bugenhagen was the most important figure in the Protestant Reformation in Northern Germany. This earned him later the epithet second Apostle of the North, not only did he create the new rules, he also established them and convinced people to follow them. Bugenhagen produced rules and regulations for religious service, for schooling, in 1539, he became superintendent of the Lutheran Church in Saxony. Also in 1539, Bugenhagen reformed the Pomeranian University of Greifswald, after the death of Luther in 1546, Bugenhagen took care of Luthers widow and children. Bugenhagen died in Wittenberg in 1558 and was buried at St. Marys church, other than for his theological opinions, Bugenhagen was also well-known because of his organising ability
6.
Reformation
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The period is usually considered to have begun with the publication of the Ninety-five Theses by Luther in 1517 to the Thirty Years War and ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The Protestant position, however, would come to incorporate doctrinal changes such as sola scriptura, the initial movement within Germany diversified, and other reform impulses arose independently of Luther. The spread of Gutenbergs printing press provided the means for the dissemination of religious materials in the vernacular. The largest groups were the Lutherans and Calvinists, Lutheran churches were founded mostly in Germany, the Baltics and Scandinavia, while the Reformed ones were founded in Switzerland, Hungary, France, the Netherlands and Scotland. The new movement influenced the Church of England decisively after 1547 under Edward VI and Elizabeth I, there were also reformation movements throughout continental Europe known as the Radical Reformation, which gave rise to the Anabaptist, Moravian and other Pietistic movements. The Roman Catholic Church responded with a Counter-Reformation initiated by the Council of Trent, much work in battling Protestantism was done by the well-organised new order of the Jesuits. In general, Northern Europe, with the exception of most of Ireland, southern Europe remained Roman Catholic, while Central Europe was a site of a fierce conflict, culminating in the Thirty Years War, which left it devastated. The oldest Protestant churches, such as the Unitas Fratrum and Moravian Church, the later Protestant Churches generally date their doctrinal separation from the Roman Catholic Church to the 16th century. The Reformation began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church, by priests who opposed what they perceived as false doctrines and ecclesiastic malpractice. They especially objected to the teaching and the sale of indulgences, and the abuses thereof, and to simony, the reformers saw these practices as evidence of the systemic corruption of the Churchs hierarchy, which included the pope. Unrest due to the Great Schism of Western Christianity excited wars between princes, uprisings among the peasants, and widespread concern over corruption in the Church, New perspectives came from John Wycliffe at Oxford University and from Jan Hus at the Charles University in Prague. Hus rejected indulgences and adopted a doctrine of justification by grace through faith alone, the Roman Catholic Church officially concluded this debate at the Council of Constance by condemning Hus, who was executed by burning despite a promise of safe-conduct. Wycliffe was posthumously condemned as a heretic and his corpse exhumed and burned in 1428, the Council of Constance confirmed and strengthened the traditional medieval conception of church and empire. The council did not address the national tensions or the theological tensions stirred up during the century and could not prevent schism. Pope Sixtus IV established the practice of selling indulgences to be applied to the dead, Pope Alexander VI was one of the most controversial of the Renaissance popes. He was the father of seven children, including Lucrezia and Cesare Borgia, in response to papal corruption, particularly the sale of indulgences, Luther wrote The Ninety-Five Theses. The Reformation was born of Luthers dual declaration – first, the discovering of Jesus and salvation by faith alone, the Protestant reformers were unanimous in agreement and this understanding of prophecy furnished importance to their deeds. It was the point and the battle cry that made the Reformation nearly unassailable
7.
All Saints' Church, Wittenberg
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It is the site where the Ninety-five Theses were likely posted by Martin Luther in 1517, the act that has been called the start of the Protestant Reformation. From 1883 onwards, the church was restored as a memorial site, a first chapel dedicated All Saints was erected at the new residence of the Ascanian duke Rudolf I of Saxe-Wittenberg from about 1340. Consecrated on 6 May 1346, Rudolf subordinated his foundation to the jurisdiction of the Holy See. With further donations made by his successor Duke Rudolf II, it was determined the Wittenberg main church by Pope Boniface IX in 1400, consecrated on 17 January 1503, it became part of Fredericks electoral castle or Residenzschloss, also called Schloss Wittenberg. Extensive furnishings by Tilman Riemenschneider, Jacopo de Barbari, and Albrecht Dürer contributed to the construction of the castle complex, students were awarded their doctorates there, and the reformator Philipp Melanchthon made his famous inaugural speech at the church. A tradition of burying academic dignitaries of the university at the church developed, several notable epitaphs are preserved up to today. This act, meant to promote a disputation on the sale of indulgences, is viewed to be a catalyst for the Protestant Reformation. If the event has taken place or not, however. Nevertheless, Luther sent his objections in a letter to Archbishop Albert of Mainz on the same day, frederick the Wise died in 1525 and was buried in the Castle Church. In the same year, the Lutheran rite was implemented, the church became the burial site of Martin Luther himself in 1546, and of Philipp Melanchthon in 1560. The blaze left only half of the standing, and none of the wooden portals survived. All Saints was soon rebuilt, albeit without many priceless works of art that were lost forever, on the doors the Theses are inscribed in their original Latin form. The doors themselves weigh 2,200 pounds, with ornaments modelled by Friedrich Drake. On 10 November 1858,375 years after Martin Luthers birth and these doors are among the most photographed in Europe. The interior redesign included the present rib vault ceiling and pilasters, as well as matronea, also, the 88-metre -tall steeple was rebuilt, from which one can obtain a good view of the city of Wittenberg and the surrounding countryside. A quote, Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott, from one of Luthers hymns, on 31 October 1892,375 years after Luther posted his 95 Theses on the doors of the church, All Saints was re-inaugurated. A Lutheran Castle Church parish was established in 1949 and it later evolved to a centre of the East German peace movement, when Friedrich Schorlemmer served here as a preacher from 1978 onwards. In 1983,500 years after the birth of Luther,12 new stained glass windows were installed in All Saints and these honored the most important Reformation students of Luther, and were created by Renate Brömme in a timeless style at the order of the Lutheran World Federation
8.
Lutherhaus
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The Lutherhaus is a writers house museum in Lutherstadt Wittenberg, Germany. Luther was living here when he wrote his 95 Theses, the Augusteum is an expansion to the original building that was constructed after Luthers death to house a Protestant seminary and library which still exist today. Since 1994, both buildings have been recognized as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, when the University was opened in 1503, the monks of the Order of Saint Augustine were given land previously belonging to the Heiligegeisthospital located near the Elster Gate. There, they began building a cloister, known as the Black Monastery because of the color of the monks habits, which was to be a residence hall and academy for the Augustinians studying in Wittenberg. In 1507, after his ordination as a priest, Martin Luther was sent by Johann von Staupitz to continue his study, and he took up residence in a cell in the southwest corner of the new monastery. By 1512, he had graduated as a Doctor of Theology and was part of the faculty of the University of Wittenberg. He began developing and preaching the tenets of the Protestant Reformation. Luther lived with the Augustinians in the Black Monastery until 1521, as the Peasants War gained strength, parts of the Wittenberg University, including the monastery, were abandoned. In 1524, after Luther had returned to Wittenberg, the Electorate of Saxony gave the empty halls of the Black Monastery to the Luther family. It was here that, beginning in 1531, Martin Luther held his influential Table Talks with his students, Luther taught and wrote throughout his time there, including many revisions of his translation of the Bible. He also expanded and added to the Lutherhaus, most notably building the Katharinenportal, after Luthers death in Eisleben, the Lutherhaus was sold back to the university in 1564 by his heirs. Within a year, major remodeling was begun to turn the Lutherhaus into a boarding school, the imposing exterior spiral staircase was added, the refectory was given a new vaulted ceiling, and the great hall, which had been Luthers lecture hall, was redecorated and modernized. The Lutherstube, Martin Luthers living room, was left as it was, in 1760, Wittenberg was attacked by Austria during the Seven Years War, and many important buildings, particularly the Schloßkirche, were severely damaged. Although the Lutherhaus survived with minimal damage, it was the beginning of a period of decay. Between 1761 and 1813, it was used as a military hospital, afterwards, it was given to the Royal Seminary, as the Wittenberg University was dissolved to become part of the University of Halle-Wittenberg. However, the crown was not able to use the building, finally, the dreadful state of the building became too much to ignore, and Friedrich August Stüler was hired to restore and rebuild the Lutherhaus between the years of 1853 and 1856. Except for a few repairs and some excavation, the building. The Augusteum is an extension to the Lutherhaus that was commissioned by Augustus of Saxony in 1564 as a library, the building was mostly ready for use in 1598, when the University library was moved there from the nearby castle
9.
