1.
Abdomen
–
The abdomen constitutes the part of the body between the thorax and pelvis, in humans and in other vertebrates. The region occupied by the abdomen is termed the abdominal cavity, in arthropods it is the posterior tagma of the body, it follows the thorax or cephalothorax. The abdomen stretches from the thorax at the diaphragm to the pelvis at the pelvic brim. The pelvic brim stretches from the joint to the pubic symphysis and is the edge of the pelvic inlet. The space above this inlet and under the thoracic diaphragm is termed the abdominal cavity, the boundary of the abdominal cavity is the abdominal wall in the front and the peritoneal surface at the rear. The abdomen contains most of the organs of the digestive tract. Hollow abdominal organs include the stomach, the intestine. Organs such as the liver, its attached gallbladder, and the function in close association with the digestive tract. The spleen, kidneys, and adrenal glands also lie within the abdomen, along with blood vessels including the aorta. Anatomists may consider the urinary bladder, uterus, fallopian tubes, finally, the abdomen contains an extensive membrane called the peritoneum. A fold of peritoneum may completely cover certain organs, whereas it may only one side of organs that usually lie closer to the abdominal wall. Anatomists call the type of organs retroperitoneal. For example, the stomach of ruminants is divided into four chambers – rumen, in vertebrates, the abdomen is a large cavity enclosed by the abdominal muscles, ventrally and laterally, and by the vertebral column dorsally. Lower ribs can also enclose ventral and lateral walls, the abdominal cavity is upper part of the pelvic cavity. It is attached to the cavity by the diaphragm. Structures such as the aorta, inferior vena cava and esophagus pass through the diaphragm, both the abdominal and pelvic cavities are lined by a serous membrane known as the parietal peritoneum. This membrane is continuous with the visceral peritoneum lining the organs, the abdomen in vertebrates contains a number of organs belonging, for instance, to the digestive tract and urinary system. There are three layers of the abdominal wall and they are, from the outside to the inside, external oblique, internal oblique, and transverse abdominal
Abdomen
–
The human abdomen and organs which can be found beneath the surface
Abdomen
–
(left) Henry Gray (1825–1861). Anatomy of the Human Body. (Right) A modern example of a human
male abdomen above
Abdomen
–
The analogous gross morphologies of a human and an ant
2.
Gastrique
–
Gastrique is caramelized sugar, deglazed with vinegar, used as a flavoring for sauces. To this a little pends or stock may be added and it is used to flavor sauces such as tomato sauce, savory fruit sauces, and other sweet and sour sauces such as the classic orange sauce for duck à lorange. Nowadays the term is used to refer to any flavored sauce, e. g. citrus gastrique. An agrodolce is a similar sauce found in Italian cuisine, agrodolce Reduction Vincotto Chef Simon Gastrique de base
Gastrique
–
Scallop with a
tangerine gastrique
3.
Pylorus
–
The pylorus, or pyloric part, connects the stomach to the duodenum. The pylorus is considered as having two parts, the pyloric antrum and the pyloric canal, the pyloric canal ends as the pyloric orifice, which marks the junction between the stomach and the duodenum. The orifice is surrounded by a sphincter, a band of muscle, the word pylorus comes from Greek πυλωρός, via Latin. The word pylorus in Greek means gatekeeper, related to gate and is linguistically related to the word pylon. The pylorus is the furthest part of the stomach that connects to the duodenum and it is divided into two parts, the antrum, which connects to the body of the stomach, and the pyloric canal, which connects to the duodenum. The pyloric antrum is the portion of the pylorus. It is near the bottom of the stomach, proximal to the sphincter, which separates the stomach. The canal is the opening between the stomach and the duodenum, the pyloric sphincter, or valve, is a strong ring of smooth muscle at the end of the pyloric canal which lets food pass from the stomach to the duodenum. It controls the outflow of gastric contents into the duodenum and it receives sympathetic innervation from the celiac ganglion. Under microscopy, the pylorus contains numerous glands, including gastric pits and they consist of two or three short closed tubes opening into a common duct or mouth. These tubes are wavy, and are about one-half the length of the duct, the duct is lined by columnar cells, continuous with the epithelium lining the surface of the mucous membrane of the stomach, the tubes by shorter and more cubical cell which are finely granular. The glands contain mucus cells and G cells that secrete gastrin, the pylorus also contains scattered parietal cells and neuroendocrine cells. These endocrine cells including D cells, which release somatostatin, the pylorus is one component of the gastrointestinal system. Food from the stomach, as chyme, passes through the pylorus to the duodenum, the pylorus, through the pyloric sphincter, regulates entry of food from the stomach into the duodenum. In such conditions as stomach cancer, tumours may partly block the pyloric canal, a special tube can be implanted surgically to connect the stomach to the duodenum so as to facilitate the passage of food from one to the other. This tube is called a gastroduodenostomy, pyloric stenosis refers to a pylorus that is narrow. This is due to congenital hypertrophy of the pyloric sphincter, the lumen of the pylorus is narrower, and less food is able to pass through. This problem is detected in the early weeks of life
Pylorus
–
Diagram from cancer.gov: * 1.
