1.
Indian reservation
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Each of the 326 Indian reservations in the United States are associated with a particular Nation. Not all of the countrys 567 recognized tribes have a reservation—some tribes have more than one reservation, some share reservations and this jumble of private and public real estate creates significant administrative, political, and legal difficulties. The collective geographical area of all reservations is 56,200,000 acres, while most reservations are small compared to US states, there are 12 Indian reservations larger than the state of Rhode Island. The largest reservation, the Navajo Nation Reservation, is similar in size to West Virginia, Reservations are unevenly distributed throughout the country, the majority are west of the Mississippi River and occupy lands that were first reserved by treaty or granted from the public domain. Because tribes possess tribal sovereignty, even though it is limited and these laws can permit legal casinos on reservations, for example, which attract tourists. The tribal council, not the local or federal government, generally has jurisdiction over reservations, different reservations have different systems of government, which may or may not replicate the forms of government found outside the reservation. Most Native American reservations were established by the government, a limited number, mainly in the East. The name reservation comes from the conception of the Native American tribes as independent sovereigns at the time the U. S, the term remained in use even after the federal government began to forcibly relocate tribes to parcels of land to which they had no historical connection. A majority of Native Americans and Alaska Natives live somewhere other than the reservations, often in big cities such as Phoenix. In 2012, there were over 2.5 million Native Americans with about 1 million living on reservations, from the beginning of the European colonization of the Americas, Europeans often removed native peoples from lands they wished to occupy. The means varied, including voluntary moves based on agreement, treaties made under considerable duress, forceful ejection. The removal caused many problems such as tribes losing means of livelihood by being subjected to an area, farmers having inadmissible land for agriculture. In 1764 the “Plan for the Future Management of Indian Affairs” was proposed by the Board of Trade, additionally, this plan dictated that the Indians would be properly consulted when ascertaining and defining the boundaries of colonial settlement. For much of North America, the American Revolution was more of a battle against the Indians than a war against the British, the treaty was seen by Americans as a confirmation of their conquest of Indian land. The private contracts that once characterized the sale of Indian land to various individuals and this protocol was adopted by the United States Government after the America Revolution. On March 11,1824, John C. Calhoun founded the Office of Indian Affairs as a division of the United States Department of War, to solve the land problem with 38 treaties with American Indian tribes. The passage of the Indian Removal Act of 1830 marked the systematization of a US federal government policy of forcibly moving Native populations away from European-populated areas, some of the lands these tribes were given to inhabit following the removals eventually became Indian Reservations. In 1851, the United States Congress passed the Indian Appropriations Act which authorized the creation of Indian reservations in modern-day Oklahoma, relations between settlers and natives had grown increasingly worse as the settlers encroached on territory and natural resources in the West
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
4.
North Dakota
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North Dakota is the 39th state of the United States, having been admitted to the union on November 2,1889. The state capital is Bismarck, and the largest city is Fargo, North Dakota is the 19th most extensive but the 4th least populous and the 4th least densely populated of the 50 United States. The development has driven strong job and population growth, and low unemployment, North Dakota is located in the U. S. region known as the Great Plains. The state shares the Red River of the North with Minnesota on the east, South Dakota is to the south, Montana is to the west, and the Canadian provinces of Saskatchewan and Manitoba are to the north. North Dakota is situated near the middle of North America with a marker in Rugby. With an area of 70,762 square miles, North Dakota is the 19th largest state, the western half of the state consists of the hilly Great Plains as well as the northern part of the Badlands, which are to the west of the Missouri River. The states high point, White Butte at 3,506 feet, the region is abundant in fossil fuels including natural gas, crude oil and lignite coal. The Missouri River forms Lake Sakakawea, the third largest man-made lake in the United States, the central region of the state is divided into the Drift Prairie and the Missouri Plateau. The eastern part of the consists of the flat Red River Valley. Its fertile soil, drained by the meandering Red River flowing northward into Lake Winnipeg, Devils Lake, the largest natural lake in the state, is also found in the east. Eastern North Dakota is overall flat, however, there are significant hills, most of the state is covered in grassland, crops cover most of eastern North Dakota but become increasingly sparse in the center and farther west. This diverse terrain supports nearly 2,000 species of plants, the state of North Dakota is home to the geographical center of North America located near Rugby, North Dakota North Dakota has a continental climate with hot summers and cold winters. The temperature differences are rather extreme because of its far inland position and being in the center of the Northern Hemisphere, with equal distances to the North Pole. As such, summers are almost subtropical in nature, but winters are cold enough to plant hardiness is very low. Native American peoples lived in what is now North Dakota for thousands of years before the coming of Europeans and their tribes included the Mandan people, the Dakota people and the Yanktonai, the latter two from the Lakota peoples. The first European to reach the area was the French-Canadian trader Pierre Gaultier, sieur de La Vérendrye, in 1762 the region became part of Spanish Louisiana until 1802. Dakota Territory was settled sparsely by European Americans until the late 19th century, with the advantage of grants of land, they vigorously marketed their properties, extolling the region as ideal for agriculture. An omnibus bill for statehood for North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana and his successor, Benjamin Harrison, signed the proclamations formally admitting North Dakota and South Dakota to the Union on November 2,1889
5.
South Dakota
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South Dakota is a state located in the Midwestern region of the United States. It is named after the Lakota and Dakota Sioux Native American tribes, South Dakota is the 17th most expansive, but the 5th least populous and the 5th least densely populated of the 50 United States. Once the southern portion of the Dakota Territory, South Dakota became a state on November 2,1889, Pierre is the state capital and Sioux Falls, with a population of about 171,000, is South Dakotas largest city. South Dakota is bordered by the states of North Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska, Wyoming, the state is bisected by the Missouri River, dividing South Dakota into two geographically and socially distinct halves, known to residents as East River and West River. Eastern South Dakota is home to most of the states population, West of the Missouri, ranching is the predominant agricultural activity, and the economy is more dependent on tourism and defense spending. Most of the Native American reservations are located in West River, the Black Hills, a group of low pine-covered mountains sacred to the Sioux, are located in the southwest part of the state. Mount Rushmore, a major tourist destination, is located there, South Dakota experiences a temperate continental climate, with four distinct seasons and precipitation ranging from moderate in the east to semi-arid in the west. The ecology of the state features species typical of a North American grassland biome, humans have inhabited the area for several millennia, with the Sioux becoming dominant by the early 19th century. In the late 19th century, European-American settlement intensified after a rush in the Black Hills. Encroaching miners and settlers triggered a number of Indian wars, ending with the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890, historically dominated by an agricultural economy and a rural lifestyle, South Dakota has recently sought to diversify its economy in areas to attract and retain residents. South Dakotas history and rural character still strongly influence the culture of the state, South Dakota is situated in the north-central United States, and is considered a part of the Midwest by the U. S. Census Bureau, it is also part of the Great Plains region. The culture, economy, and geography of western South Dakota have more in common with the West than the Midwest, South Dakota has a total area of 77,116 square miles, making the state the 17th largest in the Union. Black Elk Peak, formerly named Harney Peak, with an elevation of 7,242 ft, is the states highest point, while the shoreline of Big Stone Lake is the lowest, with an elevation of 966 ft. South Dakota is bordered to the north by North Dakota, to the south by Nebraska, to the east by Iowa and Minnesota, the geographical center of the U. S. is 17 miles west of Castle Rock in Butte County. The North American continental pole of inaccessibility is located between Allen and Kyle,1,024 mi from the nearest coastline, the Missouri River is the largest and longest river in the state. Other major South Dakota rivers include the Cheyenne, James, Big Sioux, Eastern South Dakota has many natural lakes, mostly created by periods of glaciation. Additionally, dams on the Missouri River create four large reservoirs, Lake Oahe, Lake Sharpe, Lake Francis Case, South Dakota can generally be divided into three regions, eastern South Dakota, western South Dakota, and the Black Hills. The Missouri River serves as a boundary in terms of geographic, social, at times the Black Hills are combined with the rest of western South Dakota, and people often refer to the resulting two regions divided by the Missouri River as West River and East River
6.
Sioux County, North Dakota
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Sioux County is a county located along the southern border of the U. S. state of North Dakota. As of the 2010 census, the population was 4,153 and its eastern border is the Missouri River and its county seat is Fort Yates. The county was created by proclamation of Governor Louis B, hanna on September 3,1914 and named after the Native American Lakota, whose historic territory included this area and much more. The county government was first organized on September 12,1914, the county lies entirely within the Standing Rock Indian Reservation, forming the northernmost 30 percent of the reservation. It is the county in North Dakota that is entirely within an Indian reservation. Sioux County is included in the Bismarck, ND Metropolitan Statistical Area, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 1,128 square miles, of which 1,094 square miles is land and 34 square miles is water. The population density was 4 people per square mile, there were 1,216 housing units at an average density of 1 per square mile. 1. 61% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,16. 60% of all households were made up of individuals and 4. 40% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.63 and the family size was 3.98. In the county, the population was out with 40. 30% under the age of 18,11. 10% from 18 to 24,26. 90% from 25 to 44,16. 20% from 45 to 64. The median age was 24 years, for every 100 females there were 104.20 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 99.70 males, the median income for a household in the county was $22,483, and the median income for a family was $24,000. Males had an income of $22,039 versus $19,458 for females. The per capita income for the county was $7,731, about 33. 60% of families and 39. 20% of the population were below the poverty line, including 44. 40% of those under age 18 and 25. 80% of those age 65 or over. The countys per-capita income makes it one of the poorest counties in the United States, as of the 2010 United States Census, there were 4,153 people,1,158 households, and 900 families residing in the county. The population density was 3.8 inhabitants per square mile, there were 1,311 housing units at an average density of 1.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 84. 1% American Indian,12. 6% white,0. 2% black or African American,0. 1% Asian,0. 1% from other races, and 2. 9% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 2. 0% of the population, in terms of ancestry,13. 5% were German, and 0. 3% were American
7.
