1.
Vegetable
–
In everyday usage, a vegetable is any part of a plant that is consumed by humans as food as part of a meal. The term vegetable is somewhat arbitrary, and largely defined through culinary and it normally excludes other food derived from plants such as fruits, nuts, and cereal grains, but includes seeds such as pulses. The original meaning of the vegetable, still used in biology, was to describe all types of plant, as in the terms vegetable kingdom. At first, plants which grew locally would have been cultivated, nowadays, most vegetables are grown all over the world as climate permits, and crops may be cultivated in protected environments in less suitable locations. China is the largest producer of vegetables and global trade in agricultural products allows consumers to purchase vegetables grown in faraway countries, the scale of production varies from subsistence farmers supplying the needs of their family for food, to agribusinesses with vast acreages of single-product crops. Depending on the type of vegetable concerned, harvesting the crop is followed by grading, storing, processing, and marketing. Vegetables can be either raw or cooked and play an important role in human nutrition, being mostly low in fat and carbohydrates. Many nutritionists encourage people to consume plenty of fruit and vegetables, the word vegetable was first recorded in English in the early 15th century. It comes from Old French, and was applied to all plants. It derives from Medieval Latin vegetabilis growing, flourishing, a change from a Late Latin meaning to be enlivening, quickening. The meaning of vegetable as a plant grown for food was not established until the 18th century, in 1767, the word was specifically used to mean a plant cultivated for food, an edible herb or root. The year 1955 saw the first use of the shortened, slang term veggie, the broadest definition is the words use adjectivally to mean matter of plant origin to distinguish it from animal, meaning matter of animal origin. More specifically, a vegetable may be defined as any plant, part of which is used for food, a secondary meaning then being the edible part of such a plant. A more precise definition is any plant part consumed for food that is not a fruit or seed, falling outside these definitions are edible fungi and edible seaweed which, although not parts of plants, are often treated as vegetables. In everyday language, the fruit and vegetable are mutually exclusive. Fruit has a precise meaning, being a part that developed from the ovary of a flowering plant. This is considerably different from the words culinary meaning, while peaches, plums, and oranges are fruit in both senses, many items commonly called vegetables, such as eggplants, bell peppers, and tomatoes, are botanically fruits. The question of whether the tomato is a fruit or a vegetable found its way into the United States Supreme Court in 1893
Vegetable
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Vegetables in a
market in the
Philippines
Vegetable
–
Domestic vegetable garden in the United Kingdom
Vegetable
–
cabbage Brassica oleracea
Vegetable
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turnip Brassica rapa
2.
Carrot
–
The carrot is a root vegetable, usually orange in colour, though purple, black, red, white, and yellow cultivars exist. Carrots are a form of the wild carrot, Daucus carota, native to Europe. The plant probably originated in Persia and originally cultivated for its leaves, the most commonly eaten part of the plant is the taproot, although the greens are sometimes eaten as well. The domestic carrot has been bred for its greatly enlarged, more palatable. The carrot is a plant in the umbellifer family Apiaceae. At first, it grows a rosette of leaves while building up the enlarged taproot, fast-growing cultivars mature within three months of sowing the seed, while slower-maturing cultivars are harvested four months later. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization reports that production of carrots and turnips for the calendar year 2013 was 37.2 million tonnes. Carrots are widely used in many cuisines, especially in the preparation of salads, in Old English, carrots were not clearly distinguished from parsnips, the two were collectively called moru or more. Various languages still use the word for carrot as they do for root. Molecular and genetic studies, along with history, support the idea that the cultivated/domesticated carrot has a single origin in Central Asia. The wild ancestors of the carrot are likely to have originated in Persia, which remains the centre of diversity for Daucus carota, when they were first cultivated, carrots were grown for their aromatic leaves and seeds rather than their roots. Carrot seeds have been found in Switzerland and Southern Germany dating back to 2000–3000 BC, some close relatives of the carrot are still grown for their leaves and seeds, for example, parsley, cilantro/coriander, fennel, dill and cumin. Three different types of carrots are depicted, and the states of them that the root can be cooked. The plant appears to have been introduced into Spain by the Moors in the 8th century, in the 10th century, in worldwide locations like West Asia, India and Europe, the roots were purple. The modern carrot originated in Afghanistan at about this time, the Jewish scholar Simeon Seth describes both red and yellow carrots in the 11th century. The 12th-century Arab-Andalusian agriculturist, Ibn al-Awwam, also mentions roots of these colours, cultivated carrots appeared in China in the 14th century, and in Japan in the 18th century. Orange-coloured carrots appeared in the Netherlands in the 17th century, which has been related to the fact that the Dutch flag at the time, the Princes Flag, included orange. These, the carrots, were intended by the English antiquary John Aubrey when he noted in his memoranda
Carrot
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Carrot
Carrot
–
Seedlings shortly after germination
Carrot
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Daucus carota umbel (inflorescence). Individual flowers are borne on undivided pedicels originating from a common node.
Carrot
–
Top view of Daucus carota inflorescence, showing umbellets
3.
Potato
–
The potato is a starchy, tuberous crop from the perennial nightshade Solanum tuberosum. The word potato may refer either to the plant itself or to the edible tuber, in the Andes, where the species is indigenous, there are some other closely related cultivated potato species. Potatoes were introduced to Europe in the half of the 16th century by the Spanish. It is the worlds fourth-largest food crop, following maize, wheat, the green leaves and green skins of tubers exposed to the light are toxic. Wild potato species can be throughout the Americas from the United States to southern Chile. Following centuries of breeding, there are now over a thousand different types of potatoes. However, the importance of the potato is variable and changing rapidly. As of 2007 China led the world in production, and nearly a third of the worlds potatoes were harvested in China. The English word potato comes from Spanish patata, the Spanish Royal Academy says the Spanish word is a compound of the Taíno batata and the Quechua papa. The 16th-century English herbalist John Gerard used the terms bastard potatoes and Virginia potatoes for this species, potatoes are occasionally referred to as Irish potatoes or white potatoes in the United States, to distinguish them from sweet potatoes. The name spud for a small potato comes from the digging of soil prior to the planting of potatoes, the word spud traces back to the 16th century. It subsequently transferred over to a variety of digging tools, around 1845, the name transferred to the tuber itself. It was Mario Peis 1949 The Story of Language that can be blamed for the false origin. Pei writes, the potato, for its part, was in disrepute some centuries ago, some Englishmen who did not fancy potatoes formed a Society for the Prevention of Unwholesome Diet. The initials of the words in this title gave rise to spud. Like most other pre-20th century acronymic origins, this is false, Potato plants are herbaceous perennials that grow about 60 cm high, depending on variety, with the leaves dying back after flowering, fruiting and tuber formation. They bear white, pink, red, blue, or purple flowers with yellow stamens, in general, the tubers of varieties with white flowers have white skins, while those of varieties with colored flowers tend to have pinkish skins. Potatoes are mostly cross-pollinated by insects such as bumblebees, which carry pollen from other potato plants, tubers form in response to decreasing day length, although this tendency has been minimized in commercial varieties
Potato
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Potato
Potato
–
Flowers of a potato plant
Potato
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Russet potatoes
Potato
–
Potato plants
4.
Onion
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The onion, also known as the bulb onion or common onion, is a vegetable and is the most widely cultivated species of the genus Allium. This genus also contains several other species variously referred to as onions and cultivated for food, such as the Japanese bunching onion, the onion. The name wild onion is applied to a number of Allium species and its ancestral wild original form is not known, although escapes from cultivation have become established in some regions. The onion is most frequently a biennial or a perennial plant, the onion plant has a fan of hollow, bluish-green leaves and its bulb at the base of the plant begins to swell when a certain day-length is reached. The bulbs are composed of shortened, compressed, underground stems surrounded by fleshy modified scale that envelop a central bud at the tip of the stem, in the autumn, the foliage dies down and the outer layers of the bulb become dry and brittle. The crop is harvested and dried and the onions are ready for use or storage, the crop is prone to attack by a number of pests and diseases, particularly the onion fly, the onion eelworm, and various fungi cause rotting. Some varieties of A. cepa, such as shallots and potato onions, Onions are cultivated and used around the world. As a food item, they are served cooked, as a vegetable or part of a prepared savoury dish. They are pungent when chopped and contain certain chemical substances which irritate the eyes, the onion plant, also known as the bulb onion or common onion, is the most widely cultivated species of the genus Allium. It was first officially described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 work Species Plantarum, a. cepa is known exclusively from cultivation, but related wild species occur in Central Asia. The most closely related species include A. vavilovii and A. asarense from Iran, however, Zohary and Hopf state that there are doubts whether the A. vavilovii collections tested represent genuine wild material or only feral derivatives of the crop. The vast majority of cultivars of A. cepa belong to the common onion group and are referred to simply as onions. The Aggregatum group of cultivars includes both shallots and potato onions, the genus Allium also contains a number of other species variously referred to as onions and cultivated for food, such as the Japanese bunching onion, Egyptian onion, and Canada onion. The onion plant has grown and selectively bred in cultivation for at least 7,000 years. It is a plant, but is usually grown as an annual. Modern varieties typically grow to a height of 15 to 45 cm, the leaves are yellowish- to bluish green and grow alternately in a flattened, fan-shaped swathe. They are fleshy, hollow, and cylindrical, with one flattened side and they are at their broadest about a quarter of the way up, beyond which they taper towards a blunt tip. The base of leaf is a flattened, usually white sheath that grows out of a basal disc
Onion
–
Onion
Onion
–
Roots, leaves and developing bulb
Onion
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Umbel of onion flowers
Onion
5.
