1.
Territorial evolution of the British Empire
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The territorial evolution of the British Empire is considered to have begun with the foundation of the English colonial empire in the late 16th century. Since then, many territories around the world have been under the control of the British Empire or its predecessor states. When the Kingdom of Great Britain was formed in 1707 by the union of the Kingdom of Scotland with the Kingdom of England, the latter countrys colonial possessions passed to the new state. Similarly, when Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland in 1801 to form the United Kingdom, collectively, these territories are referred to as the British Empire. Upon much of Ireland gaining independence in 1922 as the Irish Free State, from 1714 to 1837 the British throne was held by a series of kings who were also the rulers of the German state of Hanover. However, this was purely a personal union, with Hanover maintaining its political independence otherwise, the nature of the territories ruled as part of the British Empire varied enormously. No uniform system of government was ever applied to any of these, a number of countries within the British Empire gained independence in stages during the earlier part of the 20th century. Many of the territories of the British Empire are members of the Commonwealth of Nations. Fifteen of these retain the British monarch as Head of State, the British monarch is also Head of the Commonwealth, but this is a purely symbolic and personal title, members of the Commonwealth are fully sovereign states. The British Empire refers to the possessions and territories under the control of the Crown. Although the Crown claimed absolute sovereignty over them, they were never part of the United Kingdom. The natures of the administration of the Empire changed both by time and place, and there was no system of government in the Empire. Colonies were territories that were intended to be places of permanent settlement, the Crown claimed absolute sovereignty over them, although they were not formally part of the United Kingdom itself. Generally their law was the law of England together with whatever British Acts of Parliament were also applied to them. Over time, a number of colonies were granted responsible government, a Crown colony, was a type of colonial administration of the English and later the British Empire, which were directly controlled by the Crown. Crown colonies were ruled by an appointed by the monarch. By the middle of the 19th century, the sovereign appointed royal governors on the advice of the Secretary of State for the Colonies and this became the main method of creating and governing colonies. There also existed lower houses which were usually named Legislative Assembly or House of Assembly, the lower house was usually elected, but suffrage was restricted to free white men only, usually with property ownership restrictions
2.
Japanese occupation of Malaya
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Malaya was gradually occupied by the Japanese between 8 December 1941 and the Allied surrender at Singapore on the 16 February 1942. The Japanese remained in occupation until their surrender to the Allies in 1945, the first Japanese garrison in Malaya to lay down their arms was in Penang on 2 September 1945 aboard HMS Nelson. The Japanese Army said the new Japanese empire was an Asian equivalent of the Monroe Doctrine, the regions of Asia, it was argued, were as essential to Japan as Latin America was to the U. S. The Japanese Foreign Minister Yōsuke Matsuoka formally announced the idea of the Co-Prosperity Sphere on 1 August 1940, in a press interview, leaders in Japan had long had an interest in the idea. These factors helped make the formation of the sphere, while lacking any real authority or joint power, Japanese Military Affairs Bureau Unit 82 was formed in 1939 or 1940 and based in Taiwan to bring this about. In its final planning stages, the unit was under the then-Colonel Yoshihide Hayashi, intelligence on Malaya was gathered through a network of agents which included Japanese embassy staff, disaffected Malayans, and Japanese, Korean, and Taiwanese business people and tourists. Japanese spies, which included a British intelligence officer, Captain Patrick Stanley Vaughan Heenan, heenans intelligence enabled the Japanese to destroy much of the Allied air forces on the ground. By 1941 the Japanese had been engaged for four years in trying to subjugate China and they were heavily reliant on imported materials for their military forces, particularly oil from the United States. From 1940 to 1941, the United States, the United Kingdom, the object of the embargoes was to assist the Chinese and encourage the Japanese to halt military action in China. The Japanese considered that pulling out of China would result in a loss of face and decided instead to take action against US, British. The Japanese forces for the invasion were assembled in 1941 on Hainan Island, the troop build-up in Indo-China and Hainan was noticed by the Allies and, when asked, the Japanese advised that it related to its operations in China. This battle marked the start of the Pacific War and the start of the Japanese occupation of Malaya. Kota Bharu airport was occupied in the morning, sungai Patani, Butterworth, and Alor Star airports were captured on 9 December 1941. Japanese soldiers landing at Kota Bharu divided into two forces, with one moving down the east coast towards Kuantan, and the other southwards towards the Perak River. On 11 December 1941, the Japanese started bombing Penang, Jitra and then Alor Star fell into Japanese hands on 12 December 1941. The British had to retreat to the south, on 16 December 1941, the British left Penang to the Japanese, who occupied it on 19 December. The Japanese continued to advance southwards, capturing Ipoh on 26 December, fierce resistance to Japanese progress in the Battle of Kampar lasted three days and three nights between 30 December 1941 and 2 January 1942, before the British had to retreat once again. On 7 January 1942, two brigades of the 11th Indian Infantry Division were defeated in the Battle of Slim River, giving the Japanese army easy passage to Kuala Lumpur, the capital of Malaya
3.
1946
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January 6 – A revised and streamlined revival of Kern and Hammersteins Show Boat opens on Broadway at the Ziegfeld Theatre. January 7 – The Allies recognize the Austrian republic with its 1937 borders, january 10 The first meeting of the United Nations is held at Methodist Central Hall Westminster in London. January 11 Enver Hoxha declares the Peoples Republic of Albania, with himself as prime minister, porfirio Barba-Jacobs ashes go back to Colombia. January 16 – Charles de Gaulle resigns as a head of a French provisional government, january 17 The United Nations Security Council holds its first session at Church House, Westminster in London. United States Senator Dennis Chávez calls for a vote on a Fair Employment Practice Committee bill which calls for an end to discrimination in the workplace, a filibuster prevents it from passing. January 19 – The Bell XS-1 is test flown for the first time, january 20 – Charles de Gaulle resigns as president of France. January 22 Iran crisis of 1946, Qazi Muhammad declares the independent peoples Republic of Mahabad at the Chahar Cheragh Square in the Kurdish city of Mahabad and he is the new president, Haji Baba Sheikh is the prime minister. The National Intelligence Authority and its arm the Central Intelligence Group are established in the United States. January 25 – The United Mine Workers rejoins the American Federation of Labor, january 28 – The Canadian schooner Bluenose founders on a Haitian reef. January 31 The last session of the Permanent Court of International Justice occurs, yugoslavias new constitution, modeling the Soviet Union, establishes 6 constituent republics. February 1 Trygve Lie of Norway is selected as the first United Nations Secretary-General, the Kingdom of Hungary becomes a republic, heavily influenced by the Soviet Union. February 14 The Bank of England is nationalized, ENIAC, an early general-purpose electronic computer, is unveiled at the University of Pennsylvania. February 15 – Canada indicts 22 communist agents, february 20 – An explosion kills more than 400 coal miners in West Germany. February 24 – Juan Perón is elected president of Argentina, february 28 – In Philadelphia, General Electric strikers and police clash. March 2 British troops withdraw from Iran according to treaty, the Soviets do not, Ho Chi Minh is elected President of North Vietnam. March 4 – C. G. E. Mannerheim resigns as president of Finland, March 5 – In his speech at Westminster College, in Fulton, Missouri, Winston Churchill talks about the Iron Curtain. March 6 – Vietnam War, Ho Chi Minh signs an agreement with France which recognizes Vietnam as a state in the Indochinese Federation. March 7 – The 18th Academy Awards ceremony is held, Best Picture goes to The Lost Weekend
4.