Melanchthonhaus (Wittenberg)
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The Melanchthonhaus is a writers house museum in the German town of Lutherstadt Wittenberg. It is a Renaissance building with late Gothic arched windows and the broad-tiered gables and it includes the study of the Protestant Reformer Philipp Melanchthon, who lived there with his family. In 1954 the house became a museum on Melanchthons life and work displaying paintings, prints and manuscripts by him and it became a World Heritage Site in 1996. Melanchthonhaus Wittenberg The Melanchthonhaus in Wittenberg and its owners
10.
Diocese of Brandenburg
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The Bishopric of Brandenburg was a Roman Catholic diocese established by King Otto I of Germany in 948, in the territory of the Marca Geronis east of the Elbe river. The bishopric was a diocese of the Archbishopric of Magdeburg. The Prince-bishopric of Brandenburg was a state of the Holy Roman Empire for some time, however, the Brandenburg bishops never managed to gain control over a significant territory, being overshadowed by the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which was originally seated in the same city. Only in 1929 the - meanwhile former - immunity district was incorporated into the city itself, the foundation charter of the Brandenburg diocese is dated 1 October 948, though the actual founding date remained disputed among historians. With the foundation, King Otto aimed at the Christianization of the Polabian Slavs, Brandenburg was originally a suffragan of the Archbishopric of Mainz, but in 968 it came under the jurisdiction of the Magdeburg archbishops. The Great Slav Rising of 983 practically annihilated it, when revolting Lutici tribes conquered Brandenburg, Brandenburg bishops continued to be appointed, but they were merely titular, residing in Magdeburg or acting as auxiliary bishops in the western territories of the Empire. Not until the subjugation of the Wends in the 12th century by Margrave Albert the Bear. Bishop Wigers also established a Premonstratensian convent at Leitzkau, the incorporation into the Premonstratensian Order was confirmed by Pope Clement III in 1188. As rulers of imperial immediacy, regnant in a, however, dispersed territory partitioned into the four bailiwicks of Brandenburg/Havel, Ketzin, Teltow, the prince-bishops from the early 14th century onwards resided in their fortress in Ziesar on the road to Magdeburg. The last actual bishop was Matthias von Jagow, who took the side of the Protestant Reformation, married, list of Former Roman Catholic dioceses of Germany This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Jackson, Samuel Macauley, ed. article name needed. New Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, london and New York, Funk and Wagnalls
11.
Iconoclasm
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Iconoclasm is the destruction of religious icons and other images or monuments for religious or political motives. Over time, the word, usually in the form, has also come to refer to aggressive statements or actions against any well-established status quo. It is a frequent component of political or religious changes. The term does not generally encompass the destruction of images of a ruler after his death or overthrow. Conversely, one who reveres or venerates religious images is called an iconolater, in a Byzantine context, Iconoclasm may be carried out by people of a different religion, but is often the result of sectarian disputes between factions of the same religion. The Church Fathers identified Jews and Judaism with heresy and they saw deviations from orthodox Christianity and opposition to the veneration of images as heresies that were essentially Jewish in spirit. The degree of iconoclasm among Christian branches greatly varies, Islam, in general, tends to be more iconoclastic than Christianity, with Sunni Islam being more iconoclastic than Shia Islam. Akhenatens actions are described thusly, In rebellion against the old religion, public references to Akhenaten were destroyed soon after his death. Comparing the ancient Egyptians with the Israelites, Jan Assmann writes, For Egypt, in the eyes of the Israelites, the erection of images meant the destruction of divine presence, in the eyes of the Egyptians, this same effect was attained by the destruction of images. In Egypt, iconoclasm was the most terrible crime, in Israel. It is more probable that these traditions evolved under mutual influence. In this respect, Moses and Akhenaten became, after all, the period after the reign of Byzantine Emperor Justinian evidently saw a huge increase in the use of images, both in volume and quality, and a gathering aniconic reaction. In the Eastern Roman Empire, government-led iconoclasm began with Byzantine Emperor Leo III, the religious conflict created political and economic divisions in Byzantine society. It was generally supported by the Eastern, poorer, non-Greek peoples of the Empire who had to frequently with raids from the new Muslim Empire. On the other hand, the wealthier Greeks of Constantinople, and also the peoples of the Balkan and Italian provinces, within the Byzantine Empire the government had probably been adopting Christian images more frequently. One notable change came in 695, when Justinian IIs government added an image of Christ on the obverse of imperial gold coins. The change caused the Caliph Abd al-Malik to stop his earlier adoption of Byzantine coin types and he started a purely Islamic coinage with lettering only. As a result, individuals attacked statues and images, however, in most cases, civil authorities removed images in an orderly manner in the newly reformed Protestant cities and territories of Europe
12.
Andreas Bodenstein
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Andreas Rudolph Bodenstein von Karlstadt, better known as Andreas Karlstadt or Andreas Carlstadt or Karolostadt, was a German Christian theologian during the Protestant Reformation. He was born in Karlstadt, Franconia, Karlstadt received his doctorate of theology in 1510 from the University of Wittenberg. Previously, Karlstadt had been educated at Erfurt and in Cologne, in the same year in which Karlstadt received his doctorate he became archdeacon and the chair of the theology department. In 1511 he became chancellor of Wittenberg university, in 1512 he awarded Martin Luther his doctorate. From 1515–16, he studied in Rome, where he obtained the degree in canon. Before 1515, Karlstadt was a proponent of a modified scholasticism and he was a secular cleric with no official ties to any monastic order. In 1519, Johann Eck challenged Karlstadt to the Leipzig Debate, there, Eck debated with Luther as well as Karlstadt. On 15 June 1520 Pope Leo X issued the papal bull Exsurge Domine that threatened Luther and Karlstadt with excommunication, both reformers remained steadfast, and excommunication followed in 1521 in the papal bull Decet Romanum Pontificem. After the Diet of Worms, and while Luther was hiding at Wartburg Castle, on Christmas Day 1521, he performed the first reformed communion service. He did not elevate the elements of communion, wore secular clothing during the service, in early January 1522, the Wittenberg city council authorized the removal of imagery from churches and affirmed the changes introduced by Karlstadt on Christmas. On 19 January Karlstadt married Anna von Mochau, the daughter of a poor nobleman. On 20 January the imperial government and the Pope ordered Frederick the Wise, Frederick let most of the mass revert to its Catholic form, but in a letter to the Wittenberg Council, he noted his personal compassion for Karlstadt. In the first week of March, Luther returned from Wartburg, from 9–16 March Luther gave eight sermons in which he stressed some theological similarities with Karlstadt, but, in hindsight, urged caution. This was a turning point between Karlstadt and Luther. Karlstadt reasserted some of his moderately mystical leanings, continued wearing peasants clothing, asked to be called Brother Andreas, in fact, he renounced his three doctoral degrees, and, according to one source, gave excellent but infrequent lectures. In May 1523, Karlstadt was invited by the church of Orlamünde to be its pastor, here he instituted all his radical reforms, and Orlamünde became the model of a congregationalist reformation. Church music and art were set aside, clerical matrimony was preached, perhaps most importantly, in Orlamünde Karlstadt denied the physical but affirmed the spiritual presence of Christ in the communion. From Spring 1524, Luther started to campaign against Karlstadt, denying his right to publish, in June, Karlstadt resigned as archdeacon
13.