Bean
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Bean is a common name for large seeds of several genera of the flowering plant family Fabaceae which are used for human or animal food. The word bean and its Germanic cognates have existed in common use in West Germanic languages since before the 12th century, referring to broad beans and this was long before the New World genus Phaseolus was known in Europe. After Columbian-era contact between Europe and the Americas, use of the word was extended to pod-borne seeds of Phaseolus, such as the bean and the runner bean. Thus the term bean in general usage can mean a host of different species, seeds called beans are often included among the crops called pulses, although a narrower prescribed sense of pulses reserves the word for leguminous crops harvested for their dry grain. The term bean usually excludes legumes with tiny seeds and which are used exclusively for forage, hay, one is that in the past, several species, including Vigna angularis, mungo, radiata, and aconitifolia, were classified as Phaseolus and later reclassified. Unlike the closely related pea, beans are a crop that need warm temperatures to grow. Maturity is typically 55–60 days from planting to harvest, as the bean pods mature, they turn yellow and dry up, and the beans inside change from green to their mature colour. As a vine, bean plants need external support, which may be provided in the form of special bean cages or poles, native Americans customarily grew them along with corn and squash, with the tall cornstalks acting as support for the beans. In more recent times, the bush bean has been developed which does not require support and has all its pods develop simultaneously. This makes the bean more practical for commercial production. Beans are one of the longest-cultivated plants, broad beans, also called fava beans, in their wild state the size of a small fingernail, were gathered in Afghanistan and the Himalayan foothills. In a form improved from naturally occurring types, they were grown in Thailand since the seventh millennium BCE. They were deposited with the dead in ancient Egypt, not until the second millennium BCE did cultivated, large-seeded broad beans appear in the Aegean, Iberia and transalpine Europe. In the Iliad is a mention of beans and chickpeas cast on the threshing floor. Beans were an important source of protein throughout Old and New World history, the oldest-known domesticated beans in the Americas were found in Guitarrero Cave, an archaeological site in Peru, and dated to around the second millennium BCE. The corn would not be planted in rows as is done by European agriculture, Beans would be planted around the base of the developing stalks, and would vine their way up as the stalks grew. All American beans at that time were vine plants, bush beans having been bred only more recently, the cornstalks would work as a trellis for the beans, and the beans would provide much-needed nitrogen for the corn. Squash would be planted in the spaces between the patches of corn in the field, dry beans come from both Old World varieties of broad beans and New World varieties
Bean
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"Painted Pony" dry bean (
Phaseolus vulgaris)
Bean
–
Field beans (broad beans,
Vicia faba, ready for harvest
Bean
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The Beaneater (1580-90) by
Annibale Carracci
Bean
–
Cooked beans on toast
6.
Capsicum
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Capsicum is a genus of flowering plants in the nightshade family Solanaceae. Its species are native to the Americas, where they have cultivated for thousands of years. Following the Columbian Exchange, it has become cultivated worldwide, in addition to use as spices and food vegetables, Capsicum species have also been used as medicines and lachrymatory agents. The generic name may come from Latin capsa box, presumably alluding to the pods or the Greek word κάπτω kapto to gulp. The name pepper comes from the similarity of the flavor to black pepper, Piper nigrum, although there is no botanical relationship with it or with Sichuan pepper. The original term, chilli came from the Nahuatl word chīlli, denoting a larger Capsicum variety cultivated at least since 3000 BC, as evidenced by remains found in pottery from Puebla, the fruit of Capsicum plants have a variety of names depending on place and type. The piquant varieties are commonly called chili peppers, or simply chillies, the large, mild form is called red pepper, green pepper, or bell pepper in North America and United Kingdom and typically capsicum in New Zealand, Australia, Singapore and India. The fruit is called paprika in some other countries, ideal growing conditions for peppers include a sunny position with warm, loamy soil, ideally 21 to 29 °C, that is moist but not waterlogged. Extremely moist soils can cause seedlings to damp-off and reduce germination, the plants are sensitive to frost. For flowering, Capsicum are a non-photoperiod-sensitive crop, however, at extremely high temperature,92 to 100 °F, pollen loses viability, and flowers are much less likely to pollinate successfully. Capsicum consists of 20–27 species, five of which are domesticated, C. annuum, C. baccatum, C. chinense, C. frutescens, phylogenetic relationships between species have been investigated using biogeographical, morphological, chemosystematic, hybridization, and genetic data. Fruits of Capsicum can vary tremendously in color, shape, chemosystematic studies helped distinguish the difference between varieties and species. For example, C. baccatum var. baccatum had the same flavonoids as C. baccatum var. pendulum, peru is thought to be the country with the highest cultivated Capsicum diversity since varieties of all five domesticates are commonly sold in markets in contrast to other countries. Bolivia is considered to be the country where the largest diversity of wild Capsicum peppers are consumed. Most of the capsaicin in a pungent pepper is concentrated in blisters on the epidermis of the ribs that divide the chambers, or locules. A study on capsaicin production in fruits of C. chinense fruits, the amount of capsaicin in hot peppers varies significantly among varieties, and is measured in Scoville heat units. The worlds current hottest known pepper as rated in SHU is the Carolina Reaper, sources, Tubocapsicum anomalum Makino Vassobia fasciculata Hunz. Witheringia stramoniifolia Kunth Most Capsicum species are 2n=2x=24, a few of the non-domesticated species are 2n=2x=32
Capsicum
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Capsicum
Capsicum
Capsicum
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Red peppers in
Cachi (
Argentina) air-drying before being processed into powder
Capsicum
–
An arrangement of
jalapeño,
banana,
cayenne,
chili, and
habanero peppers
7.
Tomato
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The tomato is the edible fruit of Solanum lycopersicum, commonly known as a tomato plant, which belongs to the nightshade family, Solanaceae. The species originated in Central and South America, the Nahuatl word tomatl gave rise to the Spanish word tomate, from which the English word tomato originates. Numerous varieties of tomato are widely grown in temperate climates across the world, with greenhouses allowing its production throughout the year, the plants typically grow to 1–3 meters in height and have a weak stem that often sprawls over the ground and vines over other plants. It is a perennial in its habitat, and grown as an annual in temperate climates. An average common tomato weighs approximately 100 grams and its use as a food originated in Mexico, and spread throughout the world following the Spanish colonization of the Americas. Tomato is consumed in diverse ways, including raw, as an ingredient in dishes, sauces, salads. While tomatoes are botanically fruits, they are considered culinary vegetables. The word tomato comes from the Spanish tomate, which in turn comes from the Nahuatl word tomatl and it first appeared in print in 1595. The native Mexican tomatillo is tomate, meaning fat water or fat thing), when Aztecs started to cultivate the Andean fruit, bigger and red, they called the new species xitomatl. It first appeared in print in 1595, the scientific species epithet lycopersicum means wolf peach, and comes from German werewolf myths. The Italian word, pomodoro was borrowed into Polish, and via Russian, the usual pronunciations of tomato are /təˈmeɪtoʊ/ and /təˈmɑːtoʊ/. The words dual pronunciations were immortalized in Ira and George Gershwins 1937 song Lets Call the Whole Thing Off and have become a symbol for nitpicking pronunciation disputes. In this capacity, it has become an American and British slang term. Or Its all the same to me, botanically, a tomato is a fruit, a berry, consisting of the ovary, together with its seeds, of a flowering plant. However, the tomato has a lower sugar content than other edible fruits. Typically served as part of a salad or main course of a meal, rather than at dessert, it is, in the US, considered a culinary vegetable. One exception is that tomatoes are treated as a fruit in home canning practices, they are acidic enough to process in a water bath rather than a pressure cooker as vegetables require. Tomatoes are not the food source with this ambiguity, bell peppers, cucumbers, green beans, eggplants, avocados
Tomato
–
Tomato
Tomato
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Solanum lycopersicum var. lycopersicum. Sheet from the oldest tomato collection of Europe, 1542-1544. Naturalis Leiden.
