1.
Camisole
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A camisole is a sleeveless undergarment for women, normally extending to the waist. The camisole is usually made of satin, nylon, or cotton, historically, camisole referred to jackets of various kinds, including overshirts, womens négligées and sleeved jackets worn by men. In modern usage a camisole or cami is a loose-fitting sleeveless womans undergarment which covers the top part of the body but is shorter than a chemise. A camisole normally extends to the waist but is sometimes cropped to expose the midriff, camisoles are manufactured from light materials, commonly cotton-based, occasionally satin or silk, or stretch fabrics such as lycra, nylon, or spandex. A camisole typically has thin spaghetti straps and can be worn over a brassiere or without one, since 1989, some camisoles have come with a built-in underwire bra or other support which eliminates the need for a bra among those who prefer one. Starting around the 2000s, camisoles have been known to be used as outerwear, a variety of sleeveless body shaping undergarments have been derived from the camisole shape, offering medium control of the bust, waist and/or abdomen. Such control camisoles are the most casual of shaping garments, covering the torso from above the chest to at or below the waist. They look similar to tight-fitting cotton or silk camisoles, but the straps are usually wider, the longer. Babydoll Basque Brassiere Bustier Camiknickers Corset Barbier, Muriel & Boucher, ISBN 0-85670-901-8 The Free Library citations for camisole in Thackeray, Charlotte Brontë, and Somerset Maugham
2.
Escapology
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Escapology is the practice of escaping from restraints or other traps. Escapologists escape from handcuffs, straitjackets, cages, coffins, steel boxes, barrels, bags, burning buildings, fish-tanks, the art of escaping from restraints and confined spaces has been a skill employed by performers for a very long time. It was not originally displayed as an act in itself but was instead used secretly to create illusions such as a disappearance or transmutation. In the 1860s, the Davenport Brothers, who were skilled at releasing themselves from rope ties, other illusionists, including John Nevil Maskelyne, worked out how the Davenports did their act and re-created the tricks to debunk the brothers claims of psychic power. However, the re-creations did not involve overt escape, merely a replication of tricks with the statement that they were accomplished by secret magicians skills rather than spirits and it took another thirty years before the pure skill of escape began to be displayed as an act in itself. Houdinis feats helped to define the basic repertoire of escapology, including escapes from handcuffs, padlocks, straitjackets, mail bags, beer barrels, the actual term escapology is reputed to have been coined originally by Australian escapologist and illusionist Murray, a Houdini contemporary. A succession of performers have added new ideas and created variations on old stunts, along with St. John Don Bosco, the two are considered the primary patrons of Catholic Gospel Magicians. Its members are made up of professional escapologists, restraint collectors, master locksmiths, the UKEA meet once a year for their AGM. The International Escapologists Society is a society with its own monthly newsletter that is dedicated to the art of escape on an international level. This style of performance was popular with the majority of escape artists until the end of the 20th Century and is still preferred by many performers today. Its disadvantage is that audiences may wrongly believe a concealed assistant to have released the escapologist, Full View is a form of escape performance that was popularised by Norman Bigelow Sr. during the 1970s. He presented his escapes as pure tests of skill and endurance. His signature escape, The Doors Of Death, inspired many artists to adopt this style of performance in their own shows. Mark Nelson, The Great Markini also performed Full View with his Electrified Mummy Lid Torture Board Escape, Escape Or Die, the form of escape performance originated by Houdini, is the standard for top-of-the-line escapologists. There are at least three ways for an escapologists life to be at risk from the possible failure of this escape. UK escape artist Alan Alan took this further by hanging from a burning rope hundreds of feet in the air and this type of escapology does fail, and its failures have resulted in escape artists getting hurt or losing their lives. Escape was required in under 60 seconds or a charge of electricity would be passed through the chains holding him to the board. The Grim Game, a 1919 film, stars Harry Houdini as a man who is bound
3.
Theatrical property
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A prop, formally known as property, is an object used on stage or on screen by actors during a performance or screen production. In practical terms, a prop is considered to be anything movable or portable on a stage or a set, distinct from the actors, scenery, costumes, consumable food items appearing in the production are also considered props. The earliest known use of the properties in English to refer to stage accessories is in the 1425 CE Morality play. The Oxford English Dictionary finds the first usage of props in 1841, during the Renaissance in Europe, small acting troupes functioned as cooperatives, pooling resources and dividing any income. Many performers provided their own costumes, but special items—stage weapons, furniture or other hand-held devices—were considered company property, some experts however seem to think that the term comes from the idea that stage or screen objects belong to whoever uses them on stage. There is no difference between props in different media, such as theatre, film, or television, bland Wade, a properties director, says, A coffee cup onstage is a coffee cup on television, is a coffee cup on the big screen. He adds, There are definitely different responsibilities and different vocabulary, the term theatrical property originated to describe an object used in a stage play and similar entertainments to further the action. Technically, a prop is any object that gives the scenery, actors, or performance space specific period, place, props in a production originate from off stage unless they have been preset on the stage before the production begins. Props are stored on a prop table backstage near the entrance during production then generally locked in a storage area between performances. The term has readily transferred to television, motion picture and video game production, in recent years, the increasing popularity of movie memorabilia has added new meaning to the term prop, broadening its existence to include a valuable after-life as a prized collectors item. Typically not available until after a premiere, movie props appearing on-screen are called screen-used. However, a prop must read well from the house or on-screen, in some cases, a prop is designed to behave differently from how the real object would, often for the sake of safety. A mop, representing a string mop, but built out of a shape covered with fabric. A prop weapon that reads well but lacks the intentional harmfulness of the real weapon. In the theater, prop weapons are almost always either non-operable replicas, guns fire caps or noisy blanks, swords are dulled, and knives are often made of plastic or rubber. In film production, fully functional weapons are used. Real cartridges with bullets removed are still dangerously charged which has caused several instances when used on stage or film. The safety and proper handling of weapons used as movie props is the premiere responsibility of the prop master
4.
Magic (illusion)
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Magic is one of the oldest performing arts in the world in which audiences are entertained by staged tricks or illusions of seemingly impossible or supernatural feats using natural means. These feats are called magic tricks, effects, or illusions, the term magic etymologically derives from the Greek word mageia. In ancient times, Greeks and Persians had been at war for centuries, ritual acts of Persian priests came to be known as mageia, and then magika—which eventually came to mean any foreign, unorthodox, or illegitimate ritual practice. The first book containing explanations of magic tricks appeared in 1584, during the 17th century, many similar books were published that described magic tricks. Until the 18th century, magic shows were a source of entertainment at fairs. A founding figure of modern entertainment magic was Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin, John Henry Anderson was pioneering the same transition in London in the 1840s. Towards the end of the 19th century, large magic shows permanently staged at big theatre venues became the norm, as a form of entertainment, magic easily moved from theatrical venues to television magic specials. Performances that modern observers would recognize as conjuring have been practiced throughout history, for many recorded centuries, magicians were associated with the devil and the occult. During the 19th and 20th centuries, many stage magicians even capitalized on this notion in their advertisements. The same level of ingenuity that was used to produce famous ancient deceptions such as the Trojan Horse would also have used for entertainment. They were also used by the practitioners of various religions and cults from ancient times onwards to frighten uneducated people into obedience or turn them into adherents, however, the profession of the illusionist gained strength only in the 18th century, and has enjoyed several popular vogues since. Opinions vary among magicians on how to categorize a given effect, Magicians may pull a rabbit from an empty hat, make something seem to disappear, or transform a red silk handkerchief into a green silk handkerchief. Magicians may also destroy something, like cutting a head off, other illusions include making something appear to defy gravity, making a solid object appear to pass through another object, or appearing to predict the choice of a spectator. Many magical routines use combinations of effects, one of the earliest books on the subject is Gantzionys work of 1489, Natural and Unnatural Magic, which describes and explains old-time tricks. Among the tricks discussed were sleight-of-hand manipulations with rope, paper, at the time, fear and belief in witchcraft was widespread and the book tried to demonstrate that these fears were misplaced. All obtainable copies were burned on the accession of James I in 1603 and it began to reappear in print in 1651. In the early 18th century, as belief in witchcraft was waning, a notable figure in this transition was the English showman, Isaac Fawkes, who began to promote his act in advertisements from the 1720s – he even claimed to have performed for King George II. He throws up a Pack of Cards, and causes them to be living birds flying about the room and he causes living Beasts, Birds, and other Creatures to appear upon the Table
5.
