1.
Stephen Mallory II
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Stephen Russell Mallory Jr. was a U. S. Representative from Florida who served as a Democrat
2.
Jefferson Davis
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Jefferson Finis Davis was an American politician who was a Democratic U. S. Representative and Senator from Mississippi, the 23rd U. S. Secretary of War, and he took personal charge of the Confederate war plans but was unable to find a strategy to defeat the more populous and industrialized Union. Davis was born in Kentucky to a prosperous farmer, and grew up on his older brother Josephs large cotton plantations in Mississippi. Joseph Davis also secured his appointment to the U. S, after graduating, Jefferson Davis served six years as a lieutenant in the U. S. Army. He fought in the Mexican–American War, as the colonel of a volunteer regiment and he served as the U. S. Secretary of War from 1853 to 1857 under President Franklin Pierce, and as a Democratic U. S. senator from Mississippi. Before the war, he operated a cotton plantation in Mississippi. After the war had ended, he remained a proud apologist for the cause of slavery for which he, although Davis argued against secession in 1858, he believed that each state was sovereign and had an unquestionable right to secede from the Union. Daviss first wife, Sarah Knox Taylor, died of malaria three months of marriage, and he also struggled with recurring bouts of the disease. He was unhealthy for much of his life, at the age of 36, Davis married again, to 18-year-old Varina Howell, a native of Natchez who had been educated in Philadelphia and had some family ties in the North. Only two survived him, and only one married and had children, many historians attribute the Confederacys weaknesses to the poor leadership of President Davis. Historians agree he was a less effective war leader than his Union counterpart Abraham Lincoln. After Davis was captured in 1865, he was accused of treason and he was never tried and was released after two years. While not disgraced, Davis had been displaced in ex-Confederate affection after the war by his leading general, Davis wrote a memoir entitled The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government, which he completed in 1881. By the late 1880s, he began to encourage reconciliation, telling Southerners to be loyal to the Union, ex-Confederates came to appreciate his role in the war, seeing him as a Southern patriot, and he became a hero of the Lost Cause in the post-Reconstruction South. Daviss paternal grandparents each immigrated separately to North America from the region of Snowdonia in North Wales in the early 18th century, the rest of his ancestry was English. After arriving in Philadelphia, Daviss paternal grandfather Evan settled in the colony of Georgia and he married the widow Lydia Emory Williams, who had two sons from a previous marriage. Their son Samuel Emory Davis was born in 1756 and he served in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, along with his two older half-brothers. In 1783, after the war, he married Jane Cook and she was born in 1759 to William Cook and his wife Sarah Simpson in what is now Christian County, Kentucky
3.
United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
4.
Florida
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Florida /ˈflɒrᵻdə/ is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, Florida is the 22nd-most extensive, the 3rd-most populous, and the 8th-most densely populated of the U. S. states. Jacksonville is the most populous municipality in the state and is the largest city by area in the contiguous United States, the Miami metropolitan area is Floridas most populous urban area. The city of Tallahassee is the state capital, much of the state is at or near sea level and is characterized by sedimentary soil. The climate varies from subtropical in the north to tropical in the south, the American alligator, American crocodile, Florida panther, and manatee can be found in the Everglades National Park. It was a location of the Seminole Wars against the Native Americans. Today, Florida is distinctive for its large Cuban expatriate community and high population growth, the states economy relies mainly on tourism, agriculture, and transportation, which developed in the late 19th century. Florida is also renowned for amusement parks, orange crops, the Kennedy Space Center, Florida has attracted many writers such as Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, Ernest Hemingway and Tennessee Williams, and continues to attract celebrities and athletes. It is internationally known for golf, tennis, auto racing, by the 16th century, the earliest time for which there is a historical record, major Native American groups included the Apalachee, the Timucua, the Ais, the Tocobaga, the Calusa and the Tequesta. Florida was the first part of the continental United States to be visited and settled by Europeans, the earliest known European explorers came with the Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León. Ponce de León spotted and landed on the peninsula on April 2,1513 and he named the region La Florida. The story that he was searching for the Fountain of Youth is a myth, in May 1539, Conquistador Hernando de Soto skirted the coast of Florida, searching for a deep harbor to land. He described seeing a wall of red mangroves spread mile after mile, some reaching as high as 70 feet. Very soon, many smokes appeared along the whole coast, billowing against the sky, the Spanish introduced Christianity, cattle, horses, sheep, the Spanish language, and more to Florida. Both the Spanish and French established settlements in Florida, with varying degrees of success, in 1559, Don Tristán de Luna y Arellano established a settlement at present-day Pensacola, making it the first attempted settlement in Florida, but it was abandoned by 1561. Spain maintained tenuous control over the region by converting the tribes to Christianity. The area of Spanish Florida diminished with the establishment of English settlements to the north, the English attacked St. Augustine, burning the city and its cathedral to the ground several times. Florida attracted numerous Africans and African-Americans from adjacent British colonies who sought freedom from slavery, in 1738, Governor Manuel de Montiano established Fort Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose near St
5.
David Levy Yulee
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David Levy Yulee was an American politician and attorney of Moroccan-Jewish origins. A resident of Florida, he served as its delegate to Congress. He founded the Florida Railroad Company and served as president of other companies. In 2000 he was recognized as that years Great Floridian by the state, Levy added Yulee, the name of one of his Moroccan ancestors to his own name soon after his 1846 marriage to the daughter of ex-Governor Charles A. Wickliffe of Kentucky. Though Yulee became Christian and raised his children as Christians, he was subject to antisemitism throughout his career. Yulee supported slavery and secession, presumed to have support to the Confederacy. He then returned to his interests and other business ventures. Born David Levy in Charlotte Amalie, on the island of St. Thomas and his mother was also Sephardi, her ancestors had gone from Spain to the Netherlands and England. Some had later gone to the Caribbean as English colonists during the British occupation of the Danish West Indies and his father Moses Levy was a first cousin and business partner of Phillip Benjamin, the father of future Confederate Secretary of State Judah P. Benjamin. After the family immigrated to the United States, Moses Levy bought 50,000 acres of land near present-day Jacksonville and he wanted to establish a New Jerusalem for Jewish settlers. The parents sent their son to an academy and college in Norfolk. David Levy studied law with Robert R. Reid in St. Augustine, was admitted to the bar in 1832, Yulee served in the territorial militia, including the Second Seminole War, and in 1834 was present at a conference with Seminole chiefs, including Osceola. In 1836 he was elected to the Florida Territorys Legislative Council and he was delegate to the territorys constitutional convention in 1838, and served as clerk of the legislature in 1841. In 1851 Yulee founded a 5, 000-acre sugar cane plantation, built and maintained by slaves, the remains of his plantation, which was destroyed during the Civil War, are now the Yulee Sugar Mill Ruins State Historic Site. Yulee was also partners with John William Pearson at Orange Springs, Florida. While living in Fernandina, Yulee began to develop a railroad across Florida and he had planned since 1837 to build a state-owned system. He became the first Southerner to use state grants under the Florida Internal Improvement Act of 1855, passed to encourage the development of infrastructure. He made extensive use of the act to secure federal and state grants as a basis of credit to acquire land and build railroad networks
6.
Adonijah Welch
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Adonijah Strong Welch was a United States Senator from Florida and the first president of Iowa State Agricultural College. Welch was admitted to the bar in 1847 and became a school principal in 1849. He spent about a year participating in the California Gold Rush of 1849, Welch served as the first principal of Michigan State Normal School from 1851 to 1865. In 1859, he married Eunice P. Buckingham and they had three children, in 1865, Welch moved to Pensacola, Florida and eventually to Jacksonville, Florida for unspecified health reasons. There, he established a mill and engaged in orange growing. His wife, Eunice, died in 1867 and, in 1868, as part of the post-Civil War Reconstruction, Florida was readmitted to the United States in 1868 and Welch was elected to the U. S. Senate as a Republican. He served in the Senate for less than nine months but declined renomination and he served as college president from 1869 to 1883 before resigning. From 1885 until his death, Welch served as a professor at Iowa State. In 1889, he died at his home in Pasadena. Adonijah Welch is interred at Iowa State College Cemetery in Ames, on the south end of Eastern Michigan University, named after Welch, Welch Hall was constructed in 1895 and was completed three days after Starkweather Hall. Welch Hall is the second oldest building on the EMU campus, the building is designed after Georgian Revival Architecture style Architecture. The buildings original name was the Training School and served as the Teacher Training School from 1896 to the 1960s, during the buildings lifetime, Welch has served as classroom space and various department offices. Due to poor maintenance the building was closed during the 1980s, in 1984, Welch Hall was added to the National Register of Historic Places. Today, Welch Hall houses EMU’s executive offices which includes the Office of the President, list of United States Senators from Florida United States congressional delegations from Florida Iowa State University notables United States Congress. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress and this article incorporates facts obtained from, Lawrence Kestenbaum, The Political Graveyard United States Congress. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, Adonijah Strong Welch at PoliticalGraveyard. com Adonijah S. Welch at Iowa State e-Library Adonijah Strong Welch at American National Biography, published by Oxford University
7.
Trinidad
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Trinidad is the larger and more populous of the two major islands and numerous landforms which make up the island nation of Trinidad and Tobago. The island lies 11 km off the northeastern coast of Venezuela, though geographically part of the South American continent, from a socio-economic standpoint it is often referred to as the southernmost island in the Caribbean. With an area of 4,768 km2, it is also the sixth largest in the West Indies, many believe the original name for the island in the Arawaks language was Iëre which meant Land of the Hummingbird. Some believe that Iere was actually a mispronunciation or corruption by early colonists of the Arawak word Kairi which simply means Island, Christopher Columbus renamed it La Isla de la Trinidad, fulfilling a vow he had made before setting out on his third voyage of exploration. Caribs and Arawaks lived in Trinidad long before Christopher Columbus encountered the islands on his voyage in 1498. Tobago changed hands between the British, French, Dutch and Courlanders, but eventually ended up in British hands, Trinidad remained Spanish until 1797, but it was largely settled by French colonists from the French Caribbean, especially Martinique. In 1889 the two became a single British Crown colony. Trinidad and Tobago obtained self-governance in 1958 and independence from the United Kingdom in 1962, major landforms include the hills of the Northern, Central and Southern Ranges, the Caroni, Nariva and Oropouche Swamps, and the Caroni and Naparima Plains. Major river systems include the Caroni, North and South Oropouche, there are many other natural landforms such as beaches and waterfalls. Trinidad has two seasons per year, the rainy season and the dry season. El Cerro del Aripo, at 940 metres, is the highest point in Trinidad and it is part of the Aripo Massif and is located in the Northern Range on the island, northeast of the town of Arima. Diversity is the status quo in Trinidad and it is sometimes known as a rainbow island or more fondly a callaloo. There is a range of ethnicity, religion, and culture. As of the 2011 Trinidad and Tobago Census, the population was 34. 22% East Indian,35. 43% African,7. 66% Mixed - African and East Indian, and 15. 16% Mixed - Other. Venezuela has also had a impact on Trinidads culture, such as introducing the music style parang to the island. Many of these groups overlap heavily due to admixture, for example Dougla is a term used to describe a person who is of African and East Indian descent. Trinidad religion primarily centers round Roman Catholic, Anglican, other Christian denominations, Hindu, catholicism constitutes the largest religious denomination of the country. There are also multiple festivals featuring the music of the Caribbean and the steelpan and these festivals include the world-famous Carnival, Jouvert, and Panorama, the national steel pan competition
8.