Tomato
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Tomatoes for sale in a UK supermarket
Tomato
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Handful of different tomatoes from Ho Farms in
Kahuku, Hawaii.
8.
Meat
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Meat is animal flesh that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted and killed animals for meat since prehistoric times, the advent of civilization allowed the domestication of animals such as chickens, sheep, pigs and cattle. This eventually led to their use in production on an industrial scale with the aid of slaughterhouses. Meat is mainly composed of water, protein, and fat and it is edible raw, but is normally eaten after it has been cooked and seasoned or processed in a variety of ways. Unprocessed meat will spoil or rot within hours or days as a result of infection with and decomposition by bacteria, most often, meat refers to skeletal muscle and associated fat and other tissues, but it may also describe other edible tissues such as offal. The word meat comes from the Old English word mete, which referred to food in general, the term is related to mad in Danish, mat in Swedish and Norwegian, and matur in Icelandic and Faroese, which also mean food. The word mete also exists in Old Frisian to denote important food, differentiating it from swiets, paleontological evidence suggests that meat constituted a substantial proportion of the diet of even the earliest humans. Early hunter-gatherers depended on the hunting of large animals such as bison. Several breeds of sheep were established in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt by 3500–3000 BC, today, more than 200 sheep-breeds exist. Cattle were domesticated in Mesopotamia after settled agriculture was established about 5000 BC, modern domesticated cattle fall into the groups Bos taurus and Bos indicus, both descended from the now-extinct aurochs. The breeding of cattle, cattle optimized for meat production as opposed to animals best suited for draught or dairy purposes. Domestic pigs, which are descended from boars, are known to have existed about 2500 BC in modern-day Hungary and in Troy, earlier pottery from Jericho. Pork sausages and hams were of commercial importance in Greco-Roman times. Pigs continue to be bred intensively as they are being optimized to produce meat best suited for meat products. Other animals are or have raised or hunted for their flesh. The type of meat consumed varies much between different cultures, changes over time, depending on such as tradition and the availability of the animals. The amount and kind of meat consumed also varies by income, horses are commonly eaten in France, Italy, Germany and Japan, among other countries. Horses and other mammals such as reindeer were hunted during the late Paleolithic in western Europe
Meat
–
Varieties of meat
Meat
–
A typical shoulder cut of
lamb
Meat
–
A
Hereford bull, a breed of cattle frequently used in beef production.
Meat
–
Blade steaks are an example of "red" meat
9.
Beef
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Beef is the culinary name for meat from cattle, particularly skeletal muscle. Humans have been eating beef since prehistoric times, Beef is a complete source of protein, and provides many of the essential fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals that humans need. Beef skeletal muscle meat can be cut into roasts, short ribs or steak, Some cuts are processed, and trimmings, usually mixed with meat from older, leaner cattle, are ground, minced or used in sausages. The blood is used in varieties of blood sausage. Some intestines are cooked and eaten as-is, but are often cleaned and used as natural sausage casings. The bones are used for making beef stock, Beef from steers and heifers is very similar. According to the most recent National Beef Quality Audit, heifer carcasses had slightly more marbling than steer carcasses, depending on economics, the number of heifers kept for breeding varies. The meat from older bulls is usually tougher, so it is used for mince. Beef is the third most widely consumed meat in the world, accounting for about 25% of meat production worldwide, after pork and poultry at 38% and 30% respectively. According to the data from OECD, the average Uruguayan ate over 42 kg of beef or veal in 2014, cattle are considered sacred in the culture of India and there is prohibition on selling and consumption of beef in much of India. Though India is the largest producer and exporter of meat in the world. In 2015, the worlds largest exporters of beef including the meat, were India, Brazil. Beef production is important to the economies of Uruguay, Canada, Paraguay, Mexico, Argentina, Belarus. The word beef is from the Latin bōs, in contrast to cow which is from Middle English cou, after the Norman Conquest, the French-speaking nobles who ruled England naturally used French words to refer to the meats they were served. Thus, various Anglo-Saxon words were used for the animal by the peasants, Beef is cognate with bovine through the Late Latin bovīnus. People have eaten the flesh of bovines from prehistoric times, some of the earliest known paintings, such as those of Lascaux. People domesticated cattle around 8000 BC to provide access to beef, milk. Most cattle originated in the Old World, with the exception of bison hybrids, examples include the Wagyū from Japan, Ankole-Watusi from Egypt, and longhorn Zebu from the Indian subcontinent
Beef
–
An uncooked
rib roast
Beef
–
Beef rump steak on grill pan, cooked to medium rare
Beef
–
Inspected carcasses tagged by the USDA
Beef
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Roast beef cooked under high heat
10.
Water
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Water is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earths streams, lakes, and oceans, and the fluids of most living organisms. Its chemical formula is H2O, meaning that its molecule contains one oxygen, Water strictly refers to the liquid state of that substance, that prevails at standard ambient temperature and pressure, but it often refers also to its solid state or its gaseous state. It also occurs in nature as snow, glaciers, ice packs and icebergs, clouds, fog, dew, aquifers, Water covers 71% of the Earths surface. It is vital for all forms of life. Only 2. 5% of this water is freshwater, and 98. 8% of that water is in ice and groundwater. Less than 0. 3% of all freshwater is in rivers, lakes, and the atmosphere, a greater quantity of water is found in the earths interior. Water on Earth moves continually through the cycle of evaporation and transpiration, condensation, precipitation. Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land, large amounts of water are also chemically combined or adsorbed in hydrated minerals. Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients. There is a correlation between access to safe water and gross domestic product per capita. However, some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the population will be facing water-based vulnerability. A report, issued in November 2009, suggests that by 2030, in developing regions of the world. Water plays an important role in the world economy, approximately 70% of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture. Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a source of food for many parts of the world. Much of long-distance trade of commodities and manufactured products is transported by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, large quantities of water, ice, and steam are used for cooling and heating, in industry and homes. Water is an excellent solvent for a variety of chemical substances, as such it is widely used in industrial processes. Water is also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, Water is a liquid at the temperatures and pressures that are most adequate for life. Specifically, at atmospheric pressure of 1 bar, water is a liquid between the temperatures of 273.15 K and 373.15 K
Water
–
Water in three states: liquid, solid (
ice), and gas (invisible
water vapor in the air).
Clouds are accumulations of water droplets,
condensed from vapor-saturated air.
Water
–
Impact from a water drop causes an upward "rebound" jet surrounded by circular
capillary waves.
Water
–
Snowflakes by
Wilson Bentley, 1902.
Water
–
Dew drops adhering to a
spider web.
11.