Torture
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Torture is the act of deliberately inflicting physical or psychological pain on an organism in order to fulfill some desire of the torturer or compel some action from the victim. Torture, by definition, is a knowing and intentional act, in other cases, the torturer may be indifferent to the condition of the victim. Alternatively, some forms of torture are designed to inflict pain or leave as little physical injury or evidence as possible while achieving the same psychological devastation. The torturer may or may not kill or injure the victim, depending on the aim, even a form of torture that is intentionally fatal may be prolonged to allow the victim to suffer as long as possible. Although torture is sanctioned by some states, it is prohibited under international law, although widely illegal and reviled there is an ongoing debate as to what exactly is and is not legally defined to be torture. It is a violation of human rights, and is declared to be unacceptable by Article 5 of the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Torture is also prohibited for the signatories of the United Nations Convention Against Torture, despite these findings and international conventions, organizations that monitor abuses of human rights report widespread use condoned by states in many regions of the world. Amnesty International estimates that at least 81 world governments currently practice torture, the United Nations Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, which is currently in force since June 26,1987, provides a broad definition of torture. It does not include pain or suffering arising only from, inherent in, or incidental to and this definition includes torture as part of domestic violence or ritualistic abuse, as well as in criminal activities. The Rome Statute is the treaty set up the International Criminal Court. The treaty was adopted at a conference in Rome on 17 July 1998. The Rome Statute provides a simplest definition of torture regarding the prosecution of war criminals by the International Criminal Court, since 1973, Amnesty International has adopted the simplest, broadest definition of torture. Title 18 of the United States Code contains the definition of torture in 18 U. S. C, §2340, which is only applicable to persons committing or attempting to commit torture outside of the United States. The Torture Victim Protection Act of 1991 provides remedies to individuals who are victims of torture by persons acting in a capacity of any foreign nation. The definition is similar to the U. S. Code §2340, Torture grew into an ornate discipline, where calibrated violence served two functions, to investigate and produce confessions and to attack the body as a form of punishment. Entire populaces of towns would show up to witness an execution by torture in the public square and those who had been spared torture were commonly locked barefooted into the stocks, where children took delight in rubbing feces into their hair and mouths. The Age of Enlightenment in the world further developed the idea of universal human rights. The adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 marks the recognition at least nominally of a ban of torture by all UN member states
6.
Victorian era
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The Victorian era was the period of Queen Victorias reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. It was a period of peace, prosperity, refined sensibilities. Some scholars date the beginning of the period in terms of sensibilities, the era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardian period. The later half of the Victorian age roughly coincided with the first part of the Belle Époque era of continental Europe, culturally there was a transition away from the rationalism of the Georgian period and toward romanticism and mysticism with regard to religion, social values, and arts. The end of the saw the Boer War. Domestically, the agenda was increasingly liberal with a number of shifts in the direction of political reform, industrial reform. Two especially important figures in period of British history are the prime ministers Benjamin Disraeli and William Gladstone. Disraeli, favoured by the queen, was a gregarious Conservative and his rival Gladstone, a Liberal distrusted by the Queen, served more terms and oversaw much of the overall legislative development of the era. The population of England and Wales almost doubled from 16.8 million in 1851 to 30.5 million in 1901, Scotlands population also rose rapidly, from 2.8 million in 1851 to 4.4 million in 1901. However, Irelands population decreased sharply, from 8.2 million in 1841 to less than 4.5 million in 1901, mostly due to the Great Famine. Between 1837 and 1901 about 15 million emigrants departed the UK permanently, in search of a life in the United States, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, Australia. During the early part of the era, politics in the House of Commons involved battles between the two parties, the Whigs/Liberals and the Conservatives. These parties were led by such prominent statesmen as Lord Melbourne, Sir Robert Peel, Lord Derby, Lord Palmerston, Gladstone, Disraeli, Victoria became queen in 1837 at age 18. Her long reign until 1901 was mainly a time of peace, Britain reached the zenith of its economic, political, diplomatic and cultural power. The era saw the expansion of the second British Empire, Historians have characterised the mid-Victorian era as Britains Golden Years. There was prosperity, as the income per person grew by half. There was peace abroad, and social peace at home, opposition to the new order melted away, says Porter. The Chartist movement peaked as a movement among the working class in 1848, its leaders moved to other pursuits, such as trade unions
7.
Physical restraint
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Physical restraint refers to means of purposely limiting or obstructing the freedom of a persons bodily movement. Usually, binding objects such as handcuffs, legcuffs, ropes, chains and this less commonly also extends to joint locks and pinning techniques. The freedom of movement in terms of locomotion is usually limited, by locking a person into a space, such as a prison cell. This effect can also be achieved by seizing and withholding specific items of clothing, examples can be protective clothing against temperature, hereby factually constraining the individual to remain in a sheltered spot. This also refers to taking away a persons shoes in a situation of captivity, the freedom of movement is practically restricted in many everyday situations without the protection offered by conventional footwear. Various ground textures in urban as well as natural areas can cause substantial physical distress for a shoeless person, ground textures consisting of crushed stone or similar construction aggregate can be practically impossible for a person to walk or run over without wearing shoes. Aside from extreme circumstances, a person is steadily compromised by the usual imponderabilities of most surroundings. Controlling the free movement of detainees by keeping them barefoot is common practice in many countries. A main motive can be seen in the fact, that the effects of frustrating prison escape and curbing acts of resistance are obtained without cost. Further it is an effective complementation of binding restraints, british Police officers are authorised to use leg and arm restraints, if they have been instructed in their use. Pouches carrying restraints are usually carried on the duty belt, for restraint for medical or psychiatric purposes, see medical restraint. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act has stated that Restraints may not be used as an alternative to adequate staff, also, restraint may be used only when aggressive behavior interferes with an individuals own ability to benefit from programming or poses physical threat to others. The misuse of physical restraint has resulted in many deaths, physical restraint can be dangerous, sometimes in unexpected ways. Gagging a restrained person is highly risky, as it involves a risk of asphyxia. Gags that prevent communication may also prevent the communication of distress that might otherwise prevent injury, a survey in the US in 1998 reported an estimated 150 restraint related deaths in care environments. Low frequency fatalities occur with some degree of regularity, an investigated of 45 restraint related deaths in US childcare settings showed 28 of these deaths were reported to have occurred in the prone position. In the UK restraint related deaths would appear to be reported less often, the evidence for effective staff training in the use of medical restraints is at best crude, with evaluation of training programmes being the exception rather than the rule. Vast numbers of staff are trained in ‘physical interventions’ including physical restraint
8.
Psychiatric hospital
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Psychiatric hospitals vary widely in their size and grading. Some hospitals may specialize only in short-term or outpatient therapy for low-risk patients, others may specialize in the temporary or permanent care of residents who, as a result of a psychological disorder, require routine assistance, treatment, or a specialized and controlled environment. Patients are often admitted on a basis, but people whom psychiatrists believe may pose a significant danger to themselves or others may be subject to involuntary commitment. Psychiatric hospitals may also be referred to as psychiatric wards when they are a subunit of a regular hospital, modern psychiatric hospitals evolved from, and eventually replaced the older lunatic asylums. The treatment of inmates in early lunatic asylums was sometimes brutal, a crisis stabilization unit is in effect an emergency room for psychiatry, frequently dealing with suicidal, violent, or otherwise critical individuals. Open units are units that are not as secure as crisis stabilization units. Another type of hospital is medium term, which provides care lasting several weeks. In the United Kingdom, both admissions and medium term care is usually provided on acute admissions wards. Juvenile or adolescent wards are sections of psychiatric hospitals or psychiatric wards set aside for children or adolescents with mental illness, long-term care facilities have the goal of treatment and rehabilitation back into society within a short time-frame. Another institution for the mentally ill is a halfway house. Modern psychiatric hospitals evolved from, and eventually replaced the older lunatic asylums, the development of the modern psychiatric hospital is also the story of the rise of organized, institutional psychiatry. It greatly differed from the view in which the insane were viewed as under the influence of the Devil therefore needing to be isolated from society. The first psychiatric hospital was built by the Muslims in Baghdad in 705 AD, others would rapidly follow, with some of the more famous ones being built in Cairo in 800 AD and in Damascus in 1270 AD. The physicians of the Islamic world would invent and use a variety of treatments, including occupational therapy, music therapy, as well as medication. Western Europe would adopt these views later on with the advances of physicians like Philippe Pinel at the Bicêtre Hospital in France and they advocated the viewing of mental illness as a disorder that required compassionate treatment that would aid in the rehabilitation of the victim. The arrival in the Western world of institutionalisation as a solution to the problem of madness was very much an event of the nineteenth century, nine counties first applied, the first public asylum opening in 1812 in Nottinghamshire. In 1828, the newly appointed Commissioners in Lunacy were empowered to license and supervise private asylums, the Lunacy Act 1845 made the construction of asylums in every country compulsory with regular inspections on behalf of the Home Secretary. The Act required asylums to have written regulations and to have a resident physician, at the beginning of the nineteenth century there were a few thousand sick people housed in a variety of disparate institutions throughout England, but by 1900 that figure had grown to about 100,000
9.