Body of stomach * 2.
Fundus * 3.
Anterior wall * 4.
Greater curvature * 5.
Lesser curvature * 6.
Cardia * 9.
Pyloric sphincter * 10.
Pyloric antrum * 11. Pyloric canal * 12. Angular notch * 13.
Gastric canal * 14.
Rugal folds
Pylorus
–
Inside of the stomach (pylorus labeled at center left)
Pylorus
–
Microscopic cross-section of the pylorus.
Pylorus
–
Dissection showing the stomach and pylorus in a
cadaver. The antrum of the pylorus is shown in green.
4.
Rugae
–
Rugae is a term used in anatomy that refers to a series of ridges produced by folding of the wall of an organ. Most commonly the term is applied to the surface of the stomach. The purpose of the gastric rugae is to allow for expansion of the stomach after the consumption of foods and liquids, for example, rugae are evident within the stomach when it is deflated. However, when the stomach distends, the rugae unfold to allow for the increase in volume, on the other hand, plicae remain folded regardless of distension as is evident within the plicae of the small intestine walls
Rugae
–
Diagram from cancer.gov: Rugae can be seen within stomach.
5.
Embryology
–
Embryology is the branch of biology that studies the prenatal development of gametes, fertilization, and development of embryos and fetuses. Additionally, embryology encompasses the study of disorders that occur before birth. After cleavage, the cells, or morula, becomes a hollow ball, or blastula. In bilateral animals, the blastula develops in one of two ways that divides the whole animal kingdom into two halves. If in the blastula the first pore becomes the mouth of the animal, it is a protostome, the protostomes include most invertebrate animals, such as insects, worms and molluscs, while the deuterostomes include the vertebrates. In due course, the changes into a more differentiated structure called the gastrula. The middle layer, or mesoderm, gives rise to the muscles, skeleton if any, the outer layer of cells, or ectoderm, gives rise to the nervous system, including the brain, and skin or carapace and hair, bristles, or scales. Embryos in many species appear similar to one another in early developmental stages. The reason for this similarity is because species have an evolutionary history. These similarities among species are called homologous structures, which are structures that have the same or similar function and mechanism, Drosophila melanogaster, a fruit fly, is a model organism in biology on which much research into embryology has been done. Before fertilization, the female produces an abundance of mRNA - transcribed from the genes that encode bicoid protein. These mRNA molecules are stored to be used later in what become the developing embryo. The male and female Drosophila gametes exhibit anisogamy, the female gamete is larger than the male gamete because it harbors more cytoplasm and, within the cytoplasm, the female gamete contains an abundance of the mRNA previously mentioned. At fertilization, the male and female gametes fuse and then the nucleus of the male gamete fuses with the nucleus of the female gamete, note that before the gametes nuclei fuse, they are known as pronuclei. A series of nuclear divisions will occur without cytokinesis in the zygote to form a cell known as a syncytium. All the nuclei in the syncytium are identical, just as all the nuclei in every cell of any multicellular organism are identical in terms of the DNA sequence of the genome. Before the nuclei can differentiate in transcriptional activity, the embryo must be divided into segments, in each segment, a unique set of regulatory proteins will cause specific genes in the nuclei to be transcribed. The resulting combination of proteins will transform clusters of cells into early embryo tissues that will develop into multiple fetal
Embryology
–
Dissection of human embryo, 38 mm - 8 weeks
Embryology
–
1 - morula, 2 - blastula
Embryology
–
Figure 1.1.1A Drosophila melanogaster
Embryology
–
Figure 1.1.1B Drosophila melanogaster
larvae contained in lab apparatus to be used for experiments in genetics and embryology.
6.