Corson County, South Dakota
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Corson County is a county located in the U. S. state of South Dakota. As of the 2010 census, the population was 4,050, the county was named for Dighton Corson, a native of Maine, who came to the Black Hills in 1876, and in 1877 began practicing law at Deadwood. The county is encompassed within the Standing Rock Indian Reservation, which extends into North Dakota, the Lakota people reside primarily in the South Dakota part of the reservation, the Yanktonai and Dakota live in that part in North Dakota. The Grand River, a tributary of the Missouri River, runs through the reservation. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 2,530 square miles. It is the fifth-largest county in South Dakota by area, the entire county lies within the Standing Rock Indian Reservation, which also includes Sioux, Ziebach, and Dewey counties. The population density was 1.7 people per square mile, there were 1,536 housing units at an average density of 0.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 60. 80% Native American,37. 19% White,0. 10% Black or African American,0. 05% Asian,0. 22% from other races,2. 13% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 22. 1% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 3.29 and the average family size was 3.82. In the county, the population was out with 36. 9% under the age of 18,9. 8% from 18 to 24,24. 3% from 25 to 44,18. 5% from 45 to 64. The median age was 28 years, for every 100 females there were 102.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.8 males, the median income for a household in the county was $20,654, and the median income for a family was $23,889. Males had an income of $22,717 versus $19,609 for females. The per capita income for the county was $8,615, about 32. 80% of families and 41. 00% of the population were below the poverty line, including 48. 60% of those under age 18 and 32. 70% of those age 65 or over. The countys per-capita income makes it one of the poorest counties in the United States, as of the 2010 United States Census, there were 4,050 people,1,260 households, and 939 families residing in the county. The population density was 1.6 inhabitants per square mile, there were 1,540 housing units at an average density of 0.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 67. 0% American Indian,29. 7% white,0. 3% Asian,0. 1% black or African American,0. 3% from other races, and 2. 6% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 2. 6% of the population, the average household size was 3.21 and the average family size was 3.73
8.
Dewey County, South Dakota
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Dewey County is a county located in the U. S. state of South Dakota. As of the 2010 census, the population was 5,301 and its county seat is Timber Lake. The county was created in 1883 and organized in 1910 and it was named for William P. Dewey, Territorial surveyor-general from 1873 to 1877. Almost the entire county lies in the Cheyenne River Indian Reservation, the balance of the county, along its extreme northern county line, lies in the Standing Rock Indian Reservation. It is one of five South Dakota counties that are contained within Indian reservations. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 2,445 square miles. The population density was 3 people per square mile, there were 2,133 housing units at an average density of 1 per square mile. 0. 85% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,14. 2% were of German ancestry according to Census 2000. 84. 6% spoke English and 14. 4% Dakota as their first language,22. 10% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 90% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.15 and the family size was 3.66. In the county, the population was out with 38. 90% under the age of 18,9. 00% from 18 to 24,27. 20% from 25 to 44,16. 60% from 45 to 64. The median age was 26 years, for every 100 females there were 95.90 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.00 males, the median income for a household in the county was $23,272, and the median income for a family was $24,917. Males had an income of $21,522 versus $18,777 for females. The per capita income for the county was $9,251, about 29. 80% of families and 33. 60% of the population were below the poverty line, including 37. 70% of those under age 18 and 28. 50% of those age 65 or over. The countys per-capita income makes it one of the poorest counties in the United States, as of the 2010 United States Census, there were 5,301 people,1,730 households, and 1,239 families residing in the county. The population density was 2.3 inhabitants per square mile, there were 2,002 housing units at an average density of 0.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 74. 9% American Indian,21. 0% white,0. 2% Asian,0. 1% black or African American,0. 2% from other races, and 3. 6% from two or more races
9.
Ziebach County, South Dakota
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Ziebach County is a county located in the U. S. state of South Dakota. As of the 2010 census, the population was 2,801 and it is the last county in the United States alphabetically. The countys per-capita income makes it the fourth poorest county in the United States, however, another study states that the county is the poorest in the nation. Ziebach County was created in 1911, encompassing parts of the counties of Schnasse, Armstrong and Sterling. It was named for Frank M. Ziebach, a political figure in the Dakota Territory during the territorial period from 1861 to 1889. Previously the area had used by trappers and in 1907 part was briefly a reservation for Ute Indians displaced from Utah. Early in the 20th Century cattle were raised in substantial numbers, limited homesteading also occurred on the more fertile lands. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 1,971 square miles. Almost the entire county lies within the Cheyenne River Indian Reservation, the balance of the county, along its extreme northern county line, lies within the Standing Rock Indian Reservation. It is one of five South Dakota counties that lie entirely on Indian reservations, Ziebach County is part of the Great Plains and is characterized by rolling grasslands and numerous buttes. S. The population density was 1.3 people per square mile, there were 879 housing units at an average density of 0.4 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 72. 29% Native American,26. 40% White,0. 08% Asian,0. 12% from other races,0. 99% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 17. 4% of all households were made up of individuals and 5. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 3.40 and the average family size was 3.81. In the county, the population was out with 40. 6% under the age of 18,10. 8% from 18 to 24,24. 7% from 25 to 44,16. 5% from 45 to 64. The median age was 24 years, for every 100 females there were 97.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.1 males, the median income for a household in the county was $18,063, and the median income for a family was $18,672. Males had an income of $19,038 versus $21,167 for females. The per capita income for the county was $7,463, about 45. 20% of families and 49. 90% of the population were below the poverty line, including 61. 10% of those under age 18 and 27. 20% of those age 65 or over
10.
2010 United States Census
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The 2010 United States Census, is the twenty-third and currently most recent United States national census. National Census Day, the day used for the census, was April 1,2010. As part of a drive to increase the accuracy,635,000 temporary enumerators were hired. The population of the United States was counted as 308,745,538, as required by the United States Constitution, the U. S. census has been conducted every 10 years since 1790. The 2000 U. S. Census was the previous census completed, participation in the U. S. Census is required by law in Title 13 of the United States Code. On January 25,2010, Census Bureau Director Robert Groves personally inaugurated the 2010 Census enumeration by counting World War II veteran Clifton Jackson, more than 120 million census forms were delivered by the U. S. Post Office beginning March 15,2010, the number of forms mailed out or hand-delivered by the Census Bureau was approximately 134 million on April 1,2010. The 2010 Census national mail participation rate was 74%, from April through July 2010, census takers visited households that did not return a form, an operation called non-response follow-up. In December 2010, the Census Bureau delivered population information to the president for apportionment, personally identifiable information will be available in 2082. The Census Bureau did not use a form for the 2010 Census. In several previous censuses, one in six households received this long form, the 2010 Census used only a short form asking ten basic questions, How many people were living or staying in this house, apartment, or mobile home on April 1,2010. Were there any additional people staying here on April 1,2010 that you did not include in Question 1, mark all that apply, Is this house, apartment, or mobile home – What is your telephone number. What is Person 1s age and Person 1s date of birth, is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin. Does Person 1 sometimes live or stay somewhere else, the form included space to repeat some or all of these questions for up to twelve residents total. In contrast to the 2000 census, an Internet response option was not offered, detailed socioeconomic information collected during past censuses will continue to be collected through the American Community Survey. The survey provides data about communities in the United States on a 1-year or 3-year cycle, depending on the size of the community, rather than once every 10 years. A small percentage of the population on a basis will receive the survey each year. In June 2009, the U. S. Census Bureau announced that it would count same-sex married couples, however, the final form did not contain a separate same-sex married couple option
11.
Central Time Zone
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The North American Central Time Zone is a time zone in parts of Canada, the United States, Mexico, Central America, some Caribbean Islands, and part of the Eastern Pacific Ocean. Central Standard Time is six hours behind Coordinated Universal Time, during summer most of the zone uses daylight saving time, and changes to Central Daylight Time which is five hours behind UTC. The province of Manitoba is the province or territory in Canada that observes Central Time in all areas. Also, most of the province of Saskatchewan is on Central Standard Time year-round, major exceptions include Lloydminster, a city situated on the boundary between Alberta and Saskatchewan. The city charter stipulates that it shall observe Mountain Time and DST, putting the community on the time as all of Alberta, including the major cities of Calgary. As a result, during the summer, clocks in the province match those in Alberta. The Central Time Zone is the second most populous in the US after the Eastern Time Zone, lanett and Valley observe Eastern Time historically because they were textile mill towns and the original home office of their mills was in West Point, Georgia. Some eastern counties observe Central Time because they are close to the border of the Middle Tennessee counties surrounding the Nashville metropolitan area. Louisiana Michigan, All of Michigan observes Eastern Time except the four Upper Peninsula counties that border Wisconsin, other westernmost counties from this area such as Ontonagon observe Eastern Time. South Dakota, Eastern half as divided by the Missouri river adjacent to the state capital, note, the metropolitan area of Pierre is Central, including Fort Pierre. Wisconsin Most of Mexico—roughly the eastern three-fourths—lies in the Central Time Zone, except for six northwestern states, the federal entities of Mexico that observe Central Time, Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua all use Central Standard Time year-round. The Galápagos Islands in Ecuador uses Central Standard Time all year-round, Daylight saving time is in effect in much of the Central time zone between mid-March and early November. The modified time is called Central Daylight Time and is UTC−5, in Canada, Saskatchewan does not observe a time change. One reason that Saskatchewan does not take part in a change is that, geographically. The province elected to move onto permanent daylight saving by being part of the Central Time Zone, Mexico decided not to go along with this change and observes their horario de verano from the first Sunday in April to the last Sunday in October. In December 2009, the Mexican Congress allowed ten border cities, eight of which are in states that observe Central Time, to adopt the U. S. daylight time schedule effective in 2010
12.
UTC-5
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UTC−05,00 is a time offset that subtracts five hours from Coordinated Universal Time. In North America, it is observed in the Eastern Time Zone during standard time, the western Caribbean uses it year round. The southwestern and northwestern portions of Indiana Mexico – Central Zone Central, in most of Mexico, daylight time starts a few weeks after the United States. Communities on the U. S. border that observe Central Time follow the U. S. daylight time schedule
13.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
14.
