1.
Staffordshire Potteries
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North Staffordshire became a centre of ceramic production in the early 17th century, due to the local availability of clay, salt, lead and coal. Hundreds of companies produced decorative or industrial items, the boom came after the discovery in 1720 by potter John Astbury of Shelton, that by adding heated and ground flint powder to the local reddish clay could create a more palatable white or cream ware. The flint was sourced from either the South Coast of England or France, a group involving James Brindley later patented a process for reducing the fine siliceous dust by using a water based process, thereby reducing the risk to workers of suffering silicosis. In the early 1900s the process converted to grinding bone, which had a similar effect, with the coming of the railway distribution of pottery products from the 1840s, mainly by the London and North Western Railway and Midland Railway, there was a considerable increase in business. The Chartist 1842 General Strike was ignited by striking collieries in the Potteries, Potteries active in the 19th century include Aynsley, Burleigh, Doulton, Dudson, Minton, Moorcroft, Twyford, and Wedgwood. Category, Staffordshire pottery Stoke-on-Trent Built-up Area Gladstone Pottery Museum Bottle oven Trent, the Potteries Museum & Art Gallery
2.
Transfer printing
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In the 1750s three men made significant advances in the application of printed decoration to ceramic surfaces. ”He was primarily concerned with printed decoration on enamels – boxes, plaques, medallions, etc. His patent application failed and he moved from Birmingham to London where he continued to apply for patents. He was likely involved in printing on enamels at both Bilston—near Birmingham—and at Battersea in London. Sadler and Green printed in Liverpool, where their trade included overglaze printing on tin-glazed earthenware, porcelain, credit for perfecting transfer printing on porcelain at the Worcester factory in the 1750s goes to Robert Hancock, an eminent etcher and engraver. Richard and Josiah Holdship, the managers of Worcester, were very supportive, by the mid-1750s the Worcester porcelain factory was producing both underglaze prints in blue and overglaze prints, predominately in black
3.
Pottery
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Pottery is the craft of making ceramic material into pots or potterywares using mud. Major types of potterywares include earthenware, stoneware and porcelain, the place where such wares are made by a potter is also called a pottery. Early Neolithic pottery have found in places such as Jomon Japan. A clay body can be decorated before or after firing, however, prior to shaping processes. Kneading helps to ensure an even moisture content throughout the body, air trapped within the clay body needs to be removed. This is called de-airing and can be accomplished either by a called a vacuum pug or manually by wedging. Wedging can also produce an even moisture content. Once a clay body has been kneaded and de-aired or wedged, after shaping, it is dried and then fired. Clay ware takes on varying physical characteristics during the making of pottery, at sufficient moisture content, bodies at this stage are in their most plastic form. Leather-hard refers to a body that has been dried partially. At this stage the clay object has approximately 15% moisture content, clay bodies at this stage are very firm and only slightly pliable. Trimming and handle attachment often occurs at the leather-hard state, bone-dry refers to clay bodies when they reach a moisture content at or near 0%. It is now ready to be bisque fired, bisque refers to the clay after the object is shaped to the desired form and fired in the kiln for the first time, known as bisque fired or biscuit fired. This firing changes the body in several ways. Mineral components of the body will undergo chemical changes that will change the colour of the clay. Glaze fired is the stage of some pottery making. A glaze may be applied to the form and the object can be decorated in several ways. After this the object is glazed fired, which causes the material to melt
4.
Vitrification
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Vitrification is the transformation of a substance into a glass, that is to say a non-crystalline amorphous solid. In the production of ceramics, vitrification is responsible for its impermeability to water, Vitrification is usually achieved by heating materials until they liquidize, then cooling the liquid, often rapidly, so that it passes through the glass transition to form a vitrified solid. Certain chemical reactions also result in glasses, in a wider sense, the embedding of material in a glassy matrix is also called vitrification. An important application is the vitrification of radioactive waste to obtain a stable compound that is suitable for ultimate disposal, thermal fluctuations break the bonds, therefore, the lower the temperature, the higher the degree of connectivity. Because of that materials have a characteristic threshold temperature termed glass transition temperature. The most common applications are in the making of pottery, glass, and some types of food, Vitrification is the progressive partial fusion of a clay, or of a body, as a result of a firing process. As vitrification proceeds the proportion of glassy bond increases and the apparent porosity of the product becomes progressively lower. Vitreous bodies have open porosity, and may be opaque or translucent. In this context zero porosity, may be defined as less than 1% water absorption, however, various standard procedures define the conditions of water absorption. An example is by ASTM, who state The term vitreous generally signifies less than 0. 5% absorption, except for floor and wall tile and low-voltage electrical insulators which are considered vitreous up to 3% water absorption. Glazing alone does not make pottery impermeable to water, porcelain, bone china and sanitaryware are examples of vitrified pottery, and are impermeable even without glaze. Stoneware may be vitrified or semi-vitrified, the type would not be impermeable without glaze. When sucrose is cooled slowly it results in crystal sugar, Vitrification can also occur when starting with a liquid such as water, usually through very rapid cooling or the introduction of agents that suppress the formation of ice crystals. This is in contrast to ordinary freezing which results in ice crystal formation, additives used in cryobiology or produced naturally by organisms living in polar regions are called cryoprotectants. Cold-adapted frogs and some other ectotherms naturally produce glycerol or glucose in their livers to reduce ice formation. When glucose is used as a cryoprotectant by arctic frogs, massive amounts of glucose are released at low temperature, when the frog rewarms during spring, the extra glucose must be rapidly eliminated, but stored. Arctic insects also use sugars as cryoprotectants, arctic fish use antifreeze proteins, sometimes appended with sugars, as cryoprotectants. Ordinary soda-lime glass, used in windows and drinking containers, is created by the addition of sodium carbonate, without these additives silicon dioxide will require very high temperature to obtain a melt and subsequently a glass
5.
Refractory
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A refractory material is a material that retains its strength at high temperatures. Refractory materials are used in linings for furnaces, kilns, incinerators and they are also used to make crucibles and moulds for casting glass and metals and for surfacing flame deflector systems for rocket launch structures. Today, the iron- and steel-industry uses approximately 70% of all refractories produced, refractory materials must be chemically and physically stable at high temperatures. Depending on the environment, they must be resistant to thermal shock, be chemically inert, and/or have specific ranges of thermal conductivity. The oxides of aluminium, silicon and magnesium are the most important materials used in the manufacturing of refractories, another oxide usually found in refractories is the oxide of calcium. Fire clays are also used in the manufacture of refractories. Refractories must be according to the conditions they face. Some applications require special refractory materials, zirconia is used when the material must withstand extremely high temperatures. Silicon carbide and carbon are two other materials used in some very severe temperature conditions, but they cannot be used in contact with oxygen, as they will oxidize. Binary compounds such as tungsten carbide or boron nitride can be very refractory, hafnium carbide is the most refractory binary compound known, with a melting point of 3890 °C. The ternary compound tantalum hafnium carbide has one of the highest melting points of all known compounds, Refractories can be classified on the basis of chemical composition, method of manufacture, physical form or according to their applications, fusion temperature. Acidic refractories consist of acidic materials like alumina and silica. They are generally not attacked or affected by acidic materials, and they include substances such as silica, alumina, and fire clay brick refractories. Notable reagents that can attack both alumina and silica are hydrofluoric acid, phosphoric acid, and fluorinated gases, at high temperatures, acidic refractories may also react with limes and basic oxides. These are used in areas where slags and atmosphere are either acidic or basic and are stable to both acids and bases. The main raw materials belong to, but are not confined to, common examples of these materials are alumina, chromia and carbon. These are used in areas where slags and atmosphere are basic, they are stable to alkaline materials, the main raw materials belong to the RO group to which magnesia is a very common example. Other examples include dolomite and chrome-magnesia, for the first half of the twentieth century, the steel making process used artificial periclase as a lining material for the furnace
6.
Ceramic glaze
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Ceramic glaze is an impervious layer or coating of a vitreous substance which has been fused to a ceramic body through firing. Glaze can serve to color, decorate or waterproof an item, glazing renders earthenware vessels suitable for holding liquids, sealing the inherent porosity of terracotta, the term we now use for basic unglazed earthenware. It also gives a tougher surface, glaze is also used on stoneware and porcelain. In addition to their functionality, glazes can form a variety of finishes, including degrees of glossy or matte finish. Glazes may also enhance the design or texture either unmodified or inscribed, carved or painted. Most pottery produced in recent centuries has been glazed, tiles are almost always glazed, and modern architectural terracotta is very often glazed architectural terra-cotta. Domestic sanitary ware is invariably glazed, as are many used in industry. The most important groups of traditional glazes, named after their main ceramic fluxing agent, are, Lead-glazed earthenware, is shiny and transparent after firing, used for about 2,000 years around the Mediterranean, in Europe and China. Tin-glazed pottery, which coats the ware with a white glaze. Known in the Ancient Near East and then important in Islamic pottery, includes faience, maiolica, majolica and Delftware. Ash glaze, important in East Asia, simply made from wood or plant ash, modern materials technology has invented new vitreous glazes that do not fall into these traditional categories. Glazes need to include a ceramic flux which functions by promoting partial liquefaction in the clay bodies, fluxes lower the high melting point of the glass formers silica, and sometimes boron trioxide. These glass former may be included in the materials, or may be drawn from the clay beneath. Raw materials of ceramic glazes generally include silica, which will be the glass former. Various metal oxides, such as sodium, potassium and calcium, alumina, often derived from clay, stiffens the molten glaze to prevent it from running off the piece. Colorants, such as oxide, copper carbonate or cobalt carbonate. Most commonly, glazes in aqueous suspension of various powdered minerals, other techniques include pouring the glaze over the piece, spraying it onto the piece with an airbrush or similar tool, or applying it directly with a brush or other tool. Small marks left by these spurs are sometimes visible on finished ware, decoration applied under the glaze on pottery is generally referred to as underglaze
7.