British West Indies
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The British West Indies, sometimes abbreviated to BWI, are now the British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, Anguilla, Bermuda, the Cayman Islands, Turks and Caicos Islands and Montserrat. Before the independence of many new nations, they included a number of islands in the region. It was hoped that the Federation would become independent as a nation, but it had limited powers, many practical problems. Consequently, the West Indies Federation was dissolved in 1962, the remainder are British overseas territories. He set up a General Assembly of the Leeward Islands in St. Kitts, Stapletons Federation was active between 1674 and 1685, during his term as governor, and the General Assembly met regularly until 1711. By the 18th century, each island had kept its own Assembly, the islands continued to share one Governor and one Attorney-General. Although unpopular, Stapletons Federation was never really dissolved but simply replaced by other arrangements, between 1816 and 1833, the Leewards were divided into two groups, St. Christopher-Nevis-Anguilla and Antigua-Barbuda-Montserrat, each with its own Governor. In 1833 all the Leeward Islands were brought together, and Dominica was added, in 1869, Governor Benjamin Pine was assigned to organise a federation of Antigua-Barbuda, Dominica, Montserrat, Nevis, St. Kitts, Anguilla and the British Virgin Islands. St. Kitts and Nevis opposed sharing their government funds with Antigua and Montserrat, Governor Pine told the Colonial Office that the scheme had failed due to local prejudice and self-interest. His only achievement was to give the Leewards a single Governor, all laws and ordinances, however, had to be approved by each island council. In 1871 the British government passed the Leeward Islands Act, by all the islands were under one Governor. The Federal Colony was composed of all islands organised under Governor Pines previous attempt, each island was called Presidency under its own Administrator or Commissioner. Like earlier groupings, this federation was unpopular but it continued until 1956, in 1958 the Federation of the West Indies was organised, of which the Leeward Islands became a part. In 1833 the Windward Islands became a union called the Windward Islands Colony. In 1838, Trinidad and St. Lucia were brought into the Windward Islands Colony, in 1840 Trinidad left the Colony. The Windward Islands Colony was unpopular, Barbados wished to retain its identity and ancient institutions. The individual islands resisted British attempts at closer union, Barbados in particular fought to retain its own Assembly and left the union in 1884. Power for the union was then transferred to Grenada as overseer of the bloc, from 1885 to 1958, the Windward Islands Colony included Grenada and the Grenadines, St. Vincent and St. Lucia during the entire period
9.
Trinidad and Tobago
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During the same period, the island of Tobago changed hands among Spanish, British, French, Dutch and Courlander colonizers, more times than any other island in the Caribbean. Trinidad and Tobago were ceded to Britain in 1802 under the Treaty of Amiens, the country Trinidad and Tobago obtained independence in 1962, becoming a republic in 1976. Trinidad and Tobago is the third richest country by GDP per capita in the Americas after the United States, furthermore, it is recognised as a high-income economy by the World Bank. Unlike most of the English-speaking Caribbean, the economy is primarily industrial, with an emphasis on petroleum. The countrys wealth is attributed to its reserves and exploitation of oil. Historian E. L. Joseph claimed that Trinidads Amerindian name was Iere or Land of the Humming Bird, derived from the Arawak name for hummingbird, however, Boomert claims that neither cairi nor caeri means hummingbird and tukusi or tucuchi does. Others have reported that kairi and iere simply mean island, christopher Columbus renamed it La Isla de la Trinidad, fulfilling a vow made before setting out on his third voyage of exploration. Trinidad and Tobago are islands situated between 10°2 and 11°12 N latitude and 60°30 and 61°56 W longitude, at the closest point, Trinidad is just 11 kilometres from Venezuelan territory. Trinidad is 4,768 km2 in area with a length of 80 km. Tobago has an area of about 300 km2, or 5. 8% of the area, is 41 km long and 12 km at its greatest width. Trinidad and Tobago lie on the shelf of South America. The terrain of the islands is a mixture of mountains and plains, the highest point in the country is found on the Northern Range at El Cerro del Aripo, which is 940 metres above sea level. As the majority of the live in the island of Trinidad. There are four municipalities in Trinidad, Port of Spain. The main town in Tobago is Scarborough, Trinidad is made up of a variety of soil types, the majority being fine sands and heavy clays. The alluvial valleys of the Northern Range and the soils of the East-West Corridor are the most fertile, the Northern Range consists mainly of Upper Jurassic and Cretaceous metamorphic rocks. The Northern Lowlands consist of shallow marine clastic sediments. South of this, the Central Range fold and thrust belt consists of Cretaceous and Eocene sedimentary rocks, the Naparima Plains and the Nariva Swamp form the southern shoulder of this uplift
10.
Pensacola, Florida
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Pensacola is the westernmost city in the Florida Panhandle and the county seat of Escambia County, in the U. S. state of Florida. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 51,923. Pensacola is the city of the Pensacola metropolitan area, which had an estimated 461,227 residents in 2012. Pensacola is a sea port on Pensacola Bay, which is protected by the island of Santa Rosa. The main campus of the University of West Florida is situated north of the city center, the area was originally inhabited by Muskogean peoples. The Pensacola people lived there at the time of European contact, Spanish explorer Tristán de Luna founded a short-lived settlement in 1559. In 1698 the Spanish established a presidio in the area, from which the city gradually developed. The area changed several times as European powers competed in North America. During Floridas British rule, fortifications were strengthened, other nicknames include Worlds Whitest Beaches, Cradle of Naval Aviation, Western Gate to the Sunshine State, Americas First Settlement, Emerald Coast, Red Snapper Capital of the World, and P-Cola. The original inhabitants of the Pensacola Bay area were Native American peoples, at the time of European contact, a Muskogean-speaking tribe known to the Spanish as the Pensacola lived in the region. This name was not recorded until 1677, but the tribe appears to be the source of the name Pensacola for the bay and thence the city. Creek people, also Muskogean-speaking, came regularly from present-day southern Alabama to trade, so the peoples were part of a broader regional and even continental network of relations. The best-known Pensacola culture site in terms of archeology is the Bottle Creek site and this site has at least 18 large earthwork mounds, five of which are arranged around a central plaza. Its main occupation was from 1250 AD to 1550 and it was a ceremonial center for the Pensacola people and a gateway to their society. This site would have had access by a dugout canoe. The areas written recorded history begins in the 16th century, with documentation by Spanish explorers who were the first Europeans to reach the area. The expeditions of Pánfilo de Narváez in 1528 and Hernando de Soto in 1539 both visited Pensacola Bay, the latter of which documented the name Bay of Ochuse. In 1559, Tristán de Luna y Arellano landed with some 1,500 people on 11 ships from Veracruz, Mexico
11.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
12.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
13.
Confederate States of America
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The Confederate States, officially the Confederate States of America, commonly referred to as the Confederacy, was a breakaway country of 11 secessionist slave states existing from 1861 to 1865. It was never recognized as an Independent country, although it achieved belligerent status by Britain. A new Confederate government was established in February 1861 before Lincoln took office in March, after the Civil War began in April, four slave states of the Upper South – Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina – also declared their secession and joined the Confederacy. The government of the United States rejected the claims of secession, the Civil War began with the April 12,1861, Confederate attack upon Fort Sumter, a Union fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. In spring 1865, after four years of fighting which led to an estimated 620,000 military deaths, all the Confederate forces surrendered. Jefferson Davis later lamented that the Confederacy had disappeared in 1865, Missouri and Kentucky were represented by partisan factions from those states, while the legitimate governments of those two states retained formal adherence to the Union. Also fighting for the Confederacy were two of the Five Civilized Tribes located in Indian Territory and a new, but uncontrolled, Confederate Territory of Arizona. Efforts by certain factions in Maryland to secede were halted by federal imposition of law, while Delaware, though of divided loyalty. A Unionist government in parts of Virginia organized the new state of West Virginia. With the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1,1863, the Union made abolition of slavery a war goal, as Union forces moved southward, large numbers of plantation slaves were freed. Many joined the Union lines, enrolling in service as soldiers, teamsters and laborers, the most notable advance was Shermans March to the Sea in late 1864. Much of the Confederacys infrastructure was destroyed, including telegraphs, railroads, plantations in the path of Shermans forces were severely damaged. Internal movement became increasingly difficult for Southerners, weakening the economy and these losses created an insurmountable disadvantage in men, materiel, and finance. Public support for Confederate President Jefferson Daviss administration eroded over time due to repeated military reverses, economic hardships, after four years of campaigning, Richmond was captured by Union forces in April 1865. Shortly afterward, Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant, President Davis was captured on May 10,1865, and jailed in preparation for a treason trial that was ultimately never held. The U. S. government began a process known as Reconstruction which attempted to resolve the political and constitutional issues of the Civil War. By 1877, the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction in the former Confederate states, Confederate veterans had been temporarily disenfranchised by Reconstruction policy. The prewar South had many areas, the war left the entire region economically devastated by military action, ruined infrastructure
14.
Richmond, Virginia
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Richmond is the capital of the Commonwealth of Virginia in the United States. It is the center of the Richmond Metropolitan Statistical Area and the Greater Richmond Region and it was incorporated in 1742, and has been an independent city since 1871. As of the 2010 census, the population was 204,214, in 2015, the population was estimated to be 220,289, the Richmond Metropolitan Area has a population of 1,260,029, the third-most populous metro in the state. Richmond is located at the line of the James River,44 miles west of Williamsburg,66 miles east of Charlottesville. Surrounded by Henrico and Chesterfield counties, the city is located at the intersections of Interstate 95 and Interstate 64, Major suburbs include Midlothian to the southwest, Glen Allen to the north and west, Short Pump to the west and Mechanicsville to the northeast. The site of Richmond had been an important village of the Powhatan Confederacy, and was settled by English colonists from Jamestown in 1609. The present city of Richmond was founded in 1737 and it became the capital of the Colony and Dominion of Virginia in 1780. During the American Civil War, Richmond served as the capital of the Confederate States of America, the city entered the 20th century with one of the worlds first successful electric streetcar systems. The Jackson Ward neighborhood is a hub of African-American commerce. Richmonds economy is driven by law, finance, and government, with federal, state. Dominion Resources and MeadWestvaco, Fortune 500 companies, are headquartered in the city, in 1737, planter William Byrd II commissioned Major William Mayo to lay out the original town grid. The settlement was laid out in April 1737, and was incorporated as a town in 1742, Richmond recovered quickly from the war, and by 1782 was once again a thriving city. A permanent home for the new government, the Virginia State Capitol building, was designed by Thomas Jefferson with the assistance of Charles-Louis Clérisseau, after the American Revolutionary War, Richmond emerged as an important industrial center. The legacy of the canal boatmen is represented by the figure in the center of the city flag, on April 17,1861, five days after the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter, the legislature voted to secede from the United States and joined the Confederacy. Official action came in May, after the Confederacy promised to move its capital to Richmond. It became the target of Union armies, especially in the campaigns of 1862. The Seven Days Battles followed in late June and early July 1862, during which Union General McClellan threatened to take Richmond, three years later, as March 1865 ended, the Confederate capitol became indefensible. On March 25, Confederate General John B, gordons desperate attack on Fort Stedman east of Petersburg failed
15.
