1.
American and British English spelling differences
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Many of the differences between American and British English date back to a time when spelling standards had not yet developed. For instance, some spellings seen as American today were once used in Britain. But English-language spelling reform has rarely been adopted otherwise, and thus modern English orthography varies somewhat between countries and is far from phonemic in any country, in the early 18th century, English spelling was inconsistent. These differences became noticeable after the publishing of influential dictionaries, todays British English spellings mostly follow Johnsons A Dictionary of the English Language, while many American English spellings follow Websters An American Dictionary of the English Language. Webster was a proponent of English spelling reform for reasons both philological and nationalistic, in A Companion to the American Revolution, John Algeo notes, it is often assumed that characteristically American spellings were invented by Noah Webster. He was very influential in popularizing certain spellings in America, rather he chose already existing options such as center, color and check for the simplicity, analogy or etymology. William Shakespeares first folios, for example, used spellings like center and color as much as centre, Webster did attempt to introduce some reformed spellings, as did the Simplified Spelling Board in the early 20th century, but most were not adopted. In Britain, the influence of those who preferred the Norman spellings of words proved to be decisive, later spelling adjustments in the United Kingdom had little effect on todays American spellings and vice versa. For the most part, the systems of most Commonwealth countries. Australian spelling has also strayed slightly from British spelling, with some American spellings incorporated as standard, New Zealand spelling is almost identical to British spelling, except in the word fiord. There is also an increasing use of macrons in words that originated in Māori, most words ending in an unstressed -our in British English end in -or in American English. Wherever the vowel is unreduced in pronunciation, e. g. contour, velour, paramour and troubadour the spelling is the same everywhere, most words of this kind came from Latin, where the ending was spelled -or. They were first adopted into English from early Old French, after the Norman conquest of England, the ending became -our to match the Old French spelling. The -our ending was not only used in new English borrowings, however, -or was still sometimes found, and the first three folios of Shakespeares plays used both spellings before they were standardised to -our in the Fourth Folio of 1685. After the Renaissance, new borrowings from Latin were taken up with their original -or ending, Websters 1828 dictionary had only -or and is given much of the credit for the adoption of this form in the United States. Johnson, unlike Webster, was not an advocate of spelling reform and he preferred French over Latin spellings because, as he put it, the French generally supplied us. In Jeffersons original draft it is spelled honour, Honor and honour were equally frequent in Britain until the 17th century, honor still is, in the UK, the usual spelling as a persons name and appears in Honor Oak, a district of London. In derivatives and inflected forms of the words, British usage depends on the nature of the suffix used
2.
Interoperability
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XML or SQL standards are among the tools of syntactic interoperability. This is also true for lower-level data formats, such as ensuring alphabetical characters are stored in a variation of ASCII or a Unicode format in all the communicating systems. To achieve semantic interoperability, both sides must refer to an information exchange reference model. The content of the information requests are unambiguously defined, what is sent is the same as what is understood. The possibility of promoting this result by user-driven convergence of disparate interpretations of the information has been object of study by research prototypes such as S3DB. Multiple social, organizational, political, legal entities working together for a common interest and/or information exchange, Interoperability imply Open standards ab-initio, i. e. by definition. Interoperability imply exchanges between a range of products, or similar products from different vendors, or even between past and future revisions of the same product. Interoperability may be developed post-facto, as a special measure between two products, while excluding the rest, by using Open standards. When a vendor is forced to adapt its system to a dominant system that is not based on Open standards, it is not interoperability, after the doubts and reservations of all members are addressed, the resulting common document is endorsed as a common standard. This document is released to the public, and henceforth becomes an open standard. It is usually published and is available freely or at a nominal cost to any and all comers and this is not a problem if the products implementation is open and minimally encumbered, but it may as well be both closed and heavily encumbered. The newer implementations often rely on clean-room reverse engineering in the absence of data to achieve interoperability. The original vendors can provide technical data to others, often in the name of encouraging competition, but such data is invariably encumbered. These changes can either not be passed on to other vendors at all, or passed on after a strategic delay and this revenue stream is only a result of the original products market dominance and not a result of any innate superiority. ITU-T provides standards for international telecommunications, the degree of interoperability should be defined when referring to specific cases. In two-way radio, interoperability is composed of three dimensions, compatible communications paths, radio system coverage or adequate signal strength, and, Search interoperability refers to the ability of two or more information collections to be searched by a single query. Federated Search technology, which does not place format requirements on the owner, has emerged as one solution to search interoperability challenges. In addition, standards, such as OAI-PMH, RDF, such standards also address broader topics of interoperability, such as allowing data mining
3.
Safety
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Safety is the state of being safe, the condition of being protected from harm or other non-desirable outcomes. Safety can also refer to the control of recognized hazards in order to achieve a level of risk. There are two different meanings of safety. For example, home safety may indicate an ability to protect against external harm events. Discussions of safety often include mention of related terms, with time the definitions between these two have often become interchanged, equated, and frequently appear juxtaposed in the same sentence. Readers unfortunately are left to conclude whether they comprise a redundancy and this confuses the uniqueness that should be reserved for each by itself. When seen as unique, as we intend here, each term will assume its place in influencing and being influenced by the other. Safety is the condition of a “steady state” of an organization or place doing what it is supposed to do, for any organization, place, or function, large or small, safety is a normative concept. It complies with situation-specific definitions of what is expected and acceptable, in the world of everyday affairs, not all goes as planned. Some entity’s steady state is challenged and this is where security science, which is of more recent date, enters. Using this generic definition of safety it is possible to specify the elements of a security program, Safety can be limited in relation to some guarantee or a standard of insurance to the quality and unharmful function of an object or organization. It is used in order to ensure that the object or organization will do only what it is meant to do and it is important to realize that safety is relative. Eliminating all risk, if possible, would be extremely difficult. A safe situation is one where risks of injury or property damage are low and it is important to distinguish between products that meet standards, that are safe, and those that merely feel safe. Substantive or objective safety occurs when the real-world safety history is favorable, perceived or subjective safety refers to the users level of comfort and perception of risk, without consideration of standards or safety history. For example, traffic signals are perceived as safe, yet under some circumstances, traffic roundabouts have a generally favorable safety record yet often make drivers nervous. Low perceived safety can have costs, for example, after the 9/11/2001 attacks, many people chose to drive rather than fly, despite the fact that, even counting terrorist attacks, flying is safer than driving. Perceived risk discourages people from walking and bicycling for transportation, enjoyment or exercise, also called social safety or public safety, security addresses the risk of harm due to intentional criminal acts such as assault, burglary or vandalism
4.
Social science
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Social science is a major category of academic disciplines, concerned with society and the relationships among individuals within a society. It in turn has many branches, each of which is considered a social science, the social sciences include economics, political science, human geography, demography, psychology, sociology, anthropology, archaeology, jurisprudence, history, and linguistics. The term is sometimes used to refer specifically to the field of sociology. A more detailed list of sub-disciplines within the sciences can be found at Outline of social science. Positivist social scientists use methods resembling those of the sciences as tools for understanding society. In modern academic practice, researchers are often eclectic, using multiple methodologies, the term social research has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share in its aims and methods. Social sciences came forth from the philosophy of the time and were influenced by the Age of Revolutions, such as the Industrial Revolution. The social sciences developed from the sciences, or the systematic knowledge-bases or prescriptive practices, the beginnings of the social sciences in the 18th century are reflected in the grand encyclopedia of Diderot, with articles from Jean-Jacques Rousseau and other pioneers. The growth of the sciences is also reflected in other specialized encyclopedias. The modern period saw social science first used as a distinct conceptual field, Social science was influenced by positivism, focusing on knowledge based on actual positive sense experience and avoiding the negative, metaphysical speculation was avoided. Auguste Comte used the term science sociale to describe the field, taken from the ideas of Charles Fourier, following this period, there were five paths of development that sprang forth in the social sciences, influenced by Comte on other fields. One route that was taken was the rise of social research, large statistical surveys were undertaken in various parts of the United States and Europe. Another route undertaken was initiated by Émile Durkheim, studying social facts, a third means developed, arising from the methodological dichotomy present, in which social phenomena were identified with and understood, this was championed by figures such as Max Weber. The fourth route taken, based in economics, was developed and furthered economic knowledge as a hard science, the last path was the correlation of knowledge and social values, the antipositivism and verstehen sociology of Max Weber firmly demanded this distinction. In this route, theory and prescription were non-overlapping formal discussions of a subject, around the start of the 20th century, Enlightenment philosophy was challenged in various quarters. The development of social science subfields became very quantitative in methodology, examples of boundary blurring include emerging disciplines like social research of medicine, sociobiology, neuropsychology, bioeconomics and the history and sociology of science. Increasingly, quantitative research and qualitative methods are being integrated in the study of action and its implications. In the first half of the 20th century, statistics became a discipline of applied mathematics
5.
Economics
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Economics is a social science concerned chiefly with description and analysis of the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services according to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Economics focuses on the behaviour and interactions of economic agents and how economies work, consistent with this focus, textbooks often distinguish between microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics examines the behaviour of elements in the economy, including individual agents and markets, their interactions. Individual agents may include, for example, households, firms, buyers, macroeconomics analyzes the entire economy and issues affecting it, including unemployment of resources, inflation, economic growth, and the public policies that address these issues. Economic analysis can be applied throughout society, as in business, finance, health care, Economic analyses may also be applied to such diverse subjects as crime, education, the family, law, politics, religion, social institutions, war, science, and the environment. At the turn of the 21st century, the domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism. The ultimate goal of economics is to improve the conditions of people in their everyday life. There are a variety of definitions of economics. Some of the differences may reflect evolving views of the subject or different views among economists, to supply the state or commonwealth with a revenue for the publick services. Say, distinguishing the subject from its uses, defines it as the science of production, distribution. On the satirical side, Thomas Carlyle coined the dismal science as an epithet for classical economics, in this context and it enquires how he gets his income and how he uses it. Thus, it is on the one side, the study of wealth and on the other and more important side, a part of the study of man. He affirmed that previous economists have usually centred their studies on the analysis of wealth, how wealth is created, distributed, and consumed, but he said that economics can be used to study other things, such as war, that are outside its usual focus. This is because war has as the goal winning it, generates both cost and benefits, and, resources are used to attain the goal. If the war is not winnable or if the costs outweigh the benefits. Some subsequent comments criticized the definition as overly broad in failing to limit its subject matter to analysis of markets, there are other criticisms as well, such as in scarcity not accounting for the macroeconomics of high unemployment. The same source reviews a range of included in principles of economics textbooks. Among economists more generally, it argues that a particular definition presented may reflect the direction toward which the author believes economics is evolving, microeconomics examines how entities, forming a market structure, interact within a market to create a market system
6.