ZIP Code
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ZIP Codes are a system of postal codes used by the United States Postal Service since 1963. The term ZIP, an acronym for Zone Improvement Plan, was chosen to suggest that the travels more efficiently, and therefore more quickly. The basic format consists of five numerical digits, an extended ZIP+4 code, introduced in 1983, includes the five digits of the ZIP Code, a hyphen, and four additional digits that determine a more specific location within a given ZIP Code. The term ZIP Code was originally registered as a servicemark by the U. S. Postal Service, USPS style for ZIP is all caps and the c in code is also capitalized, although style sheets for some publications use sentence case or lowercase. The early history and context of postal codes began with postal district/zone numbers, the United States Post Office Department implemented postal zones for numerous large cities in 1943. For example, Mr. John Smith 3256 Epiphenomenal Avenue Minneapolis 16, by the early 1960s a more organized system was needed, and on July 1,1963, non-mandatory five-digit ZIP Codes were introduced nationwide. Three months later, on October 1,1963, the U. S, an earlier list in June had proposed capitalized abbreviations ranging from two to five letters. The abbreviations have remained unchanged, with one exception, according to the historian of the U. S. Robert Moon, an employee of the post office, is considered the father of the ZIP Code, he submitted his proposal in 1944 while working as a postal inspector. The post office gives credit to Moon only for the first three digits of the ZIP Code, which describe the sectional center facility or sec center, an SCF is a central mail processing facility with those three digits. The SCF sorts mail to all post offices with those first three digits in their ZIP Codes, the mail is sorted according to the final two digits of the ZIP Code and sent to the corresponding post offices in the early morning. Sectional centers do not deliver mail and are not open to the public, Mail picked up at post offices is sent to their own SCF in the afternoon, where the mail is sorted overnight. The United States Post Office used a character, which it called Mr. ZIP. He was often depicted with a such as USE ZIP CODE in the selvage of panes of stamps or on labels contained in, or the covers of. In 1983, the U. S. Postal Service introduced an expanded ZIP Code system that it called ZIP+4, often called plus-four codes, add-on codes, or add ons. But initial attempts to promote use of the new format met with public resistance. For Post Office Boxes, the rule is that each box has its own ZIP+4 code. However, there is no rule, so the ZIP+4 Code must be looked up individually for each box. It is common to use add-on code 9998 for mail addressed to the postmaster,9999 for general delivery, for a unique ZIP Code, the add-on code is typically 0001
15.
Area code 701
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Area code 701 is an area code used to address long distance calls to, and within, the state of North Dakota, which is part of the North American Numbering Plan. It is one of the 86 original area codes created by AT&T in 1947,701 is divided between the Bismarck and Fargo LATAs. It is one of only a few area codes in the North American system that is divided between multiple LATAs. The Fargo LATA extends for some distance into northern Minnesota, as far east as Brainerd, under current projections, North Dakota will need a new area code in early 2022. About 500 of the nearly 800 theoretically possible exchanges in the 701 territory are in use, due to the numbering plans two-LATA structure, several numbers in northern Minnesotas area code 218 arent available for use. The number availability problem is exacerbated by the proliferation of phones and pagers, particularly in Fargo, Grand Forks. As a result, discussions are underway for a split or overlay of 701 with a new area code. List of NANP area codes North American Numbering Plan NANPA Area Code Map of North Dakota Directory-assistance. net Interactive map of area code 701
16.
Hunkpapa Lakota
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The Hunkpapa are a Native American group, one of the seven council fires of the Lakota tribe. The name Húŋkpapȟa is a Lakota word meaning Head of the Circle, by tradition, the Húŋkpapȟa set up their lodges at the entryway to the circle of the Great Council when the Sioux met in convocation. They speak Lakȟóta, one of the three dialects of the Sioux language, thus members of the Lakota tribe, a part of them Ankpapat, were the first Native Americans to fight in the American Indian Wars alongside US forces west of the Missouri. They may have formed as a tribe within the Lakota relatively recently, by signing the 1825 treaty, the Hunkpapa and the United States committed themselves to keep up the friendship which has heretofore existed. With their x-mark, the chiefs also recognized the supremacy of the United States and it is not certain whether they really understood the text in the document. A medal was given to Little White Bear who was the principal Hunkpapa chief according to the whites, with the Vaccination Act of 1832, the United States assumed responsibility for the inoculation of the Indians against smallpox. Some visiting Hunkpapa may have benefitted from Dr. M. Martins vaccination of about 900 southern Lakota at the head of Medicine Creek that autumn, when smallpox struck in 1837, it hit the Hunkpapa as the northernmost Lakota division. The loss, however, may have less than one hundred people. Overall, the Hunkpapa seem to have suffered less from new diseases than other tribes did. The boundaries for the Lakota Indian territory were set down in the peace treaty negotiated near Fort Laramie in the summer of 1851. Leaders of eight different tribes, often at odds with other and each claiming large territories. The United States was a party in it. The Crow Indian territory included a tract of land north of the Yellowstone, the treaty gives the land of the Arikaras, the Hidatsas and the Mandans as a mutual area north of Heart River, partly encircled by the Missouri. Soon enough the Hunkpapa and other Sioux attacked the Arikaras and the two other tribes, just as they had done in the past. By 1854, these three smallpox-devastated tribes called for protection from the U. S. Army, and they would repeatedly do so almost to the end of intertribal warfare. Eventually the Hunkpapa and other Lakota took hold of the three tribes area north of Heart River, forcing the people to live in Like a Fishhook Village outside their treaty land. The Lakota were largely in control of the area to 1876-1877. As far as the show, the conquerors did not offer any economic compensation for the land
17.
Dakota people
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The Dakota people are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government in North America. They compose two of the three main subcultures of the Sioux /ˈsuː/ people, and are divided into the Eastern Dakota. The Eastern Dakota are the Santee, who reside in the eastern Dakotas, central Minnesota and they have federally recognized tribes established in several places. The Western Dakota are the Yankton, and the Yanktonai, who reside in the Missouri River area, the Yankton-Yanktonai are collectively also referred to by the endonym Wičhíyena. They also have distinct federally recognized tribes, in the past the Western Dakota have been erroneously classified as Nakota, a branch of the Sioux who moved further west. The latter are now located in Montana and across the border in Canada, the word Dakota means ally in the Dakota language, and their autonyms include Ikčé Wičhášta and Dakhóta Oyáte. The Eastern and Western Dakota are two of the three groupings belonging to the Sioux nation, the third being the Lakota, the three groupings speak dialects that are still relatively mutually intelligible. This is referred to as a language, Dakota-Lakota, or Sioux. The other two languages of the Dakotan dialect continuum, Assiniboine and Stoney, have grown widely or completely unintelligible to Dakota and Lakota speakers, however some of those in the north woods of Minnesota remain at the Otttertail lake and Inspiration Peak areas. They were never sent to reservations as they were protected by settlers whom they had befriended, after the Dakota War of 1862, many Santee were sent to Crow Creek Indian Reservation, in 1864 some from the Crow Creek Reservation were sent to the Santee Sioux Reservation. The Bdewákaŋthuŋwaŋ live predominantly at the Prairie Island and Shakopee reservations in Minnesota, most of the Yankton live on the Yankton Indian Reservation in southeastern South Dakota. Some Yankton live on the Lower Brule Indian Reservation and Crow Creek Reservation, in addition, they reside at several Canadian reserves, including Birdtail, Oak Lake, and Whitecap. The Dakota lived in Wisconsin and Minnesota in the 17th century, by 1700 some had migrated to present-day South Dakota. Late in the 17th century, the Dakota entered into an alliance with French merchants, the French were trying to gain advantage in the struggle for the North American fur trade against the English, who had recently established the Hudsons Bay Company. By 1862, shortly after a crop the year before and a winter starvation. The local traders would not issue any credit to the Santee and one trader, Andrew Myrick, went so far as to say, If theyre hungry. On August 17,1862 the Dakota War began when a few Santee men murdered a white farmer and they inspired further attacks on white settlements along the Minnesota River. The Santee attacked the trading post, later settlers found Myrick among the dead with his mouth stuffed full of grass
18.
South Dakota Highway 20
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South Dakota Highway 20 is a state route that largely runs from border to border across the northern part of the U. S. state of South Dakota. It is one of the states most rural highways, South Dakota Highway 20 consists of two segments. The longer segment begins at the Montana border west of Camp Crook and this segment is just less than 390 miles in length. A second segment begins just west of an interchange with Interstate 29 and it continues eastward to the Minnesota border east of Revillo, then becomes Minnesota State Highway 40. This second segment is just over 39 miles in length, South Dakota 20 was implemented in 1929, but it was much shorter. The western terminus was at South Dakota Highway 45 northeast of Faulkton, around 1944, the western terminus was moved further west, to U. S. Highway 83. In the early 1950s, an extension west was made again. The eastern terminus was moved as well, to U. S. Highway 77 south of Milbank, in the late 1960s, the short stub between Akaska and U. S.83 was redesignated as South Dakota Highway 20 Spur. Roads portal List of South Dakota numbered highways South Dakota Highways Page, Highways 1-30
19.
Fort Yates, North Dakota
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Fort Yates is a town in Sioux County, North Dakota in the United States. It is the headquarters of the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe. Since 1970 the population has declined markedly from more than 1100 residents, the population was 184 at the 2010 census. In 1878 the US Army renamed the fort to honor Captain George Yates, the town that developed was also known as Fort Yates. The Army post and fort were decommissioned in 1903, Fort Yates also served as the headquarters of the US Standing Rock Indian Agency, which in the late 19th century was headed by US Indian Service Agent James McLaughlin. Worried about the Hunkpapa Lakota chief Sitting Bull possibly taking part in the Ghost Dance movement, during the bungled event the chief was shot and killed at dawn in his log cabin by agency non-Hunkpapa Dakota police. Sitting Bull was buried at Fort Yates, in 1953, his family authorized his remains to be exhumed and transferred to a gravesite overlooking the Missouri River near his birthplace at Mobridge, South Dakota. A monument dedicated to Sitting Bull was installed at his site at Fort Yates. Another monument, with his bust on a pedestal, overlooks the Missouri River at the Mobridge burial site and this city has become the tribal headquarters of the federally recognized Standing Rock Sioux Tribe, whose reservation encompasses it. They founded Sitting Bull College in Fort Yates, a college now named for their noted 19th-century leader. Known also as Long Soldier, it is the most populous district of the reservation. Fort Yates is located at 46°5′6″N 100°37′49″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0.06 square miles, all of it land. Fort Yates has a climate, with hot summers, cold and very dry winters. On February 2,1992 the city recorded 72 °F or 22.2 °C, as of the census of 2010, there were 184 people,66 households, and 43 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,066.7 inhabitants per square mile, there were 73 housing units at an average density of 1,216.7 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 5. 4% White,92. 4% Native American,0. 5% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 2% of the population. 28. 8% of all households were made up of individuals and 7. 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.79 and the average family size was 3.26. The median age in the city was 33.6 years
20.