Foregut
–
The foregut is the anterior part of the alimentary canal, from the mouth to the duodenum at the entrance of the bile duct, and is attached to the abdominal walls by mesentery. The foregut develops from the primitive gut, and is developmentally distinct from the midgut and hindgut. Although the term “foregut” is typically used in reference to the section of the primitive gut. Pain in the region, just below the intersection of the ribs. In mammals, it is composed of number of interconnected ganglia that are arranged into two concentric rings embedded throughout the gut wall, beginning in the esophagus and ending in the anus. The main function of the ENS is to control the activity of the gastrointestinal glands. A large number of derived from the developing foregut also receive input from the vagus nerve. The foregut develops from a region of endoderm created after the initial cephalocaudal folding of the embryo. Simultaneously, the stomach begins to expand in width dorsally and ventrally in an asymmetric manner and this rotation positions the left vagus nerve anteriorly and right vagus nerve posteriorly. While the hindgut and midgut are only attached dorsally to the wall by a fold of peritoneum. Its two attachments are commonly referred to as the dorsal mesogastrium and the ventral mesogastrium, after this rotation the dorsal mesentery thins and forms the greater omentum, which is attached to the greater curvature of the stomach. The ventral mesentery forms the lesser omentum, and is attached to the developing liver, arterial supply to all these structures is from the celiac trunk, and venous drainage is by the portal venous system. Lymph from these organs is drained to the prevertebral celiac nodes at the origin of the artery from the aorta. In vertebrates, functional differentiation continues even after birth, with the transformation into the adult phenotype occurring through epithelial-mesenchymal transition, patterning events that determine tissue differentiation in vertebrates rely on several hox genes, the morphogen sonic hedgehog, and transcription factors such as sox2 and sox9. Esophageal atresia is a defect of the digestive system in which the continuity of the esophageal wall is interrupted. In most cases, the upper esophagus fails to connect with the lower esophagus, esophageal stricture is the narrowing of the esophagus resulting in swallowing difficulties. Pyloric stenosis is the thickening of the muscle forms the pyloric sphincter. Biliary atresia is a defect where the common bile duct
Foregut
–
Diagram showing the expansion of
amnion and delimitation of the
umbilicus.
7.
Organ system
–
A biological system is a complex network of biologically relevant entities. On the micro to the scale, examples of biological systems are cells, organelles, macromolecular complexes. A biological system is not to be confused with a living system, for further information see e. g. definition of life or synthetic biology. These specific systems are studied in Human anatomy. Human systems are present in many other animals. Circulatory system, pumping and channeling blood to and from the body and lungs with heart, integumentary system, skin, hair, fat, and nails. Skeletal system, structural support and protection with bones, cartilage, ligaments, urinary system, kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra involved in fluid balance, electrolyte balance and excretion of urine. Respiratory system, the used for breathing, the pharynx, larynx, bronchi, lungs. The lymphatic system includes functions including immune responses and development of antibodies, muscular system, allows for manipulation of the environment, provides locomotion, maintains posture, and produces heat. Includes skeletal muscles, smooth muscles and cardiac muscle, nervous system, collecting, transferring and processing information with brain, spinal cord and peripheral nervous system. The notion of system relies upon the concept of vital or organic function and this idea was already present in Antiquity, but the application of the term system is more reccent. Inspired in the work of Adam Smith, Milne-Edwards wrote that the body of all living beings, whether animal or plant, where the organs, comparable to workers, work incessantly to produce the phenomena that constitute the life of the individual. In more differentiated organisms, the labor could be apportioned between different instruments or systems. Synthesis and Analysis of a Biological System, by Hiroyuki Kurata,1999
Organ system
–
An example of a system: The
brain, the
cerebellum, the
spinal cord, and the
nerves are the four basic components of the
nervous system.
8.
Artery
–
Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. While most arteries carry oxygenated blood, there are two exceptions to this, the pulmonary and the umbilical arteries, the effective arterial blood volume is that extracellular fluid which fills the arterial system. The anatomy of arteries can be separated into gross anatomy, at the level, and microscopic anatomy. The outermost layer is known as the tunica externa, also known as tunica adventitia, inside this layer is the tunica media, or media, which is made up of smooth muscle cells and elastic tissue. The innermost layer, which is in contact with the flow of blood, is the tunica intima. This layer is made up of endothelial cells. The hollow internal cavity in which the flows is called the lumen. Arterial formation begins when endothelial cells begin to express specific genes. Arteries form part of the circulatory system and they carry blood that is oxygenated after it has been pumped from the heart. Arteries also aid the heart in pumping blood, arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the tissues, except for pulmonary arteries, which carry blood to the lungs for oxygenation. Veins and pulmonary veins carry deoxygenated blood. )The pulmonary artery carries blood from the heart to the lungs and it is unique because the blood in it is not oxygenated, as it has not yet passed through the lungs. The other unique artery is the artery, which carries deoxygenated blood from a fetus to its mother. Arteries have a blood pressure than other parts of the circulatory system. The pressure in arteries varies during the cardiac cycle and it is highest when the heart contracts and lowest when heart relaxes. The variation in pressure produces a pulse, which can be felt in different areas of the body, arterioles have the greatest collective influence on both local blood flow and on overall blood pressure. They are the primary adjustable nozzles in the system, across which the greatest pressure drop occurs. The larger arteries are generally elastic and the smaller ones tend to be muscular, systemic arteries deliver blood to the arterioles, and then to the capillaries, where nutrients and gases are exchanged. After travelling from the aorta, blood travels through peripheral arteries into smaller arteries called arterioles, arterioles help in regulating blood pressure by the variable contraction of the smooth muscle of their walls, and deliver blood to the capillaries
Artery
–
Microscopic anatomy of the artery.