Andrew Johnson
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Andrew Johnson was the 17th President of the United States, serving from 1865 to 1869. Johnson became president as he was president at the time of the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. A Democrat who ran with Lincoln on the National Union ticket, the new president favored quick restoration of the seceded states to the Union. His plans did not give protection to the slaves, and he came into conflict with the Republican-dominated Congress. The first American president to be impeached, he was acquitted in the Senate by one vote, Johnson was born in poverty in Raleigh, North Carolina. Apprenticed as a tailor, he worked in several towns before settling in Greeneville. He served as alderman and mayor there before being elected to the Tennessee House of Representatives in 1835, after brief service in the Tennessee Senate, Johnson was elected to the federal House of Representatives in 1843, where he served five two-year terms. He became Governor of Tennessee for four years, and was elected by the legislature to the Senate in 1857, in his congressional service, he sought passage of the Homestead Bill, which was enacted soon after he left his Senate seat in 1862. As Southern slave states, including Tennessee, seceded to form the Confederate States of America and he was the only sitting senator from a Confederate state who did not resign his seat upon learning of his states secession. In 1862, Lincoln appointed him as governor of Tennessee after most of it had been retaken. When Johnson was sworn in as president in March 1865, he gave a rambling speech. Six weeks later, the assassination of Lincoln made him president, Johnson implemented his own form of Presidential Reconstruction – a series of proclamations directing the seceded states to hold conventions and elections to re-form their civil governments. Johnson vetoed their bills, and Congressional Republicans overrode him, setting a pattern for the remainder of his presidency, Johnson opposed the Fourteenth Amendment, which gave citizenship to former slaves. In 1866, Johnson went on a national tour promoting his executive policies. As the conflict between the branches of government grew, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act, restricting Johnsons ability to fire Cabinet officials. When he persisted in trying to dismiss Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, he was impeached by the House of Representatives, and narrowly avoided conviction in the Senate and removal from office. Returning to Tennessee after his presidency, Johnson sought political vindication, Johnson is regarded by many historians as one of the worst presidents in American history. While some admire his strict constitutionalism, his opposition to federally guaranteed rights for African Americans is widely criticized
16.
United States House of Representatives
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The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
17.
Redding, Connecticut
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Redding is a town in Fairfield County, Connecticut, United States. The population was 9,158 at the 2010 census. According to the United States Census Bureau, Redding has an area of 32.1 square miles, of which 31.5 square miles is land and 0.6 square miles. Redding borders Bethel, Danbury, Easton, Newtown, Ridgefield, Redding has four primary sections, Redding Center, Redding Ridge, West Redding, and Georgetown, which is situated at the junction of Redding, Ridgefield, Weston and Wilton. Reddings topography is dominated by three ridges, running north to south, with intervening valleys featuring steep slopes and rocky ledges in some sections. Four streams flow south through Redding toward Long Island Sound, the Aspetuck River, the Little River, the Norwalk River, the Saugatuck River flows through the Saugatuck Reservoir, Reddings largest body of water which stretches south into Weston. The reservoir was created in 1938 through the flooding of a portion of the Saugatuck River Valley, as of the census of 2010, there were 9,158 people,3,470 households, and 2,593 families residing in the town. Redding has the third lowest population density in Fairfield County at 285.3 people per square mile, between 2000 and 2010, Reddings population increased 10. 7%. There were 3,811 housing units as of 2010, up 23. 5% from a decade earlier, for an average density of 118.7 units per square mile. The racial makeup of the town as of 2010 was 94. 90% White,0. 70% African American,0. 10% Native American,2. 20% Asian,2. 10% from other races or from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 60% of the population, individuals comprised 21. 3% of all households and 12. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.63 and the family size was 3.07. In the town, the population was out with 26. 0% under the age of 18,3. 2% from 18 to 24,16. 3% from 25 to 44,36. 2% from 45 to 64. The median age was 46.4 years, for every 100 females there were 92.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.4 males, the median income for a household in 2000 was $104,137, and the median income for a family was $109,250. In 2009, the family income rose to $141,609. Males had an income of $77,882 versus $52,250 for females. The per capita income for the town was $50,687, about 1. 2% of families and 1. 8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2. 1% of those under age 18 and 3. 5% of those age 65 or over
18.
Irish diaspora
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The Irish diaspora refers to Irish people and their descendants who live outside Ireland. This is more than the population of Ireland at its peak in the 1840s of 8.5 million. The poorest of them went to Great Britain, especially Liverpool, after 1840, emigration from Ireland became a massive, relentless, and efficiently managed national enterprise. In 1890 40% of Irish-born people were living abroad, by the 21st century, an estimated 80 million people worldwide claimed some Irish descent, which includes more than 36 million Americans who claim Irish as their primary ethnicity. As recently as the half of the nineteenth century, the majority of Irish emigrants spoke Irish as their first language. This had social and cultural consequences for the cultivation of the language abroad, the language continues to be cultivated abroad by a small minority as a literary and social medium. Joe McHugh is the Republic of Irelands Minister of State for the Diaspora, the term Irish diaspora is open to many interpretations. It has been argued the idea of an Irish diaspora, as distinct from the old identification of Irishness with Ireland itself, was influenced by the advent of global mobility and modernity. Irishness could now be identified with dispersed individuals and groups of Irish descent, but many of those individuals were the product of complex ethnic intermarriage in America and elsewhere, complicating the idea of a single line of descent. Irishness might then rely primarily on identification with an Irish diaspora. The Government of Ireland defines the Irish diaspora as all persons of Irish nationality who habitually reside outside of the island of Ireland and this includes Irish citizens who have emigrated abroad and their children, who are Irish citizens by descent under Irish law. It also includes their grandchildren in cases where they were registered as Irish citizens in the Foreign Births Register held in every Irish diplomatic mission, under this legal definition, the Irish diaspora is considerably smaller—some 3 million persons, of whom 1.2 million are Irish-born emigrants. This is still a large ratio for any country, however, the usage of Irish diaspora is generally not limited by citizenship status, thus leading to an estimated membership of up to 80 million persons—the second and more emotive definition. The right to register as an Irish citizen terminates at the third generation and this contrasts with citizenship law in Italy, Israel, Japan and other countries which practice jus sanguinis or otherwise permit members of the diaspora to register as citizens. There are people of Irish descent abroad who reject inclusion in an Irish diaspora and they may see the diasporic label as something used by the Irish government for its own purposes. The Attacotti, who were recruited into the Roman army. Following the withdrawal of the Roman army, the Irish began increasing their footholds in Britain, in time, the Irish colonies became independent, merged with the Pictish kingdom, and formed the basis of modern Scotland. The traditionally Gaelic-speaking areas of Scotland are still referred to in the Gaelic language as a Ghàidhealtachd, Irish monks, and the Celtic church, pioneered a wave of Irish emigration into Great Britain, and continental Europe
19.
Key West, Florida
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Key West is an island city in Florida and the county seat of Monroe County. The city boundaries include the island of Key West and several islands, as well as the section of Stock Island north of U. S. Route 1. Sigsbee Park—originally known as Dredgers Key—and Fleming Key, both located to the north, and Sunset Key located to the west are all included in the city boundaries, both Fleming Key and Sigsbee Park are part of Naval Air Station Key West and are inaccessible to the general public. Key West is the southernmost city in the contiguous United States and the terminus of U. S. Route 1, State Road A1A, the East Coast Greenway and, before 1935. Key West is 129 miles southwest of Miami by air, about 160 miles by car, Cuba, at its closest point, is 94 miles south. Key West is a destination for many passenger cruise ships. The Key West International Airport provides airline service, the central business district is located along Duval Street and includes much of the northwestern corner of the island. The official city motto is One Human Family, in Pre-Colonial times Key West was inhabited by the Calusa people. The first European to visit was Juan Ponce de León in 1521, as Florida became a Spanish territory, a fishing and salvage village with a small garrison was established here. Cayo Hueso is the original Spanish name for the island of Key West, spanish-speaking people today also use the term when referring to Key West. It is said that the island was littered with the remains of native inhabitants. This island was the westernmost Key with a supply of water. In 1763, when Great Britain took control of Florida, the community of Spaniards, Florida returned to Spanish control 20 years later, but there was no official resettlement of the island. Informally the island was used by fishermen from Cuba and from the British, while claimed by Spain, no nation exercised de facto control over the community there for some time. In 1815, the Spanish governor of Cuba in Havana deeded the island of Key West to Juan Pablo Salas, businessman John W. Simonton, during a meeting in a Havana café on January 19,1822, for the equivalent of $2,000 in pesos in 1821. Geddes tried in vain to secure his rights to the property before Simonton who, Simonton had wide-ranging business interests in Mobile, Alabama. He bought the island because a friend, John Whitehead, had drawn his attention to the opportunities presented by the strategic location. John Whitehead had been stranded in Key West after a shipwreck in 1819, on March 25,1822, Lt. Commander, Matthew C
20.
Mobile, Alabama
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Mobile is the county seat of Mobile County, Alabama, United States. Alabamas only saltwater port, Mobile is located at the head of the Mobile Bay, Mobile is the principal municipality of the Mobile metropolitan area. This region of 412,992 residents is composed solely of Mobile County, Mobile is the largest city in the Mobile-Daphne−Fairhope CSA, with a total population of 604,726, the second largest in the state. As of 2011, the population within a 60-mile radius of Mobile is 1,262,907, Mobile began as the first capital of colonial French Louisiana in 1702. During its first 100 years, Mobile was a colony of France, then Britain, Mobile first became a part of the United States of America in 1813, with the annexation of West Florida under President James Madison. In 1861 Alabama joined the Confederate States of America, which surrendered in 1865, Mobile is known for having the oldest organized Carnival celebrations in the United States. The festival began to be celebrated in the first decade of the 18th century by its first French Catholic colonial settlers. Mobile was host to the first formally organized Carnival mystic society, known elsewhere as a krewe, to celebrate with a parade in the United States, in 2005 the first integrated mystic society had a parade for Mardi Gras. The city gained its name from the Mobile tribe that the French colonists encountered living in the area of Mobile Bay. The Mobile tribe, along with the Tohomé, obtained permission from the colonists, about seven years after the founding of the Mobile settlement, to settle near the fort. It was founded by French Canadian brothers Pierre Le Moyne dIberville and Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville, Bienville was appointed as royal governor of French Louisiana in 1701. Mobiles Roman Catholic parish was established on July 20,1703, by Jean-Baptiste de la Croix de Chevrières de Saint-Vallier, the parish was the first French Catholic parish established on the Gulf Coast of the United States. In 1704 the ship Pélican delivered 23 French women to the colony, though most of the Pélican girls recovered, numerous colonists and neighboring Native Americans contracted the disease in turn and died. This early period was also the occasion of the importation of the first African slaves, the population of the colony fluctuated over the next few years, growing to 279 persons by 1708, yet descending to 178 persons two years later due to disease. A new earth-and-palisade Fort Louis was constructed at the new site during this time, by 1712, when Antoine Crozat was appointed to take over administration of the colony, its population had reached 400 persons. The capital of La Louisiane was moved in 1720 to Biloxi, leaving Mobile to serve as a regional military and trading center. In 1723 the construction of a new fort with a stone foundation began and it was renamed Fort Condé in honor of Louis Henri, Duc de Bourbon. In 1763, the Treaty of Paris was signed, ending the Seven Years War, by this treaty, France ceded its territories east of the Mississippi River to Britain
21.
Boarding house
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A boarding house is a house in which lodgers rent one or more rooms for one or more nights, and sometimes for extended periods of weeks, months, and years. The common parts of the house are maintained, and some services, such as laundry and cleaning and they normally provide room and board, that is, at least some meals as well as accommodation. A lodging house, also known in the United States as a rooming house, lodgers legally only obtain a licence to use their rooms, and not exclusive possession, so the landlord retains the right of access. Formerly boarders would typically share washing, breakfast and dining facilities, in recent years it has become common for room to have its own washing. Such boarding houses were found in English seaside towns and college towns. It was common for there to be one or two elderly long-term residents, Boarders can often arrange to stay bed-and-breakfast, half-board or full-board. Especially for families on holiday with children, boarding was an alternative and certainly much cheaper than staying in all. However some B&B accommodation is available on a long-term basis to UK local authorities who are legally obliged to house persons. Such a boarding-house may well cease to be attractive to short-term lodgers, much old seaside accommodation is so used, since cheap flights have reduced demand for their original seasonal holiday use. Apart from the spread of the concept of the B&B. For example, in Japan, minshuku are an almost exact equivalent although the arrangement would be the equivalent of the English half-board. In Hawaii, where the cost of living is high and incomes barely keep pace, in the Indian subcontinent boarders are also known as paying guests. Paying guests stay in a home and share a room with domestic facilities, rates are nominal and monthly charges are usually inclusive of food, bed, table and a cupboard. The rent can go higher for a room in a locality with facilities like single occupancy, air conditioning. In the United States, zoning was used by neighborhoods to limit boarding houses, sherlock Holmes lived in a boarding house at 221B Baker Street, of which the landlady Mrs. Hudson provided some domestic service. Mary Roberts Rinehart wrote the now classic boarding-house mystery, The Case of Jennie Brice, H. G. Wells satirized boarding houses of the Edwardian era in his novel The Dream. E. Phillips Oppenheim set his novel, The Strange Boarders of Palace Crescent in a London boarding house. Lynne Reid Bankss novel The L-Shaped Room is set in a boarding house
22.