Cannon Ball, North Dakota
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Cannon Ball is a census-designated place on the Standing Rock Indian Reservation, and in Sioux County, North Dakota in the United States. It is located in the part of Sioux County, having developed at the confluence of the Cannonball River. The population was 875 at the 2010 census, Cannon Ball is located at 46°14′58″N 100°38′19″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has an area of 96.8 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 864 people,197 households, the population density was 9.8 people per square mile. There were 208 housing units at a density of 2. 4/sq mi. As of the 2010 census, the makeup of the CDP was 92. 9% Native American,4. 8% White,0. 1% from other races. Persons of Hispanic or Latino origin comprised 1. 4% of the total population,11. 2% of all households were made up of individuals and 2. 0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 4.35 and the family size was 4.56. In the CDP, the population was out with 46. 4% under the age of 18,11. 2% from 18 to 24,23. 5% from 25 to 44,15. 3% from 45 to 64. The median age was 20 years, for every 100 females there were 92.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.7 males, the median income for a household in the CDP was $19,265, and the median income for a family was $18,583. Males had an income of $21,875 versus $17,250 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $5,717, about 49. 7% of families and 50. 9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 58. 3% of those under age 18 and 8. 6% of those age 65 or over
21.
McLaughlin, South Dakota
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McLaughlin is a city in Corson County, South Dakota, United States. The population was 663 at the 2010 census and it is the largest city on the Standing Rock Indian Reservation. The town is named after US Indian Service Agent James McLaughlin and he moved to Washington, DC, where he was Inspector of the Bureau of Indian Affairs and Department of the Interior. After his death in 1923, his body was returned here for burial, McLaughlin is located at 45°48′47″N 100°48′41″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 0.40 square miles. McLaughlin has been assigned the ZIP code 57642 and the FIPS place code 40020, as of the census of 2010, there were 663 people,233 households, and 154 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,657.5 inhabitants per square mile, there were 270 housing units at an average density of 675.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 28. 1% White,65. 3% Native American,0. 9% Asian,0. 2% Pacific Islander,1. 1% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 3. 8% of the population. 29. 2% of all households were made up of individuals, the average household size was 2.84 and the average family size was 3.54. The median age in the city was 31 years. 31. 8% of residents were under the age of 18,10. 7% were between the ages of 18 and 24,21. 6% were from 25 to 44,24. 2% were from 45 to 64, and 11. 8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49. 2% male and 50. 8% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 775 people,268 households, and 181 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,835.1 people per square mile, there were 291 housing units at an average density of 689.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 41. 29% White,0. 13% African American,55. 74% Native American,0. 13% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 4. 77% of the population. 27. 6% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.89 and the average family size was 3.48. In the city, the population was out with 33. 3% under the age of 18,9. 7% from 18 to 24,25. 9% from 25 to 44,18. 5% from 45 to 64. The median age was 30 years, for every 100 females there were 93.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.0 males, the median income for a household in the city was $22,500, and the median income for a family was $31,111
22.
Hunkpapa
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The Hunkpapa are a Native American group, one of the seven council fires of the Lakota tribe. The name Húŋkpapȟa is a Lakota word meaning Head of the Circle, by tradition, the Húŋkpapȟa set up their lodges at the entryway to the circle of the Great Council when the Sioux met in convocation. They speak Lakȟóta, one of the three dialects of the Sioux language, thus members of the Lakota tribe, a part of them Ankpapat, were the first Native Americans to fight in the American Indian Wars alongside US forces west of the Missouri. They may have formed as a tribe within the Lakota relatively recently, by signing the 1825 treaty, the Hunkpapa and the United States committed themselves to keep up the friendship which has heretofore existed. With their x-mark, the chiefs also recognized the supremacy of the United States and it is not certain whether they really understood the text in the document. A medal was given to Little White Bear who was the principal Hunkpapa chief according to the whites, with the Vaccination Act of 1832, the United States assumed responsibility for the inoculation of the Indians against smallpox. Some visiting Hunkpapa may have benefitted from Dr. M. Martins vaccination of about 900 southern Lakota at the head of Medicine Creek that autumn, when smallpox struck in 1837, it hit the Hunkpapa as the northernmost Lakota division. The loss, however, may have less than one hundred people. Overall, the Hunkpapa seem to have suffered less from new diseases than other tribes did. The boundaries for the Lakota Indian territory were set down in the peace treaty negotiated near Fort Laramie in the summer of 1851. Leaders of eight different tribes, often at odds with other and each claiming large territories. The United States was a party in it. The Crow Indian territory included a tract of land north of the Yellowstone, the treaty gives the land of the Arikaras, the Hidatsas and the Mandans as a mutual area north of Heart River, partly encircled by the Missouri. Soon enough the Hunkpapa and other Sioux attacked the Arikaras and the two other tribes, just as they had done in the past. By 1854, these three smallpox-devastated tribes called for protection from the U. S. Army, and they would repeatedly do so almost to the end of intertribal warfare. Eventually the Hunkpapa and other Lakota took hold of the three tribes area north of Heart River, forcing the people to live in Like a Fishhook Village outside their treaty land. The Lakota were largely in control of the area to 1876-1877. As far as the show, the conquerors did not offer any economic compensation for the land
23.
Great Sioux Nation
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The Great Sioux Nation was the political structure of the Sioux in North America at the time of their contact with Europeans and Euro-Americans. Most of the peoples speaking a Siouan language were members of the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ or Seven Fires Council, the seven members are sometimes grouped into three regional/dialect groups, but these mid-level identities were not politically institutionalized. The seven smaller groups were members of one confederacy. The Great Sioux Nation is divided into three linguistically and regionally based groups and several subgroups, linguistically, all three language groups belong to Siouan languages. Historically, the Great Sioux Nation and the United States have had a turbulent relationship, the last of the great American Indian battles – the Battle of Little Bighorn and the Wounded Knee Massacre – were fought between these two peoples. When European Americans discovered gold there in 1874, miners swept into the area in a gold rush, the US government reassigned the Lakota, against their wishes, to other reservations in western South Dakota, breaking up the Great Sioux Reservation into smaller portions. The Supreme Court awarded eight Sioux tribes $106 million in compensation—the 1877 value of $17.5 million, the Sioux Nation has refused to accept the award, saying they want their land returned. The money is held in accounts at the Treasury Department, accruing interest, as of 2011, the accounts are estimated to be valued at over $1 billion. The Assiniboine, who live to the North of most of the Sioux peoples, the Assiniboine were the first of the Siouan-speaking peoples to leave the Eastern Woodlands and move onto the Great Plains. They had developed as a separate people sometime before 1640, when they were first documented as a tribe by French missionaries, because of this, other Sioux-speakers referred to them as the Hohe, or rebels. The Canadian Nakoda began as the westernmost band of the Assiniboine, but were referred to as a separate people after about 1744
24.
Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868)
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The Powder River Country was to be henceforth closed to all whites. The treaty ended Red Clouds War, in the treaty, the U. S. included all Ponca lands in the Great Sioux Reservation. Chief Manuelito sent his sons to school, believing that it would help them eventually protect their freedoms. Repeated violations of the exclusive rights to the land by gold prospectors led to the Black Hills War. Migrant workers seeking gold had crossed the borders in violation of the treaty. Indians had attacked these gold prospectors and war ensued, the U. S. government seized the Black Hills land in 1877. It later broke up the Great Sioux Reservation into several reduced reservations, more than a century later, the Sioux nation won a victory in court. On June 30,1980, in United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians and it upheld an award of $15.5 million for the market value of the land in 1877, along with 103 years worth of interest at 5 percent, for an additional $105 million. The Lakota Sioux, however, have refused to accept payment, the treaty and its aftermath is the subject of a 1986 video by the Native American Public Broadcasting Consortium. Treaty with the Sioux — Brulé, Oglala, Miniconjou, Yanktonai, Hunkpapa, Blackfeet, Cuthead, Two Kettle, Sans Arcs, ratified Feb.16,1868, proclaimed Feb.24,1868. In Charles J. Kappler, compiler and editor, Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties — Vol. II, government Printing Office,1904, pp. 998–1007. Through Oklahoma State University Library, Electronic Publishing Center, nina Rehfeld, Lakota Nation files lawsuit against parties in sweat lodge incident, www. sedona. biz, 11/12/2009 Suzan Shown Harjo. Nation to Nation, Treaties Between the United States and American Indian Nations, national Museum of the American Indian. National Archives, Sioux treaty Text of the Fort Laramie treaty Map of treaty land
25.
Missouri River
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The Missouri River is the longest river in North America. Rising in the Rocky Mountains of western Montana, the Missouri flows east and south for 2,341 miles before entering the Mississippi River north of St. Louis, Missouri. The river takes drainage from a populated, semi-arid watershed of more than half a million square miles. When combined with the lower Mississippi River, it forms the fourth longest river system. For over 12,000 years, people have depended on the Missouri River and its tributaries as a source of sustenance and transportation. More than ten major groups of Native Americans populated the watershed, most leading a nomadic lifestyle, the Missouri River was one of the main routes for the westward expansion of the United States during the 19th century. The growth of the fur trade in the early 1800s laid much of the groundwork as trappers explored the region, pioneers headed west en masse beginning in the 1830s, first by covered wagon, then by the growing numbers of steamboats entering service on the river. Former Native American lands in the watershed were taken over by settlers, leading to some of the most longstanding, during the 20th century, the Missouri River basin was extensively developed for irrigation, flood control and the generation of hydroelectric power. Fifteen dams impound the main stem of the river, with more on tributaries. Meanders have been cut and the river channelized to improve navigation, from the Rocky Mountains of Montana and Wyoming, three streams rise to form the headwaters of the Missouri River. The longest begins near Browers Spring,9,100 feet above sea level, on the southeastern slopes of Mount Jefferson in the Centennial Mountains. Flowing west then north, it runs first in Hell Roaring Creek, then west into the Red Rock, swings northeast to become the Beaverhead and these two streams then flow north and northwest into Montana. The Missouri River officially starts at the confluence of the Jefferson and Madison in Missouri Headwaters State Park near Three Forks, Montana, the Missouri then passes through Canyon Ferry Lake, a reservoir west of the Big Belt Mountains. Issuing from the mountains near Cascade, the flows northeast to the city of Great Falls, where it drops over the Great Falls of the Missouri. Farther on, the passes through the Fort Peck Dam, and immediately downstream. At the confluence, the Yellowstone is actually the larger river, the Missouri then meanders east past Williston and into Lake Sakakawea, the reservoir formed by Garrison Dam. Below the dam the Missouri receives the Knife River from the west and flows south to Bismarck, the capital of North Dakota and it slows into the Lake Oahe reservoir just before the Cannonball River confluence. While it continues south, eventually reaching Oahe Dam in South Dakota, the Missouri makes a bend to the southeast as it winds through the Great Plains, receiving the Niobrara River and many smaller tributaries from the southwest
26.