Canvas
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Canvas is an extremely durable plain-woven fabric used for making sails, tents, marquees, backpacks, and other items for which sturdiness is required. It is also used by artists as a painting surface. It is also used in such objects as handbags, electronic device cases. The word canvas is derived from the 13th century Anglo-French canevaz, both may be derivatives of the Vulgar Latin cannapaceus for made of hemp, originating from the Greek κάνναβις. Modern canvas is made of cotton or linen, although. It differs from other cotton fabrics, such as denim. Canvas comes in two types, plain and duck. The threads in duck canvas are more tightly woven, the term duck comes from the Dutch word for cloth, doek. In the United States, canvas is classified in two ways, by weight and by a number system. The numbers run in reverse of the weight so a number 10 canvas is lighter than number 4, canvas has become the most common support medium for oil painting, replacing wooden panels. One of the earliest surviving oils on canvas is a French Madonna with angels from around 1410 in the Gemäldegalerie, however, panel painting remained more common until the 16th century in Italy and the 17th century in Northern Europe. Mantegna and Venetian artists were among those leading the change, Venetian sail canvas was readily available, as lead-based paint is poisonous, care has to be taken in using it. Early canvas was made of linen, a sturdy brownish fabric of considerable strength, linen is particularly suitable for the use of oil paint. In the early 20th century, cotton canvas, often referred to as cotton duck, linen is composed of higher quality material, and remains popular with many professional artists, especially those who work with oil paint. Cotton duck, which stretches more fully and has an even, mechanical weave, the advent of acrylic paint has greatly increased the popularity and use of cotton duck canvas. Linen and cotton derive from two different plants, the flax plant and the cotton plant, respectively. Gessoed canvases on stretchers are also available and they are available in a variety of weights, light-weight is about 4 oz or 5 oz, medium-weight is about 7 oz or 8 oz, heavy-weight is about 10 oz or 12 oz. They are prepared with two or three coats of gesso and are ready for use straight away, artists desiring greater control of their painting surface may add a coat or two of their preferred gesso
10.
Duck cloth
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Cotton duck, also simply duck, sometimes duck cloth or duck canvas, is a heavy, plain woven cotton fabric. Duck canvas is more tightly woven than plain canvas, There is also linen duck, which is less often used. Cotton duck is used in a range of applications, from sneakers to painting canvases to tents to sandbags. Duck fabric is woven with two yarns together in the warp and a single yarn in the weft, Duck is classified according to weight in a numerical system, with grade 1 the heaviest and grade 12 the lightest variety. Besides this, traditional names exist, which are used today. The classification system used today dates back to the 1920s, according to the Department of Commerce, The number of the duck is based on the following computation, Number of Duck =19 −. A numbering system is used to describe the various weights of duck cloth, weights below 19 ounces are called numbered duck. Those above 19 ounces are called naught duck, the grade of numbered duck refers to the number of ounces subtracted from 19 for a 36-by-22-inch piece of fabric. For example, a piece of No.8 numbered duck with dimensions of 36 by 22 inches weighs 11 ounces. Number duck classifications per linear yard 22 inches wide Numbered duck is nominally made in weights from 1 to 12, but numbers 7,9, some typical uses of various grades are, No. 6, large boat covers, heavy work clothes No,8, work clothes, clothes bags No. 10, work clothes, shower curtains No,12, light clothes Number duck classifications per square yard There is often confusion when it comes to matching up weights and the correct number duck classification. The table below represents the weight and number duck classification per square yard instead of linear yard 22 inches wide. 1, floor & wall covering, sound absorption, equipment covers, heavy bags, horse packs,4, heavy-duty work clothes, hammocks, sand bags, director chairs, place mats, belting No. 6, utility bags, place mats, belting No,8, backpacks, painted floor cloths, tents, tarps, awnings, work clothes, clothes bags No. 10, artist canvas, murals, shower curtains, painted floor cloths, hammocks,12, stretched artist canvas, furniture slip covers, light clothes Duct tape
11.
Glenside Museum
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Glenside Museum is situated within the Glenside Campus of the University of the West of England in Fishponds, Bristol, England. The museum was founded by Dr Donal F. Early, a consultant psychiatrist at Glenside Hospital from the 1950s and he collected items of memorabilia and started a collection on the balcony of the dining hall of Glenside. When the building closed, the collection was re-located to the Glenside Chapel, the chapel was built in 1861 and is a grade II listed building. The museum has drawings and paintings by the accomplished artist Dennis Reed who painted images of life at Glenside during the 1950s and these painting are located in the chancel. The museum charges no fee, but depends on donations from the public. Exhibits include several early Electroconvulsive therapy machines, one of the most celebrated workers at the former Bristol Lunatic Asylum was the painter Stanley Spencer who worked there in 1915–1916 as medical orderly in the Royal Army Medical Corps. During the Great War the asylum was turned over to military use and it had to accommodate some 1,460 wounded soldiers at any one time, usually more. A number of the patients were retained to perform menial duties and it was a splendid test of my feelings about this war. And I still feel the necessity of the war, & I have seen some sights, the lunatics are good workers & one persists in saluting us & always with the wrong hand. Another one thinks he is an electric battery, healthcare in Bristol Blackberry Hill Hospital Churches in Bristol Glenside Museum Website
12.
Psychiatric medication
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A psychiatric medication is a licensed psychoactive drug taken to exert an effect on the chemical makeup of the brain and nervous system. Thus, these medications are used to treat mental illnesses, usually prescribed in psychiatric settings, these medications are typically made of synthetic chemical compounds. The recidivism or rehospitalization of the mentally ill is at a rate in many countries. Modern psychiatric medication has advanced greatly in the past century, the reuptake hypothesis by Julius Axelrod involves the interaction among neurotransmitters, and forms the cornerstone of the development of modern psychotropic drugs. His work allowed researchers to advance their studies into the effects of psychiatric medication. Mental health medications were first introduced in the century with the widespread introduction of chlorpromazine. The popularity of these drugs have skyrocketed since then, with millions prescribed annually, psychiatric medications are prescription medications, requiring a prescription from a physician, such as a psychiatrist, or a psychiatric nurse practitioner, PMHNP, before they can be obtained. In addition to the dosage in pill form, psychiatric medications are evolving into more novel methods of drug delivery. New technologies include transdermal, transmucosal, inhalation, and suppository supplements, psychopharmacology studies a wide range of substances with various types of psychoactive properties. While studies are conducted on all psychoactive drugs by both fields, psychopharmacology focuses on psychoactive and chemical interactions within the brain, physicians who research psychiatric medications are psychopharmacologists, specialists in the field of psychopharmacology. Psychiatric medications carry risk for adverse effects, the occurrence of adverse effects can potentially reduce drug compliance. Some adverse effects can be treated symptomatically by using adjunct medications such as anticholinergics, there are six main groups of psychiatric medications. Antidepressants, which treat disorders such as clinical depression, dysthymia, anxiety disorders, eating disorders. Antipsychotics, which treat disorders such as schizophrenia and psychotic symptoms occurring in the context of other disorders such as mood disorders. Depressants, which are used as hypnotics, sedatives, and anesthetics, mood stabilizers, which treat bipolar disorder and schizoaffective disorder. Stimulants, which treat disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, antidepressants are drugs used to treat clinical depression, and they are also often used for anxiety and other disorders. Most antidepressants will hinder the breakdown of serotonin or norepinephrine or both, a commonly used class of antidepressants are called selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, which act on serotonin transporters in the brain to increase levels of serotonin in the synaptic cleft. SSRIs will often take 3–5 weeks to have a noticeable effect, there are multiple classes of antidepressants which have different mechanisms of action
13.