Moravian Academy
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Moravian Academy, located in historic Bethlehem, Pennsylvania in the United States, is a prekindergarten through 12th grade coeducational college preparatory school. It predominantly serves students from the Lehigh Valley region of Pennsylvania, Moravian Academy is an independent school, but traces its origins to the Moravians, who settled Bethlehem, Pennsylvania in 1741. The Academy descends from the first school for girls founded in the American colonies, Moravian Seminary and it is the ninth oldest independent school in the United States. In 1971, Moravian Seminary for Girls and Moravian Preparatory School merged and it was formerly a boarding school, but is now for day students only. Moravian Academy has a heritage in the Moravian Church, but now refers to itself as a church-related school, welcoming students from diverse religious. The school holds weekly interfaith chapel services for students that both celebrate the religious traditions of the school community and honor the schools Moravian heritage. Moravian is made up of three divisions, The Upper, Middle and Lower Schools, the Upper School is located on the Merle-Smith Campus, and the Lower and Middle Schools are located in downtown Bethlehem on the Church Street Campus. The Middle School is based in the Devey Building, dedicated to Mr. Devey & Mrs. Devey, a headmaster and his wife, and the 7 East Market Street Building. The Lower School comprises Primer through 5th grade, the Middle School comprises 6th through 8th, in May 1742, Moravian Seminary was founded by Countess Benigna von Zinzendorf, daughter of Moravian Leader Count Nicolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf. The school was founded as a Moravian girls school in Germantown, Philadelphia, soon afterwards, a separate Moravian boys school was founded. The two schools changed locations frequently in their days, following the Moravian missionaries around as they fulfilled their vows to preach to the Native Americans in the region. In order to give the schools more stability, Moravian Bishop Joseph Spangenberg turned them into boarding schools to house, after a while, the boarding schools began charging large fees for tuition and board which caused many to leave for cheaper schools in the area. During the time of the American Revolution, Moravian schools opened up enrollment to non-Moravians with permission from the church leaders, many people wanted to give their children the skills and education that the Moravians had cherished for a long time. The schools became so popular that they were unable to house the large amount of students wanted to join the school. In the 1830s, the Moravian day schools became public schools, in 1850s, a co-ed Moravian Parochial School broke away from the public school system. This Moravian Parochial School went on to set up a preparatory program to prepare students for nearby Lehigh University in 1885. They used this program as an excuse to nearly double tuition prices, the Moravian Parochial School was later renamed to Moravian Preparatory School. Meanwhile, Moravian Seminary was facing hard times at the same time that teachers were demanding higher pay
23.
Nazareth, Pennsylvania
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Nazareth is a borough in Northampton County, Pennsylvania, in the United States. The population was 5,746 at the 2010 census, Nazareth is located seven miles northwest of Easton, four miles north of Bethlehem and twelve miles northeast of Allentown. It is located in the center of Northampton County, and is part of Pennsylvanias Lehigh Valley region, the borough is named for the Biblical town of Nazareth, where Jesus spent his youth. The names of places in the Lehigh Valley area of Pennsylvania are similarly inspired, including Bethlehem, Emmaus, Egypt. Nazareth was founded in 1740 by Moravian immigrants from Germany, the property was purchased from George Whitefield after the construction of the Whitefield House. Initially, Nazareth was specifically Moravian by charter, outside faiths were not allowed to purchase property within Nazareth, a basically all German Protestant community. In 1735 a small group of the Moravian missionaries had begun work in the settled community of Savannah. Their intent was to evangelize the Native American tribes and minister to the settlers, governor Oglethorpe, founder of Georgia, and John and Charles Wesley, founders of the Methodist Church and deeply interested in Moravian ideals, came along on the same boat. The Brethren settled along the Savannah River in Georgia, like the Quakers, the Brethren refused to take part in the war with the Spanish and, as a result, they were evicted from Georgia in 1739. George Whitefield, a widely known itinerant preacher who had served for a time as chaplain of Savannah, Whitefield had grandiose plans, and one of them was for a school for Negro children to be established on his tract of 5,000 acres called the Barony of Nazareth. He invited the Brethren who accompanied him to Philadelphia to settle at this location for the time being, by the end of June,1739, the first log dwelling was erected. The workers struggled, the weather did not cooperate, and winter soon arrived and they quickly erected a second log house. After its completion, word came that Whitefield had returned to Pennsylvania, bristling and angered by theological disputes with certain Moravians, while evicted from the Barony, Moravian leaders in England were negotiating to buy the entire Barony. When Whitefields business manager suddenly died, Whitefield discovered that his finances, shaky on more than one occasion and he was forced to sell the whole tract. On July 16,1741, it officially became Moravian property, Nazareth was originally planned as a central English-speaking church village. But in October 1742, its 18 English inhabitants departed for Philadelphia, meanwhile, the Nazareth tract was largely in the hand of Captain John, a Lenape chieftain who stubbornly refused to leave, even though they no longer owned the land. In December 1742, Count Zinzendorf, a Moravian benefactor, made a settlement with Captain John, during 1743, the still unfinished Whitefield House was put in readiness for 32 young married couples who were to arrive from Europe. On the second day of the new year,1744, the couples went overland to Nazareth to settle in the nearly completed Whitefield House, the Whitefield House and adjacent Gray Cottage now belong to the Moravian Historical Society
24.
Catholic
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The use of terms catholicism and catholicity is closely related to the use of term Catholic Church. The earliest evidence of the use of term is the Letter to the Smyrnaeans that Ignatius of Antioch wrote in about 108 to Christians in Smyrna. In 380, Emperor Theodosius I limited use of the term Catholic Christian exclusively to those who followed the faith as Pope Damasus I of Rome. Numerous other early writers including Cyril of Jerusalem, Augustine of Hippo further developed the use of the term catholic in relation to Christianity. In Christian theology, and specially in ecclesiology, terms Catholicism, when used with small c, terms catholicism and catholicity generally designate theological doctrine of the catholicity of the Church without denominational connotations. A common belief in Catholicism is institutional continuity with the early Christian church founded by Jesus Christ, many churches or communions of churches identify singularly or collectively as the authentic church. The Bishop of Rome was also considered to have the right to convene ecumenical councils, when the Imperial capital moved to Constantinople, Romes influence was sometimes challenged. The first great rupture in the Church followed this Council and they are often called Ancient Oriental Churches. The next major break was after the Council of Chalcedon and this Council repudiated Eutychian Monophysitism which stated that the divine nature completely subsumed the human nature in Christ. This Council declared that Christ, though one person, exhibited two natures without confusion, without change, without division, without separation and thus is both fully God and fully human, the next great rift within Christianity was in the 11th century. This division between the Western Church and the Eastern Church is called the East–West Schism, several eastern churches reunited, constituting some of the Eastern Catholic Churches. Liturgical and canonical practices vary between all these particular Churches constituting the Roman and Eastern Catholic Churches, in all these cases the beliefs and practices of Catholicism would be identical with the beliefs and practices of the Church in question. However, in Roman Catholicism, the term catholic is understood as to cover those who recognize and are in standing with the Magisterium. The sense given to the word by those who use it to distinguish their position from a Calvinistic or Puritan form of Protestantism. It is then meaningful to attempt to draw up a list of common characteristic beliefs, the Roman Catholic Church includes the 23 rites who recognize the Magisterium. Belief in the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist, the belief that Christ is made manifest in the elements of Holy Communion, possession of the threefold ordained ministry of Bishops, Priests and Deacons. Belief that the Church is the vessel and deposit of the fullness of the teachings of Jesus and this teaching is preserved in both written scripture and in unwritten tradition, neither being independent of the other. A belief in the necessity and efficacy of sacraments, liturgical and personal use of the Sign of the Cross The use of sacred images, candles, vestments and music, and often incense and water, in worship
25.
William Marvin
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William Marvin was an American lawyer, politician, and United States federal judge. He was the seventh Governor of Florida, born in Fairfield, New York, Marvin read law in 1834 and entered private practice in Phelps, New York in 1834. President Andrew Jackson appointed him United States Attorney for the Southern District of Florida Territory at Key West in 1835, Marvin served as a member of the Florida Territorial Council, governing the Florida Territory, in 1837. Marvin served as a U. S. territorial judge on the U. S. District Court for the Southern District of Florida Territory from 1839 to 1847, Florida became a U. S. state in 1845. On March 2,1847, President James K. Polk nominated him to a seat on the newly created United States District Court for the Southern District of Florida, confirmed by the Senate on March 3,1847, he received his commission on March 3,1847. Marvin resigned from the court on July 1,1863, Marvin was in private practice in New York City in 1863 to 1865. Marvin was appointed governor of Florida on July 13,1865, by President Andrew Johnson. Marvin left office on December 20,1865, the Florida Legislature elected him to the United States Senate as a Democrat, but the U. S. Senate refused to recognize the election and denied him a seat. Following the decision by the government to reconstruct the former Confederacy. In 1867, he left Florida and moved to Skaneateles, New York and he remained in private practice until his death in Skaneateles in 1902. Marvin was the author of a nationally recognized textbook entitled Law of Wreck and Salvage and his brother, Richard P. Marvin, was a member of the U. S. House of Representatives and later a New York state judge. 2015 William Marvin at the Biographical Directory of Federal Judges, a public domain publication of the Federal Judicial Center, official Governors portrait and biography from the State of Florida William Marvin, Judge, Governor, Gardener William Marvin at Find a Grave
26.
Customs officer
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A customs officer is a law enforcement agent who enforces customs laws, on behalf of a government. 4,931 posts, of nine are directorate officers,3,804 are members of the Customs and Excise Department,504 are Trade Controls Officers and 614 are staff of the General. Hong Kong is one of the busiest container ports in the world and it handled 20.4 million TEUs in 2003. Of these,12.1 million TEUs were handled at the Kwai Chung Container Terminal, in 2003,70,910 ocean-going ships and 365,190 coastal vessels entered and left Hong Kong. Ships and vessels are subject to customs check, cargoes are either examined on board sea freighters or after off-loading. In 2004, a total of 8.6 million passengers arrived in Hong Kong from the Mainland and Macau by sea and they were processed at the China Ferry Terminal in Tsim Sha Tsui and the Hong Kong-Macau Ferry Terminal in Central. In addition, an average of 49 helicopter flights between Hong Kong and Macau are operated at the Hong Kong-Macau Ferry Terminal. The C&ED is a member of the World Customs Organization. It exchanges intelligence and works closely with overseas customs administrations and law enforcement agencies, the department has also entered bilateral Cooperative Arrangements with other customs authorities on administrative assistance. At the working level, the department and the China Customs have each established designated liaison officers to facilitate the exchange of intelligence through direct telephone hotlines, the powers of customs officers derive from the Customs Management Act 1979. Officers are appointed by the Commissioners of Revenue and Customs, who are in turn appointed by the Queen, failure to return a commission by an officer is an offence, as is imitating or obstructing an officer. Officers at ports are now part of the Border Force and as such have their powers conferred by the Borders, Citizenship. Carrying away an officer is an offence, Officers may inspect aircraft and aerodromes, and prevent the departure of aircraft if they have not given their permission for them to depart. They may stop ships in UK territorial waters for the purposes of checking that they have cleared to leave the UK. Officers may ask questions with respect to the baggage of people entering or leaving the United Kingdom, any person entering the UK from outside the EU who fails to declare any thing or to produce any baggage or thing as required commits an offence. Officers on anti-smuggling duties may haul up, leave or moor vessels where they wish and they may also enter any part of the coast, railway or aerodrome, and over any land in Northern Ireland within the prescribed area. They may not, however, enter any garden or pleasure ground, Officers may ask any person entering or leaving a free trade zone questions with respect to any goods. That person shall, if required by the officer, produce goods for examination at such place as the Commissioners may direct
27.