Black Hills
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The Black Hills are a small, isolated mountain range rising from the Great Plains of North America in western South Dakota and extending into Wyoming, United States. Black Elk Peak, which rises to 7,244 feet, is the ranges highest summit, the Black Hills encompass the Black Hills National Forest. The name Black Hills is a translation of the Lakota Pahá Sápa, the hills were so-called because of their dark appearance from a distance, as they were covered in trees. Native Americans have a history in the Black Hills. After conquering the Cheyenne in 1776, the Lakota took over the territory of the Black Hills, however, when settlers discovered gold there in 1874, as a result of George Armstrong Custers Black Hills Expedition, miners swept into the area in a gold rush. As the economy of the Black Hills has shifted from natural resources since the late 20th century, locals tend to divide the Black Hills into two areas, The Southern Hills and The Northern Hills. Attractions in the Northern Hills include Spearfish Canyon, historic Deadwood, the first Rally was held on August 14,1938 and the 75th Rally in 2015 saw more than 1 million bikers visit the Black Hills. Devils Tower National Monument, located in the Wyoming Black Hills, is an important nearby attraction and was the United States first national monument. Scientists have been able to utilize carbon-dating to evaluate the age of tools found in the area, stratigraphic records indicate environmental changes in the land, such as flood and drought patterns. For example, large-scale flooding of the Black Hill basins occurs at a probability rate of 0.01, however, during The Medieval Climate Anomaly, or the Medieval Warm Period, flooding increased in the basins. The Arikara arrived by AD1500, followed by the Cheyenne, Crow, Kiowa, the Lakota arrived from Minnesota in the 18th century and drove out the other tribes, who moved west. They claimed the land, which they called Ȟe Sápa, the mountains commonly became known as the Black Hills. François and Louis de La Vérendrye probably travelled near the Black Hills in 1743, fur trappers and traders had some dealings with the Native Americans. European Americans increasingly encroached on Lakota territory, in this treaty, they protected the Black Hills forever from European-American settlement. Both the Sioux and Cheyenne also claimed rights to the land, saying that in their cultures, it was considered the axis mundi, an official announcement of gold was made by the newspaper reporters accompanying the expedition. The following year, the Newton-Jenney Party conducted the first detailed survey of the Black Hills, the surveyor for the party, Dr. Valentine McGillycuddy, was the first European American to ascend to the top of Black Elk Peak. This highest point in the Black Hills is 7,242 feet above sea level, during the 1875–1878 gold rush, thousands of miners went to the Black Hills, in 1880, the area was the most densely populated part of the Dakota Territory. Three large towns developed in the Northern Hills, Deadwood, Central City, around these were groups of smaller gold camps, towns, and villages
27.
George A. Custer
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George Armstrong Custer was a United States Army officer and cavalry commander in the American Civil War and the American Indian Wars. Raised in Michigan and Ohio, Custer was admitted to West Point in 1857, with the outbreak of the Civil War, Custer was called to serve with the Union Army. Custer developed a reputation during the Civil War. He participated in the first major engagement, the First Battle of Bull Run on July 21,1861, near Washington and his association with several important officers helped his career as did his success as a highly effective cavalry commander. He was wounded in the Battle of Culpeper Court House in Virginia on September 13,1863, in 1864, Custer was awarded another star and brevetted to major general rank. At the conclusion of the Appomattox Campaign, in which he and his troops played a role, Custer was present at General Robert E. Lees surrender to General Ulysses S. Grant. After the Civil War, Custer remained a general in the United States Volunteers until they were mustered out in February 1866. He reverted to his permanent rank of captain and was appointed a lieutenant colonel in the 7th Cavalry Regiment in July 1866 and he was dispatched to the west in 1867 to fight in the American Indian Wars. The battle is known in American history as Custers Last Stand. Custer and his regiment were defeated so decisively at the Little Bighorn that it has overshadowed all of his prior achievements, according to family letters, Custer was named after George Armstrong, a minister, in his devout mothers hope that her son might join the clergy. Custer was born in New Rumley, Ohio, to Emanuel Henry Custer, a farmer and blacksmith and he had two younger brothers, Thomas Custer and Boston Custer, both of whom died with him on the battlefield at Little Bighorn. His other full siblings were the familys youngest child, Margaret Custer, and Nevin Custer, Custer also had three older half-siblings. It was in large, close knit family that Custer. Emanuel Custer was an outspoken Democrat who taught his children politics, in a February 3,1887 letter to his sons widow, Libby, he related an incident when Autie was about four years old. He had to have a tooth drawn, and he was much afraid of blood. When I took him to the doctor to have the tooth pulled, it was in the night and I told him if it bled well it would get right away. When he got to the doctor he took his seat, the forceps slipped off and he had to make a second trial. He pulled it out, and Autie never even scrunched, going home, I led him by the arm
28.
Gold rush
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A gold rush is a new discovery of gold that brings an onrush of miners seeking their fortune. Major gold rushes took place in the 19th century in Australia, New Zealand, Brazil, Canada, South Africa, the wealth that resulted was distributed widely because of reduced migration costs and low barriers to entry. While gold mining itself was unprofitable for most diggers and mine owners, some people made fortunes. The resulting increase in the gold supply stimulated global trade. Historians have written extensively about the migration, trade, colonization, Gold rushes helped spur a huge immigration that often led to permanent settlement of new regions. Activities propelled by gold rushes define significant aspects of the culture of the Australian, at a time when the worlds money supply was based on gold, the newly mined gold provided economic stimulus far beyond the gold fields. Gold rushes extend back as far as gold mining, to the Roman Empire, whose gold mining was described by Diodorus Siculus and Pliny the Elder, within each mining rush there is typically a transition through progressively higher capital expenditures, larger organizations, and more specialized knowledge. They may also progress from high-unit value to lower unit value minerals, a rush typically begins with the discovery of placer gold made by an individual. At first the gold may be washed from the sand and gravel by individual miners with little training, using a pan or similar simple instrument. Winning the gold in this manner requires almost no capital investment, only a pan or equipment that may be built on the spot. The low investment, the value per unit weight of gold. After the sluice-box stage, placer mining may become increasingly large scale, requiring larger organisations, small claims owned and mined by individuals may need to be merged into larger tracts. Difficult-to-reach placer deposits may be mined by tunnels, water may be diverted by dams and canals to placer mine active river beds or to deliver water needed to wash dry placers. The more advanced techniques of ground sluicing, hydraulic mining and dredging may be used, typically the heyday of a placer gold rush would last only a few years. Hard rock mining, like mining, may evolve from low capital investment and simple technology to progressively higher capital. The surface outcrop of a gold-bearing vein may be oxidized, so that the gold occurs as native gold, the first miners may at first build a simple arrastra to crush their ore, later, they may build stamp mills to crush ore more quickly. As the miners dig down, they may find that the part of vein contains gold locked in sulfide or telluride minerals. If the ore is still rich, it may be worth shipping to a distant smelter
29.
Sitting Bull
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Sitting Bull was a Hunkpapa Lakota holy man who led his people during years of resistance to United States government policies. He was killed by Indian agency police on the Standing Rock Indian Reservation during an attempt to arrest him, Sitting Bulls leadership inspired his people to a major victory. S. A small remnant of his band under Waŋblí Ǧi decided to stay at Wood Mountain, after working as a performer with Buffalo Bills Wild West show, Sitting Bull returned to the Standing Rock Agency in South Dakota. Because of fears that he would use his influence to support the Ghost Dance movement and his body was taken to nearby Fort Yates for burial. In 1953, his Lakota family exhumed what were believed to be his remains, reburying them near Mobridge, South Dakota, Sitting Bull was born on land later included in the Dakota Territory. In 2007, Sitting Bulls great-grandson asserted from family tradition that Sitting Bull was born along the Yellowstone River, south of present-day Miles City. He was named Jumping Badger at birth, and nicknamed Hunkesi, or Slow, said to describe his careful, when the boy was fourteen years old he accompanied a group of Lakota warriors in a raiding party to take horses from a camp of Crow warriors. Jumping Badger displayed bravery by riding forward and counting coup on one of the surprised Crow, upon returning to camp his father gave a celebratory feast at which he conferred his own name upon his son. The name, Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotaŋka, which in the Lakota language means Buffalo Bull Who Sits Down, thereafter, Sitting Bulls father was known as Jumping Bull. Despite being embroiled in the American Civil War, the United States Army retaliated in 1863 and 1864, in 1864, two brigades of about 2200 soldiers under Brigadier General Alfred Sully attacked a village. The defenders were led by Sitting Bull, Gall and Inkpaduta, the Lakota and Dakota were driven out, but skirmishing continued into August. In September, Sitting Bull and about one hundred Hunkpapa Lakota encountered a party near what is now Marmarth, North Dakota. They had been left behind by a wagon train commanded by Captain James L. Fisk to effect repairs to an overturned wagon. When he led an attack, Sitting Bull was shot in the hip by a soldier. The bullet exited out through the small of his back, from 1866 to 1868, Red Cloud as a leader of the Oglala Lakota fought against US forces, attacking their forts in an effort to keep control of the Powder River Country of Montana. In support of him, Sitting Bull led numerous war parties against Fort Berthold, Fort Stevenson, Sitting Bull also made guerrilla attacks on emigrant parties and smaller forts throughout the upper Missouri River region. By early 1868, the U. S. government desired a settlement to Red Clouds War. It agreed to Red Clouds demands that the US abandon forts Phil Kearny, Gall of the Hunkpapa signed a form of the Treaty of Fort Laramie on July 2,1868 at Fort Rice
30.