Earthenware
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Earthenware is glazed or unglazed nonvitreous pottery which has normally been fired below 1200°C. Porcelain, bone china and stoneware, all fired at high temperatures to vitrify, are the main other important types of pottery. Pit fired earthenware dates back to as early as 29, 000–25,000 BCE, outside East Asia, porcelain was manufactured only from the 18th century, and then initially as an expensive luxury. Earthenware, when fired, is opaque and non-vitreous, soft, the Combined Nomenclature of the European Communities describes it as being made of selected clays sometimes mixed with feldspars and varying amounts of other minerals and white or light-colored. Generally, earthenware bodies exhibit higher plasticity than most whiteware bodies and hence are easier to shape by RAM press, due to its porosity, earthenware, with a water absorption of 5-8%, must be glazed to be watertight. Earthenware has lower mechanical strength than bone china, porcelain or stoneware, darker-colored terracotta earthenwares, typically orange or red, due to a comparatively high content of iron oxide are widely used for flower pots, tiles and some decorative and oven wares. A general body formulation for contemporary earthenware is 25% kaolin, 25% ball clay, 35% quartz and 15% feldspar. Modern earthenware may be fired to temperatures between 1,000 and 1,150 °C and glost-fired to between 950 to 1,050 °C, the usual practice in factories and some studio potteries. Some studio potters follow the practice, with a low-temperature bisque firing. The firing schedule will be determined by the raw materials used, historically, such high temperatures were unattainable in most cultures and periods until modern times, though Chinese ceramics were far ahead of other cultures in this respect. Earthenware can be produced at firing temperatures as low as 600 °C, much historical pottery was fired somewhere around 800 °C, giving a wide margin of error where there was no precise way of measuring temperature, and very variable conditions within the kiln. After firing most earthenware bodies will be colored white, buff or red, for red earthenware, the firing temperature affects the color of the clay body. Lower temperatures produce a red terracotta color, higher temperatures will make the clay brown or even black. Higher firing temperatures may cause earthenware to bloat, an Introduction to the Technology Of Pottery. Whitewares, Production, Testing And Quality Control, the Potters Dictionary of Materials and Techniques. A & C Black Publishers Limited, London, England, Third Edition,1991
8.
Porcelain
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Porcelain /ˈpɔːrsəlᵻn, ˈpɔːrslᵻn/ is a ceramic material made by heating materials, generally including kaolin, in a kiln to temperatures between 1,200 and 1,400 °C. Porcelain was first developed in China around 2,000 years ago, then spread to other East Asian countries, and finally Europe. It combines well with both glazes and paint, and can be modelled very well, allowing a range of decorative treatments in tablewares, vessels. It also has uses in technology and industry. The European name, porcelain in English, come from the old Italian porcellana because of its resemblance to the translucent surface of the shell, Porcelain is also referred to as china or fine china in some English-speaking countries, as it was first seen in imports from China. Porcelain has been described as being completely vitrified, hard, impermeable, white or artificially coloured, translucent, however, the term porcelain lacks a universal definition and has been applied in a very unsystematic fashion to substances of diverse kinds which have only certain surface-qualities in common. Terms such as porcellaneous or near-porcelain may be used in such cases, a high proportion of modern porcelain is made of the variant bone china. Kaolin is the material from which porcelain is made, even though clay minerals might account for only a small proportion of the whole. The word paste is an old term for both the unfired and fired material, a more common terminology these days for the unfired material is body, for example, when buying materials a potter might order an amount of porcelain body from a vendor. The composition of porcelain is highly variable, but the mineral kaolinite is often a raw material. Other raw materials can include feldspar, ball clay, glass, bone ash, steatite, quartz, petuntse, the clays used are often described as being long or short, depending on their plasticity. Long clays are cohesive and have high plasticity, short clays are cohesive and have lower plasticity. Clays used for porcelain are generally of lower plasticity and are shorter than many other pottery clays and they wet very quickly, meaning that small changes in the content of water can produce large changes in workability. Thus, the range of content within which these clays can be worked is very narrow. The following section provides information on the methods used to form, decorate, finish, glaze. Many types of glaze, such as the iron-containing glaze used on the wares of Longquan, were designed specifically for their striking effects on porcelain. Porcelain wares may be decorated under the glaze using pigments that include cobalt and copper or over the glaze using coloured enamels. Like many earlier wares, modern porcelains are often biscuit-fired at around 1,000 °C, coated with glaze, another early method is once-fired where the glaze is applied to the unfired body and the two fired together in a single operation
9.
Kiln
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A kiln is a thermally insulated chamber, a type of oven, that produces temperatures sufficient to complete some process, such as hardening, drying, or chemical changes. Kilns have been used for millennia to turn objects made from clay into pottery, tiles, various industries use rotary kilns for pyroprocessing—to calcinate ores, to calcinate limestone to lime for cement, and to transform many other materials. The word kiln descends from the Old English cylene (/ˈkylene/, which was adapted from the Latin culīna kitchen, cooking-stove, burning-place. During the Middle English Period, the n was not pronounced, as evidenced by kiln having frequently been spelled without the n, Another word, miln, a place where wheat is ground, also had a silent n. Whereas the spelling of miln was changed to mill to match its pronunciation, kiln maintained its spelling, which most likely led to a common mispronunciation, however, there are small bastions where the original pronunciation has endured. Kiln, Mississippi, a town known for its wood drying kilns that once served the timber industry, is still referred to as the Kill by locals. Unwittingly adding the n sound at the end of kiln is due to people being introduced to the word through the language before ever hearing the actual pronunciation. Phonetically, the ln in kiln is categorized as a digraph, from English Words as Spoken and Written for Upper Grades by James A. Bowen 1900, The digraph ln, n silent, occurs in kiln. A fall down the kiln can kill you, Bowen was pointing out the humorous fact that kill and kiln are homophones. A homophone is a word that is pronounced the same as another word but differs in meaning, the earliest known kiln dates to around 6000 BC, and was found at the Yarim Tepe site in modern Iraq. Neolithic kilns were able to produce greater than 900 °C. Ceramics require heat at high temperatures so chemical and physical reactions will occur to permanently alter the unfired body, in the case of pottery, clay materials are shaped, dried and then fired in a kiln. The final characteristics are determined by the composition and preparation of the clay body, after a first firing glazes may be used and the ware is fired a second time to fuse the glaze into the body. A third firing at a lower temperature may be required to fix overglaze decoration, modern kilns often have sophisticated electrical control systems to firing regime, although pyrometric devices are often also used. Clay consists of fine-grained particles, that are weak and porous. Clay is combined with other minerals to create a clay body. Part of the process includes sintering. This heats the clay until the particles partially melt and flow together, creating a strong, single mass, composed of a glassy phase interspersed with pores, through firing, the pores are reduced in size, causing the material to shrink slightly
10.
Celsius
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Celsius, also known as centigrade, is a metric scale and unit of measurement for temperature. As an SI derived unit, it is used by most countries in the world and it is named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius, who developed a similar temperature scale. The degree Celsius can refer to a temperature on the Celsius scale as well as a unit to indicate a temperature interval. Before being renamed to honour Anders Celsius in 1948, the unit was called centigrade, from the Latin centum, which means 100, and gradus, which means steps. The scale is based on 0° for the point of water. This scale is widely taught in schools today, by international agreement the unit degree Celsius and the Celsius scale are currently defined by two different temperatures, absolute zero, and the triple point of VSMOW. This definition also precisely relates the Celsius scale to the Kelvin scale, absolute zero, the lowest temperature possible, is defined as being precisely 0 K and −273.15 °C. The temperature of the point of water is defined as precisely 273.16 K at 611.657 pascals pressure. This definition fixes the magnitude of both the degree Celsius and the kelvin as precisely 1 part in 273.16 of the difference between absolute zero and the point of water. Thus, it sets the magnitude of one degree Celsius and that of one kelvin as exactly the same, additionally, it establishes the difference between the two scales null points as being precisely 273.15 degrees. In his paper Observations of two persistent degrees on a thermometer, he recounted his experiments showing that the point of ice is essentially unaffected by pressure. He also determined with precision how the boiling point of water varied as a function of atmospheric pressure. He proposed that the point of his temperature scale, being the boiling point. This pressure is known as one standard atmosphere, the BIPMs 10th General Conference on Weights and Measures later defined one standard atmosphere to equal precisely 1013250dynes per square centimetre. On 19 May 1743 he published the design of a mercury thermometer, in 1744, coincident with the death of Anders Celsius, the Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus reversed Celsiuss scale. In it, Linnaeus recounted the temperatures inside the orangery at the University of Uppsala Botanical Garden, since the 19th century, the scientific and thermometry communities worldwide referred to this scale as the centigrade scale. Temperatures on the scale were often reported simply as degrees or. More properly, what was defined as centigrade then would now be hectograde.2 gradians, for scientific use, Celsius is the term usually used, with centigrade otherwise continuing to be in common but decreasing use, especially in informal contexts in English-speaking countries
11.
Fahrenheit
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Fahrenheit is a temperature scale based on one proposed in 1724 by the physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit, after whom the scale is named. It uses the degree Fahrenheit as the unit, several accounts of how he originally defined his scale exist. The lower defining point,0 °F, was established as the temperature of a solution of brine made from parts of ice. Further limits were established as the point of ice and his best estimate of the average human body temperature. All other countries in the world now use the Celsius scale, defined since 1954 by absolute zero being −273.15 °C, on the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of water is 32 degrees Fahrenheit and the boiling point is 212 °F. This puts the boiling and freezing points of water exactly 180 degrees apart, therefore, a degree on the Fahrenheit scale is 1⁄180 of the interval between the freezing point and the boiling point. On the Celsius scale, the freezing and boiling points of water are 100 degrees apart, a temperature interval of 1 °F is equal to an interval of 5⁄9 degrees Celsius. The Fahrenheit and Celsius scales intersect at −40°, absolute zero is −273.15 °C or −459.67 °F. For an exact conversion, the formulas can be applied. Again, f is the value in Fahrenheit and c the value in Celsius, f °Fahrenheit to c °Celsius, C °Celsius to f °Fahrenheit, −40 = f. Fahrenheit proposed his temperature scale in 1724, basing it on two points of temperature. In his initial scale, the point is determined by placing the thermometer in a mixture of ice, water. This is a mixture which stabilizes its temperature automatically, that stable temperature was defined as 0 °F. The second point,96 degrees, was approximately the human bodys temperature, in any case, the definition of the Fahrenheit scale has changed since. According to a letter Fahrenheit wrote to his friend Herman Boerhaave, his scale was built on the work of Ole Rømer, whom he had met earlier. In Rømers scale, brine freezes at zero, water freezes and melts at 7.5 degrees, body temperature is 22.5, Fahrenheit multiplied each value by four in order to eliminate fractions and increase the granularity of the scale. Fahrenheit observed that water boils at about 212 degrees using this scale, under this system, the Fahrenheit scale is redefined slightly so that the freezing point of water is exactly 32 °F, and the boiling point is exactly 212 °F or 180 degrees higher. It is for this reason that human body temperature is approximately 98° on the revised scale
12.