Stock (food)
–
Stock is a flavored liquid preparation. It forms the basis of many dishes, particularly soups and sauces, making stocks involves simmering animal bones or meat, seafood, or vegetables in water or wine, adding mirepoix or other aromatics for more flavor. Traditionally, stock is made by simmering various ingredients in water, a newer approach is to use a pressure cooker. The ingredients may include some or all of the following, Meat Leftover cooked meat, quantities recommended are in the ratio of 1 part fresh meat to 2 parts water. Bones Veal, beef, and chicken bones are most commonly used, the flavour of the stock comes from the cartilage and connective tissue in the bones. Connective tissue has collagen in it, which converted into gelatin that thickens the liquid. Stock made from bones needs to be simmered for longer than stock made from meat, pressure cooking methods shorten the time necessary to extract the flavour from the bones. Mirepoix Mirepoix is a combination of onions, carrots, celery, often, the less desirable parts of the vegetables that may not otherwise be eaten are used. The use of parts is highly dependent upon the chef. Herbs and spices The herbs and spices used depend on availability, in classical cuisine, the use of a bouquet garni consisting of parsley, bay leaves, a sprig of thyme, and possibly other herbs, is common. This is often placed in a sachet to make it easier to remove once the stock is cooked, today, ready-made stock and stock cubes consisting of dried, compressed stock ingredients are readily available. These are commonly known as bouillon cubes, as cooking base in the US, or as Oxo cubes in Britain, the difference between broth and stock is one of both cultural and colloquial terminology but certain definitions prevail. Stock is the liquid produced by simmering raw ingredients, solids are removed and this yields classic stock as made from beef, veal, chicken, fish and vegetables. Broth differs in that it is a soup where the solid pieces of flavoring meat or fish, along with some vegetables. It is often made more substantial by adding starches such as rice, traditionally, broth contained some form of meat or fish, however, nowadays it is acceptable to refer to a strictly vegetable soup as a broth. Chicken stock is cooked for several hours. Fish stock is made with fish bones and finely chopped mirepoix, fish stock should be cooked for 20–25 minutes—cooking any longer spoils the flavour. Concentrated fish stock is called fish fumet, in Japanese cooking, a fish and kelp stock called dashi is made by briefly cooking skipjack tuna flakes called katsuobushi in nearly boiling water
Stock (food)
–
Making stock in a pot on a
stove top.
Stock (food)
–
Pouring
fish stock on a stuffed fish
12.
Beer
–
Beer is the worlds oldest and most widely consumed alcoholic drink, it is the third most popular drink overall, after water and tea. Most beer is flavoured with hops, which add bitterness and act as a natural preservative, the fermentation process causes a natural carbonation effect, although this is often removed during processing, and replaced with forced carbonation. Beer is sold in bottles and cans, it may also be available on draught, particularly in pubs, the brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries. The strength of beer is usually around 4% to 6% alcohol by volume, archaeologists speculate that beer was instrumental in the formation of civilisations. Approximately 5000 years ago, workers in the city of Uruk were paid by their employers in beer, the earliest known chemical evidence of barley beer dates to circa 3500–3100 BC from the site of Godin Tepe in the Zagros Mountains of western Iran. The Ebla tablets, discovered in 1974 in Ebla, Syria, a fermented beverage using rice and fruit was made in China around 7000 BC. Unlike sake, mould was not used to saccharify the rice, almost any substance containing sugar can naturally undergo alcoholic fermentation. It is likely that many cultures, on observing that a liquid could be obtained from a source of starch. Bread and beer increased prosperity to a level that allowed time for development of other technologies, Beer was spread through Europe by Germanic and Celtic tribes as far back as 3000 BC, and it was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. The product that the early Europeans drank might not be recognised as beer by most people today, alongside the basic starch source, the early European beers might contain fruits, honey, numerous types of plants, spices and other substances such as narcotic herbs. What they did not contain was hops, as that was an addition, first mentioned in Europe around 822 by a Carolingian Abbot. Beer produced before the Industrial Revolution continued to be made and sold on a scale, although by the 7th century AD, beer was also being produced. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture, the development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process and greater knowledge of the results. Today, the industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies. As of 2006, more than 133 billion litres, the equivalent of a cube 510 metres on a side, of beer are sold per year, the process of making beer is known as brewing. A dedicated building for the making of beer is called a brewery, a company that makes beer is called either a brewery or a brewing company. Beer made on a scale for non-commercial reasons is classified as homebrewing regardless of where it is made. Brewing beer is subject to legislation and taxation in developed countries, however, the UK government relaxed legislation in 1963, followed by Australia in 1972 and the US in 1978, allowing homebrewing to become a popular hobby
Beer
–
Schlenkerla Rauchbier being poured from a
cask
Beer
–
François Jaques: Peasants Enjoying Beer at Pub in Fribourg (Switz.) – (1923)
Beer
–
Egyptian wooden model of beer making in ancient Egypt,
Rosicrucian Egyptian Museum,
San Jose, California
Beer
–
William Hogarth, Beer Street, 1751.
Brooklyn Museum
13.
Food
–
Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for an organism. It is usually of plant or animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, the substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organisms cells to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth. Historically, humans secured food through two methods, hunting and gathering and agriculture, today, the majority of the food energy required by the ever increasing population of the world is supplied by the food industry. They address issues such as sustainability, biological diversity, climate change, nutritional economics, population growth, water supply, most food has its origin in plants. Some food is obtained directly from plants, but even animals that are used as sources are raised by feeding them food derived from plants. Cereal grain is a food that provides more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop. Corn, wheat, and rice – in all of their varieties – account for 87% of all grain production worldwide, most of the grain that is produced worldwide is fed to livestock. Some foods not from animal or plant sources include various edible fungi, fungi and ambient bacteria are used in the preparation of fermented and pickled foods like leavened bread, alcoholic drinks, cheese, pickles, kombucha, and yogurt. Another example is blue-green algae such as Spirulina, inorganic substances such as salt, baking soda and cream of tartar are used to preserve or chemically alter an ingredient. Many plants and plant parts are eaten as food and around 2,000 plant species are cultivated for food, many of these plant species have several distinct cultivars. Seeds of plants are a source of food for animals, including humans, because they contain the nutrients necessary for the plants initial growth, including many healthful fats. In fact, the majority of food consumed by human beings are seed-based foods, edible seeds include cereals, legumes, and nuts. Oilseeds are often pressed to produce rich oils - sunflower, flaxseed, rapeseed, sesame, seeds are typically high in unsaturated fats and, in moderation, are considered a health food, although not all seeds are edible. Large seeds, such as those from a lemon, pose a choking hazard, fruits are the ripened ovaries of plants, including the seeds within. Many plants and animals have coevolved such that the fruits of the former are a food source to the latter. Fruits, therefore, make up a significant part of the diets of most cultures, some botanical fruits, such as tomatoes, pumpkins, and eggplants, are eaten as vegetables. Vegetables are a type of plant matter that is commonly eaten as food. These include root vegetables, bulbs, leaf vegetables, stem vegetables, animals are used as food either directly or indirectly by the products they produce
Food
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Various foods
Food
–
Foods from plant sources
Food
–
Various raw
meats
Food
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Tractor and
Chaser bin
14.
Cooking
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Cooking or cookery is the art, technology and craft of preparing food for consumption with the use of heat. The ways or types of cooking also depend on the skill, cooking is done both by people in their own dwellings and by professional cooks and chefs in restaurants and other food establishments. Cooking can also occur through chemical reactions without the presence of heat, such as in ceviche, preparing food with heat or fire is an activity unique to humans. It may have started around 2 million years ago, though evidence for it reaches no more than 1 million years ago. The expansion of agriculture, commerce, trade and transportation between civilizations in different regions offered cooks many new ingredients, New inventions and technologies, such as the invention of pottery for holding and boiling water, expanded cooking techniques. Some modern cooks apply advanced scientific techniques to food preparation to further enhance the flavor of the dish served, phylogenetic analysis suggests that human ancestors may have invented cooking as far back as 1.8 million to 2.3 million years ago. Re-analysis of burnt bone fragments and plant ashes from the Wonderwerk Cave, there is evidence that Homo erectus was cooking their food as early as 500,000 years ago. Evidence for the use of fire by Homo erectus beginning some 400,000 years ago has wide scholarly support. Archeological evidence, from 300,000 years ago, in the form of ancient hearths, earth ovens, burnt animal bones, and flint, are found across Europe, anthropologists think that widespread cooking fires began about 250,000 years ago, when hearths started appearing. More recently, the earliest hearths have been reported to be at least 790,000 years old, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, food was a classic marker of identity in Europe. In the nineteenth-century Age of Nationalism cuisine became a symbol of national identity. Communication between the Old World and the New World in the Colombian exchange influenced the history of cooking, the Industrial Revolution brought mass-production, mass-marketing and standardization of food. Factories processed, preserved, canned, and packaged a wide variety of foods, in the 1920s, freezing methods, cafeterias and fast-food establishments emerged. Along with changes in food, starting early in the 20th century, governments have issued nutrition guidelines, the 1916 Food For Young Children became the first USDA guide to give specific dietary guidelines. Updated in the 1920s, these guides gave shopping suggestions for different-sized families along with a Depression Era revision which included four cost levels, in 1943, the USDA created the Basic Seven chart to make sure that people got the recommended nutrients. It included the first-ever Recommended Daily Allowances from the National Academy of Sciences, in 1956, the Essentials of an Adequate Diet brought recommendations which cut the number of groups that American school children would learn about down to four. In 1979, a guide called Food addressed the link between too much of certain foods and chronic diseases, but added fats, oils, most ingredients in cooking are derived from living organisms. Vegetables, fruits, grains and nuts as well as herbs and spices come from plants, while meat, eggs, mushrooms and the yeast used in baking are kinds of fungi
Cooking
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A chef preparing steak
Cooking
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Historical oven cooking depicted in a painting by
Jean-François Millet
Cooking
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Doughnuts frying in oil
Cooking
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Water is often used to cook foods such as
noodles.