James K. Polk
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James Knox Polk was the 11th President of the United States. Polk was born in Pineville, North Carolina, and moved to Tennessee to study law, after building a successful law practice, he was elected to the Tennessee legislature and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825. He left Congress to serve as Governor of Tennessee from 1839 to 1841, after losing re-election as governor in 1840, and losing in another gubernatorial election in 1842, Polk was a dark horse candidate for president in 1844. Though he entered the convention hoping to be nominated for vice president, in the general election, he defeated Henry Clay of the rival Whig Party in large part due to his promise to annex the Republic of Texas. True to his pledge to serve only one term as President, Polk left office in March 1849. He died of cholera three months later, scholars have ranked him favorably on lists of greatest presidents for his ability to promote, obtain support for, and achieve all of the major items on his presidential agenda. However, he has also criticized for leading the country into war against Mexico. Polk has been called the least known consequential president, James Knox Polk, the first of ten children, was born on November 2,1795 in a log house in what is now Pineville, North Carolina in Mecklenburg County, just outside Charlotte. His father, Samuel Polk, was a slaveholder, successful farmer and his mother, Jane Polk, was a descendant of a brother of the Scottish religious reformer John Knox. She named her firstborn after her father James Knox, like many early Scots-Irish settlers in the North Carolina mountains, the Knox and Polk families were Presbyterian. While Polks mother Jane remained a devout Presbyterian her entire life, when the parents took the young James to a Presbyterian church to be baptized, the father Samuel refused to declare his belief in Christianity, and the minister refused to baptize the child. In 1803, most of Polks relatives moved to the Duck River area in what is now Maury County, Middle Tennessee, the family grew prosperous, with Samuel Polk turning to land speculation and becoming a county judge. His health was problematic and in 1812 his pain became so unbearable that he was taken to Dr. Ephraim McDowell of Danville, Kentucky, Polk was awake during the operation with nothing but brandy available for anesthetic, but it was successful. The surgery may have left Polk sterile, as he did not sire any children, when Polk recovered, his father offered to bring him into the mercantile business, but Polk refused. In July 1813, Polk enrolled at the Zion Church near his home, a year later he attended an academy in Murfreesboro, where he may have met his future wife, Sarah Childress. At Murfreesboro, Polk proved a promising student, in January 1816, Polk was admitted into the University of North Carolina as a second-semester sophomore. The Polk family had connections with the university, then a school of about 80 students, Sam Polk was their land agent for Tennessee. While there, Polk joined the Dialectic Society where he took part in debates
28.
Seminole Wars
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Taken together, the Seminole Wars were the longest and most expensive Indian Wars in United States history. The First Seminole War began with General Andrew Jacksons excursions into West Florida, the governments of Britain and Spain both expressed outrage over the invasion. However, Spain was unable to defend its territory, and the Spanish Crown agreed to cede Florida to the United States in the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819. According to the Treaty of Moultrie Creek of 1823, the Seminoles were required to leave northern Florida and were confined to a reservation in the center of the Florida peninsula. The U. S. government enforced the treaty by building a series of forts and trading posts in the territory, mainly along the Gulf and Atlantic coasts. The war resulted in most of the Seminole population in Florida being killed in battle, ravaged by starvation and disease, a few hundred Seminoles were allowed to remain in an unofficial reservation in southwest Florida. An estimated 100 Seminoles still refused to leave and retreated deep into the Everglades to live on land that was unwanted by white settlers, raids from the newly- established English Province of Carolina beginning in the mid-1600s began another steep decline in the indigenous population. In the first decade of the 18th century,10,000 –12,000 Indians were taken as slaves according to the governor of La Florida and by 1710, observers noted that north Florida was virtually depopulated. The few remaining natives fled west to Pensacola and beyond or east to the vicinity of St. Augustine. When Spain ceded Florida to Great Britain as part of the Treaty of Paris in 1763, during the mid-1700s, small bands from various Native American tribes from the southeastern United States began moving into the unoccupied lands of Florida. In 1715, the Yamasee moved into Florida as allies of the Spanish, Creek people, at first primarily the Lower Creek but later including Upper Creek, also started moving into Florida from the area of Georgia. The Mikasuki, Hitchiti-speakers, settled around what is now Lake Miccosukee near Tallahassee, another group of Hitchiti speakers, led by Cowkeeper, settled in what is now Alachua County, an area where the Spanish had maintained cattle ranches in the 17th century. One of the best-known ranches was Rancho de la Chua, the region became known as the Alachua Prairie. The Spanish in Saint Augustine began calling the Alachua Creek Cimarrones and this was the probable origin of the term Seminole. This name was applied to the other groups in Florida. Escaped African and African-American slaves who could reach the fort were essentially free, many were from Pensacola, some were free citizens though others had escaped from United States territory. The Spanish offered the freedom and land in Florida, they recruited former slaves as militia to help defend Pensacola. Other escaped slaves joined various Seminole bands as free members of the tribe, while most of the former slaves at Fort Mose went to Cuba with the Spanish when they left Florida in 1763, others lived with or near various bands of Indians
29.
Monroe County, Florida
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Monroe County is a county located in the state of Florida. As of the 2010 census, the population was 73,090 and its county seat is Key West. Monroe County includes the islands of the Florida Keys, only 24 people live on the mainland. Monroe County comprises the Key West, FL Micropolitan Statistical Area, although 87% of the countys land area is on the mainland, that region is part of the Everglades and is virtually uninhabited. Over 99% of the population lives on the Florida Keys. Monroe County was created in 1823 and it was named for James Monroe, the fifth President of the United States, who served from 1817 to 1825. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 3,738 square miles. It is the largest county in Florida by total area, more than 99 percent of the Monroe County population lives in the island chain known as the Florida Keys. The area, officially named Cape Sable Census County Division, is virtually uninhabited, as of the Census of 2000, this area had 86.9 percent of the countys land area, but only 0.075 percent of its population. The Census Bureau defines this area as Census Tract 9701 of Monroe County, the only three populated places appearing on detailed maps and in the USGS geographic name database are Flamingo, Pinecrest, and Trail City. Flamingo, located on the south coast and at the end of State Road 9336, is the location of the Flamingo Lodge,11 km northeast on the highway is the West Lake Trail. Pinecrest, located in the interior of the county on Loop Road. Trail City is 6 km west of Pinecrest on Loop Road, Loop Road can be found on most maps as CR94, although the roadway no longer has a numbered designation and is now managed by the National Park Service. Between the south coast of Floridas mainland and the Florida Keys is Florida Bay, which is encompassed by the Everglades National Park and contains numerous islets or keys. Collier County – north Miami-Dade County – east and north As of the census of 2000, there were 79,589 people,35,086 households, the population density was 80 people per square mile. There were 51,617 housing units at a density of 52 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 90. 65% White,4. 77% Black or African American,0. 38% Native American,0. 83% Asian,0. 04% Pacific Islander,1. 55% from other races, and 1. 78% from two or more races. 15. 77% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race, in 2005 Monroe County had a population that was 75. 1% non-Hispanic white,17. 7% Latino,5. 4% African-American and 1. 1% Asian
30.
Nashville, Tennessee
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Nashville is the capital of the U. S. state of Tennessee and the county seat of Davidson County. It is located on the Cumberland River in the central part of the state. The city is a center for the music, healthcare, publishing, banking and transportation industries and it is known as a center of the country music industry, earning it the nickname Music City, U. S. A. Since 1963, Nashville has had a consolidated city-county government which includes six municipalities in a two-tier system. Nashville is governed by a mayor, vice-mayor, and 40-member Metropolitan Council, thirty-five of the members are elected from single-member districts, five are elected at-large. Reflecting the citys position in government, Nashville is home to the Tennessee Supreme Courts courthouse for Middle Tennessee. According to 2015 estimates from the U. S. Census Bureau, the balance population, which excludes semi-independent municipalities within Nashville, was 654,610. The 2015 population of the entire 13-county Nashville metropolitan area was 1,830,345, the 2015 population of the Nashville-Davidson–Murfreesboro–Columbia combined statistical area, a larger trade area, was 1,951,644. The town of Nashville was founded by James Robertson, John Donelson, and it was named for Francis Nash, the American Revolutionary War hero. Nashville quickly grew because of its location, accessibility as a port on the Cumberland River, a tributary of the Ohio River. By 1800, the city had 345 residents, including 136 African American slaves and 14 free blacks, in 1806, Nashville was incorporated as a city and became the county seat of Davidson County, Tennessee. In 1843, the city was named the permanent capital of the state of Tennessee, by 1860, when the first rumblings of secession began to be heard across the South, antebellum Nashville was a prosperous city. The citys significance as a port made it a desirable prize as a means of controlling important river. In February 1862, Nashville became the first state capital to fall to Union troops, the state was occupied by Union troops for the duration of the war. Within a few years after the Civil War, the Nashville chapter of the Ku Klux Klan was founded by Confederate veteran John W. Morton, meanwhile, the city had reclaimed its important shipping and trading position and developed a solid manufacturing base. The post–Civil War years of the late 19th century brought new prosperity to Nashville and these healthy economic times left the city with a legacy of grand classical-style buildings, which can still be seen around the downtown area. Circa 1950 the state approved a new city charter that provided for the election of city council members from single-member districts. This change was supported because at-large voting diluted the minority populations political power in the city and they could seldom gain a majority of the population to support a candidate of their choice
31.
Fire eating
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Fire eating is the act of putting a flaming object into the mouth and extinguishing it. A fire eater can be an entertainer, a street performer and this allows for igniting a damp handkerchief or a bill of money without it burning. Closing the mouth, or covering it with a slap of the hand cuts off the oxygen to the fire, the flame itself is not a cold flame, and the performers do not use any other material besides the fuel. Certain materials are avoided when doing the trick, such as materials which may ignite, melt or store the heat. These include paraffin candles, plastic, and thick multithreaded rope, Fire eating was a common part of Hindu, Sadhu, and Fakir performances to show spiritual attainment. Other than sound fire safety precautions and some practical advice regarding the laws of physics, torches do not burn with cold flames nor is there any special substance in the performers mouth other than saliva. Even so, according to Daniel Mannixs 1951 sideshow memoir Step right up, the real secret to fire eating is enduring pain, he mentions that tolerating constant blisters on your tongue, lips and throat is also necessary. Many other fire eaters dismiss this, claiming that a fire eater should not burn themselves. The most common method of safely performing fire eating acts relies on the fact that it takes time to heat. Accidental ingestion of fuel or improper technique can lead to a condition known as fire eaters pneumonia. A famous fire eater from the 18th century was Robert Powell who allegedly not only swallowed fire but also red-hot coals, melted sealing wax and even brimstone. He performed, often in front of British and other European royalty and nobility, for sixty years and in 1751 was awarded a purse of gold. Although not the earliest, the first to attract the attention of the classes was an Englishman named Richardson. His methods were made public by his servant. The most torches extinguished in one minute with the mouth is 99 and was achieved by Bret Pasek at the Minnesota Renaissance Festival in Shakopee, Minnesota, on 7 September 2014. While trick categories are recognized by most, it is important to note that specific trick names may vary depending on the region of the world in which the student learned. Vapor tricks utilize the fuel vapors held in the mouth during or before an extinguish, transfers are methods of moving a flame from one area to another, by using the body, or another surface or medium. Body transfers – transfer the flame from one torch to the other parts of your body, e. g. arm, leg, chest, buttocks
32.