Straits Settlements
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The Straits Settlements were a group of British territories located in Southeast Asia. Originally established in 1826 as part of the controlled by the British East India Company. The colony was dissolved in 1946 as part of the British reorganisation of its Southeast Asian dependencies following the end of the Second World War, the Straits Settlements originally consisted of the four individual settlements of Malacca, Dinding, Penang and Singapore. The Penang territory included Penang Island, formerly known as Prince of Wales Island, christmas Island and the Cocos Islands were also included. The island of Labuan, off the coast of Borneo, was incorporated into the colony with effect from 1 January 1907. Most of the territories now form part of Malaysia, from which Singapore separated in 1965, the Cocos Islands were transferred to Australian control in 1955. Christmas Island was transferred in 1958 and their administration was combined in 1996 to form the Australian Indian Ocean Territories. This resulted in the exchange of the British settlement of Bencoolen for the Dutch colony of Malacca, the Settlements were largely Chinese in population, with a tiny but important European minority. Their capital was moved from Penang to Singapore in 1832 and their scattered nature proved to be difficult and, after the company lost its monopoly in the china trade in 1833, expensive to administer. During their control by the East India Company, the Settlements were used as penal settlements for Indian civilian and military prisoners, the years 1852 and 1853 saw minor uprisings by convicts in Singapore and Penang. As there was little or no vernacular press in the Settlements, such an act seemed irrelevant, earlier, on 4 February 1867, Letters Patent had granted the Settlements a colonial constitution. Penang and Malacca were administered, directly under the governor, by resident councillors, the Dindings, which included Pangkor Island as well as the towns of Lumut, and Sitiawan, were ceded by Perak to the British government under the Pangkor Treaty of 1874. Province Wellesley, on the mainland opposite the island of Penang, was ceded to Great Britain in 1800 by the Sultan of Kedah, on its northern and eastern border, the boundary with Kedah was rectified by treaty with Siam in 1867. It was administered by an officer, with some assistants. About a tenth of the area was covered by low hills with thick jungle. Large quantities of rice were grown by the Malay inhabitants, the governor of the Straits Settlements was also High Commissioner for the Federated Malay States on the peninsula, for British North Borneo, the sultanate of Brunei and Sarawak in Borneo. Since the administration of the colony of Labuan, which for a period was vested in the British North Borneo Company, was resumed by the British government he was governor of Labuan. During World War II, the Japanese invaded Malaya and the Straits Settlements by landing on Kelantan on 8 December 1941, on 16 December Penang became the first Straits Settlement to fall into Japanese hands
5.
God Save the Queen
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God Save the Queen is the national and/or royal anthem in a number of Commonwealth realms, their territories, and the British Crown Dependencies. The author of the tune is unknown and it may originate in plainchant and it is also the royal anthem of all the aforementioned countries, as well as Australia, Canada, Barbados and Tuvalu. In countries not previously part of the British Empire, the tune of God Save the Queen has provided the basis for various patriotic songs, in the United States, the melody is used for the patriotic song My Country, Tis of Thee. The melody is used for the national anthem of Liechtenstein. Beyond its first verse, which is consistent, God Save the Queen/King has many historic, since its first publication, different verses have been added and taken away and, even today, different publications include various selections of verses in various orders. In general, only one verse is sung, sometimes two verses are sung, and on rare occasions, three. The sovereign and her or his consort are saluted with the entire anthem, the first six bars also form all or part of the Vice Regal Salute in some Commonwealth realms outside the UK, as well as the salute given to governors of British overseas territories. He also points to several pieces by Henry Purcell, one of which includes the notes of the modern tune. Nineteenth-century scholars and commentators mention the widespread belief that an old Scots carol, the first published version of what is almost the present tune appeared in 1744 in Thesaurus Musicus. The 1744 version of the song was popularised in Scotland and England the following year and this manuscript has the tune depart from that which is used today at several points, one as early as the first bar, but is otherwise clearly a strong relative of the contemporary anthem. It was recorded as being sung in London theatres in 1745, with, for example, Scholes analysis includes mention of untenable and doubtful claims, as well as an American misattribution. The surgical knife that was purpose-built for the occasion is on display in the Musée dhistoire de la médecine, lully set words by Marie de Brinon to music, and Créquy claims the tune was later plagiarised by Handel. Translated in Latin under the name Domine, Salvum Fac Regem, after the Battle of Culloden, the Hanover dynasty supposedly then adopted this melody as the British anthem. James Oswald, He is an author of the Thesaurus Musicus, so may have played a part in the history of the song. Dr Henry Carey, Scholes refutes this attribution, first on the grounds that Carey himself never made such a claim, second, when the claim was made by Careys son, it was accompanied by a request for a pension from the British Government on that score. Third, the younger Carey claimed that his father had written parts of it in 1745, Scholes recommends the attribution traditional or traditional, earliest known version by John Bull. The English Hymnal gives no attribution, stating merely 17th or 18th cent, God Save the Queen is the national anthem of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Like many aspects of British constitutional life, its official status derives from custom and use, in general only one or two verses are sung, but on rare occasions three
6.
1837
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As of the start of 1837, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 26 – Michigan becomes the 26th state admitted to the United States, February – Charles Dickenss Oliver Twist begins publication in serial form in London. February 4 – Seminoles attack Fort Foster in Florida, February 25 – In Philadelphia, the Institute for Colored Youth is founded as the first institution for the higher education of black people in the United States. March 4 Martin Van Buren is sworn in as President of the United States, the city of Chicago is incorporated. April 12- The conglomerate of Procter & Gamble has its origins when British-born businessmen William Procter and James Gamble begin selling their first manufactured goods in Cincinnati, may – W. F. Cooke and Charles Wheatstone patented a system of electrical telegraph. May 10 – The Panic of 1837 begins in New York City, june 5 – The city of Houston, is incorporated by the Republic of Texas. June 11 – The Broad Street Riot occurs in Boston, Massachusetts, june 20 – 18-year-old Queen Victoria accedes to the throne of the United Kingdom on the death of her uncle William IV without legitimate heirs. She will reign for more than 63 years, under Salic law, the Kingdom of Hanover passes to Williams brother, Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, ending the personal union of Britain and Hanover which has persisted since 1714. July – Charles W. King sets sail on the American merchant ship Morrison, in the Morrison incident, he is turned away from Japanese ports with cannon fire. July 13 – Queen Victoria moves from Kensington Palace into Buckingham Palace, August 16 – The Dutch sack the fortress of Bonjol, ending the Padri War. September – Battle of Aranzueque, Liberal victory for the loyal to Queen Isabel II of Spain. September 28 – Samuel Morse files a caveat for a patent for the telegraph, October 10 – October 13 – The French army besieges and captures Constantine in French Algeria. October 22 – Henry David Thoreau makes his first journal entry at the suggestion of Ralph Waldo Emerson, november 7 – American abolitionist and newspaper editor Elijah Lovejoy is killed by a pro-slavery mob, at his warehouse in Alton, Illinois. November 8 – Mount Holyoke Female Seminary, later Mount Holyoke College, is founded in South Hadley, november–December – In the Canadas, William Lyon Mackenzie leads the Upper Canada Rebellion and Louis-Joseph Papineau leads the Lower Canada Rebellion. December 17 – Fire in the Winter Palace, Saint Petersburg, december 29 – The Caroline affair on the Niagara River, the basis for the Caroline test for anticipatory self-defence in international relations. At Le Mans, France, Father Basil Moreau, CSC, founds the Congregation of Holy Cross by joining the Brothers of St. Joseph, the 5th century BC Berlin Foundry Cup is acquired for the Antikensammlung Berlin in Germany. Sylvain Charles Valée and French troops capture Skikda, Algeria, January 2 – Mily Balakirev, Russian composer January 7 – Thomas Henry Ismay, English shipowner February 5 Dwight L. S. Lovejoy, American abolitionist undated - Mary Dixon Kies, the first recipient of a U. S. patent Chronicle of Events from August 1836 to September 1837, American Almanac and Repository of Useful Knowledge
7.