15.
Gravy
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Gravy is a sauce often made from the juices of meats that run naturally during cooking and thickened with wheat flour or cornstarch for added texture. In the United States, the term can refer to a variety of sauces. The gravy may be colored and flavored with gravy salt or gravy browning or ready-made cubes. Gravy is commonly served with roasts, meatloaf, rice, chocolate gravy is a variety of gravy made with fat, flour, cocoa powder and sometimes a small amount of sugar. Egg gravy is a sauce that is served over biscuits. Meat drippings and flour are used to make a thick roux, the roux is salted and peppered to taste. Water and milk are added, and the liquid is brought back up to a boil, a well-beaten egg is then slowly added while the gravy is stirred or whisked swiftly, cooking the egg immediately and separating it into small fragments in the gravy. Giblet gravy has the giblets of turkey or chicken added when it is to be served with those types of poultry, mushroom gravy is a variety of gravy made with mushrooms. Onion gravy is made large quantities of slowly sweated, chopped onions mixed with stock or wine. Commonly served with bangers and mash, eggs, chops, or other grilled or fried meat which by way of the method would not produce their own gravy. Red-eye gravy is a made from the drippings of ham fried in a skillet/frying pan. The pan is deglazed with coffee, and uses no thickening agent and this gravy is a staple of Southern United States cuisine and is usually served over ham, grits or biscuits. Vegetable gravy or vegetarian gravy is made with boiled or roasted vegetables. A quick and flavorful vegetable gravy can be made from any combination of vegetable broth or vegetable stock, flour, one recipe uses vegetarian bouillon cubes with cornstarch as a thickener, which is whisked into boiling water. Sometimes vegetable juices are added to enrich the flavor, which may give the gravy a dark green color, brown vegetarian gravy can also be made with savory yeast extract like Marmite or Vegemite. There are also commercially produced instant gravy granules which are suitable for vegetarians and vegans. Cream gravy is the gravy typically used in biscuits and gravy and it is essentially a Béchamel sauce, with the roux being made of meat drippings and flour. Milk is added and thickened by the roux, once prepared, black pepper, besides cream and sawmill gravy, common names include country gravy, white gravy, milk gravy, and sausage gravy
Gravy
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Stages in the preparation of
mushroom gravy
Gravy
–
Gravy can be served in a pitcher or
gravy boat.
Gravy
–
Biscuits covered in sausage gravy
Gravy
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Instant gravy granules
16.
Poultry
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Poultry are domesticated birds kept by humans for the eggs they produce, their meat, or their feathers. These birds are most typically members of the superorder Galloanserae, especially the order Galliformes, if there are ducks and or geese that are kept as pets they shall not be considered poultry unlike domesticated chickens. Poultry also includes other birds that are killed for their meat, such as the young of pigeons but does not include wild birds hunted for sport or food. The word poultry comes from the French/Norman word poule, itself derived from the Latin word pullus, the domestication of poultry took place several thousand years ago. This may have originally been as a result of people hatching and rearing young birds from eggs collected from the wild, but later involved keeping the birds permanently in captivity. Domesticated chickens may have used for cockfighting at first and quail kept for their songs. Selective breeding for fast growth, egg-laying ability, conformation, plumage and docility took place over the centuries, although some birds are still kept in small flocks in extensive systems, most birds available in the market today are reared in intensive commercial enterprises. Poultry is the second most widely eaten type of meat globally and, along with eggs, all poultry meat should be properly handled and sufficiently cooked in order to reduce the risk of food poisoning. The word poultry comes from the Middle English pultrie, from Old French pouletrie, from pouletier, poultry dealer, the word pullet itself comes from Middle English pulet, from Old French polet, both from Latin pullus, a young fowl, young animal or chicken. The word fowl is of Germanic origin, poultry can be defined as domestic fowls, including chickens, turkeys, geese and ducks, raised for the production of meat or eggs and the word is also used for the flesh of these birds used as food. The Encyclopædia Britannica lists the bird groups but also includes guinea fowl. In colloquial speech, the term fowl is often used near-synonymously with domesticated chicken, or with poultry or even just bird, both words are also used for the flesh of these birds. Poultry can be distinguished from game, defined as wild birds or mammals hunted for food or sport, chickens are medium-sized, chunky birds with an upright stance and characterised by fleshy red combs and wattles on their heads. Males, known as cocks, are larger, more boldly coloured. Chickens are gregarious, omnivorous, ground-dwelling birds that in their natural surroundings search among the leaf litter for seeds, invertebrates and they seldom fly except as a result of perceived danger, preferring to run into the undergrowth if approached. Todays domestic chicken is descended from the wild red junglefowl of Asia. Domestication is believed to have taken place between 7,000 and 10,000 years ago, and what are thought to be fossilized chicken bones have been found in northeastern China dated to around 5,400 BC. Archaeologists believe domestication was originally for the purpose of cockfighting, the bird being a doughty fighter
Poultry
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Poultry of the World
Poultry
–
Cock with comb and wattles
Poultry
–
Roman mosaic depicting a cockfight
Poultry
–
Pekin ducks
17.
Sausage
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A sausage is a cylindrical meat product usually made from ground meat, often pork, beef, or veal, along with salt, spices and other flavourings, and breadcrumbs, with a skin around it. Typically, a sausage is formed in a traditionally made from intestine. Sausages that are sold uncooked are usually cooked in many ways, some sausages are cooked during processing and the casing may then be removed. Sausage making is a food preservation technique. Sausages may be preserved by curing, drying, smoking, or freezing, some cured or smoked sausages can be stored without refrigeration. Most fresh sausages must be refrigerated or frozen until they are cooked, there is a huge range of national and regional varieties of sausages, which differ by their flavouring or spicing ingredients, the meat used in them and their manner of preparation. The word sausage was first used in English in the mid-15th century and this word came. from Old North French saussiche. The French word saussiche came. from Vulgar Latin *salsica sausage, from salsicus seasoned with salt, Sausage making is an outcome of efficient butchery. Traditionally, sausage makers would salt various tissues and organs such as scraps, organ meats, blood and they would then stuff them into tubular casings made from the cleaned intestines of the animal, producing the characteristic cylindrical shape. Hence, sausages, puddings, and salami are among the oldest of prepared foods, whether cooked, early humans made the first sausages by stuffing roasted intestines into stomachs. The Greek poet Homer mentioned a kind of sausage in the Odyssey, Epicharmus wrote a comedy titled The Sausage. Evidence suggests that sausages were already popular both among the ancient Greeks and Romans, and most likely with the tribes occupying the larger part of Europe. The most famous sausage in ancient Italy was from Lucania and was called lucanica, during the reign of the Roman emperor Nero, sausages were associated with the Lupercalia festival. Early in the 10th century during the Byzantine Empire, Leo VI the Wise outlawed the production of blood sausages following cases of food poisoning, traditionally, sausage casings were made of the cleaned intestines, or stomachs in the case of haggis and other traditional puddings. Today, however, natural casings are often replaced by collagen, cellulose, or even plastic casings, some forms of sausage, such as sliced sausage, are prepared without a casing. Additionally, luncheon meat and sausage meat are now available without casings in tin cans, a sausage consists of meat, cut into pieces or ground, and filled into a casing, with other ingredients. Ingredients may include a cheap starch filler such as breadcrumbs, seasoning and flavourings such as spices, the meat may be from any animal, but is often pork, beef, or veal. The lean meat-to-fat ratio is dependent upon the style and producer, speciality sausages with other ingredients such as apple and leek are also made
Sausage
–
Kiełbasa biała (white sausage), szynkowa (smoked), śląska and podhalańska styles (
Poland)
Sausage
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Cooked Nuremberger pork sausages, sauerkraut and Tucher beer in Germany
Sausage
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Sausage making at home
Sausage
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Plate of German sausage:
Jagdwurst,
liver sausage,
blood sausage,
Westphalian ham
18.