Han dynasty
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The Han dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms period. Spanning over four centuries, the Han period is considered an age in Chinese history. To this day, Chinas majority ethnic group refers to itself as the Han people and it was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han, and briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang. This interregnum separates the Han dynasty into two periods, the Western Han or Former Han and the Eastern Han or Later Han, the emperor was at the pinnacle of Han society. He presided over the Han government but shared power with both the nobility and appointed ministers who came largely from the gentry class. The Han Empire was divided into areas controlled by the central government using an innovation inherited from the Qin known as commanderies. These kingdoms gradually lost all vestiges of their independence, particularly following the Rebellion of the Seven States, from the reign of Emperor Wu onward, the Chinese court officially sponsored Confucianism in education and court politics, synthesized with the cosmology of later scholars such as Dong Zhongshu. This policy endured until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911 AD, the Han dynasty was an age of economic prosperity and saw a significant growth of the money economy first established during the Zhou dynasty. The coinage issued by the government mint in 119 BC remained the standard coinage of China until the Tang dynasty. The period saw a number of limited institutional innovations, the Xiongnu, a nomadic steppe confederation, defeated the Han in 200 BC and forced the Han to submit as a de facto inferior partner, but continued their raids on the Han borders. Emperor Wu of Han launched several campaigns against them. The ultimate Han victory in these wars eventually forced the Xiongnu to accept vassal status as Han tributaries, the territories north of Hans borders were quickly overrun by the nomadic Xianbei confederation. Imperial authority was seriously challenged by large Daoist religious societies which instigated the Yellow Turban Rebellion. When Cao Pi, King of Wei, usurped the throne from Emperor Xian, following Liu Bangs victory in the Chu–Han Contention, the resulting Han dynasty was named after the Hanzhong fief. Chinas first imperial dynasty was the Qin dynasty, the Qin unified the Chinese Warring States by conquest, but their empire became unstable after the death of the first emperor Qin Shi Huangdi. Within four years, the authority had collapsed in the face of rebellion. Although Xiang Yu proved to be a commander, Liu Bang defeated him at Battle of Gaixia. Liu Bang assumed the title emperor at the urging of his followers and is known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu, Changan was chosen as the new capital of the reunified empire under Han
13.
East Asia
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East Asia is the eastern subregion of the Asian continent, which can be defined in either geographical or ethno-cultural terms. Geographically and geopolitically, it includes China, Taiwan, Mongolia, Korea and Japan, it covers about 12,000,000 km2, or about 28% of the Asian continent, the East Asian people comprise more than 1.5 billion people. About 38% of the population of Asia and 22%, or over one fifth, the overall population density of the region is 133 inhabitants per square kilometre, about three times the world average of 45/km2. Historically, societies in East Asia have been part of the Chinese cultural sphere, major religions include Buddhism, Confucianism or Neo-Confucianism, Taoism, Chinese folk religion in China and Taiwan, Shinto in Japan, Korean shamanism in Korea. Shamanism is also prevalent among Mongolians and other populations of northern East Asia. The Chinese calendar is the root from which many other East Asian calendars are derived, Chinese Dynasties dominated the region in matters of culture, trade, and exploration as well as militarily for a very long time. There are records of tributes sent overseas from the kingdoms of Korea. There were also considerable levels of cultural and religious exchange between the Chinese and other regional Dynasties and Kingdoms, as connections began to strengthen with the Western world, Chinas power began to diminish. Around the same time, Japan solidified itself as a nation state, throughout World War II, Korea, Taiwan, much of eastern China, Hong Kong, and Vietnam all fell under Japanese control. Culturally, China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan and Vietnam are commonly seen as being encompassed by cultural East Asia, there are mixed debates around the world whether these countries or regions should be considered in East Asia or not. Vietnam Siberia in Russia Sovereignty issues exist over some territories in the South China Sea, however, in this context, the term Far East is often more appropriate which covers ASEAN countries and the countries in East Asia. However, being a Eurocentric term, Far East describes the geographical position in relation to Europe rather than its location within Asia. Alternatively, the term Asia Pacific Region is often used in describing East Asia and this usage, which is seen in economic and diplomatic discussions, is at odds with the historical meanings of both East Asia and Northeast Asia. The Council on Foreign Relations defines Northeast Asia as Japan and Korea, the military and economic superpower of China became the largest economy in the world in 2014, surpassing the United States of America. Currently in East Asia, trading systems are open, and zero or low duties on imports of consumer and capital goods etc. have considerably helped stimulate cost-efficiency. Free and flexible labor and other markets are important factors making for high levels of business-economic performance. East Asian populations have demonstrated highly positive work ethics, there are relatively large and fast-growing markets for consumer goods and services of all kinds. The culture of East Asia has been influenced by the civilisation of China, East Asia, as well as Vietnam, share a Confucian ethical philosophy, Buddhism, political and legal structures, and historically a common writing system
14.
Ding ware
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Ding ware, Ting ware or Dingyao were Chinese ceramics, mostly porcelain, produced in the prefecture of Dingzhou in Hebei in northern China. The main kilns were at Jiancicun or Jianci in Quyang County and they were produced between the Tang and Yuan dynasties of imperial China, though their finest period was in the 11th century, under the Northern Song. The kilns were in almost constant operation from the eighth until the mid-fourteenth century. The most characteristic wares are thin porcelains with a white or greyish body, chemical analysis has shown that they were often made entirely of a kaolinitic clay without any petuntse or porcelain stone. They are mostly decorated, with uncoloured designs that are incised or in shallow relief. A key event in this process was the flight of the remaining Northern Song court to the south, a new Southern Song court was based in Hangzhou. This may have accompanied by the movement of potters to Jingdezhen. The white glaze was noted for a cream or ivory tint. Earlier, pre-Song, pieces had a blueish tint as they were fired with wood, a change to firing with coal, probably in the 10th century, produced the tint described as ivory. Other secondary wares had monochrome glazes in different colours, a rare black, various shades of red and brown, gold. These are better known through literature than through surviving examples, only the red and black are represented by entire pieces. These may lack any other decoration, another rare group is white with painted underglaze decoration in a brown derived from iron oxides. Pieces produced in Ding ware were mostly open vessels of a small size, with shapes and decoration often borrowed from metalwork. Any decoration on the outside of pieces continued to be hand-carved for some time, while the decoration was hand-carved, it was mostly scrolling plant-forms including lotus and peony, with some simple animals such as ducks and fish. These were generally rather open and well spaced, executed with remarkable fluency, moulds allowed more complexity, including scenes with children, landscapes and other animals. The Ding kilns developed stepped saggars, allowing several bowls, slightly reducing in size, to be fired in the same saggar, terms such as porcellaneous or near-porcelain may be used in such cases. Ding ware was later grouped as one of the Five Famous Kilns and it heavily influenced the early white wares of Jingdezhen, where the white porcelain preceding Qingbai ware is known as Southern Ding, and Qingbai also shows considerable influence in its decoration. Ding production continued under the Jin dynasty, non-Chinese interlopers from Manchuria, Jin court taste was very different from the Song, favouring elegant plant-scroll designs, now mostly moulded, which were more intricate than those already produced under the Northern Song
15.
Conchoidal fracture
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Conchoidal fracture describes the way that brittle materials break or fracture when they do not follow any natural planes of separation. Materials that break in this way include quartz, flint, quartzite, jasper and other fine-grained or amorphous materials with a composition of pure silica, such as obsidian, conchoidal fractures can also occur in other materials under favorable circumstances. This material property was used in the Stone Age to make sharp tools. Conchoidal fractures often result in a curved surface that resembles the rippling, gradual curves of a mussel shell. A swelling appears at the point of impact called the bulb of percussion, shock waves emanating outwards from this point leave their mark on the stone as ripples. Other conchoidal features include small fissures emanating from the bulb of percussion and this property also makes such fractures useful in engineering, since they provide a permanent record of the stress state at the time of failure. As conchoidal fractures can be produced only by mechanical impact, rather than frost cracking for example, the dictionary definition of conchoid at Wiktionary
16.
Raw material
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As feedstock, the term connotes these materials are bottleneck assets and are highly important with regards to producing other products. This phenomenon, known as Dutch disease or the resource curse, an example of this is the geological scandal of the Democratic Republic of Congo as it is rich in raw materials, the Second Congo War focused on controlling these raw materials. Raw materials are used by non-humans, such as birds using found objects. Karl Marx, Capital, Vol.1, Part III, Chap
17.
Thermal shock
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Thermal shock occurs when a thermal gradient causes different parts of an object to expand by different amounts. This differential expansion can be understood in terms of stress or of strain, at some point, this stress can exceed the strength of the material, causing a crack to form. If nothing stops this crack from propagating through the material, it cause the objects structure to fail. To measure thermal shock the impulse excitation technique proved to be a useful tool and it can be used to measure Youngs modulus, Shear modulus, Poissons ratio and damping coefficient in a non destructive way. The same test-piece can be measured after different thermal shock cycles, the laser gain medium generates heat. This heat is drained through the heat sink, the transfer of heat occurs at a certain temperature gradient. The non-uniform thermal expansion of a bulk material causes the stress and tension and this phenomenon is also called thermal shock. The robustness of a material to the thermal shock is characterized by the thermal shock parameter. This estimate assumes the unilateral heat drain, as it takes place in the active mirrors, for the double-side sink, the coefficient 4 should be applied. The estimate above is not the only parameter which determines the limit of overheating of a gain medium, the maximal raise Δ T of temperature, at which the medium still can efficiently lase, is also important property of the laser material. The thermal loading, saturation intensity Q and the loss β determine the limit of power scaling of the disk lasers, roughly, the maximal power at the optimised sizes L and h, is of order of P = R2 Q β3. This estimate is very sensitive to the loss β, however, the same expression can be interpreted as a robust estimate of the upper bound of the loss β required for the desirable output power P, β m a x =13. All the disk lasers reported work at the round-trip loss below this estimate, the thermal shock parameter and the loading depend of the temperature of the heat sink. Certain hopes are related with a laser, operating at cryogenic temperatures, the corresponding Increase of the thermal shock parameter would allow to softer requirements for the round-trip loss of the disk laser at the power scaling. Thermal shock testing exposes products to alternating low and high temperatures to accelerate failures caused by cycles or thermal shocks during normal use. The transition between temperature extremes occurs very rapidly, greater than 15 °C per minute, equipment with single or multiple chambers is typically used to perform thermal shock testing. When using single chamber thermal shock equipment, the remain in one chamber. Some equipment uses separate hot and cold chambers with a mechanism that transports the products between two or more chambers
18.