1942
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Below, events of World War II have the WWII prefix. United States and Philippines troops fight the Battle of Bataan against Japanese forces, january 2 – WWII, Japanese warplanes bomb Manila, Philippines. Activation of the United States Eighth Air Force in Savannah, Georgia, january 7 – WWII, Operation Typhoon, the German attempt to take Moscow, ends in failure. The siege of the Bataan Peninsula begins, january 11 – WWII, Dutch East Indies campaign, Japan declares war on the Netherlands and invades the Dutch East Indies. Malayan Campaign, The Japanese capture Kuala Lumpur, the capital of the Federated Malay States, january 13 Sikorsky R-4 first flies, in the United States, it will become the first mass-produced helicopter. Heinkel test pilot Helmut Schenk becomes the first person to escape from an aircraft with an ejection seat. January 19 – WWII, Japanese forces invade Burma, establishment of Commands of the United States Eighth Air Force, VIII Bomber Command initially at Langley Field in Virginia and VIII Fighter Command at Selfridge Field in Michigan. January 20 – The Holocaust, Nazis at the Wannsee Conference in Berlin decide that the Final Solution to the Jewish problem is relocation, january 21 – WWII, Erwin Rommel launches his new offensive in Cyrenaica. January 23 – WWII, The Battle of Rabaul begins, january 25 – WWII, Thailand declares war on the United States and United Kingdom. January 26 – WWII, The first American forces arrive in Europe, january 31 – WWII, Malayan Campaign, The last organized Allied forces leave British Malaya, ending the 54-day campaign, and the Johor–Singapore Causeway is severed. February – C. S. Lewiss The Screwtape Letters first published in format in England. February 1 – WWII, The Command staff of the Eighth Air Force reaches England, February 3 – WWII, Rommel suspends his offensive in Cyrenaica. February 7 – United States Maritime Commission fleet operations transferred to the War Shipping Administration, February 8 António Óscar Carmona is elected president of Portugal. WWII, Top United States military leaders hold their first formal meeting to discuss American military strategy in the war, daylight saving time goes into effect in the United States. February 9 – The ocean liner SS Normandie catches fire while being converted into the troopship USS Lafayette for WWII at pier 88 in New York City, she capsizes early the following morning. February 11 – Operation Cerberus, A flotilla of Kriegsmarine ships dash from Brest through the English Channel to northern ports, February 15 – WWII, Singapore surrenders to Japanese forces. February 18 – WWII, More than 200 American sailors die in Newfoundland when the USS Truxtun runs aground near Chambers Cove, February 19 – WWII, Japanese warplanes bomb Darwin, Australia. United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt signs Executive Order 9066 allowing the United States military to define areas as exclusionary zones and these zones affect the Japanese on the West Coast, and Germans and Italians primarily on the East Coast
8.
St Andrew's Cathedral, Singapore
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Saint Andrews Cathedral is an Anglican cathedral in Singapore, the countrys largest cathedral. It is located near City Hall, MRT Interchange in the Downtown Core and it is the Cathedral church of the Anglican Diocese of Singapore and the mother church of her 27 parishes and more than 55 congregations here. The logo of the Cathedral is the St Andrews Cross, the Year 2006 marks the 150th Anniversary of the St Andrews Church Mission since 1856. The church was named Saint Andrew after the saint of Scotland in honour of the Scottish community who had donated to the building fund. The first Saint Andrews Church was designed by George Drumgoole Coleman in the neo-classical style, the foundation stone was laid on 9 November 1835, and the building constructed by 1836. The first church service was conducted on 18 June 1837 by the first chaplain, Reverend Edmund White, after complaints that the church resembled a Town Hall a College or an Assembly Room, a spire was added by John Turnbull Thomson in 1842. The spire however was built without a lightning conductor installed, and it was then declared unsafe and closed in 1852, and subsequently demolished in 1855. The church had a bell known as the Revere Bell, named after Mrs Maria Revere Balestier, the wife of American Consul Joseph Balestier. The construction of a church was initiated by the then Governor of the Straits Settlements William Butterworth. Colonel Ronald MacPherson, the Executive Engineer and Superintendent of convicts, the plan was also simplified so that it may be more easily built by the Indian convict labourers commonly used in building construction in early Singapore. John Bennet was the responsible for the construction. After MacPherson was transferred to Malacca, the completion of the building was overseen by Major John F. A. McNair, John Bennett and W. D. Bayliss. The Rt Rev. Dr Daniel Wilson, Lord Bishop of Calcutta, laid the stone on 4 March 1856. The first service was held on 1 October 1861, Dr George Cotton, who succeeded Bishop Wilson, had the honour of consecrating the church on 25 January 1862. The Saint Andrews Mission was initiated on 25 June 1856, in 1869, the church was transferred from the Diocese of Calcutta to the Diocese of Labuan and Sarawak. In 1870, Archdeacon John Alleyne Beckles consecrated it as the Cathedral Church of the United Diocese, the Revere Bell was replaced by a peal of bells in 1889. The Revere Bell is currently placed in the National Museum of Singapore, the Cathedral is owned by the Synod of the Diocese of Singapore, and the first Anglican bishop, The Right Reverend J. Ferguson-Davie, was appointed in 1909. In 1942, shortly before the fall of Singapore to the Japanese, a Memorial Hall dedicated to those who died in the Second World War was added in 1952
9.
George Town, Penang
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George Town, the capital city of the Malaysian state of Penang, is located at the northeastern tip of Penang Island.5 million. One of the oldest cities in Malaysia, George Town, along with Malacca, was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2008. Established by Captain Francis Light of the British East India Company in 1786, together with Singapore and Malacca, George Town was governed under the Straits Settlements, which later became a British crown colony in 1867. It was subjugated by the Empire of Japan during World War II, shortly before Malaya attained independence from the British Empire in 1957, George Town was declared a city by Queen Elizabeth II, the first city in the countrys modern history. In 2015, the entire Penang Island was also granted city status and it also gained a reputation as Malaysias gastronomic capital, due to its unique and ubiquitous street food. Moreover, the city hosts intangible cultural heritage, such as that of the Peranakan, additionally, George Town is Malaysias most vital medical tourism hub, receiving approximately half of Malaysias medical tourists, many from neighbouring countries such as Indonesia and Singapore. It also serves as the financial hub within northern Malaysia, with numerous Malaysian, an enduring legacy from the British colonial era is the Port of Penang, which still serves the northern region of Malaysia by connecting George Town with over 200 ports worldwide. George Town is also connected to the rest of Peninsular Malaysia via a ferry service, George Town was named after King George III, who was the reigning British monarch when Captain Francis Light first set foot on Penang Island in 1786. The promontory where George Town is now located was known as Tanjung. The name was derived from the name of the place. Light subsequently landed on Penang Island on 17 July 1786, later, Fort Cornwallis was erected at the spot where Light first set foot. For Light, Penang Island was a convenient magazine for trade, at the time, Penang Island was part of the Kedah Sultanate, which was threatened with imminent Siamese and Burmese invasions. After an agreement was sealed between Light and the Sultan, Light returned to Penang Island on 11 August. Upon his arrival, the Union Jack was raised, signifying the formal possession of the island by the British East India Company in the name of His Britannic Majesty, King George III. Penang Island was renamed the Prince of Wales Island after the heir to the British throne, the new settlement of George Town was built out of a swamp. As Fort Cornwallis was being constructed, Light encouraged immigrants to the new settlement by firing silver coins into the jungles and he also introduced George Town as a free port, enticing traders from Dutch ports in the region. The number of incoming vessels rose from 85 in 1786 to 3,569 in 1802, in its early years, George Town was developed in a haphazard manner, as buildings and streets were created on an ad hoc basis. The new settlement was bounded by four streets - Light Street, Beach Street, Chulia Street, Captain Francis Light died from malaria in 1794 and was buried within the Old Protestant cemetery at Northam Road
10.