Seminole
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The Seminole are a Native American people originally of Florida. The word Seminole is a corruption of cimarrón, a Spanish term for runaway or wild one, Seminole culture is largely derived from that of the Creek, the most important ceremony is the Green Corn Dance, other notable traditions include use of the black drink and ritual tobacco. As the Seminole adapted to Florida environs, they developed local traditions, such as the construction of open-air, historically the Seminole spoke Mikasuki and Creek, both Muskogean languages. The Seminole became increasingly independent of other Creek groups and established their own identity and they developed a thriving trade network during the British and second Spanish periods. The tribe expanded considerably during this time, and was supplemented from the late 18th century by free blacks and escaped slaves who settled near. The latter became known as Black Seminoles, although they kept their own Gullah culture, after the United States achieved independence, its settlers increased pressure on Seminole lands, leading to the Seminole Wars. The Seminole were first confined to a large inland reservation by the Treaty of Moultrie Creek, by 1842, most Seminoles and Black Seminoles had been removed to Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River. Today residents of the reservation are enrolled in the federally recognized Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, perhaps fewer than 200 Seminoles remained in Florida after the Third Seminole War, but they fostered a resurgence in traditional customs and a culture of staunch independence. In the late 19th century, the Florida Seminole re-established limited relations with the U. S. government, few Seminole moved to reservations until the 1940s, they reorganized their government and received federal recognition in 1957 as the Seminole Tribe of Florida. The more traditional people near the Tamiami Trail received federal recognition as the Miccosukee Tribe in 1962, old crafts and traditions were revived in the mid 20th century as Seminoles began seeking tourism dollars when Americans began to travel more on the countrys growing highway system. The word Seminole is derived from cimarrón, a Spanish term for runaway or wild one, the people who constituted the nucleus of this Florida group either chose to leave their tribe or were banished. At one time the terms renegade and outcast were used to describe this status and they never signed a peace treaty with the United States. Native American refugees from northern wars, such as the Yuchi and Yamasee after the Yamasee War in South Carolina and they spoke primarily Hitchiti, of which Mikasuki is a dialect, which is the primary traditional language spoken today by Miccosukee in Florida. In Cuba the Florida tribes suffered high mortality due to disease, in Florida, the Creeks had earlier intermingled with the Choctaw and other few remaining indigenous people. The Seminole were a tribe made up of mostly Lower Creeks from Georgia. At that time, numerous refugees of the Red Sticks migrated south and they were Creek-speaking Muscogee, and were the ancestors of most of the later Creek-speaking Seminole. In addition, a few hundred escaped African-American slaves had settled near the Seminole towns and, to an extent, Native Americans from other tribes. The unified Seminole spoke two languages, Creek and Mikasuki, two among the Muskogean languages family, Creek became the dominant language for political and social discourse, so Mikasuki speakers learned it if participating in high-level negotiations
33.
Millard Fillmore
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Millard Fillmore was the 13th President of the United States, the last to be a member of the Whig Party while in the White House. A former congressman from New York, Fillmore was elected the nations 12th Vice President in 1848 and he was instrumental in getting the Compromise of 1850 passed, a bargain that led to a brief truce in the battle over slavery. He failed to win the Whig nomination for president in 1852, he gained the endorsement of the nativist Know Nothing Party four years later, Fillmore was born into poverty in the Finger Lakes area of New York state, his parents were tenant farmers during his formative years. He rose from poverty through study, and became a lawyer though he had formal schooling. He became prominent in the Buffalo area as an attorney and politician, was elected to the New York Assembly in 1828, and to the U. S. House of Representatives in 1832. Fillmore was a candidate for Speaker of the House when the Whigs took control of the chamber in 1841. Fillmore received the Whig vice presidential nomination in 1848 as Taylors running mate, and he was largely ignored by Taylor, including the dispensing of patronage in New York, on which Taylor consulted Weed and Seward. As vice president, Fillmore presided over debates in the Senate as Congress decided whether to allow slavery in the Mexican Cession. Fillmore supported Henry Clays Omnibus Bill though Taylor did not, after President Taylor died in July 1850, Fillmore dismissed the cabinet and changed the administrations policy. The new president exerted pressure to gain the passage of the Compromise, in foreign policy, Fillmore supported U. S. Navy expeditions to open trade in Japan, opposed French designs on Hawaii, and was embarrassed by Narciso Lópezs filibuster expeditions to Cuba. He sought election to a term in 1852, but was passed over by the Whigs in favor of Winfield Scott. As the Whig Party broke up after Fillmores presidency, many of Fillmores conservative wing joined the Know Nothings, in his 1856 candidacy as that partys nominee, Fillmore had little to say about immigration, instead focusing on the preservation of the Union, and won only Maryland. In his retirement, Fillmore was active in civic endeavors. He helped to found the University of Buffalo, serving as its first chancellor, during the American Civil War, Fillmore denounced secession and agreed that the Union must be maintained by force if necessary, but was critical of the war policies of Abraham Lincoln. After peace was restored, he supported the Reconstruction policies of President Andrew Johnson, obscure today, Fillmore has been praised by some for his foreign policy, but he is criticized by others for his enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act and for his association with the Know Nothings. Millard Fillmore was born in a log cabin, on a farm in what is now Moravia, Cayuga County, in the Finger Lakes region of New York state and his parents were Phoebe and Nathaniel Fillmore. He was the second of eight children and the oldest son, Nathaniel Fillmore Sr. was a member of the Green Mountain Boys, and served as an ensign and first lieutenant during the American Revolution. In 1767, Nathaniel Fillmore Sr. married Hepzibah Wood, the mother of Nathaniel Fillmore and grandmother of Millard Fillmore
34.
Matthew Fontaine Maury
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Matthew Fontaine Maury, United States Navy, was an American astronomer, historian, oceanographer, meteorologist, cartographer, author, geologist, and educator, LL. D. Maury made many important new contributions to charting winds and ocean currents, in 1825 at age 19, Maury obtained, through the then-US Congressman Sam Houston, a midshipmans warrant in the United States Navy. As a midshipman on board the frigate USS Brandywine, almost immediately he began to study the seas and record methods of navigation. When a leg injury left him unfit for sea duty, Maury devoted his time to the study of navigation, meteorology, winds and he became Superintendent of the U. S. Naval Observatory and head of the Depot of Charts and Instruments. Here, Maury studied thousands of logs and charts. He published the Wind and Current Chart of the North Atlantic, Maurys uniform system of recording oceanographic data was adopted by navies and merchant marines around the world and was used to develop charts for all the major trade routes. With the outbreak of the Civil War, Maury, a Virginian, resigned his commission as a US Navy commander and he spent the war in the South, as well as abroad in Great Britain, Ireland, and France. He helped acquire a ship, CSS Georgia, for the Confederacy while also advocating stopping the war in America among several European Nations, following the war, Maury accepted a teaching position at the Virginia Military Institute in Lexington, Virginia. He died at his V. M. I. home in Lexington in 1873 after completing an exhausting lecture tour on national and international weather forecasting on land. He had also completed his book on his Geological Survey of Virginia, Maury was a descendant of a prominent Virginia family of Huguenot ancestry whose ancestry can be traced back to 15th century France. Matthew Fontaine Maurys grandfather was a teacher to a future U. S. president. Maury also had Dutch-American ancestry from the Minor family of early Virginia, M. F. Maury was born in 1806 in Spotsylvania County, Virginia near the City of Fredericksburg, his parents were Richard Maury and Diane Minor Maury. The family moved to Franklin, Tennessee, when he was age five and he wanted to emulate the naval career of his older brother, Flag Lieutenant John Minor Maury, who however caught yellow fever after fighting pirates as an officer in the United States Navy. As a result of Johns painful death, Matthew Maurys father, Richard, Maury joined the Navy as a midshipman on board the frigate Brandywine which was carrying the Marquis de La Fayette home to France following the Marquis famous visit to the United States. Almost immediately, Maury began to study the seas and record methods of navigation, one of the experiences that piqued this interest was a circumnavigation of the globe on the USS Vincennes, his assigned ship and the first US warship to travel around the world. Matthew Maurys seagoing days came to an end at the age of 33 after a stagecoach accident broke his right leg. Maury had known of the Psalms of David since childhood, John Minor, Mary, Walker, Matilda, Betsy, Richard Launcelot, Matthew Fontaine, Catherine, and Charles. His Bible is depicted on his monument beside his left leg, the product of his work was international recognition and the publication in 1847 of Wind and Current Chart of the North Atlantic
35.
Sloop-of-war
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In the 18th century and most of the 19th, a sloop-of-war in the Royal Navy was a warship with a single gun deck that carried up to eighteen guns. The rating system covered all vessels with 20 guns and above, thus, in the first half of the 18th century, most naval sloops were two-masted vessels, usually carrying a ketch or a snow rig. A ketch had main and mizzen masts but no foremast, while a snow had a foremast, the first three-masted sloops appeared during the 1740s, and from the mid-1750s most new sloops were built with a three-masted rig. The third sail afforded the sloop greater mobility and the ability to back sail, in the 1770s, the two-masted sloop re-appeared in a new guise as the brig sloop, the successor to the former snow sloops. Brig sloops had two masts, while ship sloops continued to have three, in the Napoleonic period, Britain built huge numbers of brig sloops of the Cruizer class and the Cherokee class. The brig rig was economical of manpower and, when armed with carronades, the carronades also used much less manpower than the long guns normally used to arm frigates. Consequently, the Cruizer class were used as cheaper and more economical substitutes for frigates. A carronade-armed brig, however, would be at the mercy of an armed with long guns. The other limitation of brig sloops as opposed to post ships and frigates was their relatively restricted stowage for water and provisions, however, their shallower draught made them excellent raiders against coastal shipping and shore installations. Bermuda sloops were found with gaff rig, mixtures of gaff and square rig and they were built with up to three masts. The single masted ships, with their sails, and the tremendous wind energy they harnessed, were demanding to sail. The longer decks of the vessels also had the advantage of allowing more guns to be carried. Originally a sloop-of-war was smaller than a frigate and was outside the rating system. A ship sloop was generally the equivalent of the corvette of the French Navy. The name corvette was also applied to British vessels. American usage, while similar to British terminology into the beginning of the 19th century, the Americans also occasionally used the French term corvette. In the Royal Navy, the sloop evolved into a vessel with a single gun deck. During the War of 1812 sloops of war in the service of the United States Navy performed well against their Royal Navy equivalents, the American ships had the advantage of being ship-rigged rather that brig-rigged, a distinction that increased their maneuverability
36.