Insulator (electricity)
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An electrical insulator is a material whose internal electric charges do not flow freely, very little electric current will flow through it under the influence of an electric field. This contrasts with other materials, semiconductors and conductors, which conduct electric current more easily, the property that distinguishes an insulator is its resistivity, insulators have higher resistivity than semiconductors or conductors. A perfect insulator does not exist, because even insulators contain small numbers of mobile charges which can carry current, in addition, all insulators become electrically conductive when a sufficiently large voltage is applied that the electric field tears electrons away from the atoms. This is known as the voltage of an insulator. Some materials such as glass, paper and Teflon, which have high resistivity, are good electrical insulators. Examples include rubber-like polymers and most plastics which can be thermoset or thermoplastic in nature, insulators are used in electrical equipment to support and separate electrical conductors without allowing current through themselves. An insulating material used in bulk to wrap electrical cables or other equipment is called insulation, the term insulator is also used more specifically to refer to insulating supports used to attach electric power distribution or transmission lines to utility poles and transmission towers. They support the weight of the suspended wires without allowing the current to flow through the tower to ground, electrical insulation is the absence of electrical conduction. Electronic band theory says that a charge flows if states are available into which electrons can be excited and this allows electrons to gain energy and thereby move through a conductor such as a metal. If no such states are available, the material is an insulator, most insulators have a large band gap. This occurs because the valence band containing the highest energy electrons is full, there is always some voltage that gives electrons enough energy to be excited into this band. Once this voltage is exceeded the material ceases being an insulator, however, it is usually accompanied by physical or chemical changes that permanently degrade the materials insulating properties. Materials that lack electron conduction are insulators if they lack other mobile charges as well, for example, if a liquid or gas contains ions, then the ions can be made to flow as an electric current, and the material is a conductor. Electrolytes and plasmas contain ions and act as conductors whether or not electron flow is involved, when subjected to a high enough voltage, insulators suffer from the phenomenon of electrical breakdown. These freed electrons and ions are in turn accelerated and strike other atoms, creating more charge carriers, rapidly the insulator becomes filled with mobile charge carriers, and its resistance drops to a low level. In a solid, the voltage is proportional to the band gap energy. The air in a region around a conductor can break down and ionise without a catastrophic increase in current. Even a vacuum can suffer a sort of breakdown, but in case the breakdown or vacuum arc involves charges ejected from the surface of metal electrodes rather than produced by the vacuum itself
19.
American stoneware
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American Stoneware is a type of stoneware pottery popular in 19th century North America. The predominant houseware of the era, it was covered in a salt glaze. The vernacular term crocks is often used to describe this type of pottery, Stoneware originated in the Rhineland area of Germany circa 15th century. American stoneware was fired to a high temperature, americans began producing salt-glazed stoneware circa 1720 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and Yorktown, Virginia. By the 1770s, the art of salt-glazed stoneware production had spread to many centers throughout the United States, most notably Manhattan, New York. By 1820, stoneware was being produced in virtually every American urban center, with potters from Baltimore, Maryland, while salt-glazing is the typical glaze technique seen on American Stoneware, other glaze methods were employed. Vessels were often dipped in Albany Slip, a made from a clay peculiar to the Upper Hudson Region of New York. Albany Slip was also used as a glaze to coat the inside surface of salt-glazed ware. While decorated ware was usually adorned using cobalt oxide, decorative techniques such as incising were also used. Flowering plants, birds, or other decoration were cut into the clay using a stylus to produce detailed recessed images on the vessels. Stamped or coggled designs were impressed into the leather-hard clay. Potters occasionally substituted manganese or iron oxide for cobalt oxide to produce brown, instead of blue, a significant percentage of American Stoneware was signed using makers marks and, much more rarely, incised signatures. Many pieces can be attributed to particular makers based on the decoration, clay body, form. The gallon capacity of the vessels was often denoted using numeral stamps or incised or cobalt oxide numbers or hash marks applied in freehand. American Stoneware was valued as not only a durable, decorative houseware but as an alternative to lead-glazed earthenware produced in America before. This earthenware, commonly referred to today as American Redware, was produced by the same potters making American Stoneware. Stoneware manufacturers of note include, Manhattan — John Remmey, Clarkson Crolius, utica, New York — Whites & Co. South Amboy, New Jersey — Captain James Morgan, Warne & Letts, harrisburg, Pennsylvania — Cowden & Wilcox
20.
Red Wing, Minnesota
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Red Wing is a city in Goodhue County, Minnesota, United States, along the upper Mississippi River. The population was 16,459 at the 2010 census and it is the county seat of Goodhue County. Red Wing is home to the manufacturers of nationally known products, Red Wing Shoes, Riedell Ice and Roller Skates, the Cannon Valley Trail has its eastern terminus in Red Wing. Treasure Island Resort & Casino is operated by the nearby Prairie Island Indian Reservation, the National Trust for Historic Preservation placed Red Wing on its 2008 distinctive destinations list, which adds twelve communities annually nationwide. Red Wing was added for its architecture and enviable natural environment. Red Wing is connected to Wisconsin by Red Wing Bridge, it carries U. S. Route 63 over the Mississippi River and this city was named after the early 19th-century Dakota Sioux chief, Red Wing, or Hupahuduta. He was one of a succession of Mdewakanton Dakota chiefs whose name Red Wing came from their use of a dyed swans wing as their symbol of rank and he was an ally of British soldiers during the War of 1812. After a vision in which he saw the Americans driving out the British, french Canadians referred to him as LAile Rouge. Later he took the name Shakea, or The Man Who Paints Himself Red, during the lifetime of Hupahuduta, there were few European-American pioneers in his territory. Red Wing was known as a friend of the United States, keeping peace with the traders and settlers. The federal government established a Mdewakanton Sioux Indian reservation in 1889 along the Mississippi River to free up land for new settlers, the city of Red Wing developed around it. This reservation is known as the Prairie Island Indian Community, in the early 1850s, settlers from Mississippi River steamboats came to Red Wing to farm in Goodhue County. They encroached on territory of the Mdewakanton Sioux. The settlers cleared the land for wheat, the crop of which could pay the cost of the land. Before the railroads were constructed across the territory of Goodhue County, in 1873, Red Wing led the country in the amount of wheat sold by farmers. The warehouses in the port of Red Wing could store and export more than a million bushels of wheat, once the railroads connected southern Minnesota with Minneapolis and Saint Anthony, where the largest flour mills were built, the port at Red Wing lost prominence. The Aurora Ski Club in Red Wing, which was founded on February 8,1887, was one of the first ski clubs formed in North America, reflecting skills of Scandinavian immigrants in the area. Aurora club members introduced in the 1880s, what became known as “Red Wing Style” ski techniques, the term Red Wing style continued in use in the United States well into the twentieth century
21.
Minnesota
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Minnesota is a state in the midwestern and northern regions of the United States. Minnesota was admitted as the 32nd U. S. state on May 11,1858, the state has a large number of lakes, and is known by the slogan Land of 10,000 Lakes. Its official motto is LÉtoile du Nord, Minnesota is the 12th largest in area and the 21st most populous of the U. S. Minnesota is known for its progressive political orientation and its high rate of civic participation and voter turnout. Until European settlement, Minnesota was inhabited by the Dakota and Ojibwe/Anishinaabe, in recent decades, immigration from Asia, the Horn of Africa, and Latin America has broadened its historic demographic and cultural composition. Minnesotas standard of living index is among the highest in the United States, Native Americans demonstrated the name to early settlers by dropping milk into water and calling it mnisota. Many places in the state have similar names, such as Minnehaha Falls, Minneiska, Minneota, Minnetonka, Minnetrista, and Minneapolis, a combination of mni and polis, Minnesota is the second northernmost U. S. state. Its isolated Northwest Angle in Lake of the Woods county is the part of the 48 contiguous states lying north of the 49th parallel. The state is part of the U. S. region known as the Upper Midwest and it shares a Lake Superior water border with Michigan and a land and water border with Wisconsin to the east. Iowa is to the south, North Dakota and South Dakota are to the west, with 86,943 square miles, or approximately 2.25 percent of the United States, Minnesota is the 12th-largest state. Minnesota has some of the Earths oldest rocks, gneisses that are about 3.6 billion years old. About 2.7 billion years ago, basaltic lava poured out of cracks in the floor of the primordial ocean, the roots of these volcanic mountains and the action of Precambrian seas formed the Iron Range of northern Minnesota. Following a period of volcanism 1, in more recent times, massive ice sheets at least one kilometer thick ravaged the landscape of the state and sculpted its terrain. The Wisconsin glaciation left 12,000 years ago and these glaciers covered all of Minnesota except the far southeast, an area characterized by steep hills and streams that cut into the bedrock. This area is known as the Driftless Zone for its absence of glacial drift, much of the remainder of the state outside the northeast has 50 feet or more of glacial till left behind as the last glaciers retreated. Gigantic Lake Agassiz formed in the northwest 13,000 years ago and its bed created the fertile Red River valley, and its outflow, glacial River Warren, carved the valley of the Minnesota River and the Upper Mississippi downstream from Fort Snelling. Minnesota is geologically quiet today, it experiences earthquakes infrequently, the states high point is Eagle Mountain at 2,301 feet, which is only 13 miles away from the low of 601 feet at the shore of Lake Superior. Notwithstanding dramatic local differences in elevation, much of the state is a rolling peneplain. Two major drainage divides meet in Minnesotas northeast in rural Hibbing, forming a triple watershed, precipitation can follow the Mississippi River south to the Gulf of Mexico, the Saint Lawrence Seaway east to the Atlantic Ocean, or the Hudson Bay watershed to the Arctic Ocean
22.