Seafood
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Seafood is any form of sea life regarded as food by humans. Seafood prominently includes fish and shellfish, shellfish include various species of molluscs, crustaceans, and echinoderms. Historically, sea mammals such as whales and dolphins have been consumed as food, edible sea plants, such as some seaweeds and microalgae, are widely eaten as seafood around the world, especially in Asia. In North America, although not generally in the United Kingdom, for the sake of completeness, this article includes all edible aquatic life. The harvesting of seafood is usually known as fishing or hunting. Seafood is often distinguished from meat, although it is still animal and is excluded in a vegetarian diet. Seafood is an important source of protein in many diets around the world, most of the seafood harvest is consumed by humans, but a significant proportion is used as fish food to farm other fish or rear farm animals. Some seafoods are used as food for other plants, in these ways, seafoods are indirectly used to produce further food for human consumption. Products, such as oil and spirulina tablets are also extracted from seafoods. Some seafood is feed to fish, or used to feed domestic pets, such as cats. The harvesting, processing, and consuming of seafoods are ancient practices with archaeological evidence dating back well into the Paleolithic, isotopic analysis of the skeletal remains of Tianyuan man, a 40, 000-year-old modern human from eastern Asia, has shown that he regularly consumed freshwater fish. Archaeology features such as middens, discarded fish bones and cave paintings show that sea foods were important for survival. During this period, most people lived a lifestyle and were, of necessity. However, where there are examples of permanent settlements such as those at Lepenski Vir. The ancient river Nile was full of fish, fresh and dried fish were a food for much of the population. The Egyptians had implements and methods for fishing and these are illustrated in scenes, drawings. Some representations hint at fishing being pursued as a pastime, fishing scenes are rarely represented in ancient Greek culture, a reflection of the low social status of fishing. However, Oppian of Corycus, a Greek author wrote a treatise on sea fishing
Seafood
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Seafood includes any form of food taken from the sea
Seafood
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Various foods depicted in an Egyptian burial chamber, including fish, c. 1400 BC
Seafood
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marine
pelagic
Seafood
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marine
demersal
19.
Seasoning
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Seasoning is the process of adding salt, herbs, or spices to food to enhance the flavor. Seasonings include herbs and spices, which are frequently referred to as seasonings. However, Larousse Gastronomique states that to season and to flavour are not the thing, insisting that seasoning includes a large or small amount of salt being added to a preparation. Salt may be used to draw out water, or to magnify a natural flavor of a food making it richer or more delicate and this type of procedure is akin to curing. For instance, sea salt is rubbed into chicken, lamb, other seasonings like black pepper and basil transfer some of their flavor to the food. A well designed dish may combine seasonings that complement each other, in addition to the choice of herbs and seasoning, the timing of when flavors are added will affect the food that is being cooked. In some cultures, meat may be seasoned by pouring sauce over the dish at the table, a variety of seasoning techniques exist in various cultures. Infused oils are used for seasoning. There are two methods for doing an infusion—hot and cold, olive oil makes a good infusion base for some herbs, but tends to go rancid more quickly than other oils. Infused oils should be kept refrigerated, in Le Guide culinaire, Auguste Escoffier divides seasoning and condiments into the following groups, Saline seasonings—Salt, spiced salt, saltpeter. Acid seasonings—Plain vinegar, or same aromatized with tarragon, verjuice, lemon, hot seasonings—Peppercorns, ground or coarsely chopped pepper, or mignonette pepper, paprika, curry, cayenne, and mixed pepper spices. The pungents—onions, shallots, garlic, chives, and horseradish, fatty substances—Most animal fats, butter, vegetable greases. Condiment Flavor List of culinary herbs and spices List of spice mixes Popcorn seasoning
Seasoning
–
The ingredients for
achiote paste: ground annatto, oregano, ground cumin and ground cloves
Seasoning
–
Salts
Seasoning
–
Condiments
20.
Flavouring
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Flavor or flavour is the sensory impression of food or other substance, and is determined primarily by the chemical senses of taste and smell. The trigeminal senses, which detect chemical irritants in the mouth and throat, the flavor of the food, as such, can be altered with natural or artificial flavorants which affect these senses. A flavorant is defined as a substance that gives another substance flavor, altering the characteristics of the solute, causing it to become sweet, sour, tangy, of the three chemical senses, smell is the main determinant of a food items flavor. While only five basic tastes – sweet, sour, bitter, salty and umami are universally recognized, a foods flavor, therefore, can be easily altered by changing its smell while keeping its taste similar. The flavorings of commercially produced food products are created by flavorists. Most types of flavorings are focused on scent and taste, few commercial products exist to stimulate the trigeminal senses, since these are sharp, astringent, and typically unpleasant flavors. These mixtures are formulated by flavorists to give a product a unique flavor. The list of known flavoring agents includes thousands of compounds. Many flavorants consist of esters, which are described as being sweet or fruity. The compounds used to produce artificial flavors are almost identical to those that occur naturally and it has been suggested that artificial flavors may be safer to consume than natural flavors due to the standards of purity and mixture consistency that are enforced either by the company or by law. Natural flavors, in contrast, may contain impurities from their sources, flavors from food products are usually the result of a combination of natural flavors, which set up the basic smell profile of a food product, while artificial flavors modify the smell to accent it. Unlike smelling, which occurs upon inhalation, the sensing of flavors in the mouth occurs in the phase of breathing and is perceived differently by an individual. In other words, the smell of food is different depending on one is smelling it before or after it has entered ones mouth. Artificial sweeteners are also technically flavorants, umami or savory flavorants, more commonly called taste or flavor enhancers, are largely based on amino acids and nucleotides. These are typically used as sodium or calcium salts, each acid imparts a slightly different sour or tart taste that alters the flavor of a food. The color of food can affect ones expectations of the flavor significantly. S, certain artificial flavorants are given an E number, which may be included on food labels. Some flavor ingredients, such as gelatin, are produced from animal products, some, such as glycerin can be derived from either animal or vegetable sources. And some extracts, such as vanilla, may contain alcohol, in many Western countries, some consumers rely on a Jewish kosher pareve certification mark to indicate that natural flavorings used in a food product are free of meat and dairy
Flavouring
21.
Simmering
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Simmering is a food preparation technique in which foods are cooked in hot liquids kept just below the boiling point of water, but higher than poaching temperature. To keep a pot simmering, one brings it to a boil and then reduces the heat to a point where the formation of bubbles has almost ceased, simmering ensures gentler treatment than boiling to prevent food from toughening and/or breaking up. Simmering is usually a rapid and efficient method of cooking, food that has simmered in milk or cream instead of water is sometimes referred to as creamed. The appropriate simmering temperature is a topic of debate among chefs, in Japanese cuisine, simmering is considered one of the four essential cooking techniques. Food prepared in a crockpot is simmered, examples include stews, chili, soups, etc. Bulgarian traditional food, especially meat dishes are often simmered for extended periods of time. Examples include stews, soups, Vanyas, etc, in traditional Dutch and Flemish cuisine, less tender cuts of beef are simmered for several hours to obtain Carbonade flamande. Traditionally a small flame is used, fed by burning oil, on modern stoves, the source of heat is put very low, or a simmering plate is used to diminish the heat. Usually a cast iron pan is used with a thick bottom, the meat is ready if it can be easily torn apart into threads. Some modern gas ranges are equipped with a burner, with such burners usually located at the rear of the range. Many electric ranges have a simmer setting
Simmering
–
Meatball Soup simmering on a stove.
Simmering
–
Typical Dutch burner for simmering meat
22.