Judensau
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In Nazi Germany, classes of German schoolchildren were sent to see the Judensau on German churches and the term remains extant as a neo-Nazi insult. The Jewish prohibition against eating pork comes from Torah, in the Book of Leviticus Chapter 11, the arrangement of Jews surrounding, suckling, and having intercourse with the animal, is a mockery of Judaism and example of antisemitic propaganda. The image appears in the Middle Ages, mostly in carvings on church or cathedral walls, often outside where it could be seen from the street, the earliest appearance seems to be on the underside of a wooden choir-stall seat in Cologne Cathedral, dating to about 1210. The earliest example in stone dates to ca.1230 and is located in the cloister of the cathedral at Brandenburg, in about 1470 the image appeared in woodcut form, and thereafter was often copied in popular prints, often with antisemitic commentary. The city of Wittenberg contains a Judensau from 1305, on the facade of the Stadtkirche and it portrays a rabbi who looks under the sows tail, and other Jews drinking from its teats. An inscription reads Rabini Schem HaMphoras, gibberish which presumably bastardizes shem ha-meforasch, the sculpture is one of the last remaining examples in Germany of medieval Jew baiting. Some of these sculptures can be found at some churches today, aarschot in Belgium Bamberg Basel in Switzerland Brandenburg Cadolzburg Colmar in France at Cologne (in the Cathedral - probably the earliest example, and in Church of St
14.
Wartburg
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The Wartburg is a castle originally built in the Middle Ages. It is situated on a 410 meters precipice to the southwest of, in 1999, UNESCO added Wartburg Castle to the World Heritage List. It was an important inspiration for Ludwig II when he decided to build Neuschwanstein Castle, Wartburg is the most-visited tourist attraction in Thuringia after Weimar. Although the castle today still contains substantial original structures from the 12th through 15th centuries and it is a German play on words for mountain and fortress. Wartburg is located on a 410 meters precipice to the southwest of, the hill is an extension of Thuringian Forest, overlooking Mariental to the south-east and the valley of the Hörsel to the north, through which passed the historical Via Regia. The Rennsteig passes not far to the south of the castle, the castles foundation was laid about 1067 by the Thuringian count of Schauenburg, Louis the Springer, a relative of the Counts of Rieneck in Franconia. Together with its sister castle Neuenburg in the present-day town of Freyburg. The castle was first mentioned in a document in 1080 by Bruno, Bishop of Merseburg. During the Investiture Controversy, Louiss henchmen attacked a contingent of King Henry IV of Germany. From 1172 to 1211, the Wartburg was one of the most important princes courts in the German Reich, Hermann I supported poets like Walther von der Vogelweide and Wolfram von Eschenbach who wrote part of his Parzival here in 1203. The legend of this event was used by Richard Wagner in his opera Tannhäuser. At the age of four, St. Elisabeth of Hungary was sent by her mother to the Wartburg to be raised to become consort of Landgrave Ludwig IV of Thuringia, from 1211 to 1228, she lived in the castle and was renowned for her charitable work. In 1227, Ludwig died on the Crusade and she followed her confessor Father Konrad to Marburg, Elisabeth died there in 1231 at the age of 24 and was canonized as a saint of the Roman Catholic Church just five years after her death. In 1247, Heinrich Raspe, the last landgrave of Thuringia of his line and he was succeeded by Henry III, Margrave of Meissen. In 1320, substantial work was done after the castle had been damaged in a fire caused by lightning in 1317 or 1318. A chapel was added to the Palas, the Wartburg remained the seat of the Thuringian landgraves until 1440. It was during this period that Luther translated the New Testament from Ancient Greek into German in just ten weeks, Luthers was not the first German translation of the Bible but it quickly became the most well known and most widely circulated. From 1540 until his death in 1548, Fritz Erbe, an Anabaptist farmer from Herda, was held captive in the dungeon of the south tower, after his death, he was buried in the Wartburg near the chapel of St. Elisabeth
15.
Schmalkaldic War
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At the 1521 Diet of Worms Emperor Charles V had Martin Luther banned and the proliferation of his writings prohibited, which in 1529 provoked the Protestation at Speyer by several Lutheran estates. The tensions culminated to a conflict over the Lutheran Augsburg Confession of 1530. In turn several Lutheran states led by Elector John Frederick I of Saxony and Landgrave Philip I of Hesse met at the town of Schmalkalden, the Emperor gathered an army of around 52,000 men for his campaign, that was to start on the Danube. However, plans to invade Austrian Tyrol in order to bar the Emperor from bringing up Italian troops did not meet the approval of the Schmalkaldic princes, further on the Schmalkaldic leaders could not resolve upon delivering a battle against the entrenched Imperial troops. He quickly came on from Swabia and liberated Ernestine Saxony with his army, whereafter he in turn invaded Albertine Saxony, the onset of winter left the armed conflict inconclusive. On 28 March 1547 Charles V set off for Bohemia, where he united forces with his brother King Ferdinand I of Bohemia. Because the Bohemian Lutherans did not provide any assistance to Elector John Frederick I, as he had hoped for. Due to disagreement in strategy, the Leagues defenses were finally routed on 24 April 1547 at the Battle of Mühlberg, after the battle, which determined the result of the war, only two cities continued to resist, Bremen and Magdeburg. Both cities refused to pay the fines Charles imposed on them, in the case of Bremen,12,000 imperial soldiers under the command of Duke Eric II of Brunswick-Calenberg unsuccessfully laid siege from January until May. This event led to the Battle of Drakenburg on 23 May 1547 and his men and supplies exhausted, Duke Eric II and his Imperial forces went to confront the army and were quickly defeated. During the fighting, Eric was forced to swim over the Weser river in order to save his own life, as a consequence of the Battle of Drakenburg, the Imperial troops left northern Germany. The captured Elector John Frederick I at first was sentenced to death and he lost the electoral dignity and some minor Ernestine territories to his cousin Maurice, who was declared the new Saxon Elector on 4 June. Maurice with the aid of Elector Joachim II Hector of Brandenburg tried to mediate in favour of his father-in-law Philip I of Hesse, the Landgrave delivered himself up in Halle, where he threw himself on the mercy of the Emperor. Charles V nevertheless had him imprisoned, leaving the Electors upset by his haughty behaviour. However, on 15 May 1548 Charles V, feeling at the height of his power, the edict provoked another revolt by the Protestant princes in 1552, this time led by Elector Maurice of Saxony and backed by King Henry II of France. Charles V had to flee from the superior Lutheran forces and to cancel the Interim with the Peace of Passau, whereby John Frederick I of Saxony, an official settlement acknowledging the Protestant religion arrived three years later in the form of the Peace of Augsburg. The next year Charles V voluntarily abdicated in favour of his brother Ferdinand I, thirty Years War Confessionalization Battle of Mühlberg Capitulation of Wittenberg History of Hungary. Book-Series, History of Hungary, First Book, Editor in chief, Pál Zsigmond Pach, Editor, Ágnes Várkonyi R. Akadémia Kiadó
16.