Stevens Battery
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The Stevens Battery was an early design for a type of ironclad, proposed for use by the United States Navy before the American Civil War. One full-sized example was begun but never completed due to lack of funding, in 1841, the United States was in the midst of a war scare with the United Kingdom over the American boundary with Canada, among other issues. A like-minded U. S. Congress authorized the use of $8,500,000 to fund the expansion. An Act of Congress authorizing Upshur to contract for the construction of a shot- and shell-proof steamer, the ship, which became known as the Stevens Battery, was to be the first such ship ever to be built under government authorization. She was intended to serve as a fast, powerful, heavily armored, mobile battery, the Stevens brothers selected their family estate in Hoboken, New Jersey, as the construction site for the ship. They had to have a drydock dug out of solid rock there, and then install large pumps to keep the drydock from flooding, and delays occurred from the very beginning of the project. The Stevens original design for the ship was completed in 1844 and called for a 250-foot- long ship 40 feet in beam and she was to be proof against 64-pound shells, the largest fired by U. S. Navy guns at the time. Furthermore, she was to be semisubmersible, able to herself to her gunwales to make her a smaller target for enemy gunners. Experiments by John Ericsson with his 12-inch wrought iron gun Oregon, in March 1845, Robert Stevens health failed and he spent the next two years recuperating in Europe. His absence and the need to rethink the ships armor scheme led to work being done on her for several years. The Stevens brothers succeeded in getting Congress to overrule Bancroft and Skinner, the new design was ready by January 1854. It called for an increase in the ships size and capabilities. She was now to be 420 feet long,53 feet in beam and she was to have bulwarks to make her more seaworthy when steaming which could be lowered to reduce her freeboard in combat, making her a smaller target. Again, the ship was to be semisubmersible, able to submerge herself down to the gunwales and her armament was to consist of two 10-inch rifled guns mounted on pivots fore and aft and five 15-inch smoothbore guns mounted on the deck above an armored casemate. The 15-inch guns were to fire 425-pound shells, water was to be injected into each gun automatically after it fired, to cool the gun and prevent it from being damaged by extended, rapid firing. The ship was to have eight steam engines generating 8,600 ihp to two propellers and give the ship a maximum speed of 20 knots, breathtakingly fast for the time. She would have consumed a lot of coal, and her 1 and she was to be the first ship equipped with fan-driven ventilation, to increase crew comfort by extracting fumes and hot air from below decks. The Stevens brothers made significant progress on the newly designed ship between January 1854 and September 1855, but then work slowed again, when Robert Stevens died in April 1856, worked stopped entirely, and did not resume until 1859
37.
United States Secretary of the Navy
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The Secretary of the Navy is a statutory office and the head of the Department of the Navy, a military department within the Department of Defense of the United States of America. The Department of the Navy consists of two Uniformed Services, the United States Navy and the United States Marine Corps. In effect, all authority within the Navy and Marine Corps, specifically enumerated responsibilities of the SECNAV in beforementioned section are, recruiting, organizing, supplying, equipping, training, mobilizing, and demobilizing. The Secretary also oversees the construction, outfitting, and repair of ships, equipment. The Secretary of the Navy is a member of the Defense Acquisition Board, chaired by the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology, the CNO and the Commandant act as the principal executive agents of the SECNAV within their respective services to implement the orders of the Secretary. The United States Navy Regulations is the principal regulatory document of the Department of the Navy, the Chief of Naval Operations and the Commandant of the Marine Corps have their own separate staffs, the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations and Headquarters Marine Corps
38.
Lecompton Constitution
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The Lecompton Constitution was the second of four proposed constitutions for the state of Kansas. The document was written in response to the position of the 1855 Topeka Constitution of James H. Lane. The territorial legislature, consisting mostly of slave-owners, met at the capital of Lecompton in September 1857 to produce a rival document. Free-state supporters, who comprised a majority of actual settlers. This new constitution enshrined slavery in the state and protected the rights of slaveholders. In addition, the provided for a referendum that allowed voters the choice of allowing more slaves to enter the territory. Both the Topeka and Lecompton constitutions were placed before the people of the Kansas Territory for a vote, in the case of Lecompton, however, the vote was boiled down to a single issue, expressed on the ballot as Constitution with Slavery v. Constitution with no Slavery. But the Constitution with no Slavery clause would have not made Kansas a free state, boycotted by free-soilers, the referendum suffered from serious voting irregularities, with over half the 6,000 votes deemed fraudulent. Nevertheless, both it and the Topeka Constitution were sent to Washington for approval by Congress, a vocal supporter of slaveholder rights, President James Buchanan endorsed the Lecompton Constitution before Congress. While the president received the support of the Southern Democrats, many Northern Democrats, led by Stephen A. Douglas, sided with the Republicans in opposition to the constitution. Douglas was helped considerably by the work of Thomas Ewing Jr. a noted Kansas Free State politician and lawyer, a new referendum over the fate of the Lecompton Constitution was proposed, even though this would delay Kansass admission to the Union. Furthermore, a new constitution, the anti-slavery Leavenworth Constitution, was already being drafted, on 4 January 1858, Kansas voters, having the opportunity to reject the constitution altogether in the referendum, overwhelmingly rejected the Lecompton proposal by a vote of 10,226 to 138. And in Washington, the Lecompton constitution was defeated by the federal House of Representatives in 1858, though soundly defeated, debate over the proposed constitution had ripped apart the Democratic party. Kansas was admitted to the Union as a state in 1861. Lecompton Democrat Specific General Smith, Ronald D. Thomas Ewing Jr. Frontier Lawyer, columbia, University of Missouri Press,2008, ISBN 978-0-8262-1806-3. Constitution Hall State Historic Site Lecompton, Kansas Historic Lecompton
39.
Abraham Lincoln
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Abraham Lincoln was an American politician and lawyer who served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and perhaps its greatest moral, constitutional, in doing so, he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy. Born in Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the frontier in Kentucky. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer in Illinois, a Whig Party leader, elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, tariffs, and railroads. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the new Republican Party, in 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state. Though he gained little support in the slaveholding states of the South. Subsequently, on April 12,1861, a Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union. Politically, Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other, by carefully planned political patronage and his Gettysburg Address became an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war and his primary goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, leading to the ex parte Merryman decision. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including his most successful general, Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded. As the war progressed, his moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. On April 14,1865, five days after the surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer. Secretary of War Edwin Stanton launched a manhunt for Booth, and 12 days later on April 26, Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as among the greatest U. S. presidents. Abraham Lincoln was born February 12,1809, the child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk to its namesake of Hingham, samuels grandson and great-grandson began the familys western migration, which passed through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincolns paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, the presidents father
40.
William H. Seward
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William Henry Seward was United States Secretary of State from 1861 to 1869, and earlier served as Governor of New York and United States Senator. Seward was born in southeastern New York, where his father was a farmer and he was educated as a lawyer and moved to the Central New York town of Auburn. Seward was elected to the New York State Senate in 1830 as an Anti-Mason, four years later, he became the gubernatorial nominee of the Whig Party. Though he was not successful in that race, Seward was elected governor in 1838, during this period, he signed several laws that advanced the rights and opportunities for black residents, as well as guaranteeing fugitive slaves jury trials in the state. The legislation protected abolitionists, and he used his position to intervene in cases of freed black people who were enslaved in the South, after several years of practicing law in Auburn, he was elected by the state legislature to the U. S. Senate in 1849. Sewards strong stances and provocative words against slavery brought him hatred in the South and he was re-elected to the Senate in 1855, and soon joined the nascent Republican Party, becoming one of its leading figures. As the 1860 presidential election approached, he was regarded as the candidate for the Republican nomination. Although devastated by his loss, he campaigned for Lincoln, who was elected and appointed him Secretary of State, Seward did his best to stop the southern states from seceding, once that failed, he devoted himself wholeheartedly to the Union cause. His firm stance against foreign intervention in the Civil War helped deter Britain and France from entering the conflict and he was one of the targets of the 1865 assassination plot that killed Lincoln, and was seriously wounded by conspirator Lewis Powell. Seward remained loyally at his post through the presidency of Andrew Johnson, during which he negotiated the Alaska purchase in 1867 and his contemporary Carl Schurz described Seward as one of those spirits who sometimes will go ahead of public opinion instead of tamely following its footprints. Seward was born in on May 16,1801 in the community of Florida, New York. He was the son of Samuel Sweezy Seward and his wife Mary Seward. Samuel Seward was a landowner and slaveholder in New York State. Florida was located some 60 miles north of New York City, west of the Hudson River, Young Seward attended school there, and also in the nearby county seat of Goshen. He was a student who enjoyed his studies. In later years, one of the family slaves would relate that instead of running away from school to go home. At the age of 15, Henry—he was known by his name as a boy—was sent to Union College in Schenectady. Admitted to the class, Seward was an outstanding student and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa
41.
United States Secretary of State
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Secretary of State is a Level I position in the Executive Schedule and thus earns the salary prescribed for that level. The current Secretary of State is former ExxonMobil CEO Rex Tillerson and those that remain include storage and use of the Great Seal of the United States, performance of protocol functions for the White House, and the drafting of certain proclamations. The Secretary also negotiates with the individual States over the extradition of fugitives to foreign countries, under Federal Law, the resignation of a President or of a Vice President is only valid if declared in writing, in an instrument delivered to the office of the Secretary of State. Accordingly, the resignations of President Nixon and of Vice-President Spiro Agnew, domestic issues, were formalized in instruments delivered to the Secretary of State, six Secretaries of State have gone on to be elected President. Former Secretaries of State retain the right to add the title Secretary to their surnames, as the head of the United States Foreign Service, the Secretary of State is responsible for management of the diplomatic service of the United States. The foreign service employs about 12,000 people domestically and internationally, the U. S. Secretary of State has the power to remove any foreign diplomat from U. S. soil for any reason. The nature of the means that Secretaries of State engage in travel around the world. The record for most countries visited in a secretarys tenure is 112, second is Madeleine Albright with 96. The record for most air miles traveled in a secretarys tenure is 1.380 million miles, second is Condoleezza Rices 1.059 million miles and third is Clintons 956,733 miles. S
42.
Judah P. Benjamin
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Benjamin was the first Jew to be elected to the United States Senate who had not renounced the religion, and the first of that faith to hold a Cabinet position in North America. Benjamin was born to Sephardic Jewish parents from London, who had moved to St. Croix in the Danish West Indies when it was occupied by Britain during the Napoleonic Wars. Seeking greater opportunities, his family emigrated to the United States, eventually settling in Charleston, Benjamin attended Yale College but left without graduating and moved to New Orleans, where he read law and passed the bar. Benjamin rose rapidly both at the bar and in politics and he returned to New Orleans, but soon left when Confederate President Jefferson Davis appointed him Attorney General. Benjamin had little to do in that position, but Davis was impressed by his competence, as Secretary of State, Benjamin attempted to gain official recognition for the Confederacy by France and the United Kingdom, but his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful. To preserve the Confederacy as military defeat made its situation increasingly desperate, he advocated freeing and arming the slaves, but his proposals were not accepted until it was too late. When Davis fled the Confederate capital of Richmond in early 1865, Benjamin went with him, Benjamin made his way to Britain and became a barrister, again rising to the top of his profession before retiring in 1883. He died in Paris the following year, Judah Philip Benjamin was born on August 11,1811, in St. Croix of the Danish West Indies, a colony then occupied by the British during the Napoleonic Wars. His parents were Sephardic Jews, Philip Benjamin and the former Rebecca de Mendes, Philip and Rebecca had been shopkeepers in London, and emigrated to the West Indies in search of better opportunities. Rebeccas family had been prominent in Spain before being forced to leave under the Expulsion Edict of 1492, Judah, the third of seven children, was given the same name as an older brother who died in infancy. Following a tradition adhered to by some Sephardi, he was named for his paternal grandfather, the Benjamins encountered hard times in the Danish West Indies, as normal trade was blocked by the British occupation. In 1813 the Benjamin family moved to Fayetteville, North Carolina, Philip Benjamin was not financially successful there, and around 1821 moved with his family to Charleston, South Carolina. That city had the largest Jewish community in the United States, Philip was learned in his faith but was again unsuccessful in business, Rebecca earned money for the family by operating a fruit stand near the harbor. Judah and two siblings were boarded with relatives in Fayetteville for about 18 months after the rest of the moved to Charleston. He attended the Fayetteville Academy, a school where his intelligence was recognized. In Charleston, his father was among the founders of the first Reform congregation in the United States, Philip was ultimately expelled from that community, as he did not keep the Sabbath, and the extent of Judahs religious education is uncertain. The boys intelligence was noted by others in Charleston, one of whom offered to finance his education, at the age of 14, in 1825, Benjamin entered Yale College, an institution popular among white Southerners, Vice President John C. Calhoun, a South Carolinian, was among its alumni, although Benjamin was successful as a student at Yale, he left abruptly in 1827 without completing his course of study
43.