Boiling
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Transition boiling is an intermediate, unstable form of boiling with elements of both types. The boiling point of water is 100 °C or 212 °F, boiling water is used as a method of making it potable by killing microbes that may be present. Clostridium spores can survive this treatment, but as the infection caused by this microbe is not water-borne, boiling is also used in cooking. Foods suitable for boiling vegetables, starchy foods such as rice, noodles and potatoes, eggs, meats, sauces, stocks. As a cooking method it is simple and suitable for large scale cookery, tough meats or poultry can be given a long, slow cooking and a nutritious stock is produced. Disadvantages include loss of water-soluble vitamins and minerals, commercially prepared foodstuffs are sometimes packed in polythene sachets and sold as boil-in-the-bag products. Nucleate boiling is characterized by the growth of bubbles or pops on a heated surface, in general, the number of nucleation sites are increased by an increasing surface temperature. An irregular surface of the vessel or additives to the fluid can create additional nucleation sites, while an exceptionally smooth surface, such as plastic. Under these conditions, a liquid may show boiling delay. As the boiling surface is heated above a temperature, a film of vapor forms on the surface. Since this vapor film is less capable of carrying heat away from the surface. The point at which this occurs is dependent on the characteristics of boiling fluid, transition boiling may be defined as the unstable boiling, which occurs at surface temperatures between the maximum attainable in nucleate and the minimum attainable in film boiling. If a surface heating the liquid is significantly hotter than the liquid then film boiling will occur, where a layer of vapor. This condition of a vapor film insulating the surface from the liquid characterizes film boiling, in distillation, boiling is used in separating mixtures. This is possible because the rising from a boiling fluid generally has a ratio of components different from that in the liquid. The elimination of micro-organisms by boiling follows first-order kinetics—at high temperatures it is achieved in time and at lower temperatures. Boiling does not ensure the elimination of all micro-organisms, the bacterial spores Clostridium can survive at 100 °C but are not water-borne or intestine affecting, thus for human health, complete sterilization of water is not required. Though the boiling point decreases with increasing altitude, it is not enough to affect the disinfecting process, boiling is the method of cooking food in boiling water, or other water-based liquids such as stock or milk
Boiling
–
Nucleate boiling of water over a kitchen stove burner
Boiling
–
Boiling milk
23.
Flour
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Flour is a powder made by grinding raw grains or roots and used to make many different foods. While wheat is the most common base for flour, maize flour has been important in Mesoamerican cuisine since ancient times, rye flour is a constituent of bread in central Europe. The English word flour is originally a variant of the word flower, both derive from the Old French fleur or flour, which had the literal meaning blossom, and a figurative meaning the finest. The phrase fleur de farine meant the finest part of the meal, since flour resulted from the elimination of coarse, the earliest archaeological evidence for wheat seeds crushed between simple millstones to make flour dates to 6000 BC. The Romans were the first to grind seeds on cone mills, in 1879, at the beginning of the Industrial Era, the first steam mill was erected in London. In the 1930s, some began to be enriched with iron, niacin, thiamine. In the 1940s, mills started to enrich flour and folic acid was added to the list in the 1990s, an important problem of the industrial revolution was the preservation of flour. Transportation distances and a relatively slow distribution system collided with natural shelf life, the reason for the limited shelf life is the fatty acids of the germ, which react from the moment they are exposed to oxygen. This occurs when grain is milled, the fatty acids oxidize, depending on climate and grain quality, this process takes six to nine months. In the late 19th century, this process was too short for a production and distribution cycle. As vitamins, micronutrients and amino acids were completely or relatively unknown in the late 19th century, without the germ, flour cannot become rancid. Degermation started in densely populated areas and took approximately one generation to reach the countryside, heat-processed flour is flour where the germ is first separated from the endosperm and bran, then processed with steam, dry heat or microwave and blended into flour again. Milling of flour is accomplished by grinding grain between stones or steel wheels, today, stone-ground usually means that the grain has been ground in a mill in which a revolving stone wheel turns over a stationary stone wheel, vertically or horizontally with the grain in between. These terms are now applied broadly to uses of water. More recently, the Unifine mill, a mill, was developed in the mid-20th century. Home users have begun grinding their own flour from organic wheat berries on a variety of electric flour mills, the grinding process is not much different from grinding coffee but the mills are larger. This provides fresh flour with the benefits of wheat germ and fiber without spoilage, Flour contains a high proportion of starches, which are a subset of complex carbohydrates also known as polysaccharides. The kinds of used in cooking include all-purpose flour, self-rising flour
Flour
–
Three different kinds of wheat and rye flour. From left to right: wheat flour Type 550, wheat flour Type 1050, rye flour Type 1150
Flour
–
A field of wheat prior to harvesting
Flour
–
Flour being stored in large cloth sacks
Flour
–
A variety of types of flour and cereals sold at a bazaar in
Bishkek,
Kyrgyzstan
24.
Roux
–
Roux is flour and fat cooked together and used to thicken sauces. Roux is typically made from parts of flour and fat by weight. The flour is added to hot oil on the top, blended until smooth. Clarified butter, vegetable oils, bacon drippings or lard are commonly used fats, roux is used as a thickening agent for gravy, sauces, soups and stews. It provides the base for a dish, and other ingredients are added after the roux is complete, the fat is most often butter in French cuisine, but may be lard or vegetable oil in other cuisines. The roux is used in four of the five mother sauces of classical French cooking, béchamel sauce, velouté sauce, tomato sauce, and espagnole sauce. In Cajun cuisine, roux is made with fat or oil instead of butter and cooked to a medium or dark brown color. Central European cuisine uses lard or more recently vegetable oil instead of butter for the preparation of roux, Japanese Curry, or karē, is made from a roux made by frying yellow-curry powder, butter or oil, and flour together. The French term roux has become a loan-word in Japanese, rū, roux has been used in Ottoman and Turkish cuisine since at least the 15th century. The fat is heated in a pot or pan, melting it if necessary, the mixture is heated and stirred until the flour is incorporated, and then cooked until at least the point where a raw flour taste is no longer apparent and the desired colour has been reached. The final colour can range from white to nearly black, depending on the length of time it is heated. The end result is a thickening and flavoring agent, roux is most often made with butter as the fat base, but it may be made with any edible fat. In the case of meat gravies, fat rendered from meat is often used, in regional American cuisine, bacon is sometimes rendered to produce fat to use in the roux. If clarified butter is not available, vegetable oil is used when producing dark roux, since it does not burn at high temperatures. Light roux provides little flavor other than a characteristic richness to a dish, darker roux are made by browning the flour in oil for a longer time, and add a distinct nutty flavor to a dish. They may be called blond, peanut-butter, brown or chocolate roux depending on their color, the darker the color, the richer the flavor. Swabian cooking uses a darker roux for its brown broth, which, in its simplest form, consists of nothing more than lard, flour, and water, with a bay leaf and salt for seasoning. Dark roux is made with vegetable oils, which have a higher smoke point than butter
Roux
–
Roux white
Roux
–
A roux-based sauce
Roux
–
A dish of staka served as part of a meze, Souda, Crete.
25.
Cornstarch
–
Corn starch, cornstarch, cornflour or maize starch or maize is the starch derived from the corn grain or wheat. The starch is obtained from the endosperm of the kernel, corn starch is a popular food ingredient used in thickening sauces or soups, and is used in making corn syrup and other sugars. When mixed with a fluid, cornstarch can rearrange itself into a non-Newtonian fluid, for example, adding water transforms cornstarch into a material commonly known as Oobleck while adding oil transforms cornstarch into a Electrorheological fluid. The concept can be explained through the mixture termed cornflour slime, cornstarch was discovered in 1840 by Thomas Kingsford, superintendent of a wheat starch factory in Jersey City, New Jersey. Until 1851, corn starch was used primarily for starching laundry, cornstarch is used as a thickening agent in liquid-based foods, usually by mixing it with a lower-temperature liquid to form a paste or slurry. It is sometimes preferred over flour alone because it forms a translucent mixture, as the starch is heated, the molecular chains unravel, allowing them to collide with other starch chains to form a mesh, thickening the liquid. It is usually included as an agent in powdered sugar. A common substitute is arrowroot, which replaces cornstarch on a 1,1 ratio, chicken nuggets with a thin outer layer of cornstarch allows increased oil absorption and crispness after the latter stages of frying. Baby powder often includes cornstarch among its ingredients, cornstarch can be used to manufacture bioplastics. Food producers reduce production costs by adding varying amounts of cornstarch to foods, for example to cheese and this is more common in the United States of America where the Congress and the Department of Agriculture subsidize and reduce its cost to food manufacturers. When roasted in a standard oven it produced dextrin, a compound with uses ranging from adhesive to binder for fireworks. Cornstarch is the preferred anti-stick agent on medical products made from latex, including condoms, diaphragms. Prior usage of talc was abandoned as talc was believed to be a carcinogen, cornstarch has properties that allows it to slowly releases a type of glucose over time. Thus, cornstarch has been used to supply glucose and maintain blood sugar levels to humans who have glycogen storage disease, cornstarch can be used starting at age 6 –12 months which allows feeds to be spaced and glucose fluctuations to be minimized. The corn is steeped for 30 to 48 hours, which ferments it slightly, the germ is separated from the endosperm and those two components are ground separately. Next the starch is removed from each by washing, the starch is separated from the corn steep liquor, the cereal germ, the fibers and the corn gluten mostly in hydrocyclones and centrifuges, and then dried. This process is called wet milling, finally, the starch may be modified for specific purposes. Called cornstarch in the United States and Canada, called cornflour in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Israel and some Commonwealth countries
Cornstarch
–
Advertisement for a Cornflour manufacture, 1894
Cornstarch
–
Corn starch shown on a poster, upper left.