Kaolinite
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Kaolinite /ˈkeɪəlᵻˌnaɪt/ is a clay mineral, part of the group of industrial minerals, with the chemical composition Al2Si2O54. It is a silicate mineral, with one tetrahedral sheet of silica linked through oxygen atoms to one octahedral sheet of alumina octahedra. Rocks that are rich in kaolinite are known as kaolin /ˈkeɪəlᵻn/ or china clay, the name kaolin is derived from Gaoling, a Chinese village near Jingdezhen in southeastern Chinas Jiangxi Province. The name entered English in 1727 from the French version of the word, kaolin, kaolinite has a low shrink–swell capacity and a low cation-exchange capacity. It is a soft, earthy, usually white, mineral, in many parts of the world it is colored pink-orange-red by iron oxide, giving it a distinct rust hue. Lighter concentrations yield white, yellow, or light orange colors, alternating layers are sometimes found, as at Providence Canyon State Park in Georgia, United States. Commercial grades of kaolin are supplied and transported as dry powder, kaolinite group clays undergo a series of phase transformations upon thermal treatment in air at atmospheric pressure. Below 100 °C, exposure to dry air will slowly remove liquid water from the kaolin, the end-state for this transformation is referred to as leather dry. Between 100 °C and about 550 °C, any remaining water is expelled from kaolinite. The end state for this transformation is referred to as bone dry, throughout this temperature range, the expulsion of water is reversible, if the kaolin is exposed to liquid water, it will be reabsorbed and disintegrate into its fine particulate form. Subsequent transformations are not reversible, and represent permanent chemical changes, endothermic dehydration of kaolinite begins at 550–600 °C producing disordered metakaolin, but continuous hydroxyl loss is observed up to 900 °C. Al2Si2O54 → Al2Si2O7 +2 H2O, further heating to 925–950 °C converts metakaolin to an aluminium-silicon spinel which is sometimes also referred to as a gamma-alumina type structure,2 Al2Si2O7 → Si3Al4O12 + SiO2. Upon calcination above 1050 °C, the spinel phase nucleates and transforms to platelet mullite, finally, at 1400 °C the needle form of mullite appears, offering substantial increases in structural strength and heat resistance. This is a structural but not chemical transformation, see stoneware for more information on this form. Kaolinite clay occurs in abundance in soils that have formed from the weathering of rocks in hot. Such climatically-related differences in mineral content are often used to infer changes in climates in the geological past. In the Institut National pour lEtude Agronomique au Congo Belge classification system, in the US the main kaolin deposits are found in central Georgia, on a stretch of the Atlantic Seaboard fall line between Augusta and Macon. The deposits were formed between the late Cretaceous and early Paleogene, about 100 million to 45 million years ago, in sediments derived from weathered igneous, Kaolin production in the US during 2011 was 5.5 million tonnes
23.
Mica
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The mica group of sheet silicate minerals includes several closely related materials having nearly perfect basal cleavage. All are monoclinic, with a tendency towards pseudohexagonal crystals, and are similar in chemical composition, the nearly perfect cleavage, which is the most prominent characteristic of mica, is explained by the hexagonal sheet-like arrangement of its atoms. The word mica is derived from the Latin word mica, meaning a crumb, and probably influenced by micare, to glitter. Chemically, micas can be given the general formula X2Y4–6Z8O204 in which X is K, Na, or Ca or less commonly Ba, Rb, or Cs, Y is Al, Mg, or Fe or less commonly Mn, Cr, Ti, Li, etc. Z is chiefly Si or Al, but also may include Fe3+ or Ti, structurally, micas can be classed as dioctahedral and trioctahedral. If the X ion is K or Na, the mica is a common mica, whereas if the X ion is Ca, mica is widely distributed and occurs in igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary regimes. Large crystals of mica used for various applications are typically mined from granitic pegmatites, until the 19th century, large crystals of mica were quite rare and expensive as a result of the limited supply in Europe. However, their price dramatically dropped when large reserves were found and mined in Africa, the largest documented single crystal of mica was found in Lacey Mine, Ontario, Canada, it measured 10 ×4.3 ×4.3 m and weighed about 330 tonnes. Similar-sized crystals were found in Karelia, Russia. The British Geological Survey reported that as of 2005, Koderma district in Jharkhand state in India had the largest deposits of mica in the world. China was the top producer of mica with almost a third of the share, closely followed by the US, South Korea. Large deposits of mica were mined in New England from the 19th century to the 1970s. Large mines existed in Connecticut, New Hampshire, and Maine, scrap and flake mica is produced all over the world. In 2010, the producers were Russia, Finland, United States, South Korea, France. The total production was 350,000 t, although no data were available for China. Most sheet mica was produced in India and Russia, flake mica comes from several sources, the metamorphic rock called schist as a byproduct of processing feldspar and kaolin resources, from placer deposits, and from pegmatites. Sheet mica is considerably less abundant than flake and scrap mica, the most important sources of sheet mica are pegmatite deposits. Sheet mica prices vary with grade and can range from less than $1 per kilogram for low-quality mica to more than $2,000 per kilogram for the highest quality, the mica group represents 37 phyllosilicate minerals that have a layered or platy texture
24.
Quartz
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Quartz is the second most abundant mineral in Earths continental crust, behind feldspar. There are many different varieties of quartz, several of which are semi-precious gemstones, since antiquity, varieties of quartz have been the most commonly used minerals in the making of jewelry and hardstone carvings, especially in Eurasia. The word quartz is derived from the German word Quarz and its Middle High German ancestor twarc, the Ancient Greeks referred to quartz as κρύσταλλος derived from the Ancient Greek κρύος meaning icy cold, because some philosophers apparently believed the mineral to be a form of supercooled ice. Today, the rock crystal is sometimes used as an alternative name for the purest form of quartz. Quartz belongs to the crystal system. The ideal crystal shape is a six-sided prism terminating with six-sided pyramids at each end, well-formed crystals typically form in a bed that has unconstrained growth into a void, usually the crystals are attached at the other end to a matrix and only one termination pyramid is present. However, doubly terminated crystals do occur where they develop freely without attachment, a quartz geode is such a situation where the void is approximately spherical in shape, lined with a bed of crystals pointing inward. α-quartz crystallizes in the crystal system, space group P3121 and P3221 respectively. β-quartz belongs to the system, space group P6222 and P6422. These space groups are truly chiral, both α-quartz and β-quartz are examples of chiral crystal structures composed of achiral building blocks. The transformation between α- and β-quartz only involves a comparatively minor rotation of the tetrahedra with respect to one another, although many of the varietal names historically arose from the color of the mineral, current scientific naming schemes refer primarily to the microstructure of the mineral. Color is an identifier for the cryptocrystalline minerals, although it is a primary identifier for the macrocrystalline varieties. Pure quartz, traditionally called rock crystal or clear quartz, is colorless and transparent or translucent, common colored varieties include citrine, rose quartz, amethyst, smoky quartz, milky quartz, and others. The most important distinction between types of quartz is that of macrocrystalline and the microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline varieties, the cryptocrystalline varieties are either translucent or mostly opaque, while the transparent varieties tend to be macrocrystalline. Chalcedony is a form of silica consisting of fine intergrowths of both quartz, and its monoclinic polymorph moganite. Other opaque gemstone varieties of quartz, or mixed rocks including quartz, often including contrasting bands or patterns of color, are agate, carnelian or sard, onyx, heliotrope, amethyst is a form of quartz that ranges from a bright to dark or dull purple color. The worlds largest deposits of amethysts can be found in Brazil, Mexico, Uruguay, Russia, France, Namibia, sometimes amethyst and citrine are found growing in the same crystal. It is then referred to as ametrine, an amethyst is formed when there is iron in the area where it was formed
25.
Plasticity (physics)
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In physics and materials science, plasticity describes the deformation of a material undergoing non-reversible changes of shape in response to applied forces. For example, a piece of metal being bent or pounded into a new shape displays plasticity as permanent changes occur within the material itself. In engineering, the transition from elastic behavior to plastic behavior is called yield, plastic deformation is observed in most materials, particularly metals, soils, rocks, concrete, foams, bone and skin. However, the mechanisms that cause plastic deformation can vary widely. At a crystalline scale, plasticity in metals is usually a consequence of dislocations, such defects are relatively rare in most crystalline materials, but are numerous in some and part of their crystal structure, in such cases, plastic crystallinity can result. In brittle materials such as rock, concrete and bone, plasticity is caused predominantly by slip at microcracks, for many ductile metals, tensile loading applied to a sample will cause it to behave in an elastic manner. Each increment of load is accompanied by an increment in extension. When the load is removed, the returns to its original size. However, once the load exceeds a threshold – the yield strength – the extension increases more rapidly than in the region, now when the load is removed. Elastic deformation, however, is an approximation and its quality depends on the time frame considered, if, as indicated in the graph opposite, the deformation includes elastic deformation, it is also often referred to as elasto-plastic deformation or elastic-plastic deformation. Perfect plasticity is a property of materials to undergo irreversible deformation without any increase in stresses or loads, plastic materials with hardening necessitate increasingly higher stresses to result in further plastic deformation. Generally, plastic deformation is dependent on the deformation speed. Such materials are said to deform visco-plastically, the plasticity of a material is directly proportional to the ductility and malleability of the material. Plasticity in a crystal of pure metal is primarily caused by two modes of deformation in the lattice, slip and twinning. Slip is a deformation which moves the atoms through many interatomic distances relative to their initial positions. Twinning is the plastic deformation takes place along two planes due to a set of forces applied to a given metal piece. Most metals show more plasticity when hot than when cold, lead shows sufficient plasticity at room temperature, while cast iron does not possess sufficient plasticity for any forging operation even when hot. This property is of importance in forming, shaping and extruding operations on metals, most metals are rendered plastic by heating and hence shaped hot
26.