Cruelty
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Cruelty is indifference to suffering, and even pleasure in inflicting it. Sadism can also be related to form of action or concept. Cruel ways of inflicting suffering may involve violence, but affirmative violence is not necessary for an act to be cruel, george Eliot stated that cruelty, like every other vice, requires no motive outside of itself, it only requires opportunity. Bertrand Russell stated that the infliction of cruelty with a good conscience is a delight to moralists and that is why they invented Hell. Gilbert K. Chesterton stated that cruelty is, perhaps, the worst kind of sin, intellectual cruelty is certainly the worst kind of cruelty. The term cruelty is often used in law and criminology with regard to the treatment of animals, children, spouses, when cruelty to animals is discussed, it often refers to unnecessary suffering. In criminal law, it refers to punishment, torture, victimization, draconian measures, in divorce cases, many jurisdictions permit a cause of action for cruel and inhumane treatment. In law, cruelty is the infliction of physical or mental distress, in a sexual context, sadomasochism is the giving and/or receiving of pleasure—often sexual—from acts involving the infliction or reception of pain or humiliation. A subset of BDSM, practitioners of sadomasochism usually seek out sexual gratification from these acts, the term comes from Middle English, via the Old French term crualte, which is based on Latin crudelitas, from crudelis. Cruelty to animals Theatre of Cruelty Schadenfreude Sadism The Four Stages of Cruelty Simon Baron-Cohen, The Science of Evil, On Empathy, reviewed in The Montreal Review Susan Sontag, Regarding the Pain of Others,2003
14.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
15.
Workhouse
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In England and Wales a workhouse, colloquially known as a spike, was a place where those unable to support themselves were offered accommodation and employment. The earliest known use of the dates from 1631, in an account by the mayor of Abingdon reporting that wee haue erected wthn our borough a workehouse to sett poore people to worke. The New Poor Law of 1834 attempted to reverse the trend by discouraging the provision of relief to anyone who refused to enter a workhouse. Some Poor Law authorities hoped to run workhouses at a profit by utilising the free labour of their inmates, who generally lacked the skills or motivation to compete in the open market. Most were employed on such as breaking stones, crushing bones to produce fertiliser, or picking oakum using a large metal nail known as a spike. Life in a workhouse was intended to be harsh, to deter the able-bodied poor, although workhouses were formally abolished by the same legislation in 1930, many continued under their new appellation of Public Assistance Institutions under the control of local authorities. It was not until the National Assistance Act of 1948 that the last vestiges of the Poor Law disappeared, the Poor Law Act of 1388 was an attempt to address the labour shortage caused by the Black Death, a devastating pandemic that killed about one-third of Englands population. The resulting laws against vagrancy were the origins of state-funded relief for the poor, supporting the destitute was a problem exacerbated by King Henry VIIIs Dissolution of the Monasteries, which began in 1536. They had been a significant source of relief, and provided a good deal of direct and indirect employment. The Poor Relief Act of 1576 went on to establish the principle that if the poor needed support. The Act for the Relief of the Poor of 1601 made parishes responsible for the care of those within their boundaries who. The Act essentially classified the poor into one of three groups and it proposed that the able-bodied be offered work in a house of correction, where the persistent idler was to be punished. The workhouse system evolved in the 17th century, allowing parishes to reduce the cost to ratepayers of providing poor relief and it put the number of parish workhouses in England and Wales at more than 1800, with a total capacity of more than 90,000 places. The growth in the number of workhouses was also bolstered by the Relief of the Poor Act 1782, the able-bodied poor were instead either given outdoor relief or found employment locally. Relatively few Gilbert Unions were set up, but supplementing inadequate wages under the Speenhamland system did become established towards the end of the 18th century. So keen were some Poor Law authorities to cut costs wherever possible that cases were reported of husbands being forced to sell their wives, by the 1830s most parishes had at least one workhouse, but many were badly managed. In his 1797 work, The State of the Poor, Sir Frederick Eden, wrote, The workhouse is an inconvenient building, with windows, low rooms. It is surrounded by a wall, that gives it the appearance of a prison
16.
Prison
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Besides their use for punishing crimes, jails and prisons are frequently used by authoritarian regimes against perceived opponents. Prisons often have facilities that are designed with long term confinement in mind in comparison to jails. In times of war, prisoners of war or detainees may be detained in prisons or prisoner of war camps. The use of prisons can be traced back to the rise of the state as a form of social organization, corresponding with the advent of the state was the development of written language, which enabled the creation of formalized legal codes as official guidelines for society. The best known of early legal codes is the Code of Hammurabi. Some Ancient Greek philosophers, such as Plato, began to develop ideas of using punishment to reform instead of simply using it as retribution. Imprisonment as a penalty was used initially for those who could not afford to pay their fines, eventually, since impoverished Athenians could not pay their fines, leading to indefinite periods of imprisonment, time limits were set instead. The prison in Ancient Athens was known as the desmoterion, the Romans were among the first to use prisons as a form of punishment, rather than simply for detention. A variety of existing structures were used to house prisoners, such as cages, basements of public buildings. One of the most notable Roman prisons was the Mamertine Prison, the Mamertine Prison was located within a sewer system beneath ancient Rome and contained a large network of dungeons where prisoners were held in squalid conditions, contaminated with human waste. Forced labor on public projects was also a common form of punishment. In many cases, citizens were sentenced to slavery, often in ergastula, during the Middle Ages in Europe, castles, fortresses, and the basements of public buildings were often used as makeshift prisons. Another common punishment was sentencing people to slavery, which involved chaining prisoners together in the bottoms of ships. However, the concept of the modern prison largely remained unknown until the early 19th-century, Punishment usually consisted of physical forms of punishment, including capital punishment, mutilation, flagellation, branding, and non-physical punishments, such as public shaming rituals. However, an important innovation at the time was the Bridewell House of Corrections, located at Bridewell Palace in London and these houses held mostly petty offenders, vagrants, and the disorderly local poor. In these facilities, inmates were given jobs, and through prison labor they were taught how to work for a living, by the end of the 17th century, houses of correction were absorbed into local prison facilities under the control of the local justice of the peace. From the late 17th century and during the 18th century, popular resistance to public execution, rulers began looking for means to punish and control their subjects in a way that did not cause people to associate them with spectacles of tyrannical and sadistic violence. They developed systems of mass incarceration, often with hard labor, the prison reform movement that arose at this time was heavily influenced by two somewhat contradictory philosophies
17.
Crime
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In ordinary language, a crime is an unlawful act punishable by a state or other authority. The term crime does not, in criminal law, have any simple and universally accepted definition. The most popular view is that crime is a created by law, in other words, something is a crime if declared as such by the relevant. One proposed definition is that a crime or offence is an act not only to some individual. Such acts are forbidden and punishable by law, the notion that acts such as murder, rape and theft are to be prohibited exists worldwide. What precisely is an offence is defined by criminal law of each country. While many have a catalogue of crimes called the criminal code, the state has the power to severely restrict ones liberty for committing a crime. In modern societies, there are procedures to which investigations and trials must adhere, usually, to be classified as a crime, the act of doing something criminal must – with certain exceptions – be accompanied by the intention to do something criminal. While every crime violates the law, not every violation of the law counts as a crime, breaches of private law are not automatically punished by the state, but can be enforced through civil procedure. With institutional and legal machinery at their disposal, agents of the State can compel populations to conform to codes, authorities employ various mechanisms to regulate certain behaviors in general. In addition, authorities provide remedies and sanctions, and collectively these constitute a criminal justice system, Legal sanctions vary widely in their severity, they may include incarceration of temporary character aimed at reforming the convict. Some jurisdictions have penal codes written to inflict permanent harsh punishments, legal mutilation, usually a natural person perpetrates a crime, but legal persons may also commit crimes. Conversely, at least under U. S. law, nonpersons such as animals cannot commit crimes, the sociologist Richard Quinney has written about the relationship between society and crime. When Quinney states crime is a phenomenon he envisages both how individuals conceive crime and how populations perceive it, based on societal norms. The word crime is derived from the Latin root cernō, meaning I decide, originally the Latin word crīmen meant charge or cry of distress. The Ancient Greek word krima, from which the Latin cognate derives, typically referred to a mistake or an offense against the community. In 13th century English crime meant sinfulness, according to etymonline. com and it was probably brought to England as Old French crimne, from Latin crimen. In Latin, crimen could have signified any one of the following, charge, indictment, accusation, crime, fault, the word may derive from the Latin cernere – to decide, to sift
18.