Great Sioux War of 1876
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The cause of the war was the desire of the U. S. government to obtain ownership of the Black Hills. Gold had been discovered in the Black Hills, settlers began to encroach onto Native American lands, and that Indian victory notwithstanding, the U. S. leveraged national resources to force the Indians to surrender, primarily by attacking and destroying their encampments and property. The Great Sioux War took place under the presidencies of Ulysses S. Grant, the Agreement of 1877 officially annexed Sioux land and permanently established Indian reservations. The Cheyenne had migrated west to the Black Hills and Powder River Country before the Lakota, by the late 18th century, the growing Lakota tribe had begun expanding its territory west of the Missouri River. They pushed out the Kiowa and formed alliances with the Cheyenne, the Black Hills, located in present-day western South Dakota, became an important source to the Lakota for lodge poles, plant resources and small game. They are considered sacred to the Lakota culture, by the early 19th century, the Northern Cheyenne became the first to wage tribal-level warfare. Because European Americans used many different names for the Cheyenne, the military may not have realized their unity, the US Army destroyed seven Cheyenne camps before 1876 and three more that year, more than any other tribes suffered in this period. From 1860 on, the Cheyenne were a force in warfare on the Plains. No other group on the plains achieved such centralized tribal organization, the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, signed with the US by Lakota and Northern Cheyenne leaders following Red Clouds War, set aside a portion of the Lakota territory as the Great Sioux Reservation. This comprised the western one-half of South Dakota, including the Black Hills region for their exclusive use and it also provided for a large unceded territory in Wyoming and Montana, the Powder River Country, as Cheyenne and Lakota hunting grounds. On both the reservation and the territory, white men were forbidden to trespass, except for officials of the U. S. government. The growing number of miners and settlers encroaching in the Dakota Territory, however, the US government could not keep settlers out. The geographic uplift area suggested the potential for mineral resources, when a commission approached the Red Cloud Agency about the possibility of the Lakotas signing away the Black Hills, Colonel John E. Smith noted that this was the only portion worth anything to them. He concluded that nothing short of their annihilation will get it from them, in 1874, the government dispatched the Custer Expedition to examine the Black Hills. The Lakota were alarmed at his expedition, before Custers column had returned to Fort Abraham Lincoln, news of their discovery of gold was telegraphed nationally. The presence of mineral resources was confirmed the following year by the Newton-Jenney Geological Expedition. Prospectors, motivated by the panic of 1873, began to trickle into the Black Hills in violation of the Fort Laramie Treaty. This trickle turned into a flood as thousands of miners invaded the Hills before the rush was over
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Battle of the Little Bighorn
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The battle, which occurred June 25–26,1876, near the Little Bighorn River in eastern Montana Territory, was the most prominent action of the Great Sioux War of 1876. The fight was a victory for the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne. The U. S. 7th Cavalry, including the Custer Battalion, five of the 7th Cavalrys twelve companies were annihilated, Custer was killed, as were two of his brothers, a nephew, and a brother-in-law. The total U. S. casualty count included 268 dead and 55 severely wounded, including four Crow Indian scouts, the battle, and Custers actions in particular, have been studied extensively by historians. Even though many of the native peoples eventually agreed to relocate to ever-shrinking reservations, among the Plains Tribes, the long-standing ceremonial tradition known as the Sun Dance was the most important religious event of the year. It is a time for prayer and personal sacrifice on behalf of the community, towards the end of spring in 1876, the Lakota and the Cheyenne held a Sun Dance that was also attended by a number of Agency Indians who had slipped away from their reservations. Col. John Gibbons column of six companies of the 7th Infantry and four companies of the 2nd Cavalry marched east from Fort Ellis in western Montana on March 30 and they were accompanied by teamsters and packers with 150 wagons and a large contingent of pack mules that reinforced Custer. They were later joined there by the steamboat Far West, which was loaded with 200 tons of supplies from Fort Lincoln, the coordination and planning began to go awry on June 17,1876 when Crooks column retreated after the Battle of the Rosebud. Unaware of Crooks battle, Gibbon and Terry proceeded, joining forces in early June near the mouth of the Rosebud Creek, as this was the likely location of Native encampments, all army elements were to converge around June 26 or 27, attempting to engulf the Native Americans. Custer had been offered the use of Gatling guns but declined, at sunrise on June 25, Custers scouts reported they could see a massive pony herd and signs of the Native American village roughly 15 miles in the distance. After a nights march, the officer who was sent with the scouts could see neither. Custers scouts also spotted the regimental cooking fires that could be seen from 10 miles away, assuming his presence had been exposed, Custer decided to attack the village without further delay. On the morning of June 25, Custer divided his 12 companies into three battalions in anticipation of the forthcoming engagement, three companies were placed under the command of Major Marcus Reno, and three were placed under the command of Capt. Frederick Benteen. Five companies remained under Custers immediate command, the 12th, Company B under Capt. Thomas McDougall, had been assigned to escort the slower pack train carrying provisions and additional ammunition. Unknown to Custer, the group of Native Americans seen on his trail were actually leaving the encampment on the Big Horn, Custers overriding concern was that the Native American group would break up and scatter. The command began its approach to the village at noon and prepared to attack in full daylight, the 7th Cavalry was created just after the American Civil War. Many men were veterans of the war, including most of the leading officers, six other troopers had died of drowning and 51 from cholera epidemics. Half of the 7th Cavalrys companies had just returned from 18 months of duty in the Deep South
32.
Black Hills Land Claim
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The Black Hills Land Claim is an ongoing land dispute between Native Americans from the Sioux Nation and the United States government. The Black Hills, the United States oldest mountain range, is 125 miles long and 65 miles wide stretching across South Dakota, the Lakota Sioux settled the area in about 1765 after being pushed out out of Wisconsin and Minnesota by European settlers and Iroquois tribes. The tribe quickly adapted to plains-life, with the bison at the center of their culture, Black Elk Peak is the highest summit of the Black Hills at 7,242 feet and is located within the 1,247,209 acres of the Black Hills National Forest. Black Elk Peak is a Lakota religious landmark and a hiking destination. The presence of Native Americans in the Black Hills is represented by the Crazy Horse Memorial, the sculpture is designed to symbolize the culture, tradition and living heritage of North American Indians. Today, Lakota people believe that the Black Hills are sacred, conversely, Historian David Miller in Historians View of S. Additionally, many believe that the Lakota want their land returned for the lands resources and minerals. Nonetheless, the Lakotas, Cheyennes, Arapahos, Kiowas and Kiowa-Apaches believe the land to be sacred, the two men refrained from entering the Black Hills because they lacked governmental jurisdiction and feared the deadly consequences of entering sacred land. The Lewis and Clark expedition led to the formation of the Missouri, as a result, the United States regulated trade outside of the Black Hills. The sacredness of the Black Hills kept intruders out until Jedediah Smiths expedition of 15 traders into the Black Hills in 1823, in 1849 the Californian Gold Rush attracted prospectors to the Black Hills, who were often killed by the Lakota as result of encroaching on the sacred grounds. Under this treaty, the formation of reservations began where pieces of allotted land were distributed to the several tribes. The treaty recognized the Sioux territory of the Black Hills which were located between the North Platte River and Yellowstone River and obligated the government to pay $50,000 annually. However, a United States military war against Red Cloud proved to be a victory for the Sioux and this treaty ultimately protected the Black Hills from white settlement. The treaty was violated when gold was discovered in Montana in 1874, however, the Sioux did not face intruders until Brevet Major General George Armstrong Custer and his army entered the Black Hills in 1874 and publicly announced their discovery of gold. By 1875 the announcement led to the establishment of mining towns, such as Deadwood, Central City. Congress passed a bill in February 1851 to allow Commissioner of Indian Affairs Luke Lea to negotiate with the Native Americans living on the Black Hills. The Fort Laramie Treaty was developed to prevent further harm of the resources in the Black Hills that were damaged by miners travelling to California. The treaty also developed boundaries for the Sioux and promoted peace between settlers and plain Indians. Consequently, the treaty favoured United States expansionism when the Sioux agreed to the development of railroads and trails within their territory
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Great Sioux Reservation
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The Great Sioux Reservation was the original area encompassing what are today the various Sioux Indian reservations in South Dakota and Nebraska. The reservation was established in the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868 and this area was established by the United States as a reservation for the Teton Sioux, also known as the Lakota, the seven western bands of the Seven Council Fires. In addition to the dedicated to the Lakota, the Sioux reserved the right to hunt and travel in unceded territory in much of Wyoming and in the Sandhills. Because each band had its own territory, the US established several agencies through the Bureau of Indian Affairs to regulate the Lakota in this vast area. The United States used the Missouri River to form the boundary of the Reservation. Custers 1874 Black Hills Expedition from Fort Abraham Lincoln to the Black Hills or Paha Sapa discovered gold, the public announcement brought miners and open conflict with the Lakota. The US Army defeated the Lakota in the Black Hills War, most of the Great Sioux Reservation remained intact for another 13 years. In 1887, Congress passed the General Allotment Act, also called the Dawes Act to break up communal Indian lands into individual family holdings, much of the area was not homesteaded until the 1910s, after the Enlarged Homestead Act increased allocations to 320 acres for semi-arid land. Settlement was encouraged by the railroads, and the US government issued publications of scientific instruction on how to farm the arid land, new European immigrants came to the area. The Lakota tribes received $1.25 per acre, usually used to offset agency expenses in meeting federal treaty obligations to the tribes, federal registrars recorded tribal members in each tribe, as land was allotted to heads of households. The government allocated 160 acre parcels to heads of families, and declared any remaining land to be surplus, after a period of time, Native Americans could sell their land individually, and did. The allocations were not based on knowledge of whether the arid lands could support the small family farms envisioned by the government. This was largely an experiment for the Lakota and most homesteaders alike. Numerous European immigrants homesteaded the newly available lands on the Plains, self-styled experts recommended regular tilling of the soil to attract moisture from the sky. The Plains were settled during what historians now know was a wetter than normal period, but, as more normal drought conditions returned, many farms folded. The farmers did not know how to best preserve the moisture in the soil. Many had to abandon their land, today most farming is done by large-scale industrial farms which use different techniques, such as winter planting, to raise wheat. By the 1960s, the five reservations had lost much of their territories, similar reductions occurred in the other reservations
34.