Feldspar
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Feldspars are a group of rock-forming tectosilicate minerals that make up about 40% of the Earths continental crust. Feldspars crystallize from magma as veins in both intrusive and extrusive rocks and are also present in many types of metamorphic rock. Rock formed almost entirely of plagioclase feldspar is known as anorthosite. Feldspars are also found in types of sedimentary rocks. The name feldspar derives from the German Feldspat, a compound of the words Feld, field, and Spat, the change from Spat to -spar was influenced by the English word spar, a synonym for mineral. Feldspathic refers to materials that contain feldspar, the alternate spelling, felspar, has largely fallen out of use. This group of minerals consists of tectosilicates, solid solutions between albite and anorthite are called plagioclase, or more properly plagioclase feldspar. Only limited solid solution occurs between K-feldspar and anorthite, and in the two solid solutions, immiscibility occurs at temperatures common in the crust of the earth. Albite is considered both a plagioclase and alkali feldspar, the alkali feldspars are as follows, orthoclase —KAlSi3O8 sanidine —AlSi3O8 microcline —KAlSi3O8 anorthoclase —AlSi3O8 Sanidine is stable at the highest temperatures, and microcline at the lowest. Perthite is a texture in alkali feldspar, due to exsolution of contrasting alkali feldspar compositions during cooling of an intermediate composition. The perthitic textures in the alkali feldspars of many granites can be seen with the naked eye, microperthitic textures in crystals are visible using a light microscope, whereas cryptoperthitic textures can be seen only with an electron microscope. Barium feldspars are also considered alkali feldspars, barium feldspars form as the result of the substitution of barium for potassium in the mineral structure. The barium feldspars are monoclinic and include the following, celsian—BaAl2Si2O8 hyalophane—4O8 The plagioclase feldspars are triclinic, the immiscibility gaps in the plagioclase solid solutions are complex compared to the gap in the alkali feldspars. The play of colours visible in some feldspar of labradorite composition is due to very fine-grained exsolution lamellae, chemical weathering of feldspars results in the formation of clay minerals. About 20 million tonnes of feldspar were produced in 2010, mostly by three countries, Italy, Turkey, and China, Feldspar is a common raw material used in glassmaking, ceramics, and to some extent as a filler and extender in paint, plastics, and rubber. In glassmaking, alumina from feldspar improves product hardness, durability, in ceramics, the alkalis in feldspar act as a flux, lowering the melting temperature of a mixture. Fluxes melt at a stage in the firing process, forming a glassy matrix that bonds the other components of the system together. In the US, about 66% of feldspar is consumed in glassmaking, including glass containers, ceramics and other uses, such as fillers, accounted for the remainder
27.
Pyrometric cone
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Pyrometric cones are pyrometric devices that are used to gauge heatwork during the firing of ceramic materials. Thus, pyrometric cones give an equivalent, they are not simple temperature-measuring devices. Pyrometric cones are made in series, the interval between the successive cones usually being 20 degrees Celsius. The best known series are Seger Cones, Orton Cones and Staffordshire Cones, for some products, such as porcelain and lead-free glazes, it can be advantageous to fire within a two-cone range. The three-cone system can be used to determine temperature uniformity and to check the performance of an electronic controller, the three-cone system consists of three consecutively numbered cones, Guide cone – one cone number cooler than firing cone. Firing cone – the cone recommended by manufacturer of glaze, slip, guard cone – one cone number hotter than firing cone. Additionally, most kilns have temperature differences from top to bottom, the amount of difference depends on the design of the kiln, the age of the heating elements, the load distribution in the kiln, and the cone number to which the kiln is fired. Usually, kilns have a temperature difference at cooler cone numbers. Cones should be used on the lower, middle and top shelves to determine how much difference exists during firing and this will aid in the way the kiln is loaded and fired to reduce the difference. Downdraft venting will also even out temperatures variance, both temperature and time and sometimes atmosphere affect the final bending position of a cone. The temperature is referred to as an equivalent temperature, since actual firing conditions may vary somewhat from those in which the cones were originally standardized, observation of cone bending is used to determine when a kiln has reached a desired state. Additionally, small cones or bars can be arranged to mechanically trigger kiln controls when the temperature rises enough for them to deform, precise, consistent placement of large and small cones must be followed to ensure the proper temperature equivalent is being reached. Every effort needs to be made to always have the cone inclined at 8° from the vertical, large cones must be mounted 2 inches above the plaque and small cones mounted 15/16 inches. With the cones having their own base, self-supporting cones eliminate errors with their mounting, reference tables for the temperature equivalents for a number of different pyrometric cones can be found through links in the External links section. Pyrometric cones are sensitive measuring devices and it is important to users that they should remain consistent in the way that they react to heating, Cone manufacturers follow procedures to control variability to ensure that cones of a given grade remain consistent in their properties over long periods. A number of standards and an ISO standard have been published regarding pyrometric cones. Even though cones from different manufacturers can have relatively similar numbering systems, if a change is made from one manufacturer to another, then allowances for the differences can sometimes be necessary. In 1782, Josiah Wedgwood created accurately scaled pyrometric beads, which led him to be elected a fellow of the Royal Society
28.
Flint
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Flint is a hard, sedimentary cryptocrystalline form of the mineral quartz, categorized as a variety of chert. It occurs chiefly as nodules and masses in sedimentary rocks, such as chalks, inside the nodule, flint is usually dark grey, black, green, white or brown in colour, and often has a glassy or waxy appearance. A thin layer on the outside of the nodules is usually different in colour, typically white, from a petrological point of view, flint refers specifically to the form of chert which occurs in chalk or marly limestone. Similarly, common chert occurs in limestone, the exact mode of formation of flint is not yet clear but it is thought that it occurs as a result of chemical changes in compressed sedimentary rock formations, during the process of diagenesis. One hypothesis is that a gelatinous material fills cavities in the sediment, such as bored by crustaceans or molluscs. This hypothesis certainly explains the shapes of flint nodules that are found. The source of dissolved silica in the media could be the spicules of silicious sponges. Certain types of flint, such as that from the south coast of England, pieces of coral and vegetation have been found preserved like amber inside the flint. Thin slices of the stone often reveal this effect, puzzling giant flint formations known as paramoudra and flint circles are found around Europe but especially in Norfolk, England on the beaches at Beeston Bump and West Runton. Flint sometimes occurs in large flint fields in Jurassic or Cretaceous beds, flint was used in the manufacture of tools during the Stone Age as it splits into thin, sharp splinters called flakes or blades when struck by another hard object. This process is referred to as knapping, flint mining is attested since the Palaeolithic, but became more common since the Neolithic. When struck against steel, a flint edge will produce sparks, the hard flint edge shaves off a particle of the steel that exposes iron which reacts with oxygen from the atmosphere and can ignite the proper tinder. Prior to the availability of steel, rocks of pyrite would be used along with the flint. These methods are popular in woodcraft, bushcraft, and among those who wish to use traditional skills, a later, major use of flint and steel was in the flintlock mechanism, used primarily in flintlock firearms, but also used on dedicated fire-starting tools. The sparks ignite the powder and that flame, in turn, ignites the main charge, propelling the ball, bullet. While the military use of the flintlock declined after the adoption of the cap from the 1840s onward, flintlock rifles. Flint and steel used to strike sparks were superseded by ferrocerium and this man-made material, when scraped with any hard, sharp edge, produces sparks that are much hotter than obtained with natural flint and steel, allowing use of a wider range of tinders. Because it can produce sparks when wet and can start fires when used correctly, ferrocerium is used in many cigarette lighters, where it is referred to as flint
29.
Jian ware
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Jian ware or Chien ware is a type of Chinese pottery originally made in Jianyang, Fujian province. It, and local imitations of it, is known in Japan as Tenmoku, the wares are simple shapes in stoneware, with a strong emphasis on subtle effects in the glazes. In the Song dynasty they achieved a high prestige, especially among Buddhist monks and they were also highly valued in Japan, where many of the best examples were collected. In Chinese it is called Jian zhan, which translates as Jian cup, the original kiln was called Jian Yao. The original prefecture where it came from was renamed into Jianzhou in 621 CE during the Tang dynasty. The ware therefore became also known based on its origin as Jianzhou zhan, the water added to this powder produced a white froth that would stand out better against a dark bowl. Jian ware reached the peak of its popularity during the Song dynasty, vessels of this time were also greatly appreciated and copied in Japan, where they are known as tenmoku wares. The Japanese term derives from Tianmu Mountain, where this type of vessel was supposed to originate from, five of these vessels that originate during the southern Song dynasty are so highly valued that they were included by the government in the list of National Treasures of Japan. Tastes in preparation changed during the Ming dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor himself preferred leaves to powdered cakes, renewed interest in the history and cultural heritage in China has revived starting in the 1990s. Kilns in Dehua County are also attempting in recreating it, on 15 September 2016 a Song Jian ware tea-bowl of the yuteki tenmoku type, long in the Japanese Kuroda family collection, was auctioned at Christies New York for over $11 million. The pre-sale estimate was $1.5 to 2.5 million, the bowl was registered by the Japanese government as an Important Art Object on 18 December 1935 and deregistered on 4 September 2015 for the sale. The wares were made using local clays and fired in an oxidising atmosphere at temperatures in the region of 1,300 °C. The glaze was made using clay similar to that used for forming the body and they share some similarities with Jizhou ware, which developed around the same time. Many examples have distinct finishes in the glaze, which are prized by collectors. The main three types of patterns are, hares fur tortoiseshell partridge feathers At high temperatures the molten glaze separates to produce the pattern called hares fur. When Jian wares were set tilted for firing, drips run down the side, creating pooling of the liquid glaze, which is retained after firing. A hares fur Jian tea bowl in the Metropolitan Museum of Art was made during the Song dynasty and exhibits the typical pooling, or thickening, of the glaze near the bottom. The hares fur patterning in the glaze of this resulted from the random effect of phase separation during early cooling in the kiln and is unique to this bowl
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Song dynasty