Prison cell
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A prison cell, also known as a jail cell or lock-up, is a small room in a prison or police station where a prisoner is held. Cells greatly vary for their furnishing, hygienic services, and cleanness both across countries and based on the level of the detention that the prisoner has been convicted to. In the United States, prison cells are usually about 6 by 8 feet in size with steel or brick walls, many modern prison cells are pre-cast. Solid doors may have a window that allows the prisoner to be observed from the outside, furnishings and fixtures inside the cell are constructed so that they cannot be easily broken and are anchored to the walls or floor. Stainless steel lavatories and commodes are also used and this prevents vandalism or the making of weapons. There are a number of prison and prison cell configurations, from police station holding cells to massive cell blocks in larger correctional facilities. The practice of assigning only one inmate to each cell in a prison is called single-celling, in many countries, the cells are dirty and have very few facilities. Other countries may house many offenders in prisons, making the cells crowded, in the United Kingdom, cells in a police station are the responsibility of the Custody Sergeant, who also logs each detainee and allocates him or her an available cell. Custody Sergeants also ensure cells are clean and as germ-free as possible, in the United States, the standard cell is equipped with either a ledge or a steel bedstead that holds a mattress. A one-piece sink/toilet constructed of welded, putatively stainless steel is also provided, bars typify older jails, while newer ones have doors that typically feature a small safety glass window and, often, a metal flap that can be opened, e. g. to serve meals. A limited number of United States prisons offer upgrades, costing around $100 a night, these cells are considered cleaner and quieter, and some of them offer extra facilities. Often, different standard for cells exist in a single country, some of those cells are reserved for isolation, where a convict is kept alone in a cell as punishment method. Some isolation cells contain no furnishing and no services at all, celebrity Justice, Prison Lifestyles of the Rich and Famous, Matt Clarke 91111 Now
19.
Safety
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Safety is the state of being safe, the condition of being protected from harm or other non-desirable outcomes. Safety can also refer to the control of recognized hazards in order to achieve a level of risk. There are two different meanings of safety. For example, home safety may indicate an ability to protect against external harm events. Discussions of safety often include mention of related terms, with time the definitions between these two have often become interchanged, equated, and frequently appear juxtaposed in the same sentence. Readers unfortunately are left to conclude whether they comprise a redundancy and this confuses the uniqueness that should be reserved for each by itself. When seen as unique, as we intend here, each term will assume its place in influencing and being influenced by the other. Safety is the condition of a “steady state” of an organization or place doing what it is supposed to do, for any organization, place, or function, large or small, safety is a normative concept. It complies with situation-specific definitions of what is expected and acceptable, in the world of everyday affairs, not all goes as planned. Some entity’s steady state is challenged and this is where security science, which is of more recent date, enters. Using this generic definition of safety it is possible to specify the elements of a security program, Safety can be limited in relation to some guarantee or a standard of insurance to the quality and unharmful function of an object or organization. It is used in order to ensure that the object or organization will do only what it is meant to do and it is important to realize that safety is relative. Eliminating all risk, if possible, would be extremely difficult. A safe situation is one where risks of injury or property damage are low and it is important to distinguish between products that meet standards, that are safe, and those that merely feel safe. Substantive or objective safety occurs when the real-world safety history is favorable, perceived or subjective safety refers to the users level of comfort and perception of risk, without consideration of standards or safety history. For example, traffic signals are perceived as safe, yet under some circumstances, traffic roundabouts have a generally favorable safety record yet often make drivers nervous. Low perceived safety can have costs, for example, after the 9/11/2001 attacks, many people chose to drive rather than fly, despite the fact that, even counting terrorist attacks, flying is safer than driving. Perceived risk discourages people from walking and bicycling for transportation, enjoyment or exercise, also called social safety or public safety, security addresses the risk of harm due to intentional criminal acts such as assault, burglary or vandalism
20.
Insane asylums
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The rise of the lunatic asylum and its gradual transformation into, and eventual replacement by, the modern psychiatric hospital, explains the rise of organized, institutional psychiatry. This growth coincided with the development of alienism, now known as psychiatry, in the Islamic world, the Bimaristans were described by European travelers, who wrote about their wonder at the care and kindness shown to lunatics. In 872, Ahmad ibn Tulun built a hospital in Cairo that provided care to the insane, in Europe during the medieval era, the small subsection of the population of the mad who were housed in institutional settings were held in a variety of settings. Porter gives examples of such locales where some of the insane were cared for, a few towns had towers where madmen were kept. Dave Sheppards Development of Mental Health Law and Practice begins in 1285 with a case that linked the instigation of the devil with being frantic and mad. In Spain, other institutions for the insane were established after the Christian Reconquista, facilities included hospitals in Valencia, Zaragoza, Seville, Barcelona. In London, England, The Priory of Saint Mary of Bethlehem, at the start of the fifteenth century, it housed six insane men. The level of specialist institutional provision for the care and control of the insane remained extremely limited at the turn of the 18th century, madness was seen principally as a domestic problem, with families and parish authorities in Europe and England central to regimens of care. In the late 17th century, this began to change. Inmates who were deemed dangerous or disturbing were chained, but Bethlem was an open building. Its inhabitants could roam around its confines and possibly throughout the neighborhood in which the hospital was situated. In 1676, Bethlem expanded into newly built premises at Moorfields with a capacity for 100 inmates, A second public institution was opened in 1713. It was a facility which generally housed between twenty and thirty inmates. In 1728 at Guys Hospital, London, wards were established for chronic lunatics, a similar expansion took place in the British American colonies. The Pennsylvania Hospital was founded in Philadelphia in 1751 as a result of work begun in 1709 by the Religious Society of Friends, a portion of this hospital was set apart for the mentally ill, and the first patients were admitted in 1752. Virginia is recognized as the first state to establish an institution for the mentally ill, references to such institutions are limited for the seventeenth-century but it is evident that by the start of the eighteenth-century, the so-called trade in lunacy was well established. Daniel Defoe, an ardent critic of private madhouses, estimated in 1724 that there were fifteen then operating in the London area, Defoe may have exaggerated but exact figures for private metropolitan madhouses are available only from 1774, when licensing legislation was introduced, sixteen institutions were recorded. At least two of these, Hoxton House and Woods Close, Clerkenwell, had been in operation since the seventeenth century, by 1807, the number had increased to seventeen
21.