Lucas Cranach the Elder
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Lucas Cranach the Elder was a German Renaissance painter and printmaker in woodcut and engraving. He also painted religious subjects, first in the Catholic tradition and he continued throughout his career to paint nude subjects drawn from mythology and religion. He had a workshop and many works exist in different versions, his son Lucas Cranach the Younger. Lucas Cranach the Elder has been considered the most successful German artist of his time and he was born at Kronach in upper Franconia, probably in 1472. His exact date of birth is unknown and he learned the art of drawing from his father Hans Maler. His mother, with surname Hübner, died in 1491, later, the name of his birthplace was used for his surname, another custom of the times. How Cranach was trained is not known, but it was probably with local south German masters, as with his contemporary Matthias Grünewald, there are also suggestions that Cranach spent some time in Vienna around 1500. According to Gunderam Cranach demonstrated his talents as a painter before the close of the 15th century and his work then drew the attention of Duke Friedrich III, Elector of Saxony, known as Frederick the Wise, who attached Cranach to his court in 1504. Cranach was to remain in the service of the Elector and his successors for the rest of his life, Cranach married Barbara Brengbier, the daughter of a burgher of Gotha and also born there, she died at Wittenberg on 26 December 1540. Cranach later owned a house at Gotha, but most likely he got to know Barbara near Wittenberg, where her family owned a house. The first evidence of Cranachs skill as an artist comes in a picture dated 1504, in 1509 Cranach went to the Netherlands, and painted the Emperor Maximilian and the boy who afterwards became Emperor Charles V. Until 1508 Cranach signed his works with his initials, in that year the elector gave him the winged snake as an emblem, or Kleinod, which superseded the initials on his pictures after that date. Cranach was the painter to the electors of Saxony in Wittenberg. His patrons were powerful supporters of Martin Luther, and Cranach used his art as a symbol of the new faith, Cranach made numerous portraits of Luther, and provided woodcut illustrations for Luthers German translation of the Bible. Somewhat later the duke conferred on him the monopoly of the sale of medicines at Wittenberg, Cranachs presses were used by Martin Luther. His apothecary shop was open for centuries, and was only lost by fire in 1871, Cranach, like his patron, was friendly with the Protestant Reformers at a very early stage, yet it is difficult to fix the time of his first meeting with Martin Luther. The oldest reference to Cranach in Luthers correspondence dates from 1520, in a letter written from Worms in 1521, Luther calls him his gossip, warmly alluding to his Gevatterin, the artists wife. He was also godfather to their first child, Johannes Hans Luther, in 1530 Luther lived at the citadel of Veste Coburg under the protection of the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and his room is preserved there along with a painting of him
17.
Gothic Revival architecture
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Gothic Revival is an architectural movement that began in the late 1740s in England. Gothic Revival draws features from the original Gothic style, including decorative patterns, finials, scalloping, lancet windows, hood mouldings, the Gothic Revival movement emerged in 19th-century England. Its roots were intertwined with deeply philosophical movements associated with a re-awakening of High Church or Anglo-Catholic belief concerned by the growth of religious nonconformism, ultimately, the Anglo-Catholicism tradition of religious belief and style became widespread for its intrinsic appeal in the third quarter of the 19th century. The Gothic Revival was paralleled and supported by medievalism, which had its roots in antiquarian concerns with survivals, as industrialisation progressed, a reaction against machine production and the appearance of factories also grew. Proponents of the such as Thomas Carlyle and Augustus Pugin took a critical view of industrial society. To Pugin, Gothic architecture was infused with the Christian values that had been supplanted by classicism and were being destroyed by industrialisation, poems such as Idylls of the King by Alfred Tennyson, 1st Baron Tennyson recast specifically modern themes in medieval settings of Arthurian romance. In German literature, the Gothic Revival also had a grounding in literary fashions, guarino Guarini, a 17th-century Theatine monk active primarily in Turin, recognized the Gothic order as one of the primary systems of architecture and made use of it in his practice. Some of the earliest evidence of a revival in Gothic architecture is from Scotland, inveraray Castle, constructed from 1746, with design input from William Adam, displays the incorporation of turrets. These were largely conventional Palladian style houses that incorporated some features of the Scots baronial style. The eccentric landscape designer Batty Langley even attempted to improve Gothic forms by giving them classical proportions, a younger generation, taking Gothic architecture more seriously, provided the readership for J. Brittens series of Cathedral Antiquities, which began appearing in 1814. In 1817, Thomas Rickman wrote an Attempt. to name and define the sequence of Gothic styles in English ecclesiastical architecture, the categories he used were Norman, Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular. It went through numerous editions and was still being republished by 1881. The largest and most famous Gothic cathedrals in the U. S. A. are St. Patricks Cathedral in New York City and Washington National Cathedral on Mount St. Alban in northwest Washington, D. C. One of the biggest churches in Gothic Revival style in Canada is Basilica of Our Lady Immaculate in Ontario, Gothic Revival architecture was to remain one of the most popular and long-lived of the Gothic Revival styles of architecture. The revived Gothic style was not limited to architecture, classical Gothic buildings of the 12th to 16th Centuries were a source of inspiration to 19th-century designers in numerous fields of work. Architectural elements such as pointed arches, steep-sloping roofs and fancy carvings like lace ant lattice work were applied to a range of Gothic Revival objects. Sir Walter Scotts Abbotsford exemplifies in its furnishings the Regency Gothic style, parties in medieval historical dress and entertainment were popular among the wealthy in the 1800s but has spread in the late 20th century to the well-educated middle class as well. By the mid-19th century, Gothic traceries and niches could be inexpensively re-created in wallpaper, the illustrated catalogue for the Great Exhibition of 1851 is replete with Gothic detail, from lacemaking and carpet designs to heavy machinery
18.
Electorate of Saxony
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Upon the extinction of the House of Ascania, it was enfeoffed to the Margraves of Meissen from the Wettin dynasty in 1423, who moved the residence up the Elbe river to Dresden. After the Empires dissolution in 1806, the Wettin electors raised Saxony to a kingdom, when Emperor Frederick Barbarossa deposed the Saxon duke Henry the Lion in 1180, the Wittenberg lands belonged to Alberts youngest son Count Bernhard of Anhalt, who assumed the Saxon ducal title. Bernards eldest son, Albert I, ceded Anhalt to his younger brother Henry, retained the ducal title and his sons divided the possessions into the duchies of Saxe-Wittenberg and Saxe-Lauenburg. Louis was succeeded by the Luxembourg king Charles of Bohemia, after being crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1355, Charles issued the Golden Bull of 1356, the fundamental law of the Empire settling the method of electing the German King by seven Prince-electors. In this way, the country, though small in area, the electoral dignity was connected with it the obligation of male primogeniture, that is, only the eldest son could succeed as ruler. This forbade the division of the territory among several heirs, preventing the disintegration of the country, the importance of this stipulation is shown by the history of most of the fragmented German principalities which were not electorates. Late Alberts Ascanian relative Duke Eric V of Saxe-Lauenburg protested in vain, thus, in 1423, Saxe-Wittenberg, the Margraviate of Meissen and Thuringia were united under one ruler, and the unified territory gradually received the name of Saxony. The partition decisively enfeebled the Wettin dynasty in the rivalry with the rising House of Hohenzollern, the Protestant movement of the 16th century was largely effected under the protection of the Saxon rulers. The Elector did not become at once an adherent of the new opinions, owing to his intervention, Pope Leo X decided against summoning Luther to Rome in 1518, and the Elector secured for Luther Imperial safe-conduct to the 1521 Diet of Worms. When Luther was declared to be under the ban of the empire by Emperor Charles V. Lutheran doctrines spread first in Ernestine Saxony, in 1525, Frederick died and was succeeded by his brother, John the Constant. John was followed in 1532 by his son, John Frederick the Magnanimous, in 1542, he seized the Diocese of Naumburg-Zeitz, and confiscated the secular possessions of the Dioceses of Meissen and Hildesheim. The Catholic faith was forcibly suppressed, after the outbreak of the Schmalkaldic War, Elector John Frederick was placed under the Imperial ban and finally defeated and captured by Emperor Charles V at the Battle of Mühlberg on 24 April 1547. In the Capitulation of Wittenberg of May 19, he was obliged to yield former Saxe-Wittenberg with the dignity to his Albertine cousin Duke Maurice. The Saxon Electorate after the Wittenberg Capitulation consisted of former Saxe-Wittenberg and Meissen together, Maurice secretly shared in all the princely conspiracies against the Emperor, who only escaped capture by flight. During the same year, Charles V was obliged by the Peace of Passau to grant freedom of religion to the Protestant Estates, Maurice died in 1553 at the age of 32. His brother and successor Elector Augustus seized the Catholic dioceses of Merseburg, the last Bishop of Merseburg, Michael Helding called Sidonius, died at Vienna in 1561. In the same manner after the death of Julius von Pflug, the last Catholic Bishop of Naumburg, in 1564 and those cathedral canons who were still Catholic were only permitted to exercise their religion for ten years more
19.
Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg
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The Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg, also referred to as MLU, is a public, research-oriented university in the cities of Halle and Wittenberg within Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. MLU offers German and international courses leading to academic degrees such as B. A. B. Sc, the university was created in 1817 through the merger of the University of Wittenberg and the University of Halle. The university is named after the Protestant reformer Martin Luther, who was a professor in Wittenberg, today, the university itself is located in Halle, while the Leucorea Foundation in Wittenberg serves as MLU’s convention centre for seminars as well as for academic and political conferences. Both Halle and Wittenberg are about one hour from Berlin via the Berlin–Halle railway, the University of Wittenberg was founded in 1502 by Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony. Notable attendees include George Müller, Georg Joachim Rheticus and – in fiction – William Shakespeares Prince Hamlet and Horatio, the University of Halle was founded in 1694 by Frederick III, Elector of Brandenburg, who became Frederick I, King in Prussia, in 1701. In the late 17th century and early 18th century, Halle became a centre for Pietism within Prussia, in the 17th and 18th centuries the universities were centers of the German Enlightenment. Christian Wolff was an important proponent of rationalism and he influenced many German scholars, such as Immanuel Kant. Christian Thomasius was at the time the first philosopher in Germany to hold his lectures not in Latin. He contributed to a programme in philosophy but also tried to establish a more common-sense point of view. The University of Wittenberg was closed in 1813 during the Napoleonic Wars, the town of Wittenberg was granted to Prussia in the Congress of Vienna in 1815, and the university was then merged with the Prussian University of Halle in 1817. It took its present name on 10 November 1933, more than a dozen professors were expelled. MLUs historical observatory, built in 1788 by Carl Gotthard Langhans, members are mostly gifted students of all faculties, but also academic staff and alumni. The university choir regularly performs at the international Handel Festival in George Frideric Handel’s birthplace, C. D. Wyneken, Z, Paul Zarifopol, Caspar Ziegler, Karl Ziegler, Nicolaus Ludwig Zinzendorf, Max Zorn, Leopold Zunz. List of early modern universities in Europe The New Encyclopædia Britannica, Official website Official website Download MLU Yearbook 2007 /
20.
Paul Eber
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Paul Eber was a German Lutheran theologian and hymnwriter, known for the hymn for the dying, Herr Jesu Christ, wahr Mensch und Gott. He was born at Kitzingen in Franconia, and was educated at Nuremberg and Wittenberg, in 1541 he was appointed professor of Latin grammar at Wittenberg, and in 1557 professor of the Old Testament. His range of learning was wide, and he published a handbook of Jewish history, a historical calendar intended to supersede the Roman Saints Calendar, in the theological conflict of the time he played a large part, doing what he could to mediate between the extremists. From 1559 to the close of his life he was superintendent general of the electorate of Saxony and he attained some fame as a hymn writer, his best-known composition being Wenn wir in höchsten Nothen sein. He died at Wittenberg on 10 December 1569, johann Sebastian Bach composed in 1725 a chorale cantata on his hymn in eight stanzas, Herr Jesu Christ, wahr Mensch und Gott, BWV127. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Eber
21.
Kaspar Eberhard
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Kaspar Eberhard was a German Lutheran theologian and teacher. Walter Friedensburg, Geschichte der Universität Wittenberg, teil, Leipzig 1750 Balthasar Mencii, Historica Narratio, de Septem Electoribus. I, S. 183-185, Gotha, Perthes 1895 und 1971 Heinz Scheible, teil, A - E. Frommann-Holzboog, Stuttgart u. a. 2, S.389 ISBN 3-374-02134-4 Helmar Junghans, Verzeichnis der Rektoren, Prorektoren, Dekane, in, Irene Dingel, Günther Wartenberg, Georg Major - Ein Theologe der Wittenberger Reformation. Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, Leipzig,2005, ISBN 3-374-02332-0
22.
Polykarp Leyser the Elder
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He married Elisabeth, the daughter of Lucas Cranach the Younger, and their children included Polykarp Leyser II, another theologian. This made him the founder of a dynasty of theologians, as great-grandfather of Polykarp Leyser III, Leyser is thus to be accounted one of the key figures of the Lutheran concord in northern and central Germany and was constantly attacked in pamphlets as the pope of Dresden. He wrote more than sixty theological works and a corpus of sermons. Polykarps father Kaspar Leyser was a pastor in Winnenden then in Nürtingen, Kaspar agreed with Jacob Andreae that government of the laypeople should remain entirely in the pastors hands, amounting to the establishment of a denomination-wide consistory. He also corresponded with John Calvin, who reserved judgement on the project and they incurred the disapproval of Christoph, Duke of Württemberg. At the instigation of Johannes Brenz this suggestion failed, since Brenz feared it would lead to the church in Württemberg losing control to a centralised consistory, polykarps mother Margarethe was a daughter of Johannes Entringer, making her a sister of Jakob Andreaes. On Kaspars death in 1554, she remarried to Lucas Osiander the Elder, in 1556 the family moved to Blaubeuren, where Polykarp attended the Klosterschule and grew up alongside three of Lucass sons. In 1562 he continued his education in the Pädagogium in Stuttgart, on his mothers death in 1566 his stepfather sent him to the University of Tübingen, where he studied Protestant theology on a ducal stipend. In Tübingen he met Ägidius Hunnius the Elder, soon becoming friends with him. In 1570 he became a Master of Arts and soon became a Stiftsrepetent and his main theological influences at this time were Jacob Heerbrand, Andreae and Erhard Schnepf. Leyser distinguished himself with outstanding results and so in 1572 Andreae let him take over leadership of disputations on the doctrine of justification by faith. He soon made his mark in Graz and wanted to look for a job there, instead he returned to Tübingen, where he rose to become a doctor of theology on 16 July 1576 alongside his friend Hunnius. Initially he had limited job prospects, but this was soon to change, Wittenberg University had seen drastic changes in personnel since 1574 due to the overthrow of the Philippists, along with student discontent against the lecturers. After the death of Kaspar Eberhard, head of the department, in October 1575. Next, in November 1575, they chose Leyser, who accepted, with the post came that of parish priest of the Stadtkirche Wittenberg. At first Leyser was merely on a loan from Louis III, Duke of Württemberg to Augustus. On 20 January 1577 he preached a sermon in Dresden. On 3 February he was inducted into his role at Wittenberg
23.
Aegidius Hunnius
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Aegidius Hunnius the Elder was a Lutheran theologian of the Lutheran scholastic tradition and father of Nicolaus Hunnius. Hunnius went rapidly through the schools of Württemberg, and studied from 1565 to 1574 at Tübingen. In 1576 Jacob Heerbrand recommended him as professor to the University of Marburg and he gained many adherents, and the consequence was a split in the State Church of Hesse which finally led to the separation of Upper and Lower Hesse. The cardinal point of all controversies was the doctrine of ubiquity which Hunnius maintained in his writing De persona Christi, bartholomäus Meier, one of Landgrave Williams theologians, replied, but could not prevail against Hunnius learned eloquence. In 1592 Hunnius removed to Wittenberg, immediately after his arrival he was made member of a committee on visitation, instituted for the purpose of purifying the country from Calvinism. For the same purpose he was called into other German territories, as, for instance, Hunnius was the most able representative of the Swabian theology of Johannes Brenz, and consequently of the doctrine concerning the majesty and omnipresence of Christ as man. But he advanced the Lutheran cause also in reference to other doctrines, the later doctrine concerning the authority of Holy Scripture is based upon Hunnius Tractatus de maiestate, fide, autoritate et certitudine sacrae scripturae. The literary activity of Hunnius was mainly polemical and he wrote also numerous dogmatic monographs and commentaries on the Gospels of Matthew and John, the Epistles of Paul, and the first Epistle of John. He composed several Biblical dramas in Latin, among them Josephus, comaedia sacra, a complete edition of his Latin writings was edited by his son in-law, H. Garthius. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Jackson, Samuel Macauley. New Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, london and New York, Funk and Wagnalls
24.