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The Song dynasty was an era of Chinese history that began in 960 and continued until 1279. It succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, coincided with the Liao and Western Xia dynasties and it was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or true paper money nationally and the first Chinese government to establish a permanent standing navy. This dynasty also saw the first known use of gunpowder, as well as the first discernment of true north using a compass, the Song dynasty is divided into two distinct periods, Northern and Southern. During the Northern Song, the Song capital was in the city of Bianjing. The Southern Song refers to the period after the Song lost control of its half to the Jurchen Jin dynasty in the Jin–Song Wars. During this time, the Song court retreated south of the Yangtze, the Southern Song dynasty considerably bolstered its naval strength to defend its waters and land borders and to conduct maritime missions abroad. To repel the Jin, and later the Mongols, the Song developed revolutionary new military technology augmented by the use of gunpowder, in 1234, the Jin dynasty was conquered by the Mongols, who took control of northern China, maintaining uneasy relations with the Southern Song. Möngke Khan, the fourth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire and his younger brother Kublai Khan was proclaimed the new Great Khan, though his claim was only partially recognized by the Mongols in the west. In 1271, Kublai Khan was proclaimed the Emperor of China, after two decades of sporadic warfare, Kublai Khans armies conquered the Song dynasty in 1279. The Mongol invasion led to a reunification under the Yuan dynasty, the population of China doubled in size during the 10th and 11th centuries. The Northern Song census recorded a population of roughly 50 million, much like the Han and this data is found in the Standard Histories. However, it is estimated that the Northern Song had a population of some 100 million people and this dramatic increase of population fomented an economic revolution in pre-modern China. The expansion of the population, growth of cities, and the emergence of a national economy led to the withdrawal of the central government from direct involvement in economic affairs. The lower gentry assumed a role in grassroots administration and local affairs. Appointed officials in county and provincial centers relied upon the gentry for their services, sponsorship. Social life during the Song was vibrant, citizens gathered to view and trade precious artworks, the populace intermingled at public festivals and private clubs, and cities had lively entertainment quarters. The spread of literature and knowledge was enhanced by the expansion of woodblock printing. Technology, science, philosophy, mathematics, and engineering flourished over the course of the Song, although the institution of the civil service examinations had existed since the Sui dynasty, it became much more prominent in the Song period
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Metropolitan Museum of Art
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The Metropolitan Museum of Art, colloquially the Met, is located in New York City and is the largest art museum in the United States, and is among the most visited art museums in the world. Its permanent collection contains two million works, divided among seventeen curatorial departments. The main building, on the edge of Central Park along Manhattans Museum Mile, is by area one of the worlds largest art galleries. A much smaller second location, The Cloisters at Fort Tryon Park in Upper Manhattan, contains a collection of art, architecture. On March 18,2016, the museum opened the Met Breuer museum at Madison Avenue in the Upper East Side, it extends the museums modern, the Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, Indian, and Islamic art. The museum is home to collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, as well as antique weapons. Several notable interiors, ranging from first-century Rome through modern American design, are installed in its galleries, the Metropolitan Museum of Art was founded in 1870. The founders included businessmen and financiers, as well as leading artists and thinkers of the day and it opened on February 20,1872, and was originally located at 681 Fifth Avenue. The Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, the museum is also home to encyclopedic collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, and antique weapons and armor from around the world. A number of interiors, ranging from 1st century Rome through modern American design, are permanently installed in the Mets galleries. In addition to its permanent exhibitions, the Met organizes and hosts traveling shows throughout the year. The director of the museum is Thomas P. Campbell, a long-time curator and it was announced on February 28th,2017 that Campbell will be stepping down as the Mets director and CEO, effective June. On March 1st,2017 the BBC reported that Daniel Weiss shall be the acting CEO until a replacement is found, Beginning in the late 19th century, the Met started to acquire ancient art and artifacts from the Near East. From a few tablets and seals, the Mets collection of Near Eastern art has grown to more than 7,000 pieces. The highlights of the include a set of monumental stone lamassu, or guardian figures. The Mets Department of Arms and Armor is one of the museums most popular collections. Among the collections 14,000 objects are many pieces made for and used by kings and princes, including armor belonging to Henry VIII of England, Henry II of France, Rockefeller donated his more than 3, 000-piece collection to the museum. The Mets Asian department holds a collection of Asian art, of more than 35,000 pieces, the collection dates back almost to the founding of the museum, many of the philanthropists who made the earliest gifts to the museum included Asian art in their collections
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Indus Valley Civilisation
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The Indus Valley Civilisation was a Bronze Age civilisation mainly in the northwestern regions of South Asia, extending from what today is northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India. Along with ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia it was one of three early civilisations of the Old World, and of the three, the most widespread, at its peak, the Indus Civilisation may have had a population of over five million. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley developed new techniques in handicraft, the Indus cities are noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, and clusters of large non-residential buildings. The discovery of Harappa, and soon afterwards, Mohenjo-Daro, was the culmination of work beginning in 1861 with the founding of the Archaeological Survey of India in the British Raj, excavation of Harappan sites has been ongoing since 1920, with important breakthroughs occurring as recently as 1999. This Harappan civilisation is called the Mature Harappan culture to distinguish it from the cultures immediately preceding and following it. The early Harappan cultures were preceded by local Neolithic agricultural villages, as of 1999, over 1,056 cities and settlements had been found, of which 96 have been excavated, mainly in the general region of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers and their tributaries. Among the settlements were the urban centres of Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, Ganeriwala in Cholistan. The Harappan language is not directly attested and its affiliation is uncertain since the Indus script is still undeciphered, a relationship with the Dravidian or Elamo-Dravidian language family is favoured by a section of scholars. Recently, Indus sites have been discovered in Pakistans northwestern Frontier Province as well, other IVC colonies can be found in Afghanistan while smaller isolated colonies can be found as far away as Turkmenistan and in Maharashtra. The largest number of colonies are in the Punjab, Sindh, Rajasthan, Haryana, Indus Valley sites have been found most often on rivers, but also on the ancient seacoast, for example, Balakot, and on islands, for example, Dholavira. There is evidence of dry river beds overlapping with the Hakra channel in Pakistan, many Indus Valley sites have been discovered along the Ghaggar-Hakra beds. Among them are, Rupar, Rakhigarhi, Sothi, Kalibangan, Harappan Civilisation remains the correct one, according to the common archaeological usage of naming a civilisation after its first findspot. John wrote, I was much exercised in my mind how we were to get ballast for the line of the railway and they were told of an ancient ruined city near the lines, called Brahminabad. Visiting the city, he found it full of hard well-burnt bricks, and, convinced there was a grand quarry for the ballast I wanted. These bricks now provided ballast along 93 miles of the track running from Karachi to Lahore. In 1872–75, Alexander Cunningham published the first Harappan seal and it was half a century later, in 1912, that more Harappan seals were discovered by J. J. H. MacKay, and Marshall. By 1931, much of Mohenjo-Daro had been excavated, but excavations continued, such as that led by Sir Mortimer Wheeler, director of the Archaeological Survey of India in 1944. Among other archaeologists who worked on IVC sites before the independence in 1947 were Ahmad Hasan Dani, Brij Basi Lal, Nani Gopal Majumdar, and Sir Marc Aurel Stein
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Longquan celadon
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Including those in other prefectures a total of over 200 kiln sites have been discovered, making the Longquan celadon production area one of the largest historical ceramic producing areas in China. Longquan celadons were an important part of Chinas export economy for over five-hundred years, in traditional Western terms, celadons are strictly counted as stoneware, since the fired clay body is neither white nor translucent. In the traditional Chinese classification, which divides pottery into low-fired earthenware and high-fired porcelain, compromise terms such as porcellanous stoneware may be used to describe the pieces, and some Western writers consider the wares should be regarded as porcelains. The Longquan celadons were among the finest of a range of wares produced in China. The celadons were produced in a range of shades of colour, centred on olive-green, all these come from the glaze, the body beneath is sometimes left partly unglazed as part of the decoration, when it fires to a terracotta brown. The wares are hardly ever painted, decoration comes from the shape and this distinguishes Longquan from Northern Celadons. The body was thrown on the potters wheel, with large vases often thrown in sections. Templates were used, and sometimes moulds, including two-part moulds, the glaze colours vary across a wide spectrum of greyish to blueish greens, with some yellowish browns as well. The colour comes from iron oxide fired in an atmosphere, and the colour varies with the temperature. Longquan celadon was fired in dragon kilns, brick tunnels rising up a slope, and the best results came from the pots in the uppermost stages. Saggars were always used, and the long kilns might have able to fire as many as 25,000 pieces at a time. The firing temperature was probably between 1, 180°C and 1, 280°C, with the range over 1, 250°C giving the best green colours, in some cases at least there appear to have been layers of glaze and also multiple firings to achieve a deeper glaze effect. The glaze is made opaque by the presence of plant ash and tiny bubbles of gas, with the whiter body clays pieces may be translucent. The pronounced reddish colour of unglazed areas comes from the end of the firing, as the heated clay comes in contact with fresh air let into the kiln, many pieces have crazing or crackle in the glaze, but much less than in the closely related Guan ware. A technique sometimes found before about 1400 was to add spots or splashes of a mixture rich in iron oxide with an appearance of randomness, the shickikan type is from the middle Ming, after the glaze became more transparent. Most shapes are simple but very elegant, the size and decoration of larger fine pieces increases from the Yuan onwards, with some very large vases and lidded wine jars being made by the 14th century. The mallet vase was a favourite at Longquan, often with handles formed as animals or dragons. Funerary vases, made in pairs, also often feature charmingly stylized animals, usually tigers and these were used in southern Chinese custom to store provisions for the afterlife
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Bone china
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Bone china is a type of soft-paste porcelain that is composed of bone ash, feldspathic material, and kaolin. It has been defined as ware with a translucent body containing a minimum of 30% of phosphate derived from animal bone and calculated calcium phosphate. Bone china is the strongest of the porcelain or china ceramics, having very high strength and chip resistance. Its high strength allows it to be produced in thinner cross-sections than other types of porcelain, like stoneware it is vitrified, but is translucent due to differing mineral properties. The first commercially widespread bone china was developed by the English potter Josiah Spode in the early 1790s, from its initial development and up to the later part of the 20th century, bone china was almost exclusively an English product, with production being effectively localised in Stoke-on-Trent. Most major English firms made or still make it, including Fortnum & Mason, Mintons, Coalport, Spode, Royal Crown Derby, Royal Doulton, Wedgwood and Worcester. In the UK, references to china or porcelain can refer to bone china, the first development of what would become known as bone china was made by Thomas Frye at his Bow porcelain factory near Bow in East London in 1748. His factory was located close to the cattle markets and slaughterhouses of Essex. Frye used up to 45% bone ash in his formulation to create what he called fine porcelain, although in quality it rivalled porcelain imported from Europe and China the factory was not a commercial success. Among his developments was to abandon Fryes procedure of calcining the bone together with some of the other raw materials. Bone china quickly proved to be popular, leading to its production by other English pottery manufacturers. The production of china is similar to porcelain, except more care is needed because of its lower plasticity. The traditional formulation for bone china is about 25% kaolin, 25% Cornish stone, the bone ash that is used in bone china is made from cattle bones that have a lower iron content. These bones are crushed before being degelatinised and then calcined at up to 1250 °C to produce bone ash, the ash is milled to a fine particle size. The kaolin component of the body is needed to give the unfired body plasticity which allows articles to be shaped and this mixture is then fired at around 1200 °C. The raw materials for bone china are comparatively expensive, and the production is labour-intensive, bone china consists of two crystalline phases, anorthite and β-tricalcium phosphate/whitlockite embedded in a substantial amount of glass. For almost 200 years from its development bone china was almost exclusively produced in the UK, during the middle part of the 20th century manufacturers in other countries began production, with the first successful ones outside the UK being in Japan, Noritake, Nikko and Narumi. In more recent years production in China has expanded considerably, other countries producing considerable amounts of bone china are Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Iran, Sri Lanka and Thailand