Harry Houdini
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Harry Houdini was a Hungarian-American illusionist and stunt performer, noted for his sensational escape acts. He first attracted notice in vaudeville in the US and then as Harry Handcuff Houdini on a tour of Europe, where he challenged police forces to keep him locked up. Soon he extended his repertoire to include chains, ropes slung from skyscrapers, straitjackets under water, in 1904, thousands watched as he tried to escape from special handcuffs commissioned by Londons Daily Mirror, keeping them in suspense for an hour. Another stunt saw him buried alive and only just able to claw himself to the surface, while many suspected that these escapes were faked, Houdini presented himself as the scourge of fake spiritualists. As President of the Society of American Magicians, he was keen to uphold professional standards and he was also quick to sue anyone who imitated his escape stunts. Houdini made several movies, but quit acting when it failed to bring in money and he was also a keen aviator, and aimed to become the first man to fly a plane in Australia. Erik Weisz was born in Budapest to a Jewish family and his parents were Rabbi Mayer Sámuel Weisz and Cecília Steiner. Weisz arrived in the United States on July 3,1878, on the SS Fresia with his mother, the family changed their name to the German spelling Weiss, and Erik became Ehrich. The family lived in Appleton, Wisconsin, where his father served as Rabbi of the Zion Reform Jewish Congregation, according to the 1880 census, the family lived on Appleton Street. On June 6,1882, Rabbi Weiss became an American citizen, losing his tenure at Zion in 1887, Rabbi Weiss moved with Ehrich to New York City, where they lived in a boarding house on East 79th Street. He was joined by the rest of the family once Rabbi Weiss found permanent housing, as a child, Ehrich Weiss took several jobs, making his public début as a 9-year-old trapeze artist, calling himself Ehrich, the Prince of the Air. He was also a cross country runner in his youth. When Weiss became a magician he began calling himself Harry Houdini, after the French magician Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin. Weiss incorrectly believed that an i at the end of a name meant like in French, in later life, Houdini claimed that the first part of his new name, Harry, was an homage to Harry Kellar, whom he also admired. When he was a teenager, Houdini was coached by the magician Joseph Rinn at the Pastime Athletic Club, Houdini became an active Freemason and was a member of St. Cecile Lodge #568 in New York City. In 1918, he registered for service as Harry Handcuff Houdini. Houdini began his career in 1891, but had little success. He appeared in a tent act with strongman Emil Jarrow and he performed in dime museums and sideshows, and even doubled as The Wild Man at a circus
22.
Theodore Hardeen
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Theodore Dash Hardeen, known simply as Hardeen, was a Hungarian magician and escape artist who was the younger brother of Harry Houdini. Hardeen, who billed himself as the brother of Houdini, was the founder of the Magicians Guild. Hardeen was the first magician to conceive escaping from a straitjacket in full view of the audience. Hardeen was born as Ferenc Dezső Weisz in Budapest, Hungary and he was known as Deshi and later Dash by his parents. In 1893, Hardeen performed with Houdini at Coney Island as The Brothers Houdini, while there, Harry met and married Wilhelmina Beatrice Bess Rahner. But the natural ability was always there, even if Houdini had not existed to point the way, it is quite likely that Hardeen would have become an escape artiste. I have seen him several times, and have marvelled at his achievements. The huge chains in the cartoon are hardly an exaggeration of those from which he breaks loose, the handcuffs but a simple thing compared with those with which he is used to toy. Hardeen, like his famous brother Harry Houdini is a great favourite in the magical world. He is a man of culture and one of the best raconteurs I have ever met. Like Houdini, he is willing to both time and money freely to further the cause of magic. Both the amateurs and the professionals of our number regard him as a friend, and the general public regard him as a brilliant artiste and a thrilling entertainer. After his brothers death in 1926 Hardeen played the vaudeville circuit, from 1938 to 1941, Hardeen was featured in Olsen and Johnsons Broadway revue, Hellzapoppin, and during World War II he performed for the troops. In 1936 Hardeen starred in a Vitaphone short film for Warner Bros. called Medium Well Done, in it, Hardeen played a hardboiled detective on the case of a bogus medium. The film was directed by Lloyd French, who directed many of the early Laurel, like his brother, Hardeen was skeptical of the claims of spiritualist mediums. With his friend Julien Proskauer he exposed the fraudulent methods of mediums, Houdini in his will, requested for all his files to be given to Hardeen and destroyed On August 15,1927 Hardeens Brooklyn home had been broken into and some of Houdinis apparatus had been damaged. Later that year, Hardeen burned all of Houdinis personal files in a furnace in his basement, planning on writing a book about his brother, in 1945 Hardeen went to New Yorks Doctors Hospital for a simple operation. He unexpectedly died of complications while recovering from the procedure, during his final show on May 29,1945 in Ridgeway, Queens, Hardeen named his chief assistant, Douglas Geoffrey, his official successor
23.
Criss Angel
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Christopher Nicholas Sarantakos, known by the stage name Criss Angel, is an American magician and illusionist. Angel began his career in New York City, before moving his base of operations to the Las Vegas Valley, the show generated $150 million in tourist revenue to Las Vegas in 2010, but has since been replaced by Mindfreak LIVE on 11 May 2016. He also starred in the television series Criss Angel BeLIEve on Spike TV, the television show Phenomenon on NBC. Angel has been on television for more hours than any other magician in history. He also holds multiple world-records made during his performances, and was named Magician of the Decade in 2009. In addition to his career as an illusionist, Angel was the singer for his industrial band Angeldust. He also authored the book Mindfreak, Secret Revelations, Criss Angel was born on December 19,1967, at Hempstead General Hospital in Hempstead, on Long Island, New York. Angel was raised in Elmont until fourth grade, when his family moved to East Meadow and his father, John Sarantakos, owned a restaurant and doughnut shop. He developed an interest in magic at age seven and performed his first show at the age of twelve and his main early influence was Harry Houdini. By fourteen, Angel was performing high school at restaurants in East Meadow. Angels first major illusion was making his mother float in their family den, early in his career he was helped by animal breeder and reality-television host Marc Morrone, who helped Angel find and train a set of doves for his act. By the time he graduated from East Meadow High School, he had decided to pursue a career as a professional magician instead of attending college as his parents wanted, according to Biography Channel, Angel hit the road and began touring with other traveling performance acts. Between traveling and performing, he attempted to further his education in his own by studying the history of magic in public libraries and he also studied the art of mysticism, music, martial arts and even dance. Angel has said that, I stayed away from magicians when I was younger because I didnt want to think like them and his first television appearance was in 1994, where he performed as a part of a one-hour ABC primetime special entitled Secrets. One of the supporters of Angel was horror director Clive Barker. In 1995, Barker asked Angel to work with him on his film Lord of Illusions and he also later recorded the intro to Angels album World of Illusion, System One. Barker said of Angel in the mid-1990s that, Criss Angel is extraordinary and this is the future, and it can’t come quickly enough. In 1998, Angel performed a ten-minute show over the course of the World of Illusion conference in Madison Square Garden, Angel also starred in the 1997 television movie The Science of Magic and its 2003 sequel The Science of Magic II
24.
Bourbon Street
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Bourbon Street is a street in the heart of New Orleans oldest neighborhood, the French Quarter, in New Orleans, Louisiana. It extends 13 blocks from Canal to Esplanade Avenue, known for its bars and strip clubs, Bourbon Streets history provides a rich insight into New Orleans past. The French claimed Louisiana as a colony in the 1690s, Jean Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville was appointed as Director General in charge of developing a colony in the territory. He founded New Orleans in 1718, in 1721, the royal engineer, Adrien de Pauger, designed the citys street layout. He named the streets after French royal houses and Catholic saints, Bourbon Street paid homage to Frances ruling family, the House of Bourbon. New Orleans was given to the Spanish in 1763 following the Seven Years War, in 1788, a major fire destroyed 80% of the citys buildings. The Spanish rebuilt many of the buildings, which are still standing today. For this reason, Bourbon Street and the French Quarter display more Spanish than French influence, the Americans gained control of the colony following the 1803 Louisiana Purchase. They translated the French street names into English, with Rue Bourbon becoming Bourbon Street, New Orleans in the 19th century was both similar to and different from other Southern cities. It was similar in that its economy was based on selling cash crops such as sugar, by 1840, newcomers whose wealth came from these enterprises turned New Orleans into the third largest metropolis in the country. The citys port was the second-largest after New York City, the main difference between New Orleans and other Southern cities was its unique cultural heritage as a result of formerly having been a French and Spanish possession. This cultural legacy in the form of its architecture, cuisine, the French Quarter was central to this image and became the best-known part of the city. Bourbon Street was a residential area prior to 1900. This changed in the late 1800s and early 1900s, when the Storyville red-light district was constructed on Basin Street adjacent to the French Quarter, the area became known for prostitution, gambling and vaudeville acts. Jazz is said to have developed here, with such as King Oliver. This was also the era when some of New Orleans most eminent restaurants were founded, including Galatoires and it was established by Jean Galatoire in 1905. Known for years by its characteristic line snaking down Bourbon Street, before World War II, the French Quarter was emerging as a major asset to the city’s economy. While there was an interest in historic districts at the time, simultaneously, with the wartime influx of people, property owners opened adult-centered nightclubs to capitalize on the city’s risqué image
25.