Christopher Memminger
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Christopher Memminger (born Christopher Gustavus Memminger, was a German American politician and one of the founding fathers of the Confederate States. He was the author of the Provisional Constitution of the Confederate States. As the first Secretary of the Treasury, Memminger was the author of the economic policies of the Jefferson Davis administration. Memminger was born in Vaihingen, Würtemberg and his father, Gottfried Memminger, was a military officer who died in combat a month after his sons birth. His mother, Eberhardina Memminger, immigrated to Charleston, South Carolina, in the United States, Christopher was placed in an orphanage. Memmingers fortunes changed when, at the age of eleven, he was taken under the care of Thomas Bennett, Memminger entered South Carolina College at the age of 12 and graduated second in his class at 16. Memminger passed the bar in 1825 and became a successful lawyer and he married Mary Withers Wilkinson in 1832. He was a leader of the opponents during the nullification excitement and he published The Book of Nullification which satirized the advocates of the doctrine in biblical style. He entered state politics and served in the South Carolina state legislature from 1836 to 1852 and 1854 to 1860, Memminger was a staunch advocate of education and helped give Charleston one of the most comprehensive public school systems in the country. In 1859, after John Browns raid, he was commissioned by South Carolina to consult with other delegates in Virginia as to the best method of warding off attacks of abolitionists. Memminger was considered a moderate on the issue, but after Lincolns election. The twelve-man committee produced a constitution in only four days. When Jefferson Davis formed his first cabinet, Memminger was chosen as Secretary of the Treasury on February 21,1861 and it was a difficult task, in view of the financial challenges facing the Confederacy. Memminger attempted to finance the government initially via bonds and tariffs, Memminger resigned his post as Secretary of the Treasury on July 1,1864 and was replaced by fellow South Carolinian George Trenholm. Memminger returned to his residence in Flat Rock, North Carolina. In the post-war years, Memminger returned to Charleston, received a pardon in 1866. He also continued his work on developing South Carolinas public education system and was voted to a term in the state legislature in 1877. Memminger was featured on the Confederate $5.00 bill, patrick, Rembert Wallace, Jefferson Davis and His Cabinet, Baton Rouge, Louisiana State University Press, pp. G. Memminger, Richmond, Everett Waddey Co
44.
Alexander H. Stephens
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Alexander H. Stephens was an American politician from the state of Georgia, and the Confederate vice president throughout the American Civil War. His Cornerstone Speech of March 1861 defended slavery in the most uncompromising terms, in the course of the war, he became increasingly critical of Confederate President Jefferson Daviss policies, especially conscription and the suspension of habeas corpus. In February 1865, he was one of the commissioners who met with Lincoln at the abortive Hampton Roads Conference to discuss peace terms. After his arrest, and subsequent pardon, Stephens went on to serve in Congress. Stephens was born on February 11,1812 and his parents were Andrew Baskins Stephens and Margaret Grier. The Stephenses lived on a farm near present-day Crawfordville, Taliaferro County, at the time of Alexander Stephenss birth, the farm was part of Wilkes County. Taliaferro County was created in 1825 from land in Greene, Hancock, Oglethorpe, Warren and his father, a native of Pennsylvania, came to Georgia at 12 years of age, in 1795. His mother, a Georgia native and sister of Griers Almanac founder Robert Grier, died in 1812 at the age of 26, the introduction continues, In her sons character was a marked blending of parental traits. He was thrifty, generous, progressive, one of the best lawyers in the land, a reader and collector of books, an observer of the weather. In 1814, Andrew B. Stephens married Matilda Lindsay, daughter of Revolutionary War Colonel John Lindsay, in 1826, when Alexander Stephens was 14 years old, his father, Andrew, and stepmother, Matilda, died only days apart in May of that year. Their deaths caused him and several siblings to be scattered among relatives and he grew up poor and in difficult circumstances. Not long after the deaths of his father and his stepmother, Alexander Stephens was sent to live with his mothers brother, General Aaron W. Grier, near Raytown. General Grier had inherited his own library, said to be the largest library in all that part of the country. Alexander Stephens, who read voraciously even as a youth, mentions the library in his Recollections, frail but precocious, the young Stephens acquired his continued education through the generosity of several benefactors. One of them was the Presbyterian minister Alexander Hamilton Webster, who presided over a school in Washington, out of respect for his mentor, Stephens adopted Websters middle name, Hamilton, as his own. Stephens attended the Franklin College in Athens, where he was roommates with Crawford W. Long and he raised funds for Phi Kappa Hall, located on the university campus. Stephens graduated at the top of his class in 1832, after several unhappy years teaching school, he took up legal studies, passed the bar in 1834, and began a successful career as a lawyer in Crawfordville. During his 32 years of practice, he gained a reputation as a defender of the wrongfully accused
45.
LeRoy Pope Walker
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LeRoy Pope Walker was the first Confederate States Secretary of War. Walker was born near Huntsville, Alabama in 1817, the son of John Williams Walker and Matilda Pope, and he was educated by private tutors, then attended universities in Alabama and Virginia. Before reaching the age of 21, he was admitted to the bar and he married Eliza Dickson Pickett on July 29,1850. He held various offices in Alabama, in 1853, he resigned his position as a court judge in order to focus on his legal practice. He was energetic and confident in support of the Confederacy, but had no military training, the stress and difficulties of his cabinet position seriously affected his health. In March 1861, the Southern states that had seceded from the Union appointed special commissioners to travel to those other Southern states that had yet to secede, the Confederacy would never again attempt to invade the Union after that. Starting in August 1861, Davis encouraged Walker to become a Confederate representative to Europe, Walker did not accept this, but on September 16 he resigned his post. Davis made him a general in the Confederate States Army. He returned to the army in April 1864 to serve as a military judge, after the war, Walker returned to his legal practice and continued to be interested in politics. He died in 1884 and was buried in Maple Hill Cemetery in Huntsville, list of American Civil War generals Leroy Pope Walker. Eicher, John H. Eicher, David J. Civil War High Commands, Stanford, CA, Stanford University Press, ISBN 978-0-8047-3641-1 Patrick, baton Rouge, Louisiana State University Press
46.
John Henninger Reagan
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John Henninger Reagan was an American politician from the U. S. state of Texas. A Democrat, Reagan resigned from the U. S. House of Representatives when Texas seceded from the Union and he served in the cabinet of Jefferson Davis as Postmaster General. Reagan was born in Sevier County, Tennessee, to Timothy Richard and he left Tennessee at nineteen and traveled to Texas. He worked as a surveyor from 1839 to 1843, and then farmed in Kaufman County until 1851, during the time he worked as a surveyor, he also served as a private tutor to the children of John Marie Durst. He studied law on his own and was licensed to practice in 1846, the same year he was elected a probate judge in Henderson County and in 1847 he went to the state legislature, but was defeated for a second term in 1849. He was admitted to the bar in 1848 and practiced in both Buffalo and Palestine, Texas, Reagan was elected a district judge in Palestine, serving from 1852 to 1857. His efforts in defeating the American Party led to his election to Congress in 1857 from First District, Reagan was a moderate and a supporter of the Union, but resigned from Congress on January 15,1861 and returned home when it became clear that Texas would secede. He participated in the convention that met at Austin on January 31,1861. He was chosen a member of the Provisional Confederate Congress, President Jefferson Davis chose Reagan to head the new Confederate States of America Post-office Department. He was an administrator, presiding over the only cabinet department that functioned well during the war. Despite the hostilities, the United States Post Office Department continued operations in the Confederacy until June 1,1861, Reagan sent an agent to Washington, D. C. with letters asking the heads of the United States Post Office Departments various bureaus to come work for him. Nearly all did so, bringing copies of their records, contracts, account books, Post Office, historian William C. Davis wrote. When President Davis asked his cabinet for the status of their departments, Reagan reported he had his up, Reagan cut expenses by eliminating costly and little-used routes and forcing the railroads that carried the mail to reduce their rates. Despite the problems the war caused, his department managed to turn a profit, Reagan was the only member of the cabinet to oppose Robert E. Lees offensive into Pennsylvania in June–July 1863. He instead supported a proposal to detach the First Corps of the Army of Northern Virginia to reinforce Joseph E. Johnston in Mississippi so that he could break the Siege of Vicksburg. Historian Shelby Foote noted that, as the only Cabinet member from west of the Mississippi, Reagan was acutely aware of the consequences of Vicksburgs capture. When Davis abandoned Richmond on April 2,1865, shortly before the entry of Army of the Potomac under George G. Meade, Reagan was imprisoned with Confederate Vice President Alexander Stephens at Fort Warren in Boston, where Reagan spent twenty-two weeks in solitary confinement. On August 11, he wrote an letter to his fellow Texans urging cooperation with the Union, renunciation of the secession convention, the abolition of slavery
47.
Robert Toombs
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Robert Augustus Toombs was an American politician who was a founding father of the Confederacy and its first Secretary of State. A lawyer by training, he proved an impressive speaker in the U. S. House of Representatives, believing strongly in states’ rights and the extension of slavery, he found common ground with fellow-Georgian Alexander H. Stephens. He had supported the Compromise of 1850, but came round to advocating secession and he became a Brigadier-General, and was wounded at the Battle of Antietam. In 1863, Toombs resigned his commission in the Confederate Army to join the Georgia militia and he was subsequently denied higher promotion and resigned, continuing to feud with Davis to the last. When the war ended, he fled to Cuba, later returning to Georgia, but he refused to request a pardon, thus sacrificing his political future. Born near Washington, Wilkes County, Georgia, Robert Augustus Toombs was the child of Catherine Huling. His father died when he was five, and he entered Franklin College at the University of Georgia in Athens when he was just fourteen. During his time at Franklin College, Toombs was a member of the Demosthenian Literary Society, shortly after his admission to the Georgia bar, Toombs married his childhood sweetheart, Julia Ann DuBois, they had three children. Toombs was admitted to the practice of law in Georgia in 1830 and his genial character, proclivity for entertainment, and unqualified success on the legal circuit earned Toombs the growing attention and admiration of his fellow Georgians. Their friendship forged a personal and political bond that effectively defined and articulated Georgias position on national issues in the middle decades of the nineteenth century. Toombs stood with most Whigs regarding the status of Texas as the 28th state, historian William Y. Thompson writes that Toombs was prepared to vote all necessary supplies to repel invasion. But he did not agree that the territory between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande was a part of Texas, from 1853–61 Toombs served in the United States Senate, only reluctantly joining the Democratic Party when lack of interest among other states doomed the Constitutional Union Party. Throughout the 1840s and 1850s, Toombs fought to reconcile national policies with sectional interests and he had opposed the Annexation of Texas but vowed to defend the new state once it was annexed late in 1845. He also opposed the Mexican-American War, President Polks Oregon policy, the Walker Tariff of 1846 and he denounced the Nashville Convention, opposed the secessionists in Georgia, and helped to frame the famous Georgia platform. His position and that of Southern Unionists during the decade 1850–60 has often been misunderstood and they disapproved of secession, not because they considered it wrong in principle, but because they considered it inexpedient. He took the view that the territories were the property of all the people of the United States. If the rights of the South were violated, Toombs declared, Toombs favored the Kansas-Nebraska Act, the admission of Kansas under the Lecompton Constitution, and the English Bill. However, his faith in the resiliency and effectiveness of the government to resolve sectional conflicts waned as the 1850s drew to a close
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Stephen Russell Mallory". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "