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Studio pottery
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Studio pottery is pottery made by professional and amateur artists or artisans working alone or in small groups, making unique items or short runs. Typically, all stages of manufacture are carried out by the artists themselves, Studio pottery includes functional wares such as tableware, cookware and non-functional wares such as sculpture. Studio potters can be referred to as ceramic artists, ceramists, ceramicists or as an artist who uses clay as a medium, much studio pottery is tableware or cookware but an increasing number of studio potters produce non-functional or sculptural items. In Britain since the 1980s, there has been a trend away from functional pottery, for example. Some studio potters now prefer to call themselves ceramic artists, ceramists or simply artists, Studio pottery is represented by potters all over the world and has strong roots in Britain. Since the second half of the 20th century ceramics has become highly valued in the art world. Ceramics have realized high prices, reaching thousands of pounds for some pieces, in auctions houses such as Bonhams. Notable studios included Brannam Pottery, Castle Hedingham Ware, Martin Brothers, leading trends in British studio pottery in the 20th century are represented by Bernard Leach, William Staite Murray, Dora Billington, Lucie Rie and Hans Coper. Originally trained as a fine artist, Bernard Leach established a style of pottery, after briefly experimenting with earthenware, he turned to stoneware fired to high temperatures in large oil- or wood-burning kilns. This style dominated British studio pottery in the mid-20th century, leachs influence was disseminated by his writings, in particular A Potters Book and the apprentice system he ran at his pottery in St Ives, Cornwall, through which many notable studio potters passed. A Potters Book espoused an anti-industrial, Arts and Crafts ethos, Leach taught intermittently at Dartington Hall, Devon from the 1930s. Other ceramic artists exerted an influence through their positions in art schools, William Staite Murray, who was head of the ceramics department of the Royal College of Art, treated his pots as works of art, exhibiting them with titles in galleries. Dora Billington studied at Hanley School of Art, worked in the industry and was latterly head of pottery at the Central School of Arts and Crafts. She worked in media that Leach did not, e. g. tin-glazed earthenware, Lucie Rie came to London in 1938 as a refugee from Austria. She had studied at the Vienna Kunstgewerbeschule and has been regarded as essentially a modernist, Rie experimented and produced new glaze effects. She was a friend of Leach and was impressed by his approach. The bowls and bottles which she specialised in are finely potted and she taught at Camberwell College of Arts from 1960 until 1972. Hans Coper, also a refugee, worked with Rie before moving to a studio in Hertfordshire and his work is non-functional, sculptural and unglazed
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Bartmann jug
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The signature decorative detail was a bearded face mask appearing on the lower neck of the vessel. They were made as jugs, bottles and pitchers in various sizes and for a multitude of uses, including storage of food or drink, decanting wine and transporting goods. One of the largest centers of production was located in the Rhineland around the city of Cologne. Like other German stoneware of the period, it was characterized by relief decoration through the use of mould techniques, the reason for the association with Bellarmino is not entirely clear but was possibly conceived by Dutch and English Protestants to ridicule the cardinal. Another possibility is his anti-alcohol stance, the defining feature of Bartmann jugs, the bearded face mask, is the only constant motif throughout their production. In the 16th century they could be adorned with floral or oakleaf-and-acorn decoration on the body of the vessel. Later, especially in the 17th century, they would frequently be decorated with a medallion in the middle of the body, usually in the form of the arms of royalty, noble families or towns. Many other type of patterns were used including sobering religious maxims such as DRINCK VND EZT GODEZ NIT VERGEZT, “Eat and drink. The design of the masks, or Bartmänner, went through a design change during the 17th century as they became progressively debased. Early modern stoneware from Germany, particularly the Rhineland, enjoys the greatest archaeological distribution around the globe, and they have been located in archeological sites all over the world, as a sign of European colonization, emigration and trade. A pair of Bartmann jugs have been documented at the site of the wreck of the English ship Sea Venture, lost in 1609 off Bermuda. The jugs have been dated to around 1580-90, meaning that they had survived for two decades, including ship transport, which indicates the extent of longevity that Rhenish stoneware could have. The Dutch East India Company routinely used Bartmann jugs to transport mercury, evidence of which has found at shipwreck sites in the North Sea. Frechen Bartmann bottles dating from the mid 17th century have found in graves of native inhabitants in colonial North America, near the Warren River in Rhode Island and in Camden. Among the finds of period shipwrecks, Bartmann jugs frequently appear among the finds, a Bartmann bottle donated to the Victoria and Albert Museum in London was most likely a bottle salvaged from the wreck of the mid-16th century warship Mary Rose in 1840. Bottles with malevolent-looking face masks, typical of the period, were chosen for this very purpose. Bartmann jugs were a product of Frechen, but their popularity resulted in imitations made in Raeren. They were manufactured in several locations in England, either by English potters copying German patterns or by immigrant Germans, in the late 19th century, during a revival of German stoneware-making, Bartmann jugs were reproduced based on illustrations of museum collections
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Cologne
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Cologne is the largest city in the German federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia and the fourth-largest city in Germany. It is located within the Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan region, one of the major European metropolitan areas, and with more than ten million inhabitants, Cologne is located on both sides of the Rhine River, less than eighty kilometres from Belgium. The citys famous Cologne Cathedral is the seat of the Catholic Archbishop of Cologne, the University of Cologne is one of Europes oldest and largest universities. Cologne was founded and established in Ubii territory in the first century AD as the Roman Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium, Cologne, the French version of the citys name, has become standard in English as well. The city functioned as the capital of the Roman province of Germania Inferior, during the Middle Ages it flourished on one of the most important major trade routes between east and west in Europe. Cologne was one of the members of the Hanseatic League and one of the largest cities north of the Alps in medieval. Up until World War II the city had several occupations by the French. Cologne was one of the most heavily bombed cities in Germany during World War II, the bombing reduced the population by 95%, mainly due to evacuation, and destroyed almost the entire city. With the intention of restoring as many buildings as possible. Cologne is a cultural centre for the Rhineland, it hosts more than thirty museums. Exhibitions range from local ancient Roman archeological sites to contemporary graphics, the Cologne Trade Fair hosts a number of trade shows such as Art Cologne, imm Cologne, Gamescom, and the Photokina. The first urban settlement on the grounds of modern-day Cologne was Oppidum Ubiorum, founded in 38 BC by the Ubii, in 50 AD, the Romans founded Colonia on the Rhine and the city became the provincial capital of Germania Inferior in 85 AD. The city was named Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium in 50 AD, considerable Roman remains can be found in present-day Cologne, especially near the wharf area, where a notable discovery of a 1900-year-old Roman boat was made in late 2007. From 260 to 271 Cologne was the capital of the Gallic Empire under Postumus, Marius, in 310 under Constantine a bridge was built over the Rhine at Cologne. Roman imperial governors resided in the city and it one of the most important trade. Cologne is shown on the 4th century Peutinger Map, maternus, who was elected as bishop in 313, was the first known bishop of Cologne. The city was the capital of a Roman province until occupied by the Ripuarian Franks in 462, parts of the original Roman sewers are preserved underneath the city, with the new sewerage system having opened in 1890. Early medieval Cologne was part of Austrasia within the Frankish Empire, Cologne had been the seat of a bishop since the Roman period, under Charlemagne, in 795, bishop Hildebold was promoted to archbishop
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Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
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Derbyshire
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Derbyshire is a county in the East Midlands of England. A substantial portion of the Peak District National Park lies within Derbyshire, in 2003 the Ordnance Survey placed Church Flatts Farm at Coton in the Elms as the furthest point from the sea in Great Britain. The city of Derby is a unitary authority area, but remains part of the county of Derbyshire. The non-metropolitan county contains 30 towns with between 10,000 and 100,000 inhabitants, there is a large amount of sparsely populated agricultural upland, 75% of the population live in 25% of the area. Further occupation came with the Upper Paleolithic and Neolithic periods of the Stone Age when Mesolithic hunter gatherers roamed the hilly tundra, evidence of these nomadic tribes has been found in limestone caves located on the Nottinghamshire border. Deposits left in the date the occupancy at around 12,000 to 7,000 BCE. Burial mounds of Neolithic settlers are also situated throughout the county and these chambered tombs were designed for collective burial and are mostly located in the central Derbyshire region. There are tombs at Minninglow and Five Wells that date back to between 2000 and 2500 BCE, three miles west of Youlgreave lies the Neolithic henge monument of Arbor Low, which has been dated to 2500 BCE. It is not until the Bronze Age that real signs of agriculture, in the moors of the Peak District signs of clearance, arable fields and hut circles were discovered after archaeological investigation. However this area and another settlement at Swarkestone are all that have been found, during the Roman invasion the invaders were attracted to Derbyshire because of the lead ore in the limestone hills of the area. They settled throughout the county with forts built near Brough in the Hope Valley, later they settled around Buxton, famed for its warm springs, and set up a fort near modern-day Derby in an area now known as Little Chester. Several kings of Mercia are buried in the Repton area, following the Norman Conquest, much of the county was subject to the forest laws. To the northwest was the Forest of High Peak under the custodianship of William Peverel, the rest of the county was bestowed upon Henry de Ferrers, a part of it becoming Duffield Frith. In time the area was given to the Duchy of Lancaster. Meanwhile, the Forest of East Derbyshire covered the county to the east of the River Derwent from the reign of Henry II to that of Edward I. The main rivers in the county are the River Derwent and the River Dove which both join the River Trent in the south. The varied landscapes within Derbyshires have been formed mainly as a consequence of the underlying geology, the oldest rocks occur in the northern, more upland half of the county, and are mostly of Carboniferous age, comprising limestones, gritstones, sandstones and shales. In its north-east corner to the east of Bolsover there are also Magnesian Limestone rocks of Permian age, across both regions can be found drift deposits of Quaternary age – mainly terrace and river gravel deposits and boulder clays