Coordination game
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In game theory, coordination games are a class of games with multiple pure strategy Nash equilibria in which players choose the same or corresponding strategies. If this game is a game, then the following inequalities in payoffs hold for player 1, A > B, D > C, and for player 2. In this game the strategy profiles and are pure Nash equilibria and this setup can be extended for more than two strategies, as well as for a game with more than two players. A typical case for a game is choosing the sides of the road upon which to drive. In a simplified example, assume that two drivers meet on a dirt road. Both have to swerve in order to avoid a head-on collision, if both execute the same swerving maneuver they will manage to pass each other, but if they choose differing maneuvers they will collide. In the payoff matrix in Fig.2, successful passing is represented by a payoff of 10, in this case there are two pure Nash equilibria, either both swerve to the left, or both swerve to the right. In this example, it doesnt matter which side both players pick, as long as they pick the same. This is not true for all games, as the pure coordination game in Fig.3 shows. Pure coordination is the game where the players prefer the same Nash equilibrium outcome, here both players prefer partying over both staying at home to watch TV. The outcome Pareto dominates the outcome, just as both Pareto dominate the two outcomes, and. This is different in type of coordination game commonly called battle of the sexes. In this game both players prefer engaging in the activity over going alone, but their preferences differ over which activity they should engage in. Player 1 prefers that they both party while player 2 prefers that they stay at home. Finally, the stag hunt game in Fig.5 shows a situation in both players can benefit if they cooperate. However, cooperation might fail, because each hunter has an alternative which is safer because it not require cooperation to succeed. This example of the conflict between safety and social cooperation is originally due to Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Coordination games also have mixed strategy Nash equilibria, since d > b and d-b < a+d-b-c, p is always between zero and one, so existence is assured
7.
Indus Valley Civilisation
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The Indus Valley Civilisation was a Bronze Age civilisation mainly in the northwestern regions of South Asia, extending from what today is northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India. Along with ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia it was one of three early civilisations of the Old World, and of the three, the most widespread, at its peak, the Indus Civilisation may have had a population of over five million. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley developed new techniques in handicraft, the Indus cities are noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, and clusters of large non-residential buildings. The discovery of Harappa, and soon afterwards, Mohenjo-Daro, was the culmination of work beginning in 1861 with the founding of the Archaeological Survey of India in the British Raj, excavation of Harappan sites has been ongoing since 1920, with important breakthroughs occurring as recently as 1999. This Harappan civilisation is called the Mature Harappan culture to distinguish it from the cultures immediately preceding and following it. The early Harappan cultures were preceded by local Neolithic agricultural villages, as of 1999, over 1,056 cities and settlements had been found, of which 96 have been excavated, mainly in the general region of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers and their tributaries. Among the settlements were the urban centres of Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, Ganeriwala in Cholistan. The Harappan language is not directly attested and its affiliation is uncertain since the Indus script is still undeciphered, a relationship with the Dravidian or Elamo-Dravidian language family is favoured by a section of scholars. Recently, Indus sites have been discovered in Pakistans northwestern Frontier Province as well, other IVC colonies can be found in Afghanistan while smaller isolated colonies can be found as far away as Turkmenistan and in Maharashtra. The largest number of colonies are in the Punjab, Sindh, Rajasthan, Haryana, Indus Valley sites have been found most often on rivers, but also on the ancient seacoast, for example, Balakot, and on islands, for example, Dholavira. There is evidence of dry river beds overlapping with the Hakra channel in Pakistan, many Indus Valley sites have been discovered along the Ghaggar-Hakra beds. Among them are, Rupar, Rakhigarhi, Sothi, Kalibangan, Harappan Civilisation remains the correct one, according to the common archaeological usage of naming a civilisation after its first findspot. John wrote, I was much exercised in my mind how we were to get ballast for the line of the railway and they were told of an ancient ruined city near the lines, called Brahminabad. Visiting the city, he found it full of hard well-burnt bricks, and, convinced there was a grand quarry for the ballast I wanted. These bricks now provided ballast along 93 miles of the track running from Karachi to Lahore. In 1872–75, Alexander Cunningham published the first Harappan seal and it was half a century later, in 1912, that more Harappan seals were discovered by J. J. H. MacKay, and Marshall. By 1931, much of Mohenjo-Daro had been excavated, but excavations continued, such as that led by Sir Mortimer Wheeler, director of the Archaeological Survey of India in 1944. Among other archaeologists who worked on IVC sites before the independence in 1947 were Ahmad Hasan Dani, Brij Basi Lal, Nani Gopal Majumdar, and Sir Marc Aurel Stein
8.
Angle
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In planar geometry, an angle is the figure formed by two rays, called the sides of the angle, sharing a common endpoint, called the vertex of the angle. Angles formed by two rays lie in a plane, but this plane does not have to be a Euclidean plane, Angles are also formed by the intersection of two planes in Euclidean and other spaces. Angles formed by the intersection of two curves in a plane are defined as the angle determined by the tangent rays at the point of intersection. Similar statements hold in space, for example, the angle formed by two great circles on a sphere is the dihedral angle between the planes determined by the great circles. Angle is also used to designate the measure of an angle or of a rotation and this measure is the ratio of the length of a circular arc to its radius. In the case of an angle, the arc is centered at the vertex. In the case of a rotation, the arc is centered at the center of the rotation and delimited by any other point and its image by the rotation. The word angle comes from the Latin word angulus, meaning corner, cognate words are the Greek ἀγκύλος, meaning crooked, curved, both are connected with the Proto-Indo-European root *ank-, meaning to bend or bow. Euclid defines a plane angle as the inclination to each other, in a plane, according to Proclus an angle must be either a quality or a quantity, or a relationship. In mathematical expressions, it is common to use Greek letters to serve as variables standing for the size of some angle, lower case Roman letters are also used, as are upper case Roman letters in the context of polygons. See the figures in this article for examples, in geometric figures, angles may also be identified by the labels attached to the three points that define them. For example, the angle at vertex A enclosed by the rays AB, sometimes, where there is no risk of confusion, the angle may be referred to simply by its vertex. However, in geometrical situations it is obvious from context that the positive angle less than or equal to 180 degrees is meant. Otherwise, a convention may be adopted so that ∠BAC always refers to the angle from B to C. Angles smaller than an angle are called acute angles. An angle equal to 1/4 turn is called a right angle, two lines that form a right angle are said to be normal, orthogonal, or perpendicular. Angles larger than an angle and smaller than a straight angle are called obtuse angles. An angle equal to 1/2 turn is called a straight angle, Angles larger than a straight angle but less than 1 turn are called reflex angles
9.
Lothal
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Lothal is one of the most prominent cities of the ancient Indus valley civilisation, located in the Bhāl region of the modern state of Gujarāt and dating from 3700 BCE. Discovered in 1954, Lothal was excavated from 13 February 1955 to 19 May 1960 by the Archaeological Survey of India, the official Indian government agency for the preservation of ancient monuments. It was a vital and thriving trade centre in ancient times, with its trade of beads, gems and valuable ornaments reaching the far corners of West Asia, the techniques and tools they pioneered for bead-making and in metallurgy have stood the test of time for over 4000 years. Lothal is situated near the village of Saragwala in the Dholka Taluka of Ahmedabad district and it is six kilometres south-east of the Lothal-Bhurkhi railway station on the Ahmedabad-Bhavnagar railway line. It is also connected by roads to the cities of Ahmedabad, Bhavnagar, Rajkot. The nearest cities are Dholka and Bagodara, the findings consist of a mound, a township, a marketplace, and the dock. Adjacent to the excavated areas stands the Archaeological Museum, where some of the most prominent collections of Indus-era antiquities in India are displayed, when British India was partitioned in 1947, most Indus sites, including Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, became part of Pakistan. The Archaeological Survey of India undertook a new program of exploration, many sites were discovered across northwestern India. Lothal stands 670 kilometers from Mohenjo-daro, which is in Sindh, the meaning of Lothal in Gujarati to be the mound of the dead is not unusual, as the name of the city of Mohenjo-daro in Sindhi means the same. People in villages neighbouring to Lothal had known of the presence of an ancient town, as recently as 1850, boats could sail up to the mound. In 1942, timber was shipped from Broach to Saragwala via the mound, a silted creek connecting modern Bholad with Lothal and Saragwala represents the ancient flow channel of a river or creek. Speculation suggests that owing to the small dimensions of the main city, Lothal was not a large settlement at all. However, the ASI and other contemporary archaeologists assert that the city was a part of a river system on the trade route of the ancient peoples from Sindh to Saurashtra in Gujarat. Lothal provides with the largest collection of antiquities in the archaeology of modern India and it is essentially a single culture site—the Harappan culture in all its variances is evidenced. An indigenous micaceous Red Ware culture also existed, which is believed to be autochthonous, two sub-periods of Harappan culture are distinguished, the same period is identical to the exuberant culture of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. After the core of the Indus civilisation had decayed in Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, Lothal seems not only to have survived and its constant threats - tropical storms and floods - caused immense destruction, which destabilised the culture and ultimately caused its end. Topographical analysis also shows signs that at about the time of its demise, thus the cause for the abandonment of the city may have been changes in the climate as well as natural disasters, as suggested by environmental magnetic records. Lothal is based upon a mound that was a salt marsh inundated by tide, small channel widths when compared to the lower reaches suggest the presence of a strong tidal influence upon the city—tidal waters ingressed up to and beyond the city
10.
Surkotada
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Surkotada is an archaeological site located in Rapar Taluka of Kutch district, Gujarat, India and it belongs to Indus Valley Civilisation. It is a smaller fortified IVC site with 1.4 hectares in area, the site at Surkotada is located 160 km north-east of Bhuj, in the district of Kutch, Gujarat. The ancient mound stands surrounded by a rising ground clustered by small sandstone hills. These hills are covered with red laterite soil giving the region a reddish-brown colour. The vegetation is scarce and consists of cactus, small babul and pilu trees and these give green patches to the red environment. The mound was discovered in 1964 by J. P. Joshi of the Archaeological Survey of India, the mound is higher on the western side and lower on the eastern side and has an average height of 5 to 8 m. In the ancient days, a river 750 m wide flowed past the side of the site. This river, which emptied into the Little Rann, might have been an important reason for siting the town here, now this river is only a small nalla. Surkotada site contains horse remains dated to ca.2000 BCE, sándor Bökönyi, on examining the bone samples found at Surkotada, opined that at least six samples probably belonged to true horse. During 1974, Archaeological Survey of India undertook excavation in this site and J. P. Joshi, the chronology of the occupation of the site at Surkotada is not the same as other Harappan / Indus Valley Civilization sites. The dates from Surkotada are later than most Harappan sites but conform well with the dates from Lothal. In other words, the Harappans did not establish a settlement in Surkotada in the earliest phase of Harappan maturity, the site of Surkotada was occupied for a period of 400 years with no breaks or desertions. Archaeologists have divided the history of settlement in Surkotada into three cultural phases, the following is a description of the three phases in terms of the building activity, The earliest occupants of Surkotada had affiliations with an antecedent culture. They built a citadel with mud-brick and mud-lump fortification with a veneer of five to eight courses over a raised platform of hard rammed yellow earth. The platform had a height of 1.5 m. The bricks used were in the ratio 1,2,4 which conforms with mature Harappan standards, the height of this wall was 4.5 m. The residential area was built with a fortification wall having a thickness of 3.5 m. The citadel had two entrances one on the side and one on the eastern side for accessing the residential area
11.