Abraham Calovius
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Abraham Calovius was a Lutheran theologian, and was one of the champions of Lutheran orthodoxy in the 17th century. He was born in Mohrungen in the Duchy of Prussia, after studying at Königsberg, in 1650 he was appointed professor of theology at Wittenberg, where he afterwards became general superintendent and primarius. Calovius opposed the Catholics, Calvinists and Socinians, and in particular attacked the syncretism of his bitter enemy, while Calixtus affirmed that the Apostles Creed was an adequate definition of faith, Calovius rather held that one must believe every part of revealed truth in order to gain salvation. This led Calovius to deny as a heresy the idea that Roman Catholics or Calvinists could be partakers of salvation, as a writer of polemics Calovius had few equals. His chief dogmatic work, Systema Iocorum theologicorum, represents the climax of Lutheran scholasticism and he produced a popular commentary on Martin Luthers translation of the Bible, die deutsche Bibel, today known as the Calov Bible. He also wrote a larger professional exegetical work on the entire Bible called Biblia Illustrata. It is written from the point of view of a very strict belief in inspiration, marco Sgarbi, Abraham Calov and Immanuel Kant. Aristotelian and Scholastic Traces in the Kantian Philosophy, Historia Philosophica,8,2010, pp. 55–62 The Birth of Ontology
25.
Johann Georg Abicht
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Johann Georg Abicht was a German Lutheran theologian, born at Königsee, Schwarzburg-Sondershausen. After finishing his studies at the universities of Jena and Leipzig, in 1707 he was appointed rector of the college of Danzig and pastor at the Holy Trinity Church. In 1729 he was appointed superintendent, professor of theology. His best-known works are those about oriental languages and Hebrew archaeology
26.
Karl Ludwig Nitzsch
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Karl Ludwig Nitzsch was a German theologian, a professor of theology since 1790. From 1770 to 1775 he studied in Wittenberg, and later served as a pastor in the towns of Beucha, in 1788 he became a superintendent and consistorial assessor in Zeitz. In 1790 he obtained his doctorate in theology and during the year became a professor at the University of Wittenberg. He was married to Louise Wernsdorf, the daughter of German rhetorician Johann Christian Wernsdorf, theologically, he represented a combination of supernaturalism and rationalism. In addition to the work, he was the author of. Ueber das Heil der Kirche,1821 – On salvation of the church, Ueber das Heil der Theologie 1830 – On salvation of theology
27.
Congress of Vienna
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The objective of the Congress was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries but to resize the main powers so they could balance each other off, the leaders were conservatives with little use for republicanism or revolution, both of which threatened to upset the status quo in Europe. France lost all its recent conquests, while Prussia, Austria and Russia made major territorial gains, Prussia added smaller German states in the west, Swedish Pomerania and 60% of the Kingdom of Saxony, Austria gained Venice and much of northern Italy. The new Kingdom of the Netherlands had been created just months before, the immediate background was Napoleonic Frances defeat and surrender in May 1814, which brought an end to twenty-five years of nearly continuous war. Negotiations continued despite the outbreak of fighting triggered by Napoleons dramatic return from exile, the Congresss Final Act was signed nine days before his final defeat at Waterloo on 18 June 1815. However, others praise it for having created relatively long-term stable, the Congress of Vienna settlement, despite later changes, formed the framework for European international politics until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. The Treaty of Chaumont in 1814 had reaffirmed decisions that had made already. The Treaty of Chaumont became the cornerstone of the European Alliance which formed the balance of power for decades, other partial settlements had already occurred at the Treaty of Paris between France and the Sixth Coalition, and the Treaty of Kiel which covered issues raised regarding Scandinavia. The Treaty of Paris had determined that a general congress should be held in Vienna, the opening was scheduled for July 1814. The Four Great Powers had previously formed the core of the Sixth Coalition, as the Congresss sessions were in Vienna, Emperor Francis was kept closely informed. Great Britain was represented first by its Foreign Secretary, Viscount Castlereagh, then by the Duke of Wellington, in the last weeks it was headed by the Earl of Clancarty, after Wellington left to face Napoleon during the Hundred Days. Tsar Alexander I controlled the Russian delegation which was led by the foreign minister. The tsar had two goals, to gain control of Poland and to promote the peaceful coexistence of European nations. He succeeded in forming the Holy Alliance, based on monarchism and anti-secularism, Prussia was represented by Prince Karl August von Hardenberg, the Chancellor, and the diplomat and scholar Wilhelm von Humboldt. King Frederick William III of Prussia was also in Vienna, playing his role behind the scenes, France, the fifth power, was represented by its foreign minister, Talleyrand as well as the Minister Plenipotentiary the Duke of Dalberg. Talleyrand had already negotiated the Treaty of Paris for Louis XVIII of France, Sweden – Count Carl Löwenhielm Denmark – Count Niels Rosenkrantz, foreign minister. King Frederick VI was also present in Vienna, the Netherlands – Earl of Clancarty, the British Ambassador at the Dutch court, and Baron Hans von Gagern Switzerland – Every canton had its own delegation. Charles Pictet de Rochemont from Geneva played a prominent role, mecklenburg-Schwerin – Leopold von Plessen Virtually every state in Europe had a delegation in Vienna – more than 200 states and princely houses were represented at the Congress
28.
Shemhamphorasch
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The Shem HaMephorash is an originally Tannaitic term describing a hidden name of God in Kabbalah, and in some more mainstream Jewish discourses. It is composed of either 4,12,22,42, or 72 letters, maimonides thought the Shem ha-Mephorash was used only for the four letter Tetragrammaton. A 12-letter variant appears in the Talmud, though it was unknown in later Kabbalah, a 22-letter variant is first written down in Sefer Raziel HaMalakh, without interpretation, as אנקתם פסתמ פספסים דיונסים. Its origins are unknown, with no connection to Hebrew or Aramaic being found, there are Geonic precedents for the name, indicating that the name is older than Sefer Raziel. A 42-letter variant was described by Hai Gaon as אבגיתץ קרעשטן נגדיכש בטרצתג חקבטנע יגלפזק שקוצית and he wrote Although the consonants of this name are well known, its proper vocalization is not rendered by tradition. Some pronounce its first part Abgitaẓ, and others Abigtaẓ, and the last part is sometimes read Shakvaẓit, and sometimes Shekuẓit and this variation in pronunciation was understood by Joshua Trachtenberg to indicate that this version is quite ancient, the vowels in Hebrew being easily lost over time. It is, by means, derived from the first 42 letters of the Hebrew Bible. Like the 22-letter name, it is found in Sefer Raziel, the 72-fold name is highly important to Sefer Raziel, and a key component to the magical practices in The Lesser Key of Solomon. It is derived from Exodus 14, 19-21, read boustrophedonically to produce 72 names of three letters and this method was explained by Rashi. The 72-fold name is mentioned by Roger Bacon, who complained about a book titled Liber semamphoras, the angels of the Shemhamphorash factored heavily into the cosmology of Johann Reuchlin influencing Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa and Athanasius Kircher. Thomas Rudd featured the 72 angels in his magic, as a force against the evil spirits of the Ars Goetia or in isolation. Heinrich Cornelius Agrippas Three Books of Occult Philosophy, Book 3, part II and this was later copied by Francis Barrett in his book The Magus, in Chapter 21. Jim Cornwells The Names of God, from The Alpha and the Omega, symbols and Symbolism discusses the use of the word Shemhamforash in the rituals of the Church of Satan. Aaron Leitchs Shem ha Mephoresh, The Divine Name of Extension discusses the role the Shemhamephoresh played in the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn
29.