9.
Left gastric artery
–
In human anatomy, the left gastric artery arises from the celiac artery and runs along the superior portion of the lesser curvature of the stomach. Branches also supply the lower esophagus, the left gastric artery anastomoses with the right gastric artery, which runs right to left. In cases of hypertension, anastamoses with the esophageal branches of this artery shunt blood from portal circulation to systemic circulation. This can lead to a potentially life-threatening condition known as esophageal varices. com
Left gastric artery
–
Left gastric artery is at #2 -- the upper of the two arrows.
Left gastric artery
–
The left gastric artery and other branches of the
celiac artery (stomach
in situ). Left gastric artery identified near lesser curvature.
10.
Right gastro-omental artery
–
The right gastroepiploic artery is one of the two terminal branches of the gastroduodenal artery. It runs from right to left along the curvature of the stomach. Except at the pylorus where it is in contact with the stomach and this vessel gives off numerous branches, gastric branches, ascend to supply both surfaces of the stomach. Omental branches, descend to supply the greater omentum and anastomose with branches of the middle colic, the right gastroepiploic artery was first used as a coronary artery bypass graft in 1984 by Dr. John Pym and colleagues at Queens University. It has become an accepted alternative conduit, and is useful in patients who do not have suitable saphenous veins to harvest for grafts. The right gastroepiploic artery is typically used as a graft to coronary arteries on the wall of the heart such as the right coronary artery. Anatomy photo,38, 02-0101 at the SUNY Downstate Medical Center - Stomach, Spleen and Liver, The Right and Left Gastroepiploic Artery celiactrunk at The Anatomy Lesson by Wesley Norman
Right gastro-omental artery
–
Right and left gastroomental is at #4.
Right gastro-omental artery
–
The celiac artery and its branches; the liver has been raised, and the lesser omentum and anterior layer of the greater omentum removed. (Right gastroepiploic artery visible at lower left.)
11.
Vein
–
Veins are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood from the back to the heart, exceptions are the pulmonary and umbilical veins. In contrast to veins, arteries carry blood away from the heart, veins are less muscular than arteries and are often closer to the skin. There are valves in most veins to prevent backflow, veins are present throughout the body as tubes that carry blood back to the heart. Veins are classified in a number of ways, including superficial vs. deep, pulmonary vs. systemic, superficial veins are those closer to the surface of the body, and have no corresponding arteries. Deep veins are deeper in the body and have corresponding arteries, perforator veins drain from the superficial to the deep veins. These are usually referred to in the limbs and feet. Communicating veins are veins that directly connect superficial veins to deep veins, pulmonary veins are a set of veins that deliver oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart. Systemic veins drain the tissues of the body and deliver deoxygenated blood to the heart, most veins are equipped with valves to prevent blood flowing in the reverse direction. Veins appear blue because the subcutaneous fat absorbs low-frequency light, permitting only the highly energetic blue wavelengths to penetrate through to the dark vein and reflect back to the viewer. The colour of a vein can be affected by the characteristics of a skin, how much oxygen is being carried in the blood. When a vein is drained of blood and removed from an organism, the largest veins in the human body are the venae cavae. These are two large veins which enter the right atrium of the heart from above and below. The superior vena cava carries blood from the arms and head to the atrium of the heart, while the inferior vena cava carries blood from the legs. The inferior vena cava is retroperitoneal and runs to the right, large veins feed into these two veins, and smaller veins into these. Together this forms the venous system, whilst the main veins hold a relatively constant position, the position of veins person to person can display quite a lot of variation. The pulmonary veins carry relatively oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart, the superior and inferior venae cavae carry relatively deoxygenated blood from the upper and lower systemic circulations, respectively. The portal venous system is a series of veins or venules that directly connect two capillary beds, examples of such systems include the hepatic portal vein and hypophyseal portal system
Vein
–
Image of veins from
William Harvey 's
De Motu Cordis et Sanguinis, 1628
Vein
–
The main veins in the human body
12.