Kalibangan
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Kalibangān is a town located at 29. 47°N74. 13°E /29.47,74. It is also identified as being established in the triangle of land at the confluence of Drishadvati, the prehistoric and pre-Mauryan character of Indus Valley Civilization was first identified by Luigi Tessitori at this site. Kalibangans excavation report was published in its entirety in 2003 by the Archaeological Survey of India,34 years after the completion of excavations, the report concluded that Kalibangan was a major provincial capital of the Indus Valley Civilization. Kalibangan is distinguished by its unique fire altars and worlds earliest attested ploughed field, the identity of Kalibangan as a pre-historic site was discovered by Luigi Pio Tessitori, an Italian Indologist. He was doing research in ancient Indian texts. He was surprised by the character of ruins in that area, at that time ASI had some excavations done on Harappa, but they never had any idea about the character of the ruins. In fact, Tessitori is the first person to recognize that the ruins are Prehistoric, amlānand Ghosh was the first person to recognise this site as Harappan and marked it out for excavations. Under the leadership of B. B, Lal, Balkrishna Thapar, M. D. Khare, K. M. Shrivastava and S. P. Jain carried out excavations for 9 years in 9 successive excavation sessions. Two ancient mounds were excavated, spread over half kilometre, on western side is the smaller mound,9 meters high and known as citadel. Eastern mound is higher and bigger, known as lower city, other nearby sites belonging to IVC include Balu, Haryana, Kunal, Haryana, Banawali etc. Traces of pre-Harappan culture have found only at the lower levels of the western mound. According to archaeological evidence, the Indus Valley culture existed at the site from the age to the Harappan age. This earlier phase is labelled Kalibangan-I or Period-I, similarity of pottery relates Kalibangan-I with the Sothi culture because a lot of this pottery was later discovered at Sothi village in North Western India. In this phase, the settlement was fortified, using dried mud bricks and this fort had been built twice in different periods. Earlier, fort wall had a thickness of 1.9 meters, brick size was 20 ×20 ×10 cm in both construction-phases. The citadel mound is a parallelogram about 130 meters on the east-west axis and 260 meters on the north-south, town planning was like that of Mohenjodaro or Harappa. The direction of houses and brick sizes was markedly different from that used in the Harappan phase, some burnt wedge shaped bricks also have been found. Lal, former DG of ASI writes, Kalibangan in Rajasthan has given the evidence of the earliest ploughed agricultural field ever revealed through an excavation and it has been found south east of the pre-Harappan settlement, outside the fort
12.
Dholavira
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This village is 165 km from Radhanpur. Also known locally as Kotada timba, the site contains ruins of an ancient Indus Valley Civilization/Harappan city and it is one of the five largest Harappan sites and most prominent archaeological sites in India belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization. It is also considered as having been the grandest of cities of its time and it is located on Khadir bet island in the Kutch Desert Wildlife Sanctuary in the Great Rann of Kutch. The 47 ha quadrangular city lay between two streams, the Mansar in the north and Manhar in the south. The site was occupied from c.2650 BCE, declining slowly after about 2100 BCE and it was briefly abandoned then reoccupied until c.1450 BCE. The site was discovered in 1967-1968 by J. P. Joshi ex, D. G. of A. S. I. and is the fifth largest of eight major Harappan sites. It has been under excavation since 1990 by the Archaeological Survey of India, the other major Harappan sites discovered so far are, Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Ganeriwala, Rakhigarhi, Kalibangan, Rupnagar and Lothal. R. S. S. Bisht, and there were 13 field excavations between 1990 and 2005, archaeologists believe that Dholavira was an important centre of trade between settlements in south Gujarat, Sindh and Punjab and Western Asia. Estimated to be older than the port-city of Lothal, the city of Dholavira has a shape and organization. The area measures 771.1 m in length, and 616.85 m in width, unlike Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, the city was constructed to a pre-existing geometrical plan consisting of three divisions – the citadel, the middle town, and the lower town. The acropolis and the town had been furnished with their own defence-work, gateways, built-up areas, street system, wells. The acropolis is the most thoroughly fortified and complex area in the city, the towering castle stands is defended by double ramparts. Next to this stands a place called the bailey where important officials lived, the city within the general fortifications accounts for 48 ha. There are extensive structure-bearing areas which are outside yet integral to the fortified settlement, beyond the walls, another settlement has been found. Dholavira is flanked by two water channels, the Mansar in the north, and the Manhar in the south. S. Bist. One of the features of Dholavira is the sophisticated water conservation system of channels and reservoirs. The city had massive reservoirs, three of which are exposed and they were used for storing fresh water brought by rains or to store water diverted from two nearby rivulets. This clearly came in response to the climate and conditions of Kutch
13.
Harappa
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Harappa is an archaeological site in Punjab, Pakistan, about 24 km west of Sahiwal. The site takes its name from a village located near the former course of the Ravi River. The current village of Harappa is 6 km from the ancient site, although modern Harappa has a legacy railway station from the period of the British Raj, it is today just a small crossroads town of population 15,000. The site of the ancient city contains the ruins of a Bronze Age fortified city, which was part of the Cemetery H culture and the Indus Valley Civilization, centered in Sindh and the Punjab. Per archaeological convention of naming a previously unknown civilization by its first excavated site, the ancient city of Harappa was heavily damaged under British rule, when bricks from the ruins were used as track ballast in the construction of the Lahore-Multan Railway. In 2005, an amusement park scheme at the site was abandoned when builders unearthed many archaeological artifacts during the early stages of building work. A plea from the Pakistani archaeologist Ahmad Hasan Dani to the Ministry of Culture resulted in a restoration of the site, the Indus Valley Civilization has its earliest roots in cultures such as that of Mehrgarh, approximately 6000 BCE. The two greatest cities, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, emerged circa 2600 BCE along the Indus River valley in Punjab, the bricks discovered were made of red sand, clay, stones and were baked at very high temperature. As early as 1826 Harappa located in west Punjab attracted the attention of a British officer in India, Indus Valley civilization was mainly an urban culture sustained by surplus agricultural production and commerce, the latter including trade with Sumer in southern Mesopotamia. Both Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa are generally characterized as having differentiated living quarters, flat-roofed brick houses, the weights and measures of the Indus Valley Civilization, on the other hand, were highly standardized, and conform to a set scale of gradations. Distinctive seals were used, among other applications, perhaps for identification of property, although copper and bronze were in use, iron was not yet employed. Wheel-made pottery—some of it adorned with animal and geometric motifs—has been found in profusion at all the major Indus sites, harappans had many trade routes along the Indus River that went as far as the Persian Gulf, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. Some of the most valuable things traded were carnelian and lapis lazuli, what is clear is that Harappan society was not entirely peaceful, with the human skeletal remains demonstrating some of the highest rates of injury found in South Asian prehistory. The excavators of the site have proposed the following chronology of Harappas occupation, Ravi Aspect of the Hakra phase, kot Dijian phase, c.2800 –2600 BC. Harappan Phase, c.2600 –1900 BC, transitional Phase, c.1900 –1800 BC. Late Harappan Phase, c.1800 –1300 BC, by far the most exquisite and obscure artifacts unearthed to date are the small, square steatite seals engraved with human or animal motifs. A large number of seals have been found at sites as Mohenjo-Daro. Many bear pictographic inscriptions generally thought to be a form of writing or script, despite the efforts of philologists from all parts of the world, and despite the use of modern cryptographic analysis, the signs remain undeciphered
14.
Mohenjo-daro
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Mohenjo-daro is an archeological site in the province of Sindh, Pakistan. Mohenjo-daro was abandoned in the 19th century BCE as the Indus Valley Civilization declined, significant excavation has since been conducted at the site of the city, which was designated an UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980. The site is threatened by erosion and improper restoration. Mohenjo-daro, the name for the site, has been variously interpreted as Mound of the Dead Men in Sindhi. The citys original name is unknown, based on his analysis of a Mohenjo-daro seal, Iravatham Mahadevan speculates that the citys ancient name could have been Kukkutarma. Cock-fighting may have had ritual and religious significance for the city, with domesticated chickens bred there for sacred purposes, Mohenjo-daro may also have been a point of diffusion for the eventual worldwide domestication of chickens. Mohenjo-daro is located west of the Indus River in Larkana District, Sindh, Pakistan and it is sited on a Pleistocene ridge in the middle of the flood plain of the Indus River Valley, around 28 kilometres from the town of Larkana. The Indus still flows east of the site, but the Ghaggar-Hakra riverbed on the side is now dry. Mohenjo-daro was built in the 26th century BCE and it was one of the largest cities of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization, which developed around 3,000 BCE from the prehistoric Indus culture. Mohenjo-daro was the most advanced city of its time, with remarkably sophisticated civil engineering, when the Indus civilization went into sudden decline around 1900 BCE, Mohenjo-daro was abandoned. The ruins of the city remained undocumented for around 3,700 years until R. D and this led to large-scale excavations of Mohenjo-daro led by Kashinath Narayan Dikshit in 1924–25, and John Marshall in 1925–26. In the 1930s, major excavations were conducted at the site under the leadership of Marshall, D. K. Dikshitar, further excavations were carried out in 1945 by Ahmad Hasan Dani and Mortimer Wheeler. The last major series of excavations were conducted in 1964 and 1965 by Dr. George F. Dales, a dry core drilling conducted in 2015 by Pakistans National Fund for Mohenjo-daro revealed that the site is larger than the unearthed area. Mohenjo-daro has a layout based on a street grid of rectilinear buildings. Most were built of fired and mortared brick, some incorporated sun-dried mud-brick, the covered area of Mohenjo-daro is estimated at 300 hectares. The Oxford Handbook of Cities in World History offers an estimate of a peak population of around 40,000. The sheer size of the city, and its provision of buildings and facilities. The city is divided into two parts, the so-called Citadel and the Lower City
15.
Iran
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Iran, also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. Comprising a land area of 1,648,195 km2, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East, with 82.8 million inhabitants, Iran is the worlds 17th-most-populous country. It is the country with both a Caspian Sea and an Indian Ocean coastline. The countrys central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, Tehran is the countrys capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is the site of to one of the worlds oldest civilizations, the area was first unified by the Iranian Medes in 625 BC, who became the dominant cultural and political power in the region. The empire collapsed in 330 BC following the conquests of Alexander the Great, under the Sassanid Dynasty, Iran again became one of the leading powers in the world for the next four centuries. Beginning in 633 AD, Arabs conquered Iran and largely displaced the indigenous faiths of Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism by Islam, Iran became a major contributor to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential scientists, scholars, artists, and thinkers. During the 18th century, Iran reached its greatest territorial extent since the Sassanid Empire, through the late 18th and 19th centuries, a series of conflicts with Russia led to significant territorial losses and the erosion of sovereignty. Popular unrest culminated in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1906, which established a monarchy and the countrys first legislative body. Following a coup instigated by the U. K. Growing dissent against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution, Irans rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and 11th-largest in the world. Iran is a member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC. Its political system is based on the 1979 Constitution which combines elements of a democracy with a theocracy governed by Islamic jurists under the concept of a Supreme Leadership. A multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, most inhabitants are Shia Muslims, the largest ethnic groups in Iran are the Persians, Azeris, Kurds and Lurs. Historically, Iran has been referred to as Persia by the West, due mainly to the writings of Greek historians who called Iran Persis, meaning land of the Persians. As the most extensive interactions the Ancient Greeks had with any outsider was with the Persians, however, Persis was originally referred to a region settled by Persians in the west shore of Lake Urmia, in the 9th century BC. The settlement was then shifted to the end of the Zagros Mountains. In 1935, Reza Shah requested the international community to refer to the country by its native name, opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision, and Professor Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, propagated a move to use Persia and Iran interchangeably
16.