YMCA
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The Young Mens Christian Association is a worldwide organisation based in Geneva, Switzerland, with more than 57 million beneficiaries from 125 national associations. It was founded on 6 June 1844 by George Williams in London and aims to put Christian principles into practice by developing a body, mind. These three angles are reflected by the different sides of the triangle—part of all YMCA logos, from its inception, it grew rapidly and ultimately became a worldwide movement founded on the principles of Muscular Christianity. YMCAs continue to be religious organisations, many national or local organisations de-emphasise this aspect, the different local YMCAs are voluntarily affiliated through their national organisations. The national organisations in turn are part of both an Area Alliance and the World Alliance of YMCAs, the World Alliances main motto is empowering young people. It was associated with industrialisation and the movement of people to cities to work. The YMCA combined preaching in the streets and the distribution of religious tracts with a social ministry, philanthropists saw them as places for wholesome recreation that would preserve youth from the temptations of alcohol, gambling, and prostitution and that would promote good citizenship. The YMCA was founded by George Williams, a London draper and he and his colleagues were concerned about the lack of healthy activities for young men in major cities, the options available were usually taverns and brothels. By 1851, there were YMCAs in the United Kingdom, Australia, Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and the United States. In 1855,99 YMCA delegates from Europe and North America met in Paris at the First World Conference of YMCAs and they discussed joining together in a federation to enhance cooperation amongst individual YMCA societies. This marked the beginning of the World Alliance of YMCAs, the conference adopted the Paris Basis, a common mission for all present and future national YMCAs. Its motto was taken from the Bible, That they all may be one, in 1865 The Fourth World Conference of YMCAs, held in Germany, affirmed the importance of developing the whole individual in body, mind, and spirit. The concept of work through sports, a new concept for the time, was also recognised as part of this muscular Christianity. Today the YMCA is more focused on inspiring youths and their families to exercise, in 1878, World Alliance of YMCAs offices were established in Geneva, Switzerland. Later, in 1900, North American YMCAs, in collaboration with the World Alliance, set up centres to work with emigrants in European ports, as millions of people were leaving for the USA. In 1885, Camp Baldhead, the first residential camp in the United States and North America, was established by A. Sanford and Sumner F. Dudley, both of whom worked for the YMCA. The camp, originally located near Orange Lake in New Jersey, moved to Lake Wawayanda in Sussex County the following year, by 1910, the YMCA was an early influence upon scouting, including the Boy Scouts of America and German Scouting. Edgar M. Robinson, a Chicago-area YMCA administrator, briefly left the YMCA to become the BSAs first director, the Blue Ridge Association for Christian Conferences and Training was formed in 1907, and shortly thereafter built the Blue Ridge Assembly conference centre
26.
Guinness World Records
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The book itself holds a world record, as the best-selling copyrighted book of all time. As of the 2017 edition, it is now in its 63rd year of publication, the international franchise has extended beyond print to include television series and museums. On 10 November 1951, Sir Hugh Beaver, then the director of the Guinness Breweries, went on a shooting party in the North Slob, by the River Slaney in County Wexford. After missing a shot at a golden plover, he involved in an argument over which was the fastest game bird in Europe. That evening at Castlebridge House, he realised that it was impossible to confirm in reference books whether or not the golden plover was Europes fastest game bird. Beaver knew that there must be numerous other questions debated nightly in pubs throughout Ireland and abroad and he realised then that a book supplying the answers to this sort of question might prove successful. Beavers idea became reality when Guinness employee Christopher Chataway recommended University friends Norris and Ross McWhirter, the twin brothers were commissioned to compile what became The Guinness Book of Records in August 1954. A thousand copies were printed and given away, after the founding of The Guinness Book of Records at 107 Fleet Street, the first 198-page edition was bound on 27 August 1955 and went to the top of the British best seller lists by Christmas. The following year, it launched in the US, and sold 70,000 copies, since then, Guinness World Records has become a household name and the global leader in world records. Because the book became a hit, many further editions were printed, eventually settling into a pattern of one revision a year, published in September/October. The McWhirters continued to compile it for many years, Ross McWhirter was assassinated by the Provisional Irish Republican Army in 1975. Following Ross assassination, the feature in the show where questions about records posed by children were answered was called Norris on the Spot, Guinness Superlatives Limited was formed in 1954 to publish the first book. Sterling Publishing owned the rights to the Guinness book in the US for decades, and, under their management, the group was owned by Guinness PLC and subsequently Diageo until 2001, when it was purchased by Gullane Entertainment. Gullane was itself purchased by HIT Entertainment in 2002, with offices in New York City and Tokyo, Guinness World Records global headquarters remain in London, while its museum attractions are based at Ripley headquarters in Orlando, Florida, US. Recent editions have focused on record feats by person competitors, many records also relate to the youngest person who achieved something, such as the youngest person to visit all nations of the world, being Maurizio Giuliano. Each edition contains a selection of the records from the Guinness database, as well as new records. The majority of records are no longer listed in the book or on the website. For those unable to wait the 4–6 weeks for a reply, the Guinness Book of Records is the worlds most sold copyrighted book, earning it an entry within its own pages
27.
Matt the Knife
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Not to be confused with Matt the Knife the WFTDA referee from Rainy City Roller Girls. Matt the Knife was born in Massachusetts and grew up in Boston and he is a magician and mentalist and has broken a number of Guinness World Records, but began his career as a professional con man. Sometime around 2000 he began to adapt his talents from that of a criminal to the skills of a conjurer, since then his magic has taken him on to perform in 17 countries across 4 continents. He’s probably best known for his feats of mentalism, but also often mixes sword swallowing, stunts, escapes, magic, as of 2012 hes broken 12 Guinness records. They include records for such as escapes, sword swallowing, fire manipulation, feats of strength. He usually performs these stunts for publicity or as the climax of his television specials, since his transition from a grifter to a performer he has also gone on to be an anti-fraud expert. The lecture has featured at theaters, colleges and corporate events. In 2003 he founded a firm that specializes in the prevention of fraud. Lately, he has begun to present a different style show than what hed become known for and it debuted in Rhode Island and it has toured in several major cities including Philadelphia, Boston, Washington DC and New Orleans. But in spite of his claims that it was intended for entertainment it has come under fire by some religious groups in the US. CNN, The History Channel, National Geographic Channel, Adult Swim on The Cartoon Network, Guinness World Records, Sirius Satellite Radio, CCTV, Rai Tre and he was also the subject of a question on the American game show Jeopardy
28.