Nerve
–
A nerve is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of axons in the peripheral nervous system. A nerve provides a pathway for the electrochemical nerve impulses that are transmitted along each of the axons to peripheral organs. In the central system, the analogous structures are known as tracts. Each nerve is a structure containing bundles of axons. Within a nerve, each axon is surrounded by a layer of tissue called the endoneurium. The axons are bundled together into groups called fascicles, and each fascicle is wrapped in a layer of tissue called the perineurium. Finally, the nerve is wrapped in a layer of connective tissue called the epineurium. Efferent nerves conduct signals from the nervous system along motor neurons to their target muscles. Mixed nerves contain both afferent and efferent axons, and thus conduct both incoming sensory information and outgoing muscle commands in the same bundle and they are given letter-number designations according to the vertebra through which they connect to the spinal column. Cranial nerves innervate parts of the head, and connect directly to the brain and they are typically assigned Roman numerals from 1 to 12, although cranial nerve zero is sometimes included. In addition, cranial nerves have descriptive names, each nerve is covered externally by a dense sheath of connective tissue, the epineurium. Underlying this is a layer of cells, the perineurium. Perineurial septae extend into the nerve and subdivide it into several bundles of fibres, surrounding each such fibre is the endoneurium. This forms a tube from the surface of the spinal cord to the level where the axon synapses with its muscle fibres. The endoneurium consists of a sleeve of material called the glycocalyx. Nerves are bundled along with vessels, since the neurons of a nerve have fairly high energy requirements. Within the endoneurium, the nerve fibres are surrounded by a low protein liquid called endoneurial fluid. This acts in a way to the cerebrospinal fluid in the central nervous system
Nerve
–
Cross-section of a nerve
Nerve
–
Micrograph demonstrating
perineural invasion of
prostate cancer.
H&E stain.
13.
Lymph
–
Lymph is the fluid that circulates throughout the lymphatic system. The lymph is formed when the fluid is collected through lymph capillaries. Since the lymph is derived from the fluid, its composition continually changes as the blood. It is generally similar to blood plasma except that it doesnt contain red blood cells, lymph returns proteins and excess interstitial fluid to the bloodstream. Lymph may pick up bacteria and bring them to lymph nodes, metastatic cancer cells can also be transported via lymph. Lymph also transports fats from the system to the blood via chylomicrons. The word lymph is derived from the name of the ancient Roman deity of fresh water, lymph has a composition comparable to that of blood plasma, but it may differ slightly. In particular, the lymph that leaves a lymph node is richer in lymphocytes, likewise, the lymph formed in the human digestive system called chyle is rich in triglycerides, and looks milky white because of its lipid content. As the blood and the surrounding cells continually add and remove substances from the interstitial fluid, thus, lymph when formed is a watery clear liquid with the same composition as the interstitial fluid. However, as it flows through the nodes it comes in contact with blood. Tubular vessels transport lymph back to the blood, ultimately replacing the volume lost during the formation of the interstitial fluid and these channels are the lymphatic channels, or simply lymphatics. Unlike the cardiovascular system, the system is not closed and has no central pump. Lymph transport, therefore, is slow and sporadic, despite low pressure, lymph movement occurs due to peristalsis, valves, and compression during contraction of adjacent skeletal muscle and arterial pulsation. Lymph that enters the lymph vessels from the interstitial spaces usually does not flow backwards along the vessels because of the presence of valves. If excessive hydrostatic pressure develops within the vessels, though, some fluid can leak back into the interstitial spaces. Flow of the lymph in the duct in an average resting person usually approximates 100ml per hour. Accompanied by another ~25ml per hour in other vessels, total lymph flow in the body is about 4 to 5 liters per day. Which can be elevated several folds in case of exercising, thus it can be estimated that without lymphatic flow, an average resting person would die within 24 hours
Lymph
–
Human lymph, obtained after a thoracic duct injury
Lymph
–
Diagram showing the formation of lymph from
interstitial fluid (labeled here as "Tissue fluid"). Note how the tissue fluid is entering the blind ends of
lymph capillaries (shown as deep green arrows)
Lymph
–
Formation of interstitial fluid from blood
14.
Latin
–
Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
Latin
–
Latin inscription, in the
Colosseum
Latin
–
Julius Caesar 's
Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this
patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the
Roman republic.