Central Asia
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Central Asia stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to China in the east and from Afghanistan in the south to Russia in the north. It is also referred to as the -stans as the five countries generally considered to be within the region all have names ending with the Persian suffix -stan. Central Asias five former Soviet republics are Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Central Asia has historically been closely tied to its nomadic peoples and the Silk Road. It has acted as a crossroads for the movement of people, goods, the Silk Road connected Muslim lands with the people of Europe, India, and China. This crossroads position has intensified the conflict between tribalism and traditionalism and modernization, in pre-Islamic and early Islamic times, Central Asia was predominantly Iranian, peopled by Eastern Iranian-speaking Bactrians, Sogdians and Chorasmians and the semi-nomadic Scythians and Parthians. Central Asia is sometimes referred to as Turkestan, the idea of Central Asia as a distinct region of the world was introduced in 1843 by the geographer Alexander von Humboldt. The borders of Central Asia are subject to multiple definitions, historically built political geography and geoculture are two significant parameters widely used in the scholarly literature about the definitions of the Central Asia. The most limited definition was the one of the Soviet Union. This definition was also used outside the USSR during this period. However, the Russian culture has two terms, Средняя Азия and Центральная Азия. Since then, this has become the most common definition of Central Asia, the UNESCO general history of Central Asia, written just before the collapse of the USSR, defines the region based on climate and uses far larger borders. An alternative method is to define the region based on ethnicity and these areas include Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, the Turkic regions of southern Siberia, the five republics, and Afghan Turkestan. Afghanistan as a whole, the northern and western areas of Pakistan, the Tibetans and Ladakhi are also included. Insofar, most of the peoples are considered the indigenous peoples of the vast region. Central Asia is a large region of varied geography, including high passes and mountains, vast deserts. The vast steppe areas of Central Asia are considered together with the steppes of Eastern Europe as a geographical zone known as the Eurasian Steppe. Much of the land of Central Asia is too dry or too rugged for farming, the Gobi desert extends from the foot of the Pamirs, 77° E, to the Great Khingan Mountains, 116°–118° E. Central Asia has the following geographic extremes, The worlds northernmost desert, at Buurug Deliin Els, Mongolia, the Northern Hemispheres southernmost permafrost, at Erdenetsogt sum, Mongolia, 46°17′ N
17.
Chanhudaro
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Chanhudaro is an archaeological site belonging to the post-urban Jhukar phase of Indus valley civilization. The site is located 130 kilometers south of Mohenjo-daro, in Sindh, the settlement was inhabited between 4000 and 1700 BCE, and is considered to have been a centre for manufacturing carnelian beads. This site is a group of three low mounds that excavations has shown were parts of a settlement, approximately 5 hectares in size. Prof. W. Norman Brown of the University of Pennsylvania was instrumental in enabling the funds for this project, after the independence of Pakistan, Mohammed Rafique Mughal also did exploratory work in the area. Chanhudaro is one of the most important sites of Indus Civilization, more than 2500 sites belonging to Indus Civilization are identified so far and Chanhudaro is one of the bigger sites where lot of scope is identified for excavation. However, of late, excavations in this site have not been in leading to a decline in contributions from this site. It is situated in an area, but it is believed that the Sarasvati River used to flow near this site. Sarasvati river is believed to have dried up during 2nd millennium BC, causing the life at Chanhudaro, Chanhudaro is about 12 miles east of present-day Indus river bed. Chanhu-Daro was investigated in 1931 by the Indian archaeologist N. G. Majumdar and it was observed that this ancient city was very similar to Harappa and Mohenjadaro in several aspects like town planning, building layout etc. The site was excavated in the mid-1930s by the American School of Indic and Iranian Studies and the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, for building houses, baked bricks were used extensively at Chanhudaro and Mohenjo-daro. Several constructions were identified as workshops or industrial quarters and some of the buildings of Chanhudaro might have been warehouses, evidence of shell working was found at Chanhudaro and bangles and ladles were made at this site. Harappan seals were generally in bigger towns like Harappa, Mohenjadaro and Chanhudaro which were involved with administrative network. Copper knives, spears, razors, tools, axes, vessels and dishes were found, copper fish hooks were also recovered from this site. Terracotta cart models, a small bird which when blown acts as a whistle. Male spear thrower or dancer - a broken statue is of importance, found at Chanhudaro, is now displayed at Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Indus Seals are also found at Chanhudaro and Chanhudaro is considered as one of the centres where seals were manufactured, the scale of craft production at Chanhudaro seems much greater than that at Mohenjodaro, perhaps taking up half of town for this activity. An Impressive workshop, recognised as Bead Making Factory, was found at Chanhudaro, shell bangles, beads of many materials, stealite seals and metal works were manufactured at Chanhudaro. Sesame, which is a native of South Africa, is known from number of Harappan sites, including Chanhudaro, peas are also grown at Chanhudaro
18.
Binary number
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The base-2 system is a positional notation with a radix of 2. Because of its implementation in digital electronic circuitry using logic gates. Each digit is referred to as a bit, the modern binary number system was devised by Gottfried Leibniz in 1679 and appears in his article Explication de lArithmétique Binaire. Systems related to binary numbers have appeared earlier in multiple cultures including ancient Egypt, China, Leibniz was specifically inspired by the Chinese I Ching. The scribes of ancient Egypt used two different systems for their fractions, Egyptian fractions and Horus-Eye fractions, the method used for ancient Egyptian multiplication is also closely related to binary numbers. This method can be seen in use, for instance, in the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, the I Ching dates from the 9th century BC in China. The binary notation in the I Ching is used to interpret its quaternary divination technique and it is based on taoistic duality of yin and yang. Eight trigrams and a set of 64 hexagrams, analogous to the three-bit and six-bit binary numerals, were in use at least as early as the Zhou Dynasty of ancient China. The Song Dynasty scholar Shao Yong rearranged the hexagrams in a format that resembles modern binary numbers, the Indian scholar Pingala developed a binary system for describing prosody. He used binary numbers in the form of short and long syllables, Pingalas Hindu classic titled Chandaḥśāstra describes the formation of a matrix in order to give a unique value to each meter. The binary representations in Pingalas system increases towards the right, the residents of the island of Mangareva in French Polynesia were using a hybrid binary-decimal system before 1450. Slit drums with binary tones are used to encode messages across Africa, sets of binary combinations similar to the I Ching have also been used in traditional African divination systems such as Ifá as well as in medieval Western geomancy. The base-2 system utilized in geomancy had long been applied in sub-Saharan Africa. Leibnizs system uses 0 and 1, like the modern binary numeral system, Leibniz was first introduced to the I Ching through his contact with the French Jesuit Joachim Bouvet, who visited China in 1685 as a missionary. Leibniz saw the I Ching hexagrams as an affirmation of the universality of his own beliefs as a Christian. Binary numerals were central to Leibnizs theology and he believed that binary numbers were symbolic of the Christian idea of creatio ex nihilo or creation out of nothing. Is not easy to impart to the pagans, is the ex nihilo through Gods almighty power. In 1854, British mathematician George Boole published a paper detailing an algebraic system of logic that would become known as Boolean algebra
19.
Decimal
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This article aims to be an accessible introduction. For the mathematical definition, see Decimal representation, the decimal numeral system has ten as its base, which, in decimal, is written 10, as is the base in every positional numeral system. It is the base most widely used by modern civilizations. Decimal fractions have terminating decimal representations and other fractions have repeating decimal representations, Decimal notation is the writing of numbers in a base-ten numeral system. Examples are Brahmi numerals, Greek numerals, Hebrew numerals, Roman numerals, Roman numerals have symbols for the decimal powers and secondary symbols for half these values. Brahmi numerals have symbols for the nine numbers 1–9, the nine decades 10–90, plus a symbol for 100, Chinese numerals have symbols for 1–9, and additional symbols for powers of ten, which in modern usage reach 1072. Positional decimal systems include a zero and use symbols for the ten values to represent any number, positional notation uses positions for each power of ten, units, tens, hundreds, thousands, etc. The position of each digit within a number denotes the multiplier multiplied with that position has a value ten times that of the position to its right. There were at least two independent sources of positional decimal systems in ancient civilization, the Chinese counting rod system. Ten is the number which is the count of fingers and thumbs on both hands, the English word digit as well as its translation in many languages is also the anatomical term for fingers and toes. In English, decimal means tenth, decimate means reduce by a tenth, however, the symbols used in different areas are not identical, for instance, Western Arabic numerals differ from the forms used by other Arab cultures. A decimal fraction is a fraction the denominator of which is a power of ten. g, Decimal fractions 8/10, 1489/100, 24/100000, and 58900/10000 are expressed in decimal notation as 0.8,14.89,0.00024,5.8900 respectively. In English-speaking, some Latin American and many Asian countries, a period or raised period is used as the separator, in many other countries, particularly in Europe. The integer part, or integral part of a number is the part to the left of the decimal separator. The part from the separator to the right is the fractional part. It is usual for a number that consists only of a fractional part to have a leading zero in its notation. Any rational number with a denominator whose only prime factors are 2 and/or 5 may be expressed as a decimal fraction and has a finite decimal expansion. 1/2 =0.5 1/20 =0.05 1/5 =0.2 1/50 =0.02 1/4 =0.25 1/40 =0.025 1/25 =0.04 1/8 =0.125 1/125 =0.008 1/10 =0
20.
Chert
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Chert is a fine-grained sedimentary rock composed of microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline silica. Depending on its origin, it can contain either microfossils, small macrofossils, Chert occurs as oval to irregular nodules in greensand, limestone, chalk, and dolostone formations as a replacement mineral, where it is formed as a result of some type of diagenesis. Where it occurs in chalk or marl, it is usually called flint and it also occurs in thin beds, when it is a primary deposit. Thick beds of chert occur in marine deposits. These thickly bedded cherts include the novaculite of the Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas, Oklahoma, the banded iron formations of Precambrian age are composed of alternating layers of chert and iron oxides. Chert also occurs in deposits and is known as diatomaceous chert. Diatomaceous chert consists of beds and lenses of diatomite which were converted during diagenesis into dense, in petrology the term chert is used to refer generally to all rocks composed primarily of microcrystalline, cryptocrystalline and microfibrous quartz. The term does not include quartzite, chalcedony is a microfibrous variety of quartz. Strictly speaking, the flint is reserved for varieties of chert which occur in chalk. Among non-geologists, the distinction between flint and chert is often one of quality - chert being lower quality than flint, among petrologists, chalcedony is sometimes considered separately from chert due to its fibrous structure. Since many cherts contain both microcrystalline and microfibrous quartz, it is difficult to classify a rock as completely chalcedony. The cryptocrystalline nature of chert, combined with its above average ability to resist weathering, recrystallization, for example, The 3.2 Ga chert of the Fig Tree Formation in the Barbeton Mountains between Swaziland and South Africa preserved non-colonial unicellular bacteria-like fossils. The Gunflint Chert of western Ontario preserves not only bacteria and cyanobacteria but also believed to be ammonia-consuming and some that resemble green algae. The Apex Chert of the Pilbara craton, Australia preserved eleven taxa of prokaryotes, the Bitter Springs Formation of the Amadeus Basin, Central Australia, preserves 850 Ma cyanobacteria and algae. The Rhynie chert of Scotland has remains of a Devonian land flora, in prehistoric times, chert was often used as a raw material for the construction of stone tools. Like obsidian, as well as some rhyolites, felsites, quartzites and this results in conchoidal fractures, a characteristic of all minerals with no cleavage planes. When a chert stone is struck against an iron-bearing surface sparks result and this makes chert an excellent tool for starting fires, and both flint and common chert were used in various types of fire-starting tools, such as tinderboxes, throughout history. Cherts are subject to problems when used as concrete aggregates, deeply weathered chert develops surface pop-outs when used in concrete that undergoes freezing and thawing because of the high porosity of weathered chert
21.