Cornstarch
–
Varieties
26.
Arrowroot
–
Japanese arrowroot, Pueraria lobata, also called kudzu, is used in similar ways. Archaeological studies in the Americas show evidence of cultivation as early as 7,000 years ago. The name may come from aru-aru in the language of the Caribbean Arawak people and it has also been suggested that the name comes from arrowroots use in treating poison-arrow wounds, as it draws out the poison when applied to the site of the injury. In the early days of carbonless copy paper, arrowroot, because of its grain size, was a widely used ingredient. After an economical way of separating wheat flour was devised. St. Vincent has a history of arrowroot production. The industry started as the food and medicine of the Carib and Garifuna peoples and it became an important commodity in colonial trade in the 1930s. As the sugar industry declined in the century, cultivation of arrowroot was developed to fill the void. Since then, the area cultivated has declined steadily as other crops, evidence of its former importance is indicated by the ruins of the various magnificent 19th-century factories located in valleys on the St. Vincent mainland. Arrowroot cultivation is now concentrated on farms located north of the Rabacca River and this is also the area where the population of Carib descent is concentrated. In 1998/99, the industry produced 312,000 lb of starch, the plant is propagated from other rhizomes and cultivation takes place at elevations up to 300 metres on the eastern and windward facing side of the highlands of St. Vincent. Cultivation covers an area of about 3,700 ha and some 80% of the crop is grown by small farmers, the arrowroot plant is very hardy and not very demanding in its requirements. St. Vincent, particularly the north-east coast, provides the ideal growing conditions for optimal yields, deep, well drained, slightly acidic soils, some farmers produce the crop by shifting cultivation on the cleared forested slopes. The harvesting season extends from October to May, on the larger estates, the harvesting of the rhizome usually proceeds from the base of a hill towards the top. Harvesting involves breaking off the rhizome from the shoot, planting and harvesting are inter-related in that when the rhizomes are harvested the shoot is replanted at the same time. In St. Vincent, much use is made of rural unemployment, mechanical harvesters have recently been introduced, allowing faster arrowroot harvesting. Six factories process the islands arrowroot and large processing plants are located at Belle Vue, arrowroot tubers contain about 23% starch. They are first washed, and then cleaned of the paper-like scale, the scales must be carefully removed before extracting the starch because they impart a disagreeable flavour
Arrowroot
–
Custard with an arrowroot biscuit on top
27.
Cantabria
–
Cantabria is a historic Spanish community and autonomous community with Santander as its capital city. It is bordered on the east by the Basque Autonomous Community, on the south by Castile and León, on the west by the Principality of Asturias, and on the north by the Cantabrian Sea. The most significant site for cave paintings is that in the cave of Altamira, dating from about 37,000 BC and declared, along with nine other Cantabrian caves, the modern Province of Cantabria was constituted on 28 July 1778 at Bárcena la Puente, Reocín. The Organic Law of the Autonomy Statute of Cantabria was approved on 30 December 1981, numerous authors, including Isidore of Seville, Julio Caro Baroja, Aureliano Fernández Guerra and Adolf Schulten, have explored the etymology of the name Cantabria, yet its origins remain uncertain. It is generally accepted that the root cant- comes from Celtic for rock or stone, thus, Cantabrian could mean people who live in the rocks or highlanders, a reference to the steep and mountainous territory of Cantabria. Cantabria is a mountainous and coastal region, with important natural resources and it has two distinct areas which are well differentiated morphologically, Coast. Santander Bay is the most prominent indentation in the coastline, to the south, the coastal strip rises to meet the mountains. This is a barrier made up of abruptly rising mountains parallel to the sea. The mountains are made of limestone with karst topography. They form deep valleys running north-south, the torrential rivers are short, fast flowing and of great eroding power, so the slopes are steep. The valleys define different natural regions, delimited physically by the mountain ranges, Liébana, Saja-Nansa, Besaya, Pas-Pisueña, Miera, Asón-Gándara. To the mountain region belongs the Escudo Range, a range of 600 to 1,000 metres high that covers 15 or 20 km in a parallel line to the coast in the West part of Cantabria. Towards the south are higher mountains, the tops of which form the watershed between the basins of the Rivers Ebro, Duero and the rivers that flow into the Bay of Biscay. The great limestone masses of Picos de Europa also stand out in the southwest of the region, most of their summits exceed 2,500 m, and their topography is shaped by the former presence of glaciers. Due to the stream, Cantabria, as well as the rest of Green Spain, has a much more temperate climate than might be expected for its latitude. The region has a oceanic climate, with warm summers. Annual precipitation is around 1,200 mm at the coasts, the mean temperature is about 14 °C. Snow is frequent in higher zones of Cantabria between the months of October and March, some zones of Picos de Europa, over 2,500 metres high, have an alpine climate with snow persisting year round
Cantabria
–
Panorama of the gateway to Alisas, in the
municipio of
Riotuerto, Cantabria
Cantabria
–
Flag
Cantabria
–
The
source of the Asón River
Cantabria
–
Grassland in
Valdáliga
28.
Herodotus
–
Herodotus was a Greek historian who was born in Halicarnassus in the Persian Empire and lived in the fifth century BC, a contemporary of Socrates. The Histories is the work which he is known to have produced. Despite Herodotus historical significance, little is known of his personal life and his place in history and his significance may be understood according to the traditions within which he worked. His work is the earliest Greek prose to have survived intact, of these only fragments of Hecataeuss work survive yet they allow us glimpses into the kind of tradition within which Herodotus wrote his own Histories. In his introduction to Hecataeus’s work, Genealogies, This points forward to the ‘folksy’ yet ‘international’ outlook typical of Herodotus. Yet, one scholar has described the work of Hecataeus as “a curious false start to history” since despite his critical spirit. It is possible that Herodotus borrowed much material from Hecataeus, as stated by Porphyry in a recorded by Eusebius. But Hecataeus did not record events that had occurred in living memory, unlike Herodotus, Herodotus claims to be better informed than his predecessors by relying on empirical observation to correct their excessive schematism. For example, He argues for continental asymmetry as opposed to the theory of a perfectly circular earth with Europe. Yet, he retains idealizing tendencies, as in his notions of the Danube. His debt to previous authors of prose ‘histories’ might be questionable, however, this point is one of the most contentious issues in modern scholarship. It is on account of the strange stories and the folk-tales he reported that his critics in early modern times branded him “The Father of Lies”. Even his own contemporaries found reason to scoff at his achievement, similarly, the Athenian historian Thucydides dismissed Herodotus as a “logos-writer”. Moreover, Thucydides developed a historical topic more in keeping with the Greek world-view, the interplay of civilizations was more relevant to Greeks living in Anatolia, such as Herodotus himself, for whom life within a foreign civilization was a recent memory. Modern scholars generally turn to Herodotus’s own writing for reliable information about his life, supplemented with ancient yet much later sources, modern accounts of his life typically go something like this, Herodotus was born at Halicarnassus around 484 BC. His name is not mentioned later in the tribute list of the Athenian Delian League, the epic poet Panyassis – a relative of Herodotus – is reported to have taken part in a failed uprising. Herodotus expresses affection for the island of Samos, and this is an indication that he might have lived there in his youth. So it is possible that his family was involved in an uprising against Lygdamis, leading to a period of exile on Samos, Herodotus wrote his Histories in the Ionian dialect, yet he was born in Halicarnassus, which was a Dorian settlement
Herodotus
–
A Roman copy (2nd century AD) of a Greek
bust of Herodotus from the first half of the 4th century BC
Herodotus
–
Fragment from the Histories VIII on
Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 2099, early 2nd century AD
Herodotus
–
Relief of Herodotus by
Jean-Guillaume Moitte (1806),
Louvre, Paris
Herodotus
–
The statue of Herodotus in his hometown of
Halicarnassus, modern
Bodrum, Turkey.
Cookbook: Stew 
Media: Stew
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