Kristallnacht
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German authorities looked on without intervening. The name Kristallnacht comes from the shards of glass that littered the streets after the windows of Jewish-owned stores, buildings. Estimates of the number of fatalities caused by the pogrom have varied, early reporting estimated that 91 Jewish people were murdered during the attacks. Modern analysis of German scholarly sources by historians such as Richard J. Evans puts the number much higher, when deaths from post-arrest maltreatment and subsequent suicides are included, the death toll climbs into the hundreds. Additionally,30,000 Jewish men were arrested and incarcerated in Nazi concentration camps, Jewish homes, hospitals, and schools were ransacked, as the attackers demolished buildings with sledgehammers. Over 1,000 synagogues were burned and over 7,000 Jewish businesses were destroyed or damaged. The event which caused the attacks was the assassination of the Nazi German diplomat Ernst vom Rath by Herschel Grynszpan, in the 1920s, most German Jews were fully integrated into German society as German citizens. They served in the German army and navy and contributed to every field of German business, science, from its inception, Hitlers régime moved quickly to introduce anti-Jewish policies. Nazi propaganda singled out the 500,000 Jews in Germany, the subsequent 1935 Nuremberg Laws stripped German Jews of their citizenship and forbade Jews to marry non-Jewish Germans. These laws resulted in the exclusion of Jews from German social and political life, the international Évian Conference on 6 July 1938 addressed the issue of Jewish and Gypsy immigration to other countries. As the number of Jews and Gypsies wanting to leave increased, by 1938, Germany had entered a new radical phase in anti-Semitic activity. In a 1997 interview, the German historian Hans Mommsen claimed that a motive for the pogrom was the desire of the Gauleiters of the NSDAP to seize Jewish property. In the fall of 1938, the pressure on Jewish property nourished the partys ambition. This, however, was one aspect of the origin of the November 1938 pogrom. The Polish government threatened to extradite all Jews who were Polish citizens, the immediate reaction by the Gestapo was to push the Polish Jews—16,000 persons—over the borderline, but this measure failed due to the stubbornness of the Polish customs officers. The loss of prestige as a result of this abortive operation called for some sort of compensation, thus, the overreaction to Herschel Grynszpans attempt against the diplomat Ernst vom Rath came into being and led to the November pogrom. The background of the pogrom was signified by a sharp cleavage of interests between the different agencies of party and state, Heydrich and Himmler were interested in fostering Jewish emigration. In August 1938 the German authorities announced that permits for foreigners were being cancelled
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The Holocaust
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The Holocaust, also referred to as the Shoah, was a genocide in which some six million European Jews were killed by Adolf Hitlers Nazi Germany, and the World War II collaborators with the Nazis. The victims included 1.5 million children, and represented about two-thirds of the nine million Jews who had resided in Europe, killings took place throughout German-occupied Europe, as well as within Nazi Germany, and across all territories controlled by its allies. Other victims of Nazi crimes included ethnic Poles and other Slavs, Soviet citizens and Soviet POWs, communists, homosexuals, Freemasons, Jehovahs Witnesses, some 42,500 detention facilities were utilized in the concentration of victims for the purpose of gross violations of human rights. Over 200,000 people are estimated to have been Holocaust perpetrators, the persecution was carried out in stages, culminating in the policy of extermination of European Jews termed the Final Solution to the Jewish Question. Following Hitlers rise to power, the German government passed laws to exclude Jews from civil society, starting in 1933 the Nazis began to establish a network of concentration camps. After the outbreak of war in 1939 both German and foreign Jews were herded into wartime ghettos, in 1941, as Germany began to conquer new territory in the East, all anti-Jewish measures radicalized. Specialized paramilitary units called Einsatzgruppen murdered around two million Jews in mass shootings actions in less than a year, by mid-1942, victims were being regularly transported by freight trains to extermination camps where, if they survived the journey, most were systematically killed in gas chambers. This continued until the end of World War II in Europe in April–May 1945, the most notable exception was the Warsaw Ghetto uprising of 1943, when thousands of poorly-armed Jewish fighters held the Waffen-SS at bay for four weeks. An estimated 20, 000–30,000 Jewish partisans actively fought against the Nazis, French Jews took part in the French Resistance, which conducted a guerilla campaign against the Nazis and Vichy French authorities. Over a hundred armed Jewish uprisings took place, the term holocaust comes from the Greek adjective holókaustos, a variant of holókautos, referring to an animal sacrifice offered to a god in which the whole animal is completely burnt. Often used substantively in apposition with the noun thysia, the term appears in a fragment of pseudo-Callisthenes, writing in Latin, Jerome Latinized the Greek word as a neuter noun holocaustum, using it to translate references to the Jewish burnt offering in his translations of Exodus and Leviticus. In his Chronicon de rebus gestis Ricardi Primi, Richard of Devizes, the English poet John Milton had used the word to denote a conflagration in his 1671 poem Samson Agonistes and the word gradually developed to mean a massacre thereon. The term was used in the 1950s by historians as a translation of the Jewish word shoah to refer specifically to the Nazi genocide of Jews, the television mini-series Holocaust is credited with introducing the term into common parlance after 1978. The biblical word shoah, meaning calamity became the standard Hebrew term for the Holocaust as early as the 1940s, especially in Europe and Israel. Shoah is preferred by some Jews for several reasons including the offensive nature of the word holocaust which they take to refer to the Greek pagan custom. The Nazis used the phrase Final Solution to the Jewish Question, all branches of Germanys bureaucracy were engaged in the logistics that led to the genocides, turning the Third Reich into what one Holocaust scholar, Michael Berenbaum, has called a genocidal state. Every arm of the countrys sophisticated bureaucracy was involved in the killing process, as prisoners entered the death camps, they were made to surrender all personal property, which was catalogued and tagged before being sent to Germany to be reused or recycled. Berenbaum writes that the Final Solution of the Jewish question was in the eyes of the perpetrators, through a concealed account, the German National Bank helped launder valuables stolen from the victims
31.
Sign of the cross
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The sign of the cross, or blessing oneself or crossing oneself, is a ritual blessing made by members of some branches of Christianity. The movement is the tracing of the shape of a cross in the air or on ones own body, the ritual is rare within other Christian traditions. The Cross is a symbol representing Christ’s victory over sin and death, the sign of the cross was originally made in some parts of the Christian world with the right-hand thumb across the forehead only. In other parts of the early Christian world it was done with the hand or with two fingers. Around the year 200 in Carthage, Tertullian wrote, We Christians wear out our foreheads with the sign of the cross, by the 4th century, the sign of the cross involved other parts of the body beyond the forehead. The open right hand is used in Western Christianity, the five open fingers are often said to represent the Five Wounds of Christ. This symbolism was adopted after the ancient gesture of two or three fingers was simplified. Though this is the most common method of crossing by Western Christians, the West also employs the Small Sign of the Cross. The primary use for this is immediately before the reading of The Gospel during the Mass, the Small Sign is also used during the majority of the Sacraments. In the Roman or Latin Rite Church it is customary to make the full Sign of the Cross using holy water when entering a church. The first three fingers of the hand are dipped into the font containing the holy water and the Sign of the Cross is made on oneself. In the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches, the tips of the first three fingers are together, and the last two are pressed against the palm. The first three fingers express our faith in the Trinity, while the two fingers represent the two natures of Jesus, divine and human. In Russia, until the reforms of Patriarch Nikon in the 17th century, the enforcement of the three-finger sign was one of the reasons for the schism with the Old Believers whose congregations continue to use the two-finger sign of the cross. The Oriental Orthodox generally use the Western direction as well, though often with the Byzantine finger formation, there are several interpretations, according to Church Fathers, the forehead symbolizes Heaven, the solar plexus, the earth, the shoulders, the place and sign of power. It also recalls both the Trinity and the Incarnation, pope Innocent III explained, The sign of the cross is made with three fingers, because the signing is done together with the invocation of the Trinity. This is how it is done, from above to below, there are some variations, for example a person may first place the right hand in holy water. After moving the hand from one shoulder to the other, it may be returned to the top of the stomach and it may also be accompanied by the recitation of a prayer
32.