Logarithmic scale
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A logarithmic scale is a nonlinear scale used when there is a large range of quantities. Common uses include the strength, sound loudness, light intensity. It is based on orders of magnitude, rather than a linear scale. In particular our sense of hearing perceives equal ratios of frequencies as equal differences in pitch, the top left graph is linear in the X and Y axis, and the Y-axis ranges from 0 to 10. A base-10 log scale is used for the Y axis of the left graph. The top right graph uses a scale for just the X axis. A slide rule has logarithmic scales, and nomograms often employ logarithmic scales, the geometric mean of two numbers is midway between the numbers. Before the advent of graphics, logarithmic graph paper was a commonly used scientific tool. If both the vertical and horizontal axes of a plot are scaled logarithmically, the plot is referred to as a log–log plot, if only the ordinate or abscissa is scaled logarithmically, the plot is referred to as a semi-logarithmic plot. Bit Byte Decade John Napier Level Logarithm Logarithmic mean Preferred number Dehaene, Stanislas, Izard, Véronique, Spelke, Elizabeth, Pica, distinct intuitions of the number scale in Western and Amazonian indigene cultures. American Association for the Advancement of Science, why using logarithmic scale to display share prices
22.
Henry Maudslay
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Henry Maudslay was a British machine tool innovator, tool and die maker, and inventor. He is considered a father of machine tool technology. His inventions were an important foundation for the Industrial Revolution, Maudslays invention about 1800 of a metal lathe to cut metal enabled the manufacture of standard screw thread sizes. Standard screw thread sizes allowed interchangeable parts and the development of mass production, Henry Maudslay was the fifth of seven children of Henry Maudslay, a wheelwright in the Royal Engineers, and Margaret a young widow. His father was wounded in action and so in 1756 became an artificer at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, London, Maudslay began work at the age of 12 as a powder monkey, one of the boys employed in filling cartridges at the Arsenal. After two years, he was transferred to a carpenter’s shop followed by a blacksmith’s forge, where at the age of fifteen he began training as a blacksmith and he seems to have specialised in the lighter, more complex kind of forge work. During his time at the Arsenal, Maudslay also worked at the Royal Foundry, Maudslay acquired such a good reputation that Joseph Bramah called for his services on the recommendation of one of his employees. Bramah was surprised that he was eighteen, but Maudslay demonstrated his ability and started work at Bramah’s workshop in Denmark Street. Bramah designed and patented a type of lock based on the tumbler principle. Maudslay built the lock that was displayed in Bramah’s shop window with a notice offering a reward of 200 guineas to anyone who could pick it and it resisted all efforts for forty-seven years. Maudslay designed and made a set of tools and machines that allowed the lock to be made at an economic price. Bramah had designed a hydraulic press, but was having problems sealing both the piston and the rod where it fitted into the cylinder. The usual method was hemp packing but the pressures were too high for this to work, Maudslay came up with the idea of a leather cup washer, which gave a perfect seal but offered no resistance to movement when the pressure was released. The new hydraulic press worked perfectly thereafter, but Maudslay, who had made a major contribution to its success, received little credit for it. Maudslay developed the first industrially practical screw-cutting lathe in 1800, allowing standardisation of screw thread sizes for the first time and this allowed the concept of interchangeable parts to be practically applied to nuts and bolts. When Maudslay began working for Bramah, the lathe was worked by a treadle. This did not allow for precision, especially in cutting iron, nuts were rare, metal screws, when made at all, were usually for use in wood. Metal bolts passing through wood framing to a metal fastening on the side were usually fastened in non-threaded ways
23.
Industrial Revolution
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The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and most of the important technological innovations were British, aided by these legal and cultural foundations, an entrepreneurial spirit and consumer revolution drove industrialisation in Britain, which would be emulated in countries around the world. A change in marrying patterns to getting married later made able to accumulate more human capital during their youth. The Industrial Revolution marks a turning point in history, almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth, mechanised textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium, and later in France. Since then industrialisation has spread throughout much of the world, the precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes. Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants. The term Industrial Revolution applied to change was becoming more common by the late 1830s. Friedrich Engels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of an industrial revolution, however, although Engels wrote in the 1840s, his book was not translated into English until the late 1800s, and his expression did not enter everyday language until then. Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee, some historians, such as John Clapham and Nicholas Crafts, have argued that the economic and social changes occurred gradually and the term revolution is a misnomer. This is still a subject of debate among some historians, the commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations, beginning in the second half of the 18th century. By the 1830s the following gains had been made in important technologies, Textiles – mechanised cotton spinning powered by steam or water greatly increased the output of a worker, the power loom increased the output of a worker by a factor of over 40. The cotton gin increased productivity of removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50, large gains in productivity also occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen, but they were not as great as in cotton. Steam power – the efficiency of steam engines increased so that they used between one-fifth and one-tenth as much fuel, the adaptation of stationary steam engines to rotary motion made them suitable for industrial uses. The high pressure engine had a power to weight ratio. Steam power underwent an expansion after 1800. Iron making – the substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost for pig iron, using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces, resulting in economies of scale. The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760 and it was later improved by making it double acting, which allowed higher furnace temperatures
24.
Machine tool
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A machine tool is a machine for shaping or machining metal or other rigid materials, usually by cutting, boring, grinding, shearing, or other forms of deformation. Machine tools employ some sort of tool that does the cutting or shaping, all machine tools have some means of constraining the workpiece and provide a guided movement of the parts of the machine. Thus the relative movement between the workpiece and the tool is controlled or constrained by the machine to at least some extent. The precise definition of the machine tool varies among users. While all machine tools are machines that help people to make things, today machine tools are typically powered other than by human muscle, used to make manufactured parts in various ways that include cutting or certain other kinds of deformation. With their inherent precision, machine tools enabled the production of interchangeable parts. In this view of the definition, the term, arising at a time when all tools up till then had been hand tools and this lathe produced screw threads out of wood and employed a true compound slide rest. The mechanical toolpath guidance grew out of various concepts, First is the spindle concept itself. The machine slide, which has many forms, such as dovetail ways, box ways, Machine slides constrain tool or workpiece movement linearly. If a stop is added, the length of the line can also be accurately controlled, tracing, which involves following the contours of a model or template and transferring the resulting motion to the toolpath. Cam operation, which is related in principle to tracing but can be a step or two removed from the traced elements matching the reproduced elements final shape. For example, several cams, no one of which matches the desired output shape. Abstractly programmable toolpath guidance began with mechanical solutions, such as in musical box cams, later, electromechanical solutions and soon electronic solutions were added, leading to numerical control and computer numerical control. The value that machine tools added to these human talents is in the areas of rigidity, accuracy and precision, efficiency, as an example, it is physically possible to make interchangeable screws, bolts, and nuts entirely with freehand toolpaths. But it is practical to make them only with machine tools. In the 1930s, the U. S. National Bureau of Economic Research referenced the definition of a tool as any machine operating by other than hand power which employs a tool to work on metal. The narrowest colloquial sense of the reserves it only for machines that perform metal cutting—in other words. These processes are a type of deformation that produces swarf, thus presses are usually included in the economic definition of machine tools
25.
Interchangeable parts
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Interchangeable parts are parts that are, for practical purposes, identical. They are made to specifications that ensure that they are so nearly identical that they fit into any assembly of the same type. One such part can freely replace another, without any custom fitting and this interchangeability allows easy assembly of new devices, and easier repair of existing devices, while minimizing both the time and skill required of the person doing the assembly or repair. Additional innovations included jigs for guiding the machine tools, fixtures for holding the workpiece in the proper position, modern machine tools often have numerical control which evolved into CNC when microprocessors became available. Methods for industrial production of parts in the United States were first developed in the nineteenth century. The term American system of manufacturing was sometimes applied to them at the time, within a few decades such methods were in use in various countries, so American system is now a term of historical reference rather than current industrial nomenclature. Evidence of the use of parts can be traced back over two thousand years to Carthage in the First Punic War. Carthaginian ships had standardized, interchangeable parts that came with assembly instructions akin to tab a into slot b marked on them. In East Asia during the Warring States period and later the Qin Dynasty, bronze crossbow triggers and locking mechanisms were mass-produced and made to be interchangeable. One of the accomplishments of the system was that solid cast cannons were bored to precise tolerances, however, because cores were often off center, the wall thickness determined the size of the bore. Standardized boring allowed cannon to be shorter without sacrificing accuracy and range because of the fit of the shells. It also allowed standardization of the shells, before the 18th century, devices such as guns were made one at a time by gunsmiths, and each gun was unique. If one single component of a firearm needed a replacement, the entire firearm either had to be sent to a gunsmith for custom repairs. During the 18th and early 19th centuries, the idea of replacing these methods with a system of manufacture was gradually developed. The development took decades and involved many people, Gribeauval provided patronage to Honoré Blanc, who attempted to implement the Système Gribeauval at the musket level. By around 1778, Honoré Blanc began producing some of the first firearms with interchangeable flint locks, Blanc demonstrated in front of a committee of scientists that his muskets could be fitted with flint locks picked at random from a pile of parts. Muskets with interchangeable locks caught the attention of Thomas Jefferson through the efforts of Honoré Blanc when Jefferson was Ambassador to France in 1785. President George Washington approved of the idea, and by 1798 a contract was issued to Eli Whitney for 12,000 muskets built under the new system
26.
Screw-cutting lathe
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This is accomplished by gearing the leadscrew to the spindle with a certain gear ratio for each thread pitch. Every degree of rotation is matched by a certain distance of linear tool travel. The name screw-cutting lathe carries a taxonomic qualification on its use—it is a term of historical classification rather than one of current commercial machine tool terminology, early lathes, many centuries ago, were not adapted to screw-cutting. Later, from the Late Middle Ages until the nineteenth century. Since then, most metalworking lathes have this ability built in, the screw has been known for millennia. Archimedes devised the water screw, a system for raising water, screws as mechanical fasteners date to the first century BCE. Although screws were tremendously useful, the difficulty in making them prevented any widespread adoption and it is likely that sometimes the wood blanks that they started from were tree branches that had been shaped by a vine wrapped helically around them while they grew. Walking sticks twisted by vines show how suggestive such sticks are of a screw, early machine screws of metal, and early wood screws, were made by hand, with files used to cut the threads. One method for making fairly accurate threads was to score a rod using a knife with a wrap half way around the rod. This was one of the methods Maudslay used to make his early leadscrews and this made the screw slow and expensive to make, and its quality highly dependent on the skill of the maker. A process for automating the manufacture of screws and improving the accuracy and consistency of the thread was needed, lathes have been around since ancient times. Adapting them to screw-cutting is a choice, but the problem of how to guide the cutting tool through the correct path was an obstacle for many centuries. It incorporates slide rests and a leadscrew, roughly contemporarily, Leonardo da Vinci drew sketches showing various screw-cutting lathes and machines, one with two leadscrews. Leonardo also shows change-gears in some of these sketches, in the succeeding three centuries, many other designs followed, especially among ornamental turners and clockmakers. These included various important concepts and impressive cleverness, but few were significantly accurate, for example, Woodbury discusses Jacques Besson and others. They made impressive contributions to turning, but the context in which they tended to work did not channel their contributions toward industrial uses, Henry Hindley designed and constructed a screw-cutting lathe circa 1739. It featured a plate guiding the tool and power supplied by a series of gears. By changing the gears, he could cut screws with different pitch, removing a gear permitted him to make left-handed threads
27.