Nomadic people
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A nomad is a member of a community of people who live in different locations, moving from one place to another. Among the various ways nomads relate to their environment, one can distinguish the hunter-gatherer, as of 1995, there were an estimated 30–40 million nomads in the world. Nomadic hunting and gathering, following seasonally available wild plants and game, is by far the oldest human subsistence method, pastoralists raise herds, driving them, or moving with them, in patterns that normally avoid depleting pastures beyond their ability to recover. Nomadism is also a lifestyle adapted to regions such as steppe, tundra, or ice and sand. For example, many groups in the tundra are reindeer herders and are semi-nomadic and these nomads sometimes adapt the use of high technology such as solar photovoltaics to reduce their dependence on diesel fuel. These groups are known as peripatetic nomads, a nomad is a person with no settled home, moving from place to place as a way of obtaining food, finding pasture for livestock, or otherwise making a living. The word Nomad comes from a Greek word that one who wanders for pasture. Most nomadic groups follow an annual or seasonal pattern of movements and settlements. Nomadic peoples traditionally travel by animal or canoe or on foot, today, some nomads travel by motor vehicle. Most nomads live in tents or other portable shelters, Nomads keep moving for different reasons. Nomadic foragers move in search of game, edible plants, the Australian Aborigines, Negritos of Southeast Asia, and San of Africa, for example, traditionally move from camp to camp to hunt and to gather wild plants. Some tribes of the Americas followed this way of life, Pastoral nomads make their living raising livestock, such as camels, cattle, goats, horses, sheep, or yaks. These nomads travel to find more camels, goats, and sheep through the deserts of Arabia, the Fulani and their cattle travel through the grasslands of Niger in western Africa. Some nomadic peoples, especially herders, may move to raid settled communities or avoid enemies. Nomadic craftworkers and merchants travel to find and serve customers and they include the Lohar blacksmiths of India, the Romani traders, and the Irish Travellers. Most nomads travel in groups of families called bands or tribes and these groups are based on kinship and marriage ties or on formal agreements of cooperation. A council of adult males makes most of the decisions, though some tribes have chiefs, in the case of Mongolian nomads, a family moves twice a year. These two movements would generally occur during the summer and winter, the winter location is usually located near mountains in a valley and most families already have their fixed winter locations
35.
Tipi
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A tipi is a cone-shaped tent, traditionally made of animal skins upon wooden poles. A tipi is distinguished from other conical tents by the flaps at the top of the structure. Tipi lodges are still in use by these peoples, though now primarily for ceremonial purposes, tipis are stereotypically and incorrectly associated with all Native Americans in the United States and Aboriginal people in Canada, despite their usage being unique to the peoples of the Plains. Native American tribes and First Nation band governments from other regions have used other types of dwellings, the tipi is durable, provides warmth and comfort in winter, is cool in the heat of summer, and is dry during heavy rains. Tipis can be disassembled and packed away quickly when people need to relocate, historically, this portability was important to Plains Indians with their at-times nomadic lifestyle. The word tipi comes into English from the Lakota language, the Lakota word thípi means a dwelling or they dwell, from the verb thí, meaning to dwell. The wigwam or wickiup, a dome-shaped shelter typically made of bark layered on a pole-structure, was used by various tribes. The term wigwam has often been used to refer to a conical skin tipi. A typical family tipi is a conical, portable structure with two adjustable smoke flaps, multiple poles called lodge poles and they are then drawn apart at the large ends and adjusted upon the ground in the rim of a circle usually ten feet in diameter. A number of untanned and tanned buffalo skins, stitched together in a form adjustable to the frame, are drawn around it and lashed together, the lower edges are secured to the ground with tent-pins. At the top there is an extra skin adjusted as a collar, a low opening is left for a doorway, which is covered with an extra skin used as a drop. The fire-pit and arrangements for beds are the same as in the Ojibwa lodge, lodgepole pine is the preferred wood in the Northern and Central Plains and red cedar in the Southern Plains. Tipis have a cover over the structure. The cover has historically made of buffalo hide, an optional skin or cloth lining. Modern lodges are more often made of canvas, ropes and wooden pegs are required to bind the poles, close the cover, attach the lining and door, and anchor the resulting structure to the ground. Tipis were designed to be set up or taken down to allow camps to be moved to follow game migrations. When dismantled the tipi poles were used to construct a dog- or later horse-pulled travois on which additional poles, Tipi covers are made by sewing together strips of canvas or tanned hide and cutting out a semicircular shape from the resulting surface. Trimming this shape yields a door and the flaps that allow the dwellers to control the chimney effect to expel smoke from their fires
36.
American Indian boarding schools
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The government paid religious societies to provide education to Native American children on reservations. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Bureau of Indian Affairs founded additional boarding schools based on the model of the Carlisle Indian Industrial School. The experience of the schools was often harsh, especially for the children who were separated from their families. In numerous ways, they were encouraged or forced to abandon their Native American identities and cultures, investigations of the later twentieth century have revealed many documented cases of sexual, manual, physical and mental abuse occurring at such schools. Historian Brenda Child reports that boarding schools cultivated pan-Indian-ism and made possible cross-tribal coalitions that have helped many different tribes collaborate in the 20th century and she argues, People formerly separated by language, culture, and geography lived and worked together in residential schools. Students formed close bonds and enjoyed a rich cross-cultural change, graduates of government schools often married former classmates, found employment in the Indian Service, migrated to urban areas, returned to their reservations and entered tribal politics. Countless new alliances, both personal and political, were forged in government boarding schools, since those years, tribal nations have increasingly insisted on community-based schools and have also founded numerous tribal colleges and universities. Community schools have also supported by the federal government through the BIA. The largest boarding schools have closed, in some cases, reservations or tribes were too small or poor to support independent schools and they still wanted an alternative for their children, especially for high school. By 2007, most of the schools had closed down. In this same period, more Native Americans are living in urban environments, but it has been conceived to be impracticable to civilize the Indians of North America — This opinion is probably more convenient than just. The Civilization Fund Act of 1819 promoted this civilization policy by providing funding to societies who worked on Native American education, moses Tom sent his children to an Indian boarding school. I rejoice, brothers, to hear you propose to become cultivators of the earth for the maintenance of your families, be assured you will support them better and with less labor, by raising stock and bread, and by spinning and weaving clothes, than by hunting. A little land cultivated, and a little labor, will procure more provisions than the most successful hunt, compared with you, we are but as of yesterday in this land. Yet see how much more we have multiplied by industry, follow then our example, brethren, and we will aid you with great pleasure. The missions annual records report that by 1640, they had founded a community they named St. Marys, and the Indians were sending their children there to be educated among the English. This included the daughter of the Pascatoe Indian chief Tayac, which not only a school for Indians. Maryland and the established school sent two boys to St. Omer who yielded in abilities to few Europeans, when competing for the honour of being first in their class
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Ghost Dance
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The Ghost Dance was a new religious movement incorporated into numerous American Indian belief systems. The practice swept throughout much of the Western United States, quickly reaching areas of California, as the Ghost Dance spread from its original source, Indian tribes synthesized selective aspects of the ritual with their own beliefs. The Ghost Dance was associated with Wilsons prophecy of an end to white expansion while preaching goals of living, an honest life. Practice of the Ghost Dance movement was believed to have contributed to Lakota resistance to assimilation under the Dawes Act, in the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890, U. S. Army forces killed at least 153 Miniconjou and Hunkpapa from the Lakota people. The Lakota variation on the Ghost Dance tended towards millenarianism, an innovation that distinguished the Lakota interpretation from Jack Wilsons original teachings, the Caddo Nation still practices the Ghost Dance today. The Northern Paiutes living in Mason Valley, in what is now the U. S. state of Nevada, were known collectively as the Tövusi-dökadö at the time of European contact. The Northern Paiute community at time was thriving upon a subsistence pattern of fishing, hunting wild game. The Tövusi-dökadö during this period lacked any permanent political organization or officials, community events centered on the observance of seasonal ceremonies such as harvests or hunting. In 1869, Hawthorne Wodziwob, a Paiute man, organized a series of community dances to announce a vision and he spoke of a journey to the land of the dead and of promises made to him by the souls of the recently deceased. They promised to return to their loved ones within a period of three to four years, Wodziwobs peers accepted this vision, likely due to his reputable status as a healer. He urged the populace to dance the common circle dance as was customary during a time of celebration and he continued preaching this message for three years with the help of a local weather doctor named Tavibo, father of Jack Wilson. Prior to Wodziwobs religious movement, a typhoid epidemic struck in 1867. This and other European diseases killed approximately one-tenth of the total population, the disruption brought disorder to the economic system and society. Many families were prevented from continuing their nomadic lifestyle, a round dance is a circular community dance held, usually around an individual who leads the ceremony. Round dances may be ceremonial or purely social, usually the dancers are accompanied by a group of singers who may also play hand drums in unison. The dancers join hands to form a large circle, the dancers move to their left with a side-shuffle step to reflect the long-short pattern of the drum beat, bending their knees to emphasize the pattern. Spier studied peoples of the Columbia plateau, Jack Wilson, the prophet formerly known as Wovoka, was believed to have had a vision during a solar eclipse on January 1,1889. It was reportedly not his first time experiencing a vision, but as an adult, he claimed that he was then better equipped, spiritually
38.
Bureau of Indian Affairs
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The Bureau of Indian Affairs is an agency of the federal government of the United States within the U. S. Department of the Interior. The BIA’s responsibilities include providing health care to American Indians and Alaska Natives, located at 1849 C Street, NW, in Washington, D. C. the BIA is headed by a bureau director who reports to the Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs. The current director is Michael S. Black, the current assistant secretary is Lawrence S. Roberts, an enrolled member of the Oneida Nation of Wisconsin. On January 1,2016, Roberts succeeded Kevin K. Washburn, a member of the Chickasaw Nation in Oklahoma. The Office of Justice Services, directly operates or funds law enforcement, tribal courts, OJS funded 208 law enforcement agencies, consisting of 43 BIA-operated police agencies, and 165 tribally operated agencies under contract, or compact with the OJS. The OJS also provides oversight and technical assistance to law enforcement programs when. It operates four divisions, Corrections, Drug Enforcement, the Indian Police Academy, the Office of Trust Services, works with tribes and individual American Indians and Alaska Natives in the management of their trust lands, assets, and resources. Agencies to relate to Native Americans had existed in the U. S. government since 1775, benjamin Franklin and Patrick Henry were appointed among the early commissioners to negotiate treaties with Native Americans to obtain their neutrality during the American Revolutionary War. In 1789, the U. S. Congress placed Native American relations within the newly formed War Department. By 1806 the Congress had created a Superintendent of Indian Trade, or Office of Indian Trade within the War Department, the post was held by Thomas L. McKenney from 1816 until the abolition of the factory system in 1822. The government licensed traders to have control in Indian territories. The abolition of the system left a vacuum within the U. S. government regarding Native American relations. The Bureau of Indian Affairs was formed on March 11,1824, Calhoun, who created the agency as a division within his department, without authorization from the United States Congress. He appointed McKenney as the first head of the office, which went by several names, McKenney preferred to call it the Indian Office, whereas the current name was preferred by Calhoun. In 1832 Congress established the position of Commissioner of Indian Affairs, in 1849 Indian Affairs was transferred to the U. S. Department of the Interior. In 1869, Ely Samuel Parker was the first Native American to be appointed as commissioner of Indian affairs and it emphasized being educated to European-American culture. Some were beaten for praying to their own creator god, the bureau was renamed from Office of Indian Affairs to Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1947. The rise of activist groups such as the American Indian Movement worried the U. S. government and they intended to bring attention to American Indian issues, including their demands for renewed negotiation of treaties, enforcement of treaty rights and improvement in living standards
39.
James McLaughlin (Indian agent)
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James McLaughlin was a Canadian-American United States Indian agent and inspector, best known for having ordered the arrest of Sitting Bull in December 1890, which resulted in the chiefs death. Before this event, he was known for his relations with several tribes. His memoir, published in 1910, was entitled, My Friend the Indian, McLaughlin emigrated to the United States at the age of 21, living briefly in St. Paul, Minnesota, where he married a Mdewakanton woman of mixed-blood descent. While working as a blacksmith at Fort Totten, he studied to become a US Indian agent and he was promoted and transferred in 1881 to the larger Standing Rock Sioux Agency in the Dakotas, working there for many years, in an era of short-term political appointments. In 1895 he was promoted to a position as Inspector of the Bureau of Indian Affairs and Department of Interior, working until his death in 1923 in Washington, DC. James McLaughlin was the 6th of 9 children born to Felix and Mary McLaughlin, emigrants from the Province of Ulster, James was born and raised Catholic in Avonmore, Ontario, Canada. He likely attended local schools and also learned the trade of blacksmith, at the age of 21, in 1863 he emigrated to St Paul, Minnesota. The following year he married Marie Louise Buisson, a Mdewakanton woman of mixed-blood descent, McLaughlin obtained his United States citizenship in 1865. While there, he studied to become a United States Indian agent, Army officers noted that he established good relations with the Lakota. In 1876 he was appointed as agent of the Devils Lake Agency in present-day North Dakota, in 1881, following the movement of Lakota Sioux tribes to Standing Rock Sioux Agency, McLaughlin was assigned to that much larger facility, which held several tribes. These Sioux agencies were all part of what was known as the Great Sioux Reservation, local climate and geographic conditions made such style of agriculture difficult in the Dakotas, as allotments proved to be too small. In 1888, he and other agents accompanied a delegation of chiefs from the six Sioux reservations to Washington. The leaders were meeting to discuss implementation of the Dawes Act at the Great Sioux Reservation, the act called for distributing the reservations communal lands as allotments to heads of individual households. The government intended for the Lakota to adopt subsistence-style farming on the European-American model, under the legislation, the government would declare remaining lands after allotment as surplus, to be made available for sale to non-Lakota people. To implement the Dawes Act among the Plains tribes, officials registered all members on what have become known as the Dawes Rolls. Documented descent from individuals listed as members on these rolls is required by some sovereign tribes today for a person to qualify as a member. McLaughlin is best known for having ordered the arrest of Sitting Bull on 15 December 1890 and he had been warned by Lt. Bull Head that the chief was preparing to go to the Pine Ridge Reservation, where the Ghost Dance movement was strong. McLaughlin and other US officials feared this would inspire resistance among the Lakota, McLaughlin partially blamed Caroline Weldon, an Indian Rights Activist from Brooklyn, NY who had befriended Sitting Bull, for having influenced the chief into open defiance
40.
Valentine McGillycuddy
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Valentine Trant McGillycuddy was a surgeon who served with expeditions and United States military forces in the West. He was considered controversial for his efforts to build a relationship between the United States and Native American peoples. Valentine Trant OConnell McGillycuddy was born on February 14,1849 in Racine, when he was 13, his family moved to Detroit. He graduated from the Detroit Medical School at 20 years of age and he began working as a doctor at the Wayne Country Insane Asylum and practiced medicine for one year. Next he began teaching at the medical college, mcGillycuddys longstanding love for the outdoors led him to leave the city medical field. From 1871 to 1874, McGillycuddy worked for the United States Boundary Survey Commission and he became a topographer and surgeon for the International Expedition. This group headed an expedition to define the border between the United States and Canada along the 49th parallel and they began their expedition in North Dakota, where the ground had frozen due to a wet season. In order to keep their feet warm, the men wore several pairs of socks, wrapped their feet in a square blanket, after the expedition ended, McGilldycuddy returned to Washington, DC. He was soon sent out to Wyoming to continue his career as a topographer, the following year, in 1875, he was invited on the Newton-Jenney Party. As the surveyor for the expedition, McGillycuddy was the first person to record their climb of Harney Peak in the Black Hills of South Dakota and he was responsible for mapping the topography and geology of the region, while the expedition assessed the area for major gold deposits. Upon returning from the expedition, McGillycuddy married Fanny Hoyt and he was recruited as the Contract Surgeon with General George Crook during the Battle of the Rosebud, the Battle of Slim Buttes, and the Horsemeat March. McGillycuddy was appointed Assistant Post Surgeon at Fort Robinson in what became Nebraska and he was known to the Lakota at the agency as a Friend of Crazy Horse, a notable Lakota leader. McGillycuddy treated Crazy Horse after he was shot by guards who said he was trying to escape. After Crazy Horses death, McGillycuddy went to Washington D. C. to lobby for humane treatment of Indians at Fort Robinson. McGillycuddy was appointed as Indian Agent in 1879, when he was 30 and he served at the Pine Ridge Agency (now Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota. He did not manage to achieve such friendly relations here as he had with Crazy Horse, Red Cloud, a major chief, accused McGillycuddy of mismanagement, leading to several investigations of the Agents administration. Despite this, McGillycuddy established an Indian police force, and set up a school to educate Indian children of the region. Under pressure to fire a loyal clerk for no reason he could see and he was suspended from his position in October 1882
41.
Seventh-day Adventist Church
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The denomination grew out of the Millerite movement in the United States during the mid-19th century and was formally established in 1863. Among its founders was Ellen G. White, whose writings are still held in high regard by the church. Much of the theology of the Seventh-day Adventist Church corresponds to common Protestant Christian teachings, such as the Trinity, distinctive teachings include the unconscious state of the dead and the doctrine of an investigative judgment. The church is known for its emphasis on diet and health, its understanding of the person, promotion of religious liberty. The world church is governed by a General Conference, with smaller regions administered by divisions, union conferences and it currently has a worldwide baptized membership of over 20 million people, and 25 million adherents. As of May 2007, it was the twelfth-largest religious body in the world, and it is ethnically and culturally diverse, and maintains a missionary presence in over 200 countries and territories. The church operates schools, hospitals, and publishing houses worldwide, as well as a humanitarian aid organization known as the Adventist Development. The Seventh-day Adventist Church is the largest of several Adventist groups which arose from the Millerite movement of the 1840s in upstate New York, a phase of the Second Great Awakening. William Miller predicted on the basis of Daniel 8, 14–16, in the summer of 1844, Millerites came to believe that Jesus would return on October 22,1844, understood to be the biblical Day of Atonement for that year. When this did not happen, most of his followers disbanded and returned to their original churches. Hiram Edson and other Millerites came to believe that Millers calculations were correct and these Adventists came to the conviction that Daniel 8,14 foretold Christs entrance into the Most Holy Place of the heavenly sanctuary rather than his Second Coming. As the early Adventist movement consolidated its beliefs, the question of the day of rest. The foremost proponent of Sabbath-keeping among early Adventists was Joseph Bates, Bates was introduced to the Sabbath doctrine through a tract written by Millerite preacher Thomas M. Preble, who in turn had been influenced by Rachel Oakes Preston, a young Seventh Day Baptist. This message was accepted and formed the topic of the first edition of the church publication The Present Truth. They embraced the doctrines of the Sabbath, the heavenly sanctuary interpretation of Daniel 8,14, conditional immortality, among its most prominent figures were Joseph Bates, James White, and Ellen G. White. Ellen White came to occupy a central role, her many visions. The church was established in Battle Creek, Michigan, on May 21,1863. The denominational headquarters were moved from Battle Creek to Takoma Park, Maryland
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Pine Ridge Indian Reservation
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The Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, also called Pine Ridge Agency, is an Oglala Lakota Native American reservation located in the U. S. state of South Dakota. Originally included within the territory of the Great Sioux Reservation, Pine Ridge was established in 1889 in the southwest corner of South Dakota on the Nebraska border. Today it consists of 3,468.85 sq mi of area and is the eighth-largest reservation in the United States, larger than Delaware. The reservation encompasses the entirety of Oglala Lakota County, the half of Jackson County. Of the 3,142 counties in the United States, these are among the poorest, only 84,000 acres of land are suitable for agriculture. Pine Ridge is the site of events that marked tragic milestones in the history between the Sioux of the area and the United States government. Stronghold Table—a mesa in what is today the Oglala-administered portion of Badlands National Park—was the location of the last of the Ghost Dances, the U. S. authorities attempt to repress this movement eventually led to the Wounded Knee Massacre on December 29,1890. The families were intercepted by an armed detachment of the Seventh Cavalry. This was the last large engagement between U. S. forces and Native Americans and marked the end of the western frontier. Changes accumulated in the last quarter of the 20th century, in 1971 the Oglala Sioux Tribe started Oglala Lakota College, a tribal college, which offers 4-year degrees. In 1973 decades of discontent at the Pine Ridge Reservation resulted in a grassroots protest that escalated into the Wounded Knee Incident and this event inspired American Indians across the country and gradually led to changes at the reservation, with a revival of some cultural traditions. In 1981 the Lakota Tim Giago started the Lakota Times at Pine Ridge, a great variety of plant and animal life flourishes on and adjacent to the reservation, including the endangered black-footed ferret. As stipulated in the Fort Laramie Treaty, the U. S. government built Indian agencies for the various Lakota and these were forerunners to the modern Indian reservations. The Red Cloud Agency was established for the Oglala Lakota in 1871 on the North Platte River in Wyoming Territory, the location was one mile west of the present town of Henry, Nebraska. The location of the Red Cloud Agency was moved to two locations before being settled at the present Pine Ridge location. Its mission was to look for locations for a fort, find a route to the southwest. After his discovery of gold was made public, miners began migrating there illegally although it was reservation land, Custers florid descriptions of the mineral and timber resources of the Black Hills, and the lands suitability for grazing and cultivation. Received wide circulation, and had the effect of creating a popular demand for the opening of the Hills for settlement
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