Vom Schem Hamphoras
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Schem Hamphoras is the Hebrew rabbinic name for the ineffable name of God, the tetragrammaton. Luthers use of the term was in itself a taunt and insult to Jewish sensitivities and he wrote the 125-page text several months after publishing On the Jews and Their Lies. Luther argued that the Jews were no longer the chosen people, an English translation of Vom Schem Hamphoras was first published in 1992 as part of The Jew In Christian Theology by Gerhard Falk. Historians have noted Luthers writings contributed to antisemitism within the German provinces during his era, whether or not Luthers writings were a leading force for antisemitism in Europe over the past 500 years is currently being debated by historians. Nevertheless, it is clear that his writings were used extensively by the Nazis, judensau - the image of Jews in obscene contact with a large sow which first appeared in the thirteenth century
33.
Talmud
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The Talmud is a central text of Rabbinic Judaism. It is also referred to as Shas, a Hebrew abbreviation of shisha sedarim, the six orders. Talmud translates literally as instruction in Hebrew, and the term may refer to either the Gemara alone, or the Mishnah, the entire Talmud consists of 63 tractates, and in standard print is over 6,200 pages long. The Talmud is the basis for all codes of Jewish law, Rabbis expounded and debated the Torah and discussed the Tanakh without the benefit of written works, though some may have made private notes, for example of court decisions. It is during this period that rabbinic discourse began to be recorded in writing, the earliest recorded oral Torah may have been of the midrashic form, in which halakhic discussion is structured as exegetical commentary on the Pentateuch. But an alternative form, organized by subject matter instead of by biblical verse, became dominant about the year 200 CE, the Oral Torah was far from monolithic, rather, it varied among various schools. The most famous two were the School of Shammai and the School of Hillel, in general, all valid opinions, even the non-normative ones, were recorded in the Talmud. The oldest full manuscript of the Talmud, known as the Munich Talmud, each tractate is divided into chapters,517 in total, that are both numbered according to the Hebrew alphabet and given names, usually using the first one or two words in the first mishnah. A perek may continue over several pages, each perek will contain several mishnayot with their accompanying exchanges that form the building-blocks of the Gemara, the name for a passage of gemara is a sugya. A sugya, including baraita or tosefta, will comprise a detailed proof-based elaboration of a Mishnaic statement. A sugya may, and often does, range widely off the subject of the mishnah, in a given sugya, scriptural, Tannaic and Amoraic statements are cited to support the various opinions. In so doing, the Gemara will highlight semantic disagreements between Tannaim and Amoraim, and compare the Mishnaic views with passages from the Baraita. Rarely are debates formally closed, in instances, the final word determines the practical law. There is a literature on the procedural principles to be used in settling the practical law when disagreements exist, see under #Logic. The Mishnah is a compilation of legal opinions and debates, statements in the Mishnah are typically terse, recording brief opinions of the rabbis debating a subject, or recording only an unattributed ruling, apparently representing a consensus view. The rabbis recorded in the Mishnah are known as the Tannaim, the Mishnahs topical organization thus became the framework of the Talmud as a whole. But not every tractate in the Mishnah has a corresponding Gemara, also, the order of the tractates in the Talmud differs in some cases from that in the Mishnah. In addition to the Mishnah, other tannaitic teachings were current at about the time or shortly thereafter
34.
Pelican Publishing Company
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Pelican Publishing Company is a book publisher based in Gretna, a suburb of New Orleans. Formed in 1926, Pelican is the largest independent trade book publisher located in the U. S. South, Pelican publishes approximately 60 titles per year and maintains a backlist of over 2500 books. Most of its titles relate to Louisiana and Southern culture, cuisine, art, travel guides, history, childrens books, formed in 1926 by John McClure, Pelican was tied early in its history to William Faulkner and Stuart O. Landry. In 1970, Dr. Milburn E. Calhoun and family acquired Pelican, Calhoun served as company president and publisher prior to his death in 2012. Since his passing, daughter Kathleen Calhoun Nettleton has occupied his place as publisher, Pelican Publishing Company has produced many noteworthy titles, including the following, Arnauds Restaurant Cookbook, Legendary Creole Cuisine by Kit Wohl. Blood in West Virginia, Brumfield v. McCoy by Brandon Ray Kirk, the Cajun Night Before Christmas by James Rice, A parody of the popular Night Before Christmas poem in which Santa Claus visits Cajun Louisiana. The Cavalry Battle that Saved the Union, Custer vs. Stuart at Gettysburg, Paul D. DArtois Finn McCools Football Club by Stephen Rea, released February 2009. Memoir of the experiences at an Irish pub in New Orleans and what happened to the patrons before, during. Louisiana Almanac, A resource of statistical data and historical information related to the State of Louisiana, the Maverick Guide, A series of travel guides begun by Robert W. Bone. By James Ronald Kennedy and Walter Donald Kennedy, A controversial historical perspective that argues that the Confederacy had the right to secede from the Union
35.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
36.
Michael Wolffsohn
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Michael Wolffsohn is a German historian. Wolffsohn was born in Tel Aviv, in what was then the British Mandate of Palestine and his parents were German Jews who fled in 1939. In 1954, the Wolffsohns moved to Germany, settling in West Berlin, in 1966, Wolffsohn began his studies at the Free University of Berlin, obtaining a PhD in History in 1975. From 1967 to 1970, Wolffsohn served in the Israeli Defence Forces, from 1975 until 1980, Wolffsohn taught at the University of the Saarland. Since 1981, Wolffsohn has served as a professor at the Bundeswehr University Munich as a professor in Contemporary History and his major interests are Israeli history, international relations, and German Jewish history. Wolffsohn has argued in favor of German patriotism and has claimed that the crimes of National Socialism represent no reason why modern Germans cannot be proud of their country and he argued against the idea of Germans having to bear guilt for the Holocaust for all time. Wolffsohn has strongly supported Israel and has argued for greater Western understanding, likewise, Wolffsohn has supported the War on Terror and the administration of George W. Bush. Wolffsohn noted that the capitalists in question were Jewish, and that the Nazis had often compared Jews to locusts, more recently, Wolffsohn has been a leading critic of the novelist Günter Grass over his disclosure about his membership in the Waffen-SS during World War II. On 16 February 2015 he upset Greek people by publishing his opinion that Greeks behaved like idiots by electing Alexis Tsipras for prime minister on 25 January 2015 elections. Meine Juden—eure Juden, Piper 1997 ISBN 3-492-03637-6, die Deutschland Akte, Juden und Deutsche in Ost und West, Tatsachen und Legenden, Ed. Ferenczy bei Bruckmann 1995 ISBN 3-7654-2730-6, forty Years of German-Jewish Relations, Columbia University Press 1993 ISBN 0-231-08274-6. Provokative Zwischenberufe eines deutschjüdischen Patrioten, Ed, frenczy bei Bruckmann 1993 ISBN 3-7654-2706-3. Die Wurzeln des Streits zwischen Juden und Arabern, C, spanien, Deutschland und die Jüdische Weltmacht, über Moral, Realpolitik und Vergangenheitsbewältigung, C. 40 Jahre deutsch-juedisch-israelische Beziehungen, Muenchen, Piper,1989 ISBN 3-492-10985-3, Israel, polity, society, economy, 1882-1986, an introductory handbook, Atlantic Highlands, NJ, Humanities Press International,1987 ISBN 0-391-03540-1. West Germanys Foreign Policy in the Era of Brandt and Schmidt, 1969-1982, An Introduction, german-Saudi Arabian Arms Deals 1936-1939 and 1981-1985, with an essay on West Germany’s Jews, Frankfurt am Main, P. Lang,1985, ISBN 3-8204-7490-0. Die Debatte über den Kalten Krieg, Politische Konjunkturen, historisch-politische Analysen, a German View on Middle Eastern Transformation JEWS IN GERMANY TODAY – CONTRADICTIONS IN PROGRESS Review of Eternal Guilt
37.
Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
38.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