Latin
–
A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the
University Library of Graz
Latin
–
Latin and Ancient Greek Language - Culture - Linguistics at
Duke University in 2014.
15.
Ancient Greek
–
Ancient Greek includes the forms of Greek used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD. It is often divided into the Archaic period, Classical period. It is antedated in the second millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Hellenistic phase is known as Koine. Koine is regarded as a historical stage of its own, although in its earliest form it closely resembled Attic Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classic and earlier periods included several regional dialects, Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical phases of the language, Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, some dialects are found in standardized literary forms used in literature, while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms, homeric Greek is a literary form of Archaic Greek used in the epic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey, and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic, the origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of a lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period and they have the same general outline, but differ in some of the detail. The invasion would not be Dorian unless the invaders had some relationship to the historical Dorians. The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, the Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people—Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians, each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Often non-west is called East Greek, Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric, Southern Peloponnesus Doric, and Northern Peloponnesus Doric. The Lesbian dialect was Aeolic Greek and this dialect slowly replaced most of the older dialects, although Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language, which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek, by about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosized into Medieval Greek
Ancient Greek
–
Inscription about the construction of the statue of
Athena Parthenos in the
Parthenon, 440/439 BC
Ancient Greek
–
Ostracon bearing the name of
Cimon,
Stoa of Attalos
Ancient Greek
–
The words ΜΟΛΩΝ ΛΑΒΕ as they are inscribed on the marble of the 1955
Leonidas Monument at
Thermopylae
16.
Medical Subject Headings
–
Medical Subject Headings is a comprehensive controlled vocabulary for the purpose of indexing journal articles and books in the life sciences, it serves as a thesaurus that facilitates searching. Created and updated by the United States National Library of Medicine, it is used by the MEDLINE/PubMed article database, MeSH is also used by ClinicalTrials. gov registry to classify which diseases are studied by trials registered in ClinicalTrials. gov. MeSH was introduced in 1960, with the NLMs own index catalogue, the yearly printed version of MeSH was discontinued in 2007 and MeSH is now available online only. It can be browsed and downloaded free of charge through PubMed, originally in English, MeSH has been translated into numerous other languages and allows retrieval of documents from different languages. The 2009 version of MeSH contains a total of 25,186 subject headings, most of these are accompanied by a short description or definition, links to related descriptors, and a list of synonyms or very similar terms. This additional information and the structure make the MeSH essentially a thesaurus. The descriptors or subject headings are arranged in a hierarchy, a given descriptor may appear at several locations in the hierarchical tree. The tree locations carry systematic labels known as numbers. The tree numbers of a given descriptor are subject to change as MeSH is updated, every descriptor also carries a unique alphanumerical ID that will not change. Most subject headings come with a description or definition. See the MeSH description for diabetes type 2 as an example, the explanatory text is written by the MeSH team based on their standard sources if not otherwise stated. References are mostly encyclopaedias and standard textbooks of the subject areas, references for specific statements in the descriptions are not given, instead readers are referred to the bibliography. In addition to the hierarchy, MeSH contains a small number of standard qualifiers. For example, Measles is a descriptor and epidemiology is a qualifier, the epidemiology qualifier can be added to all other disease descriptors. Not all descriptor/qualifier combinations are allowed some of them may be meaningless. In all there are 83 different qualifiers, in addition to the descriptors, MeSH also contains some 139,000 supplementary concept records. These do not belong to the vocabulary as such, instead they enlarge the thesaurus. Many of these records describe chemical substances, by default, a search for a descriptor will include all the descriptors in the hierarchy below the given one
Medical Subject Headings
–
Medical Subject Headings
17.