Zero Gravity Corporation
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Zero Gravity Corporation is an American company based in Arlington, Virginia, formerly of Fort Lauderdale, Florida, which operates weightless flights from United States airports. Unlike NASA, ZERO-G is governed under Part 121 of FAA regulations enabling the company to cater to tourists and researchers alike. Founded by entrepreneur Peter Diamandis, astronaut Byron K. Lichtenberg, and NASA engineer Ray Cronise, theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking also completed a shortened flight on April 26,2007. In April 2006, ZERO-G became the first commercial company to gain permission from the Kennedy Space Center to use its space shuttle runway, on April 21,2007, it began regular flights from Las Vegas for the general public at ticket prices of US$3,675. Good Morning America aired promotional footage featuring the shows weatherman Sam Champion during a flight in Ohio. On December 9,2007, Zero G hosted Adam Savage, in March 2008, the company was acquired by Space Adventures. On April 20,2011, a Safety Approval was granted to ZERO-G by the FAA which allows the company to, as of May 2013, the price of a flight for a single passenger is US$4,950 plus tax. Fliers undergo a training session before embarking. Each parabola begins with the climbing at a 45-degree angle at approximately 23,000 feet, peaks at 32,000 ft. The company owns and operates a Boeing 727-227F Advanced, registration N794AJ and it flies parabolic arcs similar to those of NASAs KC-135 reduced gravity aircraft. NASA has a microgravity services contract with ZERO-G, which provided the first flights under contract on September 9 and 10,2008. Flight time from Ellington Field near Johnson Space Center was provided for the FASTRACK Space Experiment Platform, the flights were funded by NASA’s Strategic Capabilities and Assets Program. Vomit Comet Official site Farewell to Gravity Notes on Zero-G flight by John Carmack
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Northrop Grumman
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Northrop Grumman Corporation is an American global aerospace and defense technology company formed by Northrops 1994 purchase of Grumman. The company was named as the fifth-largest defense contractor in the world in 2015, Northrop Grumman employs over 68,000 people worldwide. It reported revenues of $23.526 billion in 2015, Northrop Grumman ranks No.124 on the 2015 Fortune 500 list of Americas largest corporations and ranks in the top ten military-friendly employers. It is headquartered in West Falls Church, Virginia, Northrop Grumman is made up of three business sectors, Aerospace Systems, Mission Systems, and Technology Services. Aerospace Systems, headquartered in Redondo Beach, California produces aircraft, spacecraft, high-energy laser systems and microelectronics for the US and other nations. The B-2 Spirit strategic bomber, the E-8C Joint STARS surveillance aircraft, the RQ-4 Global Hawk, the US Army uses Northrop Grummans RQ-5 Hunter unmanned air vehicle, which has been in operational use since 1995. The U. S. Navy uses Northrop Grumman-built aerial vehicles such as the BQM-74 Chukar, RQ-4 Global Hawk based BAMS UAS, Grumman C-2 Greyhound, Grumman E-2 Hawkeye, and the EA-6B Prowler. Northrop Grumman provides major components and assemblies for different aircraft such as F/A-18 Hornet, F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, Electronic Systems produces and maintains the AWACS aerial surveillance systems for the U. S. the United Kingdom, NATO, Japan, and others. Northrop Grumman is the contractor for the development and integration of the Air Forces $2-billion Multi-Platform Radar Technology Insertion Program. Many other smaller products are made by Northrop Grumman, such as night vision goggles, information Systems, headquartered in McLean, Virginia, supports the U. S. Vinnell, a Technical Services Northrop Grumman subsidiary, provides training and communications for the military. In 2003, it landed a $48 million contract to train the Iraqi Army, in 2005 the company won a $2 billion contract with Virginia to overhaul most of the states IT operations. Later that year, The United Kingdom paid $1.2 billion in a contract with the company to provide maintenance of the countrys defensive radar, Northrop Grumman performs various functions in the War on Drugs. The company sends planes to spray herbicides on suspected cocaine fields in Colombia, remotec, a subsidiary, is the foremost manufacturer of remote control vehicles for explosive ordnance disposal and hazardous material handling. A UK-based subsidiary, Park Air Systems, provides VHF and UHF ground-to-air communications systems for the civil, Northrop Grumman has also worked closely with Antenna Associates, Inc. a manufacturer of Identification friend or foe /Secondary Surveillance Radar antennas located in Massachusetts. In August 2007, Northrop Grumman acquired Scaled Composites in which it had owned a 40% stake. Originally formed in California in 1939 by Jack Northrop, the Northrop Corporation was reincorporated in Delaware in 1985, in 1994, Northrop Aircraft bought Grumman Aerospace, famous for building the Apollo Lunar Module to create Northrop Grumman. In 1996, the new company acquired Westinghouse Electronic Systems, a manufacturer of radar systems. In 1997, the defense computer contractor Logicon was added, which had acquired Geodynamics Corporation in March 1996, in 1998, a merger between Northrop Grumman and competitor Lockheed Martin was considered but abandoned after resistance from the Department of Defense and Department of Justice
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Fox & Friends
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Fox & Friends is a daily morning news/talk program that airs on Fox News Channel. The program is considered to have political leanings in its presentation. Fox & Friends evolved from Fox X-press, Fox News Channels original morning news program, after the September 11,2001 terrorist attacks, an additional hour was added to the beginning of the weekday show, but branded as a separate show called Fox & Friends First. It was the first Fox News show to air live for the day, since inception, the show is a talkshow format, featuring two male cohosts and a female cohost. Currently, Steve Doocey, Ainsley Earhardt, and Brian Kilmeade cohost the show, at the top and bottom of the hour, the show highlights current Breaking News after which a meteorologist in The Weather Center reviews the national weather forecasts. If there are extraordinary conditions to be discussed, they refer to it as The Extreme Weather Center, the show features a casual format with the hosts and guests typically sitting on the sets curvy couch. After the show has ended for the day, a short online-only web show named After The Show Show which features behind-the-scenes footage not shown on air, is streamed on the Fox News website and it lasts from less than 3 minutes to 10 minutes. The Summer Concert Series features a music concert in the Fox News Channel Plaza each Friday from Memorial Day weekend though Labor Day weekend. Normal or Nuts is a segment in which psychiatrist Dr. Keith Ablow answers viewer questions posed via Facebook or Twitter, on Rebuildiing Dreams, real estate attorney Bob Massey offers non-legal advice on buying, selling, listing and pitfalls related to real estate transactions. So Sue Me is a segment in which Peter Johnson, Jr. offers his perspective on current events with legal implications, the New York Times has reported the show is one of the most successful on the network. For Hasselbeck’s first four weeks on the show, “Fox & Friends” averaged 1.226 million total viewers, in comparison, morning shows from both CNN and MSNBC combined to average 792,000 viewers. The New York Times wrote that Fox & Friends has become a platform for some of the most strident attacks on President Obama. The program has provided a platform for conspiracy theories about Obamas religion and, in May 2012, in response, a Fox News exec vice-president disavowed the video, blaming an associate producer and that the video slipped by senior managers at the network. Fox stated that the show was entertainment and does not pretend to be straight news. The story seemed to have sourced from a spoof news website National Report. In 2017, the show received attention when President of the United States Donald Trump live-tweeted several episodes of the show by tweeting anything that caught his attention. The weekday show has featured the two male hosts for its entire run, it has E. D. Hill, Weekdays co-host from 1998 to 2006. Alisyn Camerota, Weekend co-host, left on September 28,2013, maria Molina, Fox Cast meteorologist from 2010 to 2016 Elisabeth Hasselbeck, Weekdays co-host from 2013 to 2015, replaced by Ainsley Earhardt
31.
Radio City Music Hall
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Radio City Music Hall is an entertainment venue located in Rockefeller Center in New York City. Its nickname is the Showplace of the Nation, and it was for a time the leading tourist destination in the city and its interior was declared a city landmark in 1978. It is notable as being the headquarters for the dance company. The 12-acre complex in Midtown Manhattan known as Rockefeller Center was developed between 1929 and 1940 by John D. Rockefeller, Jr. on land leased from Columbia University. The Radio City Music Hall was designed by architect Edward Durell Stone and its originally planned name was International Music Hall. The names Radio City and Radio City Music Hall derive from one of the complexs first tenants, Radio City Music Hall was a project of Rockefeller, Samuel Roxy Rothafel, who previously opened the Roxy Theatre in 1927, and RCA chairman David Sarnoff. The Music Hall opened to the public on December 27,1932 with a stage show featuring Ray Bolger, Doc Rockwell. The opening was meant to be a return to high-class variety entertainment, the new format was not a success. The program was long, and individual acts were lost in the cavernous hall. On January 11,1933, the Music Hall converted to the format of a feature film. The film-plus-stage-spectacle format continued at the Music Hall until 1979, with four complete performances presented every day, plans for alternate uses for the structure included converting the theater into tennis courts, a shopping mall or the American Stock Exchange. Joining forces with the media and political allies, including New York Lt. Gov. Mary Anne Krupsak, they challenged the Rockefeller establishment, against all odds, to save The Showplace of the Nation. On March 28,1978 New York Citys Landmarks Preservation Commission designated the interior of Radio City Music Hall a landmark guaranteeing that the building would remain a theatre, on May 12,1978, Radio City Music Hall was placed on The National Register of Historic Places. Regular film showings at Radio City ended in 1979 and in 1980, after a renovation, Radio City Music Hall is currently leased to and managed by The Madison Square Garden Company. Movie premieres and feature runs have occasionally taken place such as the Harry Potter film series. The Radio City Christmas Spectacular continues to be an important annual event, starting in 2013, however, the Tony Awards will be the only major televised awards ceremony at Radio City, as the Video Music Awards relocated permanently to the Barclays Center that year. Radio City has 5,933 seats for spectators, and additional seating can be placed on the pit elevator during events that do not require that space bringing the capacity to over 6,000. Designed by Edward Durell Stone, the interior of the theater with its austere Art Deco lines represented a break with the ornate rococo ornament associated with movie palaces at the time
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
The dictionary definition of straitjacket at Wiktionary