Screw thread
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A screw thread, often shortened to thread, is a helical structure used to convert between rotational and linear movement or force. A screw thread is a ridge wrapped around a cylinder or cone in the form of a helix, with the former being called a straight thread, a screw thread is the essential feature of the screw as a simple machine and also as a fastener. The mechanical advantage of a screw depends on its lead. This characteristic is essential to the vast majority of its uses, the tightening of a fasteners screw thread is comparable to driving a wedge into a gap until it sticks fast through friction and slight elastic deformation. Screw threads have several applications, Fastening, Fasteners such as screws, machine screws, nuts. Connecting threaded pipes and hoses to each other and to caps, gear reduction via worm drives Moving objects linearly by converting rotary motion to linear motion, as in the leadscrew of a jack. Measuring by correlating linear motion to rotary motion, as in a micrometer, both moving objects linearly and simultaneously measuring the movement, combining the two aforementioned functions, as in a leadscrew of a lathe. In all of these applications, the thread has two main functions, It converts rotary motion into linear motion. It prevents linear motion without the corresponding rotation, every matched pair of threads, external and internal, can be described as male and female. For example, a screw has male threads, while its matching hole has female threads, the helix of a thread can twist in two possible directions, which is known as handedness. This is known as a thread, because it follows the right hand grip rule. Threads oriented in the direction are known as left-handed. By common convention, right-handedness is the default handedness for screw threads, therefore, most threaded parts and fasteners have right-handed threads. Left-handed thread applications include, Where the rotation of a shaft would cause a conventional right-handed nut to loosen rather than to tighten due to fretting induced precession, examples include, The left hand pedal on a bicycle. The left-hand grinding wheel on a bench grinder, the lug nuts on the left side of some automobiles. The securing nut on some circular saw blades - the large torque at startup should tend to tighten the nut. The spindle on brushcutter and line trimmer heads, so that the torque tends to tighten rather than loosen the connection In combination with right-hand threads in turnbuckles, in such a case, the coupling will have one right-handed and one left-handed thread. In some instances, for example early ballpoint pens, to provide a method of disassembly
28.
Nut (hardware)
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A nut is a type of fastener with a threaded hole. Nuts are almost always used in conjunction with a bolt to fasten two or more parts together. The two partners are kept together by a combination of their threads friction, a stretching of the bolt. Square nuts, as well as heads, were the first shape made and used to be the most common largely because they were much easier to manufacture. It takes only one sixth of a rotation to obtain the side of the hexagon. However, polygons with more than six sides do not give the requisite grip, other specialized shapes exist for certain needs, such as wingnuts for finger adjustment and captive nuts for inaccessible areas. A wide variety of nuts exists, from household hardware versions to specialized industry-specific designs that are engineered to meet various technical standards. Fasteners used in automotive, engineering, and industrial applications usually need to be tightened to a specific setting, using a torque wrench.9 bolt without stripping. Likewise, an SAE class 5 nut can support the load of an SAE class 5 bolt. For example, wrench sizes of fastener used in Japanese built cars comply with JIS automotive standard, in normal use, a nut-and-bolt joint holds together because the bolt is under a constant tensile stress called the preload. If the joint is subjected to vibration, however, the increases and decreases with each cycle of movement. If the minimum preload during the cycle is not enough to hold the nut firmly in contact with the bolt. Specialized locking nuts exist to prevent this problem, but sometimes it is sufficient to add a second nut, for this technique to be reliable, each nut must be tightened to the correct torque. The inner nut is tightened to about a quarter to a half of the torque of the outer nut and it is then held in place by a wrench while the outer nut is tightened on top using the full torque. This arrangement causes the two nuts to push on other, creating a tensile stress in the short section of the bolt that lies between them. Even when the joint is vibrated, the stress between the two nuts remains constant, thus holding the nut threads in constant contact with the bolt threads. When the joint is assembled correctly, the outer nut bears the tension of the joint. The inner nut functions merely to add an additional force to the outer nut and does not need to be as strong
29.
Screw
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A screw is a type of fastener, sometimes similar to a bolt, typically made of metal, and characterized by a helical ridge, known as a male thread or just thread. A screw is an inclined plane wrapped around a nail, some screw threads are designed to mate with a complementary thread, known as a female thread, often in the form of a nut or an object that has the internal thread formed into it. Other screw threads are designed to cut a groove in a softer material as the screw is inserted. The most common uses of screws are to hold objects together, a screw will usually have a head on one end that contains a specially formed shape that allows it to be turned, or driven, with a tool. Common tools for driving screws include screwdrivers and wrenches, the head is usually larger than the body of the screw, which keeps the screw from being driven deeper than the length of the screw and to provide a bearing surface. The cylindrical portion of the screw from the underside of the head to the tip is known as the shank, the distance between each thread is called the pitch. Another rule is this, curl the fingers of right hand around the screw with your thumb pointing is the direction you want the screw to go. If the screw is right-handed and you turn the screw in the direction of your fingers the screw will move in the direction of your thumb, Screws with left-hand threads are used in exceptional cases. For example, when the screw will be subject to counterclockwise torque, the right side pedal of a bicycle has a left-hand thread. More generally, screw may mean any helical device, such as a clamp, a micrometer, there is no universally accepted distinction between a screw and a bolt. So, as a rule, when buying a packet of screws you would not expect nuts to be included. Part of the confusion over this is due to regional or dialectical differences. An externally threaded fastener which is prevented from being turned during assembly, an externally threaded fastener that has thread form which prohibits assembly with a nut having a straight thread of multiple pitch length is a screw. This distinction is consistent with ASME B18.2.1 and some dictionary definitions for screw, some of these issues are discussed below, ASME standards specify a variety of Machine Screws in diameters ranging up to 0.75 in. These fasteners are used with nuts but also often driven into tapped holes. They might be considered a screw or a bolt based on the Machinerys Handbook distinction, ASME standard B18.2. 1-1996 specifies Hex Cap Screws that range in size from 0. 25–3 in in diameter. These fasteners are very similar to hex bolts and they differ mostly in that they are manufactured to tighter tolerances than the corresponding bolts. Machinerys Handbook refers parenthetically to these fasteners as Finished Hex Bolts, in 1991 responding to an influx of counterfeit fasteners Congress passed PL 101-592 Fastener Quality Act This resulted in the rewriting of specifications by the ASME B18 committee
30.
Chisel
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The handle and blade of some types of chisel are made of metal or of wood with a sharp edge in it. Chiselling use involves forcing the blade into some material to cut it, the driving force may be applied by pushing by hand, or by using a mallet or hammer. In industrial use, a ram or falling weight drives a chisel into the material. A gouge, one type of chisel, serves - particularly in woodworking, woodturning, gouges most frequently produce concave surfaces. A gouge typically has a U-shaped cross-section, chisel comes from the Old French cisel, modern ciseau, Late Latin cisellum, a cutting tool, from caedere, to cut. Chisels have a variety of uses. Many types of chisel have been devised, each suited to its intended use. Different types of chisel may be constructed differently, in terms of blade width or length, as well as shape. They may have a wooden or plastic handle attached using a tang or socket, woodworking chisels range from small hand tools for tiny details, to large chisels used to remove big sections of wood, in roughing out the shape of a pattern or design. Typically, in woodcarving, one starts with a larger tool, one of the largest types of chisel is the slick, used in timber frame construction and wooden shipbuilding. There are many types of woodworking chisels used for specific purposes, such as, Butt chisel, short chisel with beveled sides and straight edge for creating joints. Carving chisels, used for designs and sculpting, cutting edges are many, such as gouge, skew, parting, straight, paring. Corner chisel, resembles a punch and has an L-shaped cutting edge, cleans out square holes, mortises and corners with 90 degree angles. Bevel edge chisel, can get into acute angles with its bevelled edges, flooring chisel, cuts and lifts flooring materials for removal and repair, ideal for tongue-and-groove flooring. Framing chisel, usually used with mallet, similar to a chisel, except it has a longer. Slick, a large chisel driven by pressure, never struck. Mortise chisel, thick, rigid blade with cutting edge and deep, slightly tapered sides to make mortises. Paring chisel, has a long blade ideal for cleaning grooves, skew chisel, has a 60 degree cutting angle and is used for trimming and finishing
31.
File (tool)
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A file is a tool used to remove fine amounts of material from a workpiece. It is common in woodworking, metalworking, and other similar trade, most are hand tools, made of a case hardened steel bar of rectangular, square, triangular, or round cross-section, with one or more surfaces cut with sharp, generally parallel teeth. A narrow, pointed tang is common at one end, to which a handle may be fitted, a rasp is a form of file with distinct, individually cut teeth used for coarsely removing large amounts of material. Files have also developed with abrasive surfaces, such as natural or synthetic diamond grains or silicon carbide, allowing removal of material that would dull or resist metal. Relatedly, lapping is also ancient, with wood and beach sand offering a natural pair of lap. The Disston authors state, To abrade, or file, ancient man used sand, grit, coral, bone, fish skin, the Bronze Age and the Iron Age had various kinds of files and rasps. Archaeologists have discovered rasps made from bronze in Egypt, dating back to the years 1200–1000 BC, archaeologists have also discovered rasps made of iron used by the Assyrians, dating back to the 7th Century BC. During the Middle Ages files were already advanced, thanks to the extensive talents of blacksmiths. By the 11th century, there already existed hardened files that would seem quite modern even to todays eyes. For example, in the 13th century, ornamental iron work at Paris was done skillfully with the aid of files, but the process was a secret known only to a master craftsman. The Disston authors state, It was not until the fourteenth century, however, that those who practiced art in ironwork began to use tools, besides heat. This statement could mislead in the sense that stoning and lapping have never been rare activities among humans, but by the late Middle Ages, however, the transition was extensive. The Disston authors mention Nuremberg, Sheffield, and Remscheid as leading centers of production for files as well as tools in general, the activity in Remscheid reflects the metalworking spirit of the Rhine-Ruhr region in general rather than representing a single village of geniuses in isolation. Most files of the period were smithed by hand in a sequence in which the iron was forged, then the teeth were cut with a chisel, among the drawings of Leonardo da Vinci is a sketch of a machine tool for the cutting of files. Prior to the industrialization of machining and the development of parts during the 19th century. Component parts were roughly shaped by forging, casting, and by primitive machining operations and these components were then individually hand-fit for assembly by careful and deliberate filing. The potential precision of fitting is much higher than generally assumed. Locks, clocks, and firearms were manufactured in this way for centuries before the Industrial Revolution, machining in the mid-19th century was heavily dependent on filing, because milling practice was slowly evolving out of its infancy
32.
Tap and die
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Taps and dies are tools used to create screw threads, which is called threading. Many are cutting tools, others are forming tools, a tap is used to cut or form the female portion of the mating pair. A die is used to cut or form the male portion of the mating pair, the process of cutting or forming threads using a tap is called tapping, whereas the process using a die is called threading. Both tools can be used to clean up a thread, which is called chasing, however, using an ordinary tap or die to clean threads will generally result in the removal of some material, which will result in looser and weaker threads. Because of this, threads are typically cleaned using special taps and dies made for this purpose, chasers are made of softer materials and are not capable of cutting new threads, however they are still tighter fitting than actual fasteners and are fluted like regular taps and dies. One particularly common use is for automotive spark plug threads, which suffer from corrosion. As the loads grew ever heavier, bigger and stronger bolts were needed to resist breakage, some nuts and bolts were measured by the foot or yard. This development eventually led to a replacement of wood parts with metal parts of an identical measure. When a wooden part broke, it snapped, ripped. Metalworking taps and dies were made by their users during the 18th and 19th centuries, using such tools as lathes and files for the shaping. Thus builders of, for example, locomotives, firearms, or textile machinery were likely to make their own taps, during the 19th century the machining industries evolved greatly, and the practice of buying taps and dies from suppliers specializing in them gradually supplanted most such in-house work. Joseph Clement was one such early vendor of taps and dies, with the introduction of more advanced milling practice in the 1860s and 1870s, tasks such as cutting a taps flutes with a hand file became a thing of the past. In the early 20th century, thread-grinding practice went through significant evolution, further advancing the state of the art of cutting screw threads, including those of taps and dies. During the 19th and 20th centuries, thread standardization was evolving simultaneously with the techniques of thread generation, including taps, the largest tap and die company to exist in the United States was Greenfield Tap & Die of Greenfield, Massachusetts. GTD was so vital to the Allied war effort from 1940–1945 that anti-aircraft guns were placed around its campus in anticipation of possible Axis air attack. The GTD brand is now a part of Widia Products Group, a tap cuts a thread on the inside surface of a hole, creating a female surface which functions like a nut.5 threads of taper is typical. This feature enables a bottoming tap to cut threads to the bottom of a blind hole, in the US, they are commonly known as bottoming taps, but in Australia and Britain they are also known as plug taps. Intermediate tap, second tap, or plug tap The tap illustrated in the middle of the image has tapered cutting edges, the number of tapered threads typically ranges from 3 to 5
33.
Joseph Whitworth
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Sir Joseph Whitworth, 1st Baronet was an English engineer, entrepreneur, inventor and philanthropist. In 1841, he devised the British Standard Whitworth system, which created a standard for screw threads. Whitworth also created the Whitworth rifle, often called the sharpshooter because of its accuracy, at his death in 1887, he bequeathed much of his fortune for the people of Manchester, with the Whitworth Art Gallery and Christie Hospital partly funded by Whitworths money. Whitworth Street and Whitworth Hall in Manchester are named in his honour, Whitworth was created a baronet on 7 October 1869. Whitworth was born in Stockport, Cheshire, the son of Charles Whitworth, a teacher and Congregational minister and he was educated at Idle, near Bradford, West Riding of Yorkshire, his aptitude for mechanics became apparent when he began work for his uncle. After leaving school Whitworth became an apprentice to his uncle, Joseph Hulse. The plan was that Whitworth would become a partner in the business and this early exposure to the mechanics of the industry forged in him the ambition to make machinery with much greater precision. His apprenticeship at Amber Mill lasted for a term after which he worked for another four years as a mechanic in a factory in Manchester. He then moved to London where he found employment working for Henry Maudslay, Whitworth also worked for Holtzapffel & Co and Joseph Clement. While at Clements workshop he helped with the manufacture of Charles Babbages calculating machine and he returned to Openshaw, Manchester, in 1833 to start his own business manufacturing lathes and other machine tools, which became renowned for their high standard of workmanship. Whitworth is attributed with the introduction of the thou in 1844, in 1853, along with his lifelong friend, artist and art educator George Wallis, he was appointed a British commissioner for the New York International Exhibition. In 1850, architect Edward Walters was commissioned to build The Firs for Whitworth and this was a grand mansion at Fallowfield, Manchester, which still stands today, functioning as Chancellors Hotel & Conference Centre. Whitworth received many awards for the excellence of his designs and was very successful. In 1850, then a President of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, he built a house called The Firs in Fallowfield, in 1854 he bought Stancliffe Hall in Darley Dale, Derbyshire and moved there with his second wife Louisa in 1872. He supplied four six-ton blocks of stone from Darley Dale quarry and he was conferred with Honorary Membership of the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland in 1859. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1857, a strong believer in the value of technical education, Whitworth backed the new Mechanics Institute in Manchester and helped found the Manchester School of Design. In 1868, he founded the Whitworth Scholarship for the advancement of mechanical engineering and he donated a sum of £128,000 to the government in 1868 to bring science and industry closer together and to fund scholarships. In January 1887 at the age of 83, Sir Joseph Whitworth died in Monte Carlo where he had travelled in the hope of improving his health and he was buried at St Helens Church, Darley Dale, Derbyshire
34.
British Standard Whitworth
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These three are collectively called Whitworth threads. The Whitworth thread was the worlds first national screw thread standard, until then, the only standardization was what little had been done by individual people and companies, with some companies in-house standards spreading a bit within their industries. Whitworths new standard specified a 55° thread angle and a depth of 0. 640327p and a radius of 0. 137329p. The thread pitch increases with diameter in steps specified on a chart, the Whitworth thread system was later to be adopted as a British Standard to become British Standard Whitworth. An example of the use of the Whitworth thread are the Royal Navys Crimean War gunboats, there were just ninety days in which to meet this requisition, and, short as the time was, the building of the gunboats presented no difficulty. It was otherwise however with the engines, and the Admiralty were in despair, suddenly, by a flash of the mechanical genius which was inherent in him, the late Mr John Penn solved the difficulty, and solved it quite easily. He had a pair of engines on hand of the exact size and he took them to pieces and he distributed the parts among the best machine shops in the country, telling each to make ninety sets exactly in all respects to the sample. An original example of the gunboat type engine was raised from the wreck of the SS Xantho by the Western Australian Museum, on disassembly, all its threads were shown to be of the Whitworth type. In the USA, BSW was replaced when steel replaced iron. American Unified Coarse was originally based on almost the same Imperial fractions, the Unified thread angle is 60° and has flattened crests. From 1/4 in up to 1 1/2 in, thread pitch is the same in both systems except that the pitch for the 1/2 in bolt is 12 threads per inch in BSW versus 13 tpi in the UNC. The form of a Whitworth thread is based on a triangle with an angle of 55° at each peak. The sides are at a angle of Θ =27. 5° to the perpendicular to the axis. Thus, if the pitch is p, the height of the fundamental triangle is H = p/ =0. 96049106 p. However, the top and bottom 1⁄6 of each of these triangles is cut off, so the depth of thread is 2⁄3 of that value. The peaks are further reduced by rounding them with a 2× = 180°−55° = 125° circular arc and this arc has a height of e = H sin Θ/6 =0. 073917569 p and a radius of r = e/ =0. 13732908 p. The British Standard Fine standard has the same angle as the BSW. This is more like the modern mechanical screw and was used for fine machinery, the British Standard Cycle standard which replaced the Cycle Engineers Institute standard was used on British bicycles and motorcycles
35.
Royal Navy
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The Royal Navy is the United Kingdoms naval warfare force. Although warships were used by the English kings from the medieval period. The modern Royal Navy traces its origins to the early 16th century, from the middle decades of the 17th century and through the 18th century, the Royal Navy vied with the Dutch Navy and later with the French Navy for maritime supremacy. From the mid 18th century it was the worlds most powerful navy until surpassed by the United States Navy during the Second World War. The Royal Navy played a key part in establishing the British Empire as the world power during the 19th. Due to this historical prominence, it is common, even among non-Britons, following World War I, the Royal Navy was significantly reduced in size, although at the onset of the Second World War it was still the worlds largest. By the end of the war, however, the United States Navy had emerged as the worlds largest, during the Cold War, the Royal Navy transformed into a primarily anti-submarine force, hunting for Soviet submarines, mostly active in the GIUK gap. The Royal Navy is part of Her Majestys Naval Service, which includes the Royal Marines. The professional head of the Naval Service is the First Sea Lord, the Defence Council delegates management of the Naval Service to the Admiralty Board, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence. The strength of the fleet of the Kingdom of England was an important element in the power in the 10th century. English naval power declined as a result of the Norman conquest. Medieval fleets, in England as elsewhere, were almost entirely composed of merchant ships enlisted into service in time of war. Englands naval organisation was haphazard and the mobilisation of fleets when war broke out was slow, early in the war French plans for an invasion of England failed when Edward III of England destroyed the French fleet in the Battle of Sluys in 1340. Major fighting was confined to French soil and Englands naval capabilities sufficed to transport armies and supplies safely to their continental destinations. Such raids halted finally only with the occupation of northern France by Henry V. Henry VII deserves a large share of credit in the establishment of a standing navy and he embarked on a program of building ships larger than heretofore. He also invested in dockyards, and commissioned the oldest surviving dry dock in 1495 at Portsmouth, a standing Navy Royal, with its own secretariat, dockyards and a permanent core of purpose-built warships, emerged during the reign of Henry VIII. Under Elizabeth I England became involved in a war with Spain, the new regimes introduction of Navigation Acts, providing that all merchant shipping to and from England or her colonies should be carried out by English ships, led to war with the Dutch Republic. In the early stages of this First Anglo-Dutch War, the superiority of the large, heavily armed English ships was offset by superior Dutch tactical organisation and the fighting was inconclusive
36.
Crimean War
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The Crimean War was a military conflict fought from October 1853 to March 1856 in which the Russian Empire lost to an alliance of France, Britain, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia. The immediate cause involved the rights of Christian minorities in the Holy Land, the French promoted the rights of Roman Catholics, while Russia promoted those of the Eastern Orthodox Church. The longer-term causes involved the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the unwillingness of Britain and France to allow Russia to gain territory and power at Ottoman expense. While the churches eventually worked out their differences and came to an agreement, Nicholas I of Russia, Nicholas issued an ultimatum that the Orthodox subjects of the Empire be placed under his protection. Britain attempted to mediate and arranged a compromise that Nicholas agreed to, when the Ottomans demanded changes, Nicholas refused and prepared for war. Having obtained promises of support from France and Britain, the Ottomans declared war on Russia in October 1853. The war started in the Balkans, when Russian troops occupied the Danubian Principalities, until then under Ottoman suzerainty and now part of modern Romania, led by Omar Pasha, the Ottomans fought a strong defensive campaign and stopped the advance at Silistra. A separate action on the town of Kars in eastern Anatolia led to a siege. Fearing an Ottoman collapse, France and Britain rushed forces to Gallipoli and they then moved north to Varna in June, arriving just in time for the Russians to abandon Silistra. Aside from a skirmish at Köstence, there was little for the allies to do. Karl Marx quipped that there they are, the French doing nothing, after extended preparations, the forces landed on the peninsula in September 1854 and fought their way to a point south of Sevastopol after a series of successful battles. The Russians counterattacked on 25 October in what became the Battle of Balaclava and were repulsed, a second counterattack, ordered personally by Nicholas, was defeated by Omar Pasha. The front settled into a siege and led to conditions for troops on both sides. Smaller actions were carried out in the Baltic, the Caucasus, Sevastopol fell after eleven months, and neutral countries began to join the Allied cause. Isolated and facing a bleak prospect of invasion from the west if the war continued and this was welcomed by France and Britain, as their subjects were beginning to turn against their governments as the war dragged on. The war was ended by the Treaty of Paris, signed on 30 March 1856, Russia was forbidden from hosting warships in the Black Sea. The Ottoman vassal states of Wallachia and Moldavia became largely independent, Christians there were granted a degree of official equality, and the Orthodox Church regained control of the Christian churches in dispute. The Crimean War was one of the first conflicts to use technologies such as explosive naval shells, railways
37.
Rail transport
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Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
38.
Unified Thread Standard
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The Unified Thread Standard defines a standard thread form and series—along with allowances, tolerances, and designations—for screw threads commonly used in the United States and Canada. It is the standard for bolts, nuts, and a wide variety of other threaded fasteners used in these countries. It has the same 60° profile as the ISO metric screw thread, the UTS is currently controlled by ASME/ANSI in the United States. See the History of standardization section of the screw thread article, each thread in the series is characterized by its major diameter Dmaj and its pitch, P. UTS threads consist of a symmetric V-shaped thread. In the plane of the axis, the flanks of the V have an angle of 60° to each other. The outermost 0.125 and the innermost 0.25 of the height H of the V-shape are cut off from the profile, the pitch P is the distance between thread peaks. For UTS threads, which are threads, it is equal to the lead. UTS threads do not usually use the pitch parameter, instead a parameter known as threads per inch is used and this means that the external thread must end flat at Dmaj, but can be rounded out below the minor diameter Dmin. Conversely, in a thread, the major and minor diameters are minimum dimensions, therefore the thread profile must end flat at Dmin. For diameters smaller than 1⁄4 inch, the diameter is indicated by a number defined in the standard, for all other diameters. This number pair is followed by the letters UNC, UNF or UNEF if the diameter-pitch combination is from the coarse, fine or extra fine series. After several decades 1-14 fasteners have now come to be referred to as “Standard Fine Thread” or “UNF”. In other words, the 1-12 standard has lacked effective enforcement for a long time to give Generic trademark-like status to 1 inch 14 tpi fasteners. The following formula is used to calculate the diameter of a numbered screw greater than or equal to 0. For example, a number 10 calculates as, #10 ×0.013 in +0.060 in =0.190 in major diameter. To calculate the diameter of “ought” size screws count the number of extra 0’s and multiply this number by.013. For example the major diameter of a 0000 screw thread is.060 – =. 060-.039 =.021 inches and this defines a series of metric screws named after their major diameters in mm, from 0.30 UNM to 1.40 UNM. Preferred sizes are 0.3,0.4,0.5,0.6,0.8,1.0 and 1.2 mm, the standard thread pitch is approximately 1/4 of the major diameter
39.
The Times
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The Times is a British daily national newspaper based in London, England. It began in 1785 under the title The Daily Universal Register, the Times and its sister paper The Sunday Times are published by Times Newspapers, since 1981 a subsidiary of News UK, itself wholly owned by News Corp. The Times and The Sunday Times do not share editorial staff, were founded independently and have only had common ownership since 1967 and its news and its editorial comment have in general been carefully coordinated, and have at most times been handled with an earnest sense of responsibility. While the paper has admitted some trivia to its columns, its emphasis has been on important public affairs treated with an eye to the best interests of Britain. To guide this treatment, the editors have for long periods been in touch with 10 Downing Street. In these countries, the newspaper is often referred to as The London Times or The Times of London, although the newspaper is of national scope, in November 2006 The Times began printing headlines in a new font, Times Modern. The Times was printed in broadsheet format for 219 years, the Sunday Times remains a broadsheet. The Times had a daily circulation of 446,164 in December 2016, in the same period. An American edition of The Times has been published since 6 June 2006 and it has been heavily used by scholars and researchers because of its widespread availability in libraries and its detailed index. A complete historical file of the paper, up to 2010, is online from Gale Cengage Learning. The Times was founded by publisher John Walter on 1 January 1785 as The Daily Universal Register, Walter had lost his job by the end of 1784 after the insurance company where he was working went bankrupt because of the complaints of a Jamaican hurricane. Being unemployed, Walter decided to set a new business up and it was in that time when Henry Johnson invented the logography, a new typography that was faster and more precise. Walter bought the patent and to use it, he decided to open a printing house. The first publication of the newspaper The Daily Universal Register in Great Britain was 1 January 1785, unhappy because people always omitted the word Universal, Ellias changed the title after 940 editions on 1 January 1788 to The Times. In 1803, Walter handed ownership and editorship to his son of the same name, the Times used contributions from significant figures in the fields of politics, science, literature, and the arts to build its reputation. For much of its life, the profits of The Times were very large. Beginning in 1814, the paper was printed on the new steam-driven cylinder press developed by Friedrich Koenig, in 1815, The Times had a circulation of 5,000. Thomas Barnes was appointed editor in 1817
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BSI Group
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BSI Group, also known as the British Standards Institution, is the national standards body of the United Kingdom. BSI produces technical standards on a range of products and services. BSI Group was founded as the Engineering Standards Committee in London in 1901, in 1998 a revision of the Charter enabled the organization to diversify and acquire other businesses, and the trading name was changed to BSI Group. The Group now operates in 182 countries, the core business remains standards and standards related services, although the majority of the Groups revenue comes from management systems assessment and certification work. BSI produces British Standards, and, as the UK’s National Standards Body, is responsible for the UK publication, in English, of international. BSI is obliged to adopt and publish all European Standards as identical British Standards, however, it has the option to adopt and publish international standards. In response to demands, BSI also produces commissioned standards products such as Publicly Available Specifications, Private Standards. These products are commissioned by organizations and trade associations to meet their needs for standardised specifications. Because they are not subject to the consultation and consensus requirements as formal standards. BSI also publishes standards-related books, CD-ROMs, subscription products and web-based solutions as well as providing training on standards-related issues, with 80,000 clients, BSI Group is one of the world’s largest certification bodies. It audits and provides certification to companies worldwide who implement management systems standards, BSI also runs training courses that cover the implementation and auditing requirements of national and international management systems standards. AS9100, AS9110, AS9120 Aerospace EU Emissions Trading System Within Testing Services, BSIs best known product in the UK is the Kitemark, BSI also conducts testing of products for a range of certifications, including for CE marking. CE marking must be applied to a range of products intended for sale in the European Economic Area. Frequently manufacturers or importers need a third-party certification of their product from an accredited or ‘Notified’ body, BSI holds Notified Body status for 15 EU Directives, including construction products, marine equipment, pressurised equipment and personal protective equipment. It is the leader in the USA, the world’s biggest healthcare market. BSI is the world’s first national standards body, BSI created one of the world’s first quality marks in 1903, when the letters ‘B’ and ‘S’ were combined with V to produce the Kitemark logo. BSI was instrumental in the formation of ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, in 1947 and of its European equivalent, CEN, BSI published the world’s first environmental management standard, BS7750, in 1992. This led to the publication of the first international environmental management standard, ISO14001, BSI also published the world’s first sustainability standard, BS8900, in 2006
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World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
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American National Standards Institute
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The organization also coordinates U. S. standards with international standards so that American products can be used worldwide. ANSI accredits standards that are developed by representatives of other organizations, government agencies, consumer groups, companies. These standards ensure that the characteristics and performance of products are consistent, that use the same definitions and terms. ANSI also accredits organizations that carry out product or personnel certification in accordance with requirements defined in international standards, the organizations headquarters are in Washington, DC. ANSIs operations office is located in New York City, the ANSI annual operating budget is funded by the sale of publications, membership dues and fees, accreditation services, fee-based programs, and international standards programs. ANSI was originally formed in 1918, when five engineering societies, in 1928, the AESC became the American Standards Association. In 1966, the ASA was reorganized and became United States of America Standards Institute, the present name was adopted in 1969. At the behest of the AIEE, they invited the U. S. government Departments of War, Navy, according to Adam Stanton, the first permanent secretary and head of staff in 1919, AESC started as an ambitious program and little else. Staff for the first year consisted of one executive, Clifford B, lePage, who was on loan from a founding member, ASME. An annual budget of $7,500 was provided by the founding bodies, aNSIs members are government agencies, organizations, corporations, academic and international bodies, and individuals. In total, the Institute represents the interests of more than 125,000 companies and 3.5 million professionals, though ANSI itself does not develop standards, the Institute oversees the development and use of standards by accrediting the procedures of standards developing organizations. ANSI accreditation signifies that the used by standards developing organizations meet the Institutes requirements for openness, balance, consensus. Voluntary consensus standards quicken the market acceptance of products while making clear how to improve the safety of products for the protection of consumers. There are approximately 9,500 American National Standards that carry the ANSI designation, the Institute is the official U. S. S. ANSI participates in almost the entire program of both the ISO and the IEC, and administers many key committees and subgroups. In many instances, U. S. standards are taken forward to ISO and IEC, through ANSI or the USNC, in 2009, ANSI and the National Institute of Standards and Technology formed the Nuclear Energy Standards Coordination Collaborative. NESCC is a joint initiative to identify and respond to the current need for standards in the nuclear industry. The ASA photographic exposure system, originally defined in ASA Z38.2.1 and ASA PH2.5, together with the DIN system, became the basis for the ISO system, a standard for the set of values used to represent characters in digital computers
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William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin
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William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, OM, GCVO, PC, FRS, FRSE was a Scots-Irish mathematical physicist and engineer who was born in Belfast in 1824. He worked closely with mathematics professor Hugh Blackburn in his work and he also had a career as an electric telegraph engineer and inventor, which propelled him into the public eye and ensured his wealth, fame and honour. For his work on the telegraph project he was knighted in 1866 by Queen Victoria. He had extensive maritime interests and was most noted for his work on the mariners compass, absolute temperatures are stated in units of kelvin in his honour. He was ennobled in 1892 in recognition of his achievements in thermodynamics and he was the first British scientist to be elevated to the House of Lords. The title refers to the River Kelvin, which close by his laboratory at the University of Glasgow. His home was the red sandstone mansion Netherhall, in Largs. William Thomsons father, James Thomson, was a teacher of mathematics and engineering at Royal Belfast Academical Institution, James Thomson married Margaret Gardner in 1817 and, of their children, four boys and two girls survived infancy. Margaret Thomson died in 1830 when William was six years old, William and his elder brother James were tutored at home by their father while the younger boys were tutored by their elder sisters. James was intended to benefit from the share of his fathers encouragement, affection. In 1832, his father was appointed professor of mathematics at Glasgow, the Thomson children were introduced to a broader cosmopolitan experience than their fathers rural upbringing, spending mid-1839 in London and the boys were tutored in French in Paris. Mid-1840 was spent in Germany and the Netherlands, language study was given a high priority. His sister, Anna Thomson, was the mother of James Thomson Bottomley FRSE, Thomson had heart problems and nearly died when he was 9 years old. In school, Thomson showed a keen interest in the classics along with his natural interest in the sciences, at the age of 12 he won a prize for translating Lucian of Samosatas Dialogues of the Gods from Latin to English. In the academic year 1839/1840, Thomson won the prize in astronomy for his Essay on the figure of the Earth which showed an early facility for mathematical analysis. Throughout his life, he would work on the problems raised in the essay as a strategy during times of personal stress. On the title page of this essay Thomson wrote the lines from Alexander Popes Essay on Man. These lines inspired Thomson to understand the world using the power and method of science, Go