Elsevier
–
Elsevier is one of the worlds major providers of scientific, technical, and medical information, and a technology company originally established in 1880. It is now a part of the RELX Group, known until 2015 as Reed Elsevier, Elsevier publishes approximately 400,000 articles annually in 2,500 journals. Its archives contain over 13 million documents and 30,000 e-books, total yearly downloads amount to 900 million. Elseviers high profit margins and its practices have subjected it to criticism by researchers. Elsevier was founded in 1880 and took the name from the Dutch publishing house Elzevir which has no connection with the present company, the Elzevir family operated as booksellers and publishers in the Netherlands, the founder, Lodewijk Elzevir, lived in Leiden and established the business in 1580. The expansion of Elsevier in the field after 1945 was funded with the profits of the newsweekly Elsevier. The weekly was an instant success and earned lots of money, in 1947, Elsevier began publishing its first English-language journal, Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. In 2013, Elsevier acquired Mendeley, a UK company making software for managing and sharing research papers, Mendeley, previously an open platform for sharing of research, was greatly criticized for the acquisition, which users saw as acceding to the paywall approach to research literature. Mendeleys previously open sharing system now allows exchange of paywalled resources only within private groups, the New Yorker described Elseviers reasons for buying Mendeley as two-fold, to acquire its user data, and to destroy or coöpt an open-science icon that threatens its business model. In December 2013, Elsevier announced a collaboration with University College, London, Elseviers investment is substantial and thought to be more than £10 million. In the primary research market during 2015, researchers submitted over 1. 3m research papers to Elsevier-based publications. Over 17,000 editors managed the peer review and selection of these papers, in 2013, the five editorial groups Elsevier, Springer, Wiley-Blackwell, Taylor & Francis and SAGE Publications published more than half of all academic papers in the peer-reviewed literature. At that time, Elsevier accounted for 16% of the market in science, technology. Elsevier breaks down its revenue sources by format and by geographic region, approximately 41% of revenue by geography in 2014 derived from North America, 27% from Europe and the remaining 32% from the rest of the world. Approximately 76% of revenue by format came from Electronic, 23% came from Print, Elsevier employs more than 7,200 people in over 70 offices across 24 countries. The company publishes 2,500 journals and 30,000 e-books and it is headed by Chief Executive Officer Ron Mobed. In 2015, Elsevier accounted for 35% of the revenues of RELX group, in operating profits, it represented 42%. Adjusted operating profits rose by 2% from 2014 to 2015, following the integration of its Science & Technology and Health Sciences divisions in 2012, Elsevier has operated under a traditional business structure with a single CEO
Elsevier
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Elsevier
18.
Anatomical terminology
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Anatomical terminology is a form of scientific terminology used by anatomists, zoologists, and health professionals such as doctors. Anatomical terminology uses many terms, suffixes, and prefixes deriving from Ancient Greek. These terms can be confusing to those unfamiliar with them, but can be more precise reducing ambiguity, also, since these anatomical terms are not used in everyday conversation, their meanings are less likely to change, and less likely to be misinterpreted. By using precise anatomical terminology such ambiguity is eliminated, an international standard for anatomical terminology, Terminologia Anatomica has been created. Anatomical terminology has quite regular morphology, the prefixes and suffixes are used to add meanings to different roots. The root of a term refers to an organ, tissue. For example, in the disorder hypertension, the prefix hyper- means high or over, the roots, prefixes and suffixes are often derived from Greek or Latin, and often quite dissimilar from their English-language variants. Latin names of such as musculus biceps brachii can be split up and refer to, musculus for muscle, biceps for two-headed. The first word tells us what we are speaking about, the second describes it, when describing the position of anatomical structures, structures may be described according to the anatomical landmark they are near. These landmarks may include structures, such as the umbilicus or sternum, or anatomical lines, the cephalon or cephalic region refers to the head. This area is differentiated into the cranium, facies, frons, oculus, auris, bucca, nausus, oris. The neck area is called the cervicis or cervical region, examples of structures named according to this include the frontalis muscle, submental lymph nodes, buccal membrane and orbicularis oculi muscle. Sometimes, unique terminology is used to reduce confusion in different parts of the body, for example, different terms are used when it comes to the skull in compliance with its embryonic origin and its tilted position compared to in other animals. Here, Rostral refers to proximity to the front of the nose, similarly, in the arms, different terminology is often used in the arms, in part to reduce ambiguity as what is the front, back, inner and outer surfaces. For this reason, the terms below are used, Radial referring to the radius bone, ulnar referring to the ulna bone, medially positioned when in the standard anatomical position. Other terms are used to describe the movement and actions of the hands and feet. International morphological terminology is used by the colleges of medicine and dentistry and it facilitates communication and exchanges between scientists from different countries of the world and it is used daily in the fields of research, teaching and medical care. The international morphological terminology refers to morphological sciences as a biological sciences branch, in this field, the form and structure are examined as well as the changes or developments in the organism
Anatomical terminology
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The
anatomical position, with terms of relative location noted.
Anatomical terminology
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The human body is shown in anatomical position in an anterior view and a posterior view. The regions of the body are labeled in boldface.
Anatomical terminology
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Abdominal regions are used for example to localize pain.
19.
Organ (anatomy)
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In biology, an organ or viscus is a collection of tissues joined in a structural unit to serve a common function. In anatomy, a viscus is an organ, and viscera is the plural form. Organs are composed of main tissue, parenchyma, and sporadic tissues, the main tissue is that which is unique for the specific organ, such as the myocardium, the main tissue of the heart, while sporadic tissues include the nerves, blood vessels, and connective tissues. The main tissues that make up an organ tend to have common embryologic origins, functionally related organs often cooperate to form whole organ systems. Organs exist in all biological organisms, in particular they are not restricted to animals. In single-cell organisms like bacteria, the analogue of an organ is called organelle. A hollow organ is an organ that forms a hollow tube or pouch, such as the stomach or intestine, or that includes a cavity. Two or more organs working together in the execution of a specific body function form an organ system, the functions of organ systems often share significant overlap. For instance, the nervous and endocrine system both operate via an organ, the hypothalamus. For this reason, the two systems are combined and studied as the neuroendocrine system, the same is true for the musculoskeletal system because of the relationship between the muscular and skeletal systems. Mammals such as humans have a variety of organ systems and these specific systems are also widely studied in human anatomy. Cardiovascular system, pumping and channeling blood to and from the body and lungs with heart, digestive system, digestion and processing food with salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, intestines, colon, rectum and anus. Excretory system, kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra involved in balance, electrolyte balance. Integumentary system, skin, hair and nails, nervous system, collecting, transferring and processing information with brain, spinal cord and nerves. Reproductive system, the sex organs, such as ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vulva, vagina, testes, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, respiratory system, the organs used for breathing, the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs and diaphragm. Skeletal system, structural support and protection with bones, cartilage, ligaments, the organ level of organisation in animals can be first detected in flatworms and the more advanced phyla. The less-advanced taxa do not show consolidation of their tissues into organs, the study of plant organs is referred to as plant morphology, rather than anatomy, as in animal systems. Organs of plants can be divided into vegetative and reproductive, vegetative plant organs are roots, stems, and leaves
Organ (anatomy)
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The
liver of a sheep. The liver is one of the main organs in the body.
Organ (anatomy)
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The flower is the angiosperm's reproductive organ. This
Hibiscus flower is hermaphroditic, and it contains
stamen and
pistils.
Organ (anatomy)
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Strobilus of
Equisetum telmateia.
Organ (anatomy)
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Human viscera
20.
Gastrointestinal tract
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Gastrointestinal is an adjective meaning of or pertaining to the stomach and intestines. A tract is a collection of related anatomic structures or a series of connected body organs, the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, and intestines are part of the human alimentary canal. All bilaterians have a gastrointestinal tract, also called a gut or an alimentary canal and this is a tube that transfers food to the organs of digestion. In large bilaterians, the gastrointestinal tract generally also has an exit, some small bilaterians have no anus and dispose of solid wastes by other means. The gastrointestinal tract contains thousands of different bacteria in their gut flora, the human gastrointestinal tract consists of the esophagus, stomach, and intestines, and is divided into the upper and lower gastrointestinal tracts. In contrast, the digestive system comprises the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of digestion. The tract may also be divided into foregut, midgut, and hindgut, the whole human GI tract is about nine metres long at autopsy. The GI tract releases hormones from enzymes to help regulate the digestive process, the structure and function can be described both as gross anatomy and as microscopic anatomy or histology. The tract itself is divided into upper and lower tracts, the upper gastrointestinal tract consists of the buccal cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, and duodenum. The exact demarcation between the upper and lower tracts is the muscle of the duodenum. Upon dissection, the duodenum may appear to be an organ, but it is divided into four segments based upon function, location. The four segments of the duodenum are as follows, bulb, descending, horizontal, the suspensory muscle attaches the superior border of the ascending duodenum to the diaphragm. The suspensory muscle is an important anatomical landmark which shows the division between the duodenum and the jejunum, the first and second parts of the small intestine. This is a muscle which is derived from the embryonic mesoderm. The lower gastrointestinal tract includes most of the intestine and all of the large intestine. In humans, the intestine is further subdivided into the duodenum, jejunum and ileum while the large intestine is subdivided into the cecum, colon, rectum. The small intestine begins at the duodenum, which receives food from the stomach and it is a tubular structure, usually between 6 and 7 m long. The area of the human, adult small intestinal mucosa is about 30 m2 and its main function is to absorb the products of digestion into the bloodstream
Gastrointestinal tract
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Venus Flytrap (Dionaea muscipula) leaf
Gastrointestinal tract
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Digestive system
Gastrointestinal tract
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Trophozoites of Entamoeba histolytica with ingested erythrocytes
Gastrointestinal tract
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A
Catalina Macaw 's seed-shearing beak