1832
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As of the start of 1832, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 6 – Abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison founds the New-England Anti-Slavery Society, more than 300 of the slave rebels will be publicly hanged for their part in the destruction. February 9 – The Florida Legislative Council grants a city charter for Jacksonville, february 12 Ecuador annexes the Galápagos Islands. A cholera epidemic in London claims at least 3,000 victims and it spreads to France and North America later in the year. February 28 – Charles Darwin and the crew of HMS Beagle arrive at South America for the first time, march 24 – In Hiram, Ohio, a group of men beat, tar and feather Mormon leader Joseph Smith. April 6 – United States, The Black Hawk War begins, may 7 – The Treaty of London creates an independent Kingdom of Greece. Otto of Wittelsbach, Prince of Bavaria, is chosen King, thus begins the history of modern Greece. May 11 – Greece is recognized as a nation, the Treaty of Constantinople ends the Greek War of Independence in July. May 10 – The Egyptians, aided by Maronites, seize Acre from the Ottoman Empire after a 7-month siege, may 24 – Francois Arban, early French balloonist makes his 1st ascent. May 30 Germany, Hambacher Fest, a demonstration for civil liberties and national unity, canada, The Rideau Canal in eastern Ontario is opened. June 5–6 – France, June Rebellion, anti-monarchist riots, chiefly by students, June 7 – The Reform Act becomes law in the United Kingdom. July 2 – André-Michel Guerry presents his Essay on moral statistics of France, to the French Academy of Sciences, July 4 – Durham University is founded in the north of England by act of Parliament given royal assent by King William IV. July 9 – Commissioner of Indian Affairs post created within the United States Department of War, July 10 – United States Survey of the Coast revived. August 2 – Bad Axe Massacre ends the last major Native American rebellion east of the Mississippi in the U. S. August 17 – China ceases production of iron shuriken, August 27 – Black Hawk surrenders to the United States authorities, ending the Black Hawk War. The area ceded includes the entire northern one-sixth of the state of Mississippi, November 14 – Charles Carroll, the last surviving signer of the Declaration of Independence dies at his home in Maryland at age 95. November 21 – Wabash College, a small, private, liberal arts college for men, is founded. On December 10, U. S. President Andrew Jackson responds to the Nullification Crisis to by threatening to send the U. S. Army, December 3 – U. S. presidential election,1832, Andrew Jackson is re-elected president. December 4 – Battle of Antwerp, The last remaining Dutch enforcement, December 21 – Battle of Konya, The Egyptians defeat the main Ottoman army in central Anatolia
11.
Singapore in the Straits Settlements
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Singapore in the Straits Settlements refers to a period in the history of Singapore from 1826 to 1942, during which Singapore was part of the Straits Settlements together with Penang and Malacca. From 1830 to 1867, the Straits Settlements was a residency, or subdivision, of the Presidency of Bengal, in 1867, the Straits Settlements became a separate Crown colony, directly overseen by the Colonial Office in Whitehall in London. The period saw Singapore establish itself as an important trading port, British rule was suspended in February 1942, when the Imperial Japanese Army invaded Singapore during World War II. In 1819, British official Stamford Raffles landed in Singapore to establish a trading port, by 1822, it was made clear to the Dutch that the British had no intention of giving up the island. The status of Singapore as a British possession was cemented by the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824, which carved up the Malay archipelago between the two colonial powers. The area north of the Straits of Malacca, including Penang, Malacca and Singapore, was designated as the British sphere of influence, while the area south of the Straits was assigned to the Dutch. This division had far-reaching consequences for the region, modern-day Malaysia and Singapore correspond to the British area established in the treaty, and modern-day Indonesia to the Dutch. In 1826, Singapore was grouped together with Penang and Malacca into an administrative unit. In 1830, the Straits Settlements became a residency, or subdivision, of the Presidency of Bengal, during the subsequent decades, Singapore grew to become one of the most important ports in the world. Several events during this period contributed to its success, British intervention in the Malay peninsula from the 1820s onwards culminated, during the 1870s, in the formation of British Malaya. During this period, Malaya became an important producer of rubber and tin. Singapore also served as the centre for Malaya until the 1880s. In 1834, the British government ended the East India Companys monopoly on the China trade, allowing other British companies to enter the market, the trade with China was opened with the signing of the Unequal Treaties, beginning in 1842. The advent of ocean-going steamships, which were faster and had a larger capacity than sailing ships, reduced transportation costs, Singapore also benefited by acting as a coaling station for the Royal Navy and merchant ships. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 dramatically reduced the time from Europe to East Asia. By 1880, over 1.5 million tons of goods were passing through Singapore each year, with around 80% of it transported by steamships, the main commercial activity was entrepôt trade which flourished under no taxation and little restriction. Many merchant houses were set up in Singapore mainly by European trading firms, there were also many Chinese middlemen who handled most of the trade between the European and Asian merchants. Despite Singapores growing importance, the set up to govern the island was generally understaffed, poorly funded, weak
12.
Malay language
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Malay is a major language of the Austronesian family. It has a status in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia. As the Bahasa Kebangsaan or Bahasa Nasional of several states, Standard Malay has various official names, in Singapore and Brunei it is called Bahasa Melayu, in Malaysia, Bahasa Malaysia, and in Indonesia, Bahasa Indonesia and is designated the Bahasa Persatuan/Pemersatu. However, in areas of central to southern Sumatra where the language is indigenous, Indonesians refer to it as Bahasa Melayu and consider it one of their regional languages. There are also several Malay trade and creole languages which are based on a lingua franca derived from Classical Malay, as well as Macassar Malay, Malay historical linguists agree on the likelihood of the Malay homeland being in western Borneo stretching to the Bruneian coast. A form known as Proto-Malay language was spoken in Borneo at least by 1000 BCE and was, it has been argued, the ancestral language of all subsequent Malayan languages. The history of the Malay language can be divided into five periods, Old Malay, the Transitional Period, the Malacca Period, Late Modern Malay and it is not clear that Old Malay was actually the ancestor of Classical Malay, but this is thought to be quite possible. Old Malay was influenced by Sanskrit literary language of Classical India, Sanskrit loanwords can be found in Old Malay vocabulary. Batenburg on November 29,1920 at Kedukan Bukit, South Sumatra, on the banks of the Tatang and it is a small stone of 45 by 80 centimetres. The earliest surviving manuscript in Malay is the Tanjong Tanah Law in post-Pallava letters and this 14th-century pre-Islamic legal text produced in the Adityawarman era of Dharmasraya, a Hindu-Buddhist kingdom that arose after the end of Srivijayan rule in Sumatra. The laws were for the Minangkabau people, who still live in the highlands of Sumatra. The Malay language came into use as the lingua franca of the Malacca Sultanate. During this period, the Malay language developed rapidly under the influence of Islamic literature, the development changed the nature of the language with massive infusion of Arabic, Malayalam and Sanskrit vocabularies, called Classical Malay. Under the Sultanate of Malacca the language evolved into a form recognisable to speakers of modern Malay, however, there is no connection between Malaccan Malay as used on Riau and the Riau vernacular. One of the oldest surviving letters written in Malay is a letter from Sultan Abu Hayat of Ternate, Maluku Islands in present-day Indonesia, the letter is addressed to the king of Portugal, following contact with Portuguese explorer Francisco Serrão. The letters show sign of non-native usage, the Ternateans used the unrelated Ternate language, Malay was used solely as a lingua franca for inter-ethnic communications. Malay is a member of the Austronesian family of languages, which includes languages from Southeast Asia, malagasy, a geographic outlier spoken in Madagascar in the Indian Ocean, is also a member of this language family. Although each language of the family is mutually unintelligible, their similarities are rather striking, many roots have come virtually unchanged from their common ancestor, Proto-Austronesian language
13.
Chinese language
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Chinese is a group of related, but in many cases mutually unintelligible, language varieties, forming a branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. Chinese is spoken by the Han majority and many ethnic groups in China. Nearly 1.2 billion people speak some form of Chinese as their first language, the varieties of Chinese are usually described by native speakers as dialects of a single Chinese language, but linguists note that they are as diverse as a language family. The internal diversity of Chinese has been likened to that of the Romance languages, There are between 7 and 13 main regional groups of Chinese, of which the most spoken by far is Mandarin, followed by Wu, Min, and Yue. Most of these groups are mutually unintelligible, although some, like Xiang and certain Southwest Mandarin dialects, may share common terms, all varieties of Chinese are tonal and analytic. Standard Chinese is a form of spoken Chinese based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. It is the language of China and Taiwan, as well as one of four official languages of Singapore. It is one of the six languages of the United Nations. The written form of the language, based on the logograms known as Chinese characters, is shared by literate speakers of otherwise unintelligible dialects. Of the other varieties of Chinese, Cantonese is the spoken language and official in Hong Kong and Macau. It is also influential in Guangdong province and much of Guangxi, dialects of Southern Min, part of the Min group, are widely spoken in southern Fujian, with notable variants also spoken in neighboring Taiwan and in Southeast Asia. Hakka also has a diaspora in Taiwan and southeast Asia. Shanghainese and other Wu varieties are prominent in the lower Yangtze region of eastern China, Chinese can be traced back to a hypothetical Sino-Tibetan proto-language. The first written records appeared over 3,000 years ago during the Shang dynasty, as the language evolved over this period, the various local varieties became mutually unintelligible. In reaction, central governments have sought to promulgate a unified standard. Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of inflection in many of them, in addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach, and are often also sensitive border zones. Without a secure reconstruction of proto-Sino-Tibetan, the structure of the family remains unclear. A top-level branching into Chinese and Tibeto-Burman languages is often assumed, the earliest examples of Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones from around 1250 BCE in the late Shang dynasty
14.
Tamil language
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Tamil is a Dravidian language predominantly spoken by the Tamil people of India and Sri Lanka, and also by the Tamil diaspora, Sri Lankan Moors, Burghers, Douglas, and Chindians. Tamil is a language of two countries, Singapore and Sri Lanka. It has official status in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and it is also used as one of the languages of education in Malaysia, along with English, Malay and Mandarin. Tamil is also spoken by significant minorities in the four other South Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana and it is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India. Tamil is one of the classical languages in the world. Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions from 500 BC have been found on Adichanallur and 2 and it has been described as the only language of contemporary India which is recognizably continuous with a classical past. The variety and quality of classical Tamil literature has led to it being described as one of the classical traditions. A recorded Tamil literature has been documented for over 2000 years, the earliest period of Tamil literature, Sangam literature, is dated from ca.300 BC – AD300. It has the oldest extant literature among other Dravidian languages, the earliest epigraphic records found on rock edicts and hero stones date from around the 3rd century BC. More than 55% of the inscriptions found by the Archaeological Survey of India are in the Tamil language. Tamil language inscriptions written in Brahmi script have been discovered in Sri Lanka, the two earliest manuscripts from India, acknowledged and registered by the UNESCO Memory of the World register in 1997 and 2005, were written in Tamil. In 1578, Portuguese Christian missionaries published a Tamil prayer book in old Tamil script named Thambiraan Vanakkam, the Tamil Lexicon, published by the University of Madras, was one of the earliest dictionaries published in the Indian languages. According to a 2001 survey, there were 1,863 newspapers published in Tamil, Tamil belongs to the southern branch of the Dravidian languages, a family of around 26 languages native to the Indian subcontinent. It is also classified as being part of a Tamil language family, the closest major relative of Tamil is Malayalam, the two began diverging around the 9th century CE. According to linguists like Bhadriraju Krishnamurti, Tamil, as a Dravidian language, descends from Proto-Dravidian, linguistic reconstruction suggests that Proto-Dravidian was spoken around the third millennium BC, possibly in the region around the lower Godavari river basin in peninsular India. The material evidence suggests that the speakers of Proto-Dravidian were of the associated with the Neolithic complexes of South India. The next phase in the reconstructed proto-history of Tamil is Proto-South Dravidian, the linguistic evidence suggests that Proto-South Dravidian was spoken around the middle of the second millennium BC, and that proto-Tamil emerged around the 3rd century BC. The earliest epigraphic attestations of Tamil are generally taken to have been shortly thereafter
15.
East India Company
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The company also ruled the beginnings of the British Empire in India. The company received a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600, wealthy merchants and aristocrats owned the Companys shares. Initially the government owned no shares and had only indirect control, during its first century of operation the focus of the Company was trade, not the building of an empire in India. The company eventually came to rule large areas of India with its own armies, exercising military power. Despite frequent government intervention, the company had recurring problems with its finances, the official government machinery of British India had assumed its governmental functions and absorbed its armies. Soon after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, London merchants presented a petition to Queen Elizabeth I for permission to sail to the Indian Ocean, one of them, Edward Bonventure, then sailed around Cape Comorin to the Malay Peninsula and returned to England in 1594. In 1596, three ships sailed east, however, these were all lost at sea. Two days later, on 24 September, the Adventurers reconvened and resolved to apply to the Queen for support of the project, the Adventurers convened again a year later. For a period of fifteen years the charter awarded the newly formed company a monopoly on trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. Anybody who traded in breach of the charter without a licence from the Company was liable to forfeiture of their ships and cargo, the governance of the company was in the hands of one governor and 24 directors or committees, who made up the Court of Directors. They, in turn, reported to the Court of Proprietors, ten committees reported to the Court of Directors. According to tradition, business was transacted at the Nags Head Inn, opposite St Botolphs church in Bishopsgate. Sir James Lancaster commanded the first East India Company voyage in 1601, in March 1604 Sir Henry Middleton commanded the second voyage. Early in 1608 Alexander Sharpeigh was appointed captain of the Companys Ascension, thereafter two ships, Ascension and Union sailed from Woolwich on 14 March 1607–8. Initially, the company struggled in the trade because of the competition from the already well-established Dutch East India Company. The company opened a factory in Bantam on the first voyage, the factory in Bantam was closed in 1683. During this time belonging to the company arriving in India docked at Surat. In the next two years, the company established its first factory in south India in the town of Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal
16.
Constitutional monarchy
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A constitutional monarchy is a form of monarchy in which the sovereign exercises their authorities in accordance with a written or unwritten constitution. A constitutional monarchy may refer to a system in which the acts as a non-party political head of state under the constitution. Political scientist Vernon Bogdanor, paraphrasing Thomas Macaulay, has defined a constitutional monarch as a sovereign who reigns, in addition to acting as a visible symbol of national unity, a constitutional monarch may hold formal powers such as dissolving parliament or giving royal assent to legislation. Many constitutional monarchies still retain significant authorities or political influence however, such as through certain reserve powers, the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms are all constitutional monarchies in the Westminster tradition of constitutional governance. Three states – Malaysia, Cambodia and the Holy See – are elective monarchies, the oldest constitutional monarchy dating back to ancient times was that of the Hittites. These were scattered noble families that worked as representatives of their subjects in an adjutant or subaltern federal-type landscape, the most recent country to move from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy was Bhutan, between 2007 and 2008. At the same time, in Scotland the Convention of Estates enacted the Claim of Right Act 1689, although Queen Anne was the last monarch to veto an Act of Parliament when in 1707 she blocked the Scottish Militia Bill, Hanoverian monarchs continued to selectively dictate government policies. For instance George III constantly blocked Catholic Emancipation, eventually precipitating the resignation of William Pitt the Younger as Prime Minister in 1801, Queen Victoria was the last monarch to exercise real personal power but this diminished over the course of her reign. In 1839 she became the last sovereign to keep a Prime Minister in power against the will of Parliament when the Bedchamber crisis resulted in the retention of Lord Melbournes administration, today, the role of the British monarch is by convention effectively ceremonial. No person may accept significant public office without swearing an oath of allegiance to the Queen, with few exceptions, the monarch is bound by constitutional convention to act on the advice of the Government. Constitutional monarchy also occurred briefly in the years of the French Revolution. As originally conceived, a monarch was head of the executive branch and quite a powerful figure even though his or her power was limited by the constitution. In many cases the monarchs, while still at the top of the political and social hierarchy, were given the status of servants of the people to reflect the new. In the course of Frances July Monarchy, Louis-Philippe I was styled King of the French rather than King of France, following the Unification of Germany, Otto von Bismarck rejected the British model. However this model of constitutional monarchy was discredited and abolished following Germanys defeat in the First World War. Later, Fascist Italy could also be considered as a constitutional monarchy and this eventually discredited the Italian monarchy and led to its abolition in 1946. After the Second World War, surviving European monarchies almost invariably adopted some variant of the constitutional monarchy model originally developed in Britain, nowadays a parliamentary democracy that is a constitutional monarchy is considered to differ from one that is a republic only in detail rather than in substance. However, three important factors distinguish monarchies such as the United Kingdom from systems where greater power might otherwise rest with Parliament, other privileges may be nominal or ceremonial
17.
George IV of the United Kingdom
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George IV was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and of Hanover following the death of his father, George III, on 29 January 1820, until his own death ten years later. From 1811 until his accession, he served as Prince Regent during his fathers mental illness. George IV led an extravagant lifestyle that contributed to the fashions of the Regency era and he was a patron of new forms of leisure, style and taste. He commissioned John Nash to build the Royal Pavilion in Brighton and remodel Buckingham Palace and he even forbade Caroline to attend his coronation and asked the government to introduce the unpopular Pains and Penalties Bill in a desperate, unsuccessful attempt to divorce her. For most of Georges regency and reign, Lord Liverpool controlled the government as Prime Minister and his ministers found his behaviour selfish, unreliable and irresponsible. At all times he was much under the influence of favourites, taxpayers were angry at his wasteful spending at a time when Britons were fighting in the Napoleonic Wars. He did not provide leadership in time of crisis, nor act as a role model for his people. Liverpools government presided over Britains ultimate victory, negotiated the peace settlement, after Liverpools retirement, George was forced to accept Catholic emancipation despite opposing it. His only child, Princess Charlotte, died before him in 1817 and so he was succeeded by his younger brother, George was born at St Jamess Palace, London, on 12 August 1762, the first child of King George III of the United Kingdom and Queen Charlotte. As the eldest son of a British sovereign, he automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay at birth, he was created Prince of Wales, on 18 September of the same year, he was baptised by Thomas Secker, Archbishop of Canterbury. His godparents were the Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, the Duke of Cumberland, George was a talented student, and quickly learned to speak French, German and Italian, in addition to his native English. He was a witty conversationalist, drunk or sober, and showed good, the Prince of Wales turned 21 in 1783, and obtained a grant of £60,000 from Parliament and an annual income of £50,000 from his father. It was far too little for his needs – the stables alone cost £31,000 a year and he then established his residence in Carlton House, where he lived a profligate life. Animosity developed between the prince and his father, who desired more frugal behaviour on the part of the heir apparent, the King, a political conservative, was also alienated by the princes adherence to Charles James Fox and other radically inclined politicians. Soon after he reached the age of 21, the prince became infatuated with Maria Fitzherbert and she was a commoner, six years his elder, twice widowed, and a Roman Catholic. Despite her complete unsuitability, the prince was determined to marry her, nevertheless, the couple went through a marriage ceremony on 15 December 1785 at her house in Park Street, Mayfair. Legally the union was void, as the Kings consent was not granted, however, Fitzherbert believed that she was the princes canonical and true wife, holding the law of the Church to be superior to the law of the State. For political reasons, the union remained secret and Fitzherbert promised not to reveal it, the prince was plunged into debt by his exorbitant lifestyle
18.
William IV of the United Kingdom
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William IV was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and King of Hanover from 26 June 1830 until his death. The third son of George III and younger brother and successor to George IV, he was the last king, William served in the Royal Navy in his youth and was, both during his reign and afterwards, nicknamed the Sailor King. He served in North America and the Caribbean, in 1789, he was created Duke of Clarence and St Andrews. Since his two brothers died without leaving legitimate issue, he inherited the throne when he was 64 years old. Although William did not engage in politics as much as his brother or his father, through his brother, the Viceroy of Hanover, he granted his German kingdom a short-lived liberal constitution. William was succeeded in the United Kingdom by his niece, Victoria, William was born in the early hours of the morning on 21 August 1765 at Buckingham House, the third child and son of King George III and Queen Charlotte. He had two brothers, George and Frederick, and was not expected to inherit the Crown. He was baptised in the Great Council Chamber of St Jamess Palace on 20 September 1765 and his godparents were his paternal uncles, the Duke of Gloucester and Prince Henry, and his paternal aunt, Princess Augusta, then hereditary duchess of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. He spent most of his life in Richmond and at Kew Palace. At the age of thirteen, he joined the Royal Navy as a midshipman and his experiences in the navy seem to have been little different from those of other midshipmen, though in contrast to other sailors he was accompanied on board ships by a tutor. He did his share of the cooking and got arrested with his shipmates after a brawl in Gibraltar. He served in New York during the American War of Independence, I am fully persuaded, that it is unnecessary to caution you against offering insult or indignity to the persons of the Prince or Admiral. The plot did not come to fruition, the British heard of it and assigned guards to William and he became a lieutenant in 1785 and captain of HMS Pegasus the following year. The two were friends, and dined together almost nightly. At Nelsons wedding, William insisted on giving the bride away and he was given command of the frigate HMS Andromeda in 1788, and was promoted to rear-admiral in command of HMS Valiant the following year. William sought to be made a duke like his brothers, and to receive a similar parliamentary grant. To put pressure on him, William threatened to stand for the House of Commons for the constituency of Totnes in Devon, Williams political record was inconsistent and, like many politicians of the time, cannot be certainly ascribed to a single party. William ceased his active service in the Royal Navy in 1790, the following year he spoke in favour of the war, expecting a command after his change of heart, none came
19.
Queen Victoria
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Victoria was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she adopted the title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, both the Duke of Kent and King George III died in 1820, and Victoria was raised under close supervision by her German-born mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. She inherited the throne aged 18, after her fathers three brothers had all died, leaving no surviving legitimate children. The United Kingdom was already a constitutional monarchy, in which the sovereign held relatively little direct political power. Privately, Victoria attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments, publicly, Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, tying them together, after Alberts death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, republicanism temporarily gained strength and her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration. Her reign of 63 years and seven months is known as the Victorian era and it was a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover and her son and successor, Edward VII, belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the line of his father. Victorias father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, until 1817, Edwards niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was the only legitimate grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent. In 1818 he married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl and Feodora —by her first marriage to the Prince of Leiningen and her brother Leopold was Princess Charlottes widower. The Duke and Duchess of Kents only child, Victoria, was born at 4.15 a. m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London. Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace and she was baptised Alexandrina, after one of her godparents, Emperor Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina, Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of the Dukes eldest brother, George, the Duke of Clarence and the Duke of Kent married on the same day in 1818, but both of Clarences daughters died as infants. Victorias father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old, a week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son, George IV. The Duke of York died in 1827, when George IV died in 1830, he was succeeded by his next surviving brother, William IV, and Victoria became heir presumptive
20.
Edward VII
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Edward VII was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions and Emperor of India from 22 January 1901 until his death in 1910. The eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, before his accession to the throne, he served as heir apparent and held the title of Prince of Wales for longer than any of his predecessors. During the long reign of his mother, he was excluded from political power. He travelled throughout Britain performing ceremonial duties, and represented Britain on visits abroad. His tours of North America in 1860 and the Indian subcontinent in 1875 were popular successes, as king, Edward played a role in the modernisation of the British Home Fleet and the reorganisation of the British Army after the Second Boer War. He reinstituted traditional ceremonies as public displays and broadened the range of people with whom royalty socialised and he died in 1910 in the midst of a constitutional crisis that was resolved the following year by the Parliament Act 1911, which restricted the power of the unelected House of Lords. Edward was born at 10,48 in the morning on 9 November 1841 in Buckingham Palace and he was the eldest son and second child of Queen Victoria and her husband Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. He was christened Albert Edward at St Georges Chapel, Windsor Castle and he was named Albert after his father and Edward after his maternal grandfather Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn. He was known as Bertie to the family throughout his life. As the eldest son of the British sovereign, he was automatically Duke of Cornwall, as a son of Prince Albert, he also held the titles of Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Duke of Saxony. He was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester on 8 December 1841, Earl of Dublin on 17 January 1850, a Knight of the Garter on 9 November 1858, and a Knight of the Thistle on 24 May 1867. In 1863, he renounced his rights to the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in favour of his younger brother. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert were determined that their eldest son should have an education that would prepare him to be a constitutional monarch. At age seven, Edward embarked on an educational programme devised by Prince Albert. Unlike his elder sister Victoria, Edward did not excel in his studies and he tried to meet the expectations of his parents, but to no avail. Although Edward was not a diligent student—his true talents were those of charm, sociability and tact—Benjamin Disraeli described him as informed, intelligent, after the completion of his secondary-level studies, his tutor was replaced by a personal governor, Robert Bruce. After an educational trip to Rome, undertaken in the first few months of 1859, he spent the summer of that year studying at the University of Edinburgh under, among others, in October, he matriculated as an undergraduate at Christ Church, Oxford. Now released from the strictures imposed by his parents, he enjoyed studying for the first time
21.
George V
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George V was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, and Emperor of India, from 6 May 1910 until his death in 1936. He was the son of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales. From the time of his birth, he was third in the line of succession behind his father and his own brother, Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence. From 1877 to 1891, George served in the Royal Navy, on the death of his grandmother in 1901, Georges father became King-Emperor of the British Empire, and George was created Prince of Wales. He succeeded his father in 1910 and he was the only Emperor of India to be present at his own Delhi Durbar. His reign saw the rise of socialism, communism, fascism, Irish republicanism, the Parliament Act 1911 established the supremacy of the elected British House of Commons over the unelected House of Lords. In 1917, George became the first monarch of the House of Windsor, in 1924 he appointed the first Labour ministry and in 1931 the Statute of Westminster recognised the dominions of the Empire as separate, independent states within the Commonwealth of Nations. He had health problems throughout much of his reign and at his death was succeeded by his eldest son. George was born on 3 June 1865, in Marlborough House and he was the second son of the Prince and Princess of Wales, Albert Edward and Alexandra. His father was the eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and he was baptised at Windsor Castle on 7 July 1865 by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Longley. As a younger son of the Prince of Wales, there was expectation that George would become king. He was third in line to the throne, after his father and elder brother, George was only 17 months younger than Albert Victor, and the two princes were educated together. John Neale Dalton was appointed as their tutor in 1871, neither Albert Victor nor George excelled intellectually. For three years from 1879, the brothers served on HMS Bacchante, accompanied by Dalton. They toured the colonies of the British Empire in the Caribbean, South Africa and Australia, and visited Norfolk, Virginia, as well as South America, the Mediterranean, Egypt, Dalton wrote an account of their journey entitled The Cruise of HMS Bacchante. Between Melbourne and Sydney, Dalton recorded a sighting of the Flying Dutchman, after Lausanne, the brothers were separated, Albert Victor attended Trinity College, Cambridge, while George continued in the Royal Navy. He travelled the world, visiting many areas of the British Empire, during his naval career he commanded Torpedo Boat 79 in home waters then HMS Thrush on the North America station, before his last active service in command of HMS Melampus in 1891–92. From then on, his rank was largely honorary
22.
Edward VIII
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Edward VIII was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Empire, and Emperor of India, from 20 January 1936 until his abdication on 11 December the same year. Edward was the eldest son of George V and Mary of Teck and he was named Prince of Wales on his sixteenth birthday, nine weeks after his father succeeded as king. As a young man, he served in the British Army during the First World War, Edward became king on his fathers death in early 1936. However, he showed impatience with court protocol, and caused concern among politicians by his apparent disregard for established constitutional conventions. Only months into his reign, he caused a crisis by proposing marriage to Wallis Simpson. When it became apparent that he could not marry Wallis and remain on the throne and he was succeeded by his younger brother, George VI. With a reign of 326 days, Edward was one of the monarchs in British history. After his abdication, he was created Duke of Windsor and he married Wallis in France on 3 June 1937, after her second divorce became final. Later that year, the couple toured Germany, after the war, Edward spent the rest of his life in retirement in France. Edward was born on 23 June 1894 at White Lodge, Richmond Park and he was the eldest son of the Duke and Duchess of York. His father was the son of the Prince and Princess of Wales and his mother was the eldest daughter of Francis and Mary Adelaide, Duke and Duchess of Teck. At the time of his birth, he was third in the line of succession to the throne and he was baptised Edward Albert Christian George Andrew Patrick David in the Green Drawing Room of White Lodge on 16 July 1894 by Edward White Benson, Archbishop of Canterbury. The names were chosen in honour of Edwards late uncle, who was known to his family as Eddy or Edward and he was always known to his family and close friends by his last given name, David. As was common practice with children of the time, Edward. One of Edwards early nannies often abused him by pinching him before he was due to be presented to his parents and his subsequent crying and wailing would lead the Duke and Duchess to send him and the nanny away. The nanny was discharged after her mistreatment of the children was discovered, Edwards father, though a harsh disciplinarian, was demonstrably affectionate, and his mother displayed a frolicsome side with her children that belied her austere public image. She was amused by the children making tadpoles on toast for their French master, initially Edward was tutored at home by Helen Bricka. Upon his parents return, Edward was placed under the care of two men, Frederick Finch and Henry Hansell, who brought up Edward and his brothers
23.
George VI
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George VI was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Commonwealth from 11 December 1936 until his death. He was the last Emperor of India and the first Head of the Commonwealth, known as Albert until his accession, George VI was born in the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria, and was named after his great-grandfather Albert, Prince Consort. As the second son of King George V, he was not expected to inherit the throne and spent his life in the shadow of his elder brother. He attended naval college as a teenager, and served in the Royal Navy, in 1920, he was made Duke of York. He married Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon in 1923 and they had two daughters, Elizabeth and Margaret, in the mid-1920s, he had speech therapy for a stammer, which he never fully overcame. Georges elder brother ascended the throne as Edward VIII upon the death of their father in 1936, however, later that year Edward revealed his desire to marry divorced American socialite Wallis Simpson. British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin advised Edward that for political and religious reasons he could not marry a divorced woman, Edward abdicated in order to marry, and George ascended the throne as the third monarch of the House of Windsor. During Georges reign, the break-up of the British Empire and its transition into the Commonwealth of Nations accelerated, the parliament of the Irish Free State removed direct mention of the monarch from the countrys constitution on the day of his accession. The following year, a new Irish constitution changed the name of the state to Ireland, from 1939, the Empire and Commonwealth – except Ireland – was at war with Nazi Germany. War with Italy and Japan followed in 1940 and 1941, respectively, though Britain and its allies were ultimately victorious in 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union rose as pre-eminent world powers and the British Empire declined. After the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, George remained king of countries, but relinquished the title of Emperor of India in June 1948. Ireland formally declared itself a republic and left the Commonwealth in 1949, George adopted the new title of Head of the Commonwealth. He was beset by problems in the later years of his reign. He was succeeded by his eldest daughter, Elizabeth II, George was born at York Cottage, on the Sandringham Estate in Norfolk, during the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria. His father was Prince George, Duke of York, the second and eldest-surviving son of the Prince and his mother was the Duchess of York, the eldest child and only daughter of the Duke and Duchess of Teck. His birthday was the 34th anniversary of the death of his great-grandfather, Albert, uncertain of how the Prince Consorts widow, Queen Victoria, would take the news of the birth, the Prince of Wales wrote to the Duke of York that the Queen had been rather distressed. Two days later, he again, I really think it would gratify her if you yourself proposed the name Albert to her. Consequently, he was baptised Albert Frederick Arthur George at St. Mary Magdalenes Church near Sandringham three months later, within the family, he was known informally as Bertie
24.
Robert Fullerton
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Robert Fullerton was a governor of Penang and also the first governor of Straits Settlements, appointed by the Colonial Office, London. He died in 1831 in London, England and he was born in Edinburgh the son of William Fullerton of Carstairs and raised on Nicolson Street in the citys south side. He was one of children including his younger brother John Fullerton. His elder sister Elizabeth married William Fullerton Elphinstone, a director of the East India Company and this influential connection probably contributed greatly to his career. He died in London in 1831, the governor of the Straits Settlements was assisted by three resident councillors, the resident councillor of Penang, the resident councillor of Malacca and the resident councillor of Singapore. Robert Fullerton became the first governor of the Straits Settlements, based in Penang, the departure of the last governor is also recorded in the Gazette. He is credited with the creation of the system in the Straits Settlements – Buckley stated that the first trace of subsequent municipalities can be traced to 1827. Governor of Penang Biography of Robert Fullerton Biography on Singapore Infopedia
25.
Shenton Thomas
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Sir Thomas Shenton Whitelegge Thomas GCMG GCStJ commonly known as Sir Shenton Thomas, was the last Governor of the Straits Settlements. He served from 1934 to 1942, during which time the Second World War broke out, and again from September 1945 to April 1946, when the Straits Settlements was dissolved. Shenton Thomas was born on 10 October 1879, in Southwark, London to The Rev Thomas William Thomas and he was educated at St. Johns School, Leatherhead and Queens College, Cambridge. He taught at Aysgarth School in Yorkshire prior to entering the Colonial Service, before he went to Malaya as the colonial administrator, Thomas was the Governor of Nyasaland from 1929 to 1932. He was made a Knight Grand Cross of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael, Thomas was a prisoner-of-war during the Japanese occupation of Singapore having decided to stay in Singapore during the war. He was imprisoned in Cell 24 of Changi Prison along with Ernest Tipson, Thomas established the King George V Park in Malaya. Today, Shenton Way, located in Singapores business district, is named after him, Thomas died on 15 January 1962, at his home in London. Shenton Way, a road in Singapores central business district, was named after him
26.
British Empire
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The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the population at the time. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread, during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, after the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain, the British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies, during the 19th Century, Britains population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britains economic lead, subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain, although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britains colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan, despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire, fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again
27.
Crown Colony of Labuan
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Labuan, made up of the main Labuan Island and six smaller islands. Since 15th century, Labuan was part of Brunei and the became the shelter for the ships from storms. Later on in 1846, Labuan was ceded to Great Britain in 1848 to become a Crown colony under the Treaty of Labuan, in 1890, it came to be administered by the British North Borneo Company. It was reverted to British government rule in 1904, then, on 1 January 1907, it joined the Straits Settlements and had been administered from Singapore, the capital of the Straits Settlements. During World War II, Labuan was occupied by Japan from December 1941 to June 1945, Labuan was renamed Maida Island after Marquis Toshinari Maeda, the first commander of Japanese forces in northern Borneo. The liberation of Borneo began on 10 June 1945 when the Allied Forces under the command of General McArthur landed at Labuan with a convoy of 100 ships, the 9th Australian Division launched an attack supported by massive air and sea bombardments that resulted in the surrender of the Japanese. On 9 September 1945, General Masao Baba, commander of Japanese military, surrendered at the Layang-layang beach before Major General George F. Wooten, Labuan was later separated from Sabah, becoming a Federal Territory, administered by the federal government, on 16 April 1984. 1846 Treaty of Labuan, officially became Crown colony to Great Britain,1890 Incorporated into the territory of the British North Borneo Company which in 1881 had taken over land previously part of Brunei. 1906 The boundaries of the Straits Settlements were extended to include the Colony of Labuan,1907 Became part of the Straits Settlements. 1946 Labuan returned to the Crown Colony of North Borneo,1963 Became part of Sabah and Malaysia. 1984 Ceded to Federal Government by Sabah and made into Federal Territory
28.
Battle of Singapore
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Singapore was the major British military base in South-East Asia and was the keystone of British imperial interwar defence planning for South-East Asia as well as the South-West Pacific. The fighting in Singapore lasted from 8 to 15 February 1942 although this was preceded by two months of British resistance as Japanese forces advanced down the Malaya peninsula and it resulted in the Japanese capture of Singapore and the largest surrender of British-led military personnel in history. About 80,000 British, Indian and Australian troops became prisoners of war, the British prime minister, Winston Churchill, called it the worst disaster in British military history. During 1940 and 1941, the Allies had imposed an embargo on Japan in response to its continued campaigns in China. The Japanese were encouraged to choose war by their intelligence, in December 1940, the Germans handed over copies of the papers to the Japanese. As a part of process, the Japanese planners determined a broad scheme of manoeuvre that incorporated simultaneous attacks on the British. In addition, strikes would be made against the United States naval fleet at Pearl Harbor, as well as landings in the Philippines, and attacks on Guam, Wake Island and the Gilbert Islands. With this perimeter, it was intended to block Allied attempts to regain the lost territory, the Japanese 25th Army invaded from Indochina, moving into northern Malaya and Thailand by amphibious assault on 8 December 1941. This was virtually simultaneous with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor which precipitated the United States entry in to the war, Thailand initially resisted, but soon had to yield. The Japanese then proceeded overland across the Thai–Malayan border to attack Malaya, at this time, the Japanese began bombing strategic sites in Singapore. The Japanese 25th Army was resisted in northern Malaya by III Corps of the British Indian Army, although the 25th Army was outnumbered by Allied forces in Malaya and Singapore, Japanese commanders concentrated their forces. The Japanese were superior in close air support, armour, co-ordination, tactics, prior to the Battle of Singapore the most resistance was met at the Battle of Muar, which involved the Australian 8th Division and the Indian 45th Brigade. At the start of the campaign, the Allied forces had only 164 first-line aircraft on hand in Malaya and Singapore, and these aircraft were operated by two Royal Australian Air Force, two Royal Air Force, and one Royal New Zealand Air Force squadron. Major shortcomings included a slow rate of climb and the fuel system which required the pilot to hand pump fuel if flying above 6,000 feet. Their fighter aircraft were superior to the Allied fighters, which helped the Japanese to gain air supremacy, Japanese forces quickly isolated, surrounded, and forced the surrender of Indian units defending the coast. They advanced down the Malayan peninsula overwhelming the defences, despite their numerical inferiority, the Japanese forces also used bicycle infantry and light tanks, allowing swift movement through the jungle. The Allies, however, having thought the terrain made them impractical, had no tanks, and only a few armoured vehicles, although more Allied units—including some from the Australian 8th Division—joined the campaign, the Japanese prevented the Allied forces from regrouping. They also overran cities and advanced toward Singapore, the city was an anchor for the operations of the American-British-Dutch-Australian Command, the first Allied joint command of the Second World War
29.
British Military Administration (Malaya)
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The British Military Administration was the interim administrator of British Malaya between the end of World War II and the establishment of the Malayan Union in 1946. The BMA was under the command of the Supreme Allied Commander South East Asia. The administration had the function of maintaining basic subsistence during the period of reoccupation. The BMA was established by virtue of Proclamation No, admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten became the director of the administration in September 1945. By mid-1946, Malaya had been ruled by the returning British for nearly two years and it had not been a very pleasant experience for anyone. The British in short could no longer command the respect of the people of Malaya. Indeed, the Malays referred to the period of when the Japanese defeated the British as the time the man ran. Equally, while the British were clearly defeated by the Japanese in 1942, the civil colonial government took over from the BMA in April 1946, the civil government was faced with picking up the pieces of what the BMA left behind. It can not be entirely the fault of the BMA as it was a different organisation compared to the pre-War efficient administrative machinery. Proclamation No.1 is the document which legitimised the establishment of the BMA, the following lists the extent of the authority of the British Military Administration in Malaya. The returning British felt by reason of military necessity and for the prevention and suppression of disorder, delegation, the SAC has in his authority to delegate however he see fit in accordance with the authority vested in his position. Delegated tasks must be fulfilled and completed in a time frame. Orders to be Obeyed, All persons including non-BMA personnel will obey all order given by the SAC or under the authority of the SAC, existing laws to be respected All laws and customs existing immediately prior to the Japanese occupation will be respected. All rights and properties will be respected, suspension of Courts All courts and tribunals, other than military courts established under the authority, were suspended and deprived of all authority and jurisdiction until authorised. Revocation of all Japanese military administration proclamations, the BMA and by extension the British Supreme Allied Commander has board sweeping authoritative power in Malaya. In so far there has not been any academic works to illustrate the Malayans had a channel to voice their views and/or dissatisfaction. For the purpose of streamlining the administration, postwar Malaya was divided into 9 regions with Perlis-Kedah, Negeri Sembilan-Melaka, the regions were controlled by a Senior Civil Affairs Officer. Earlier, the planning for civil affairs in the Malayan Peninsula was done by the Deputy Chief Civil Affairs Officer, Brigadier H. C, the Federal Secretariat in Kuala Lumpur hosted the Civil Affairs Headquarters
30.
Federation of Malaya
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The Federation of Malaya was a federation of 11 states that existed from 1 February 1948 until 16 September 1963. The Federation became independent on 31 August 1957, and in 1963 Malaysia was formed with the Singapore, North Borneo, the combination of states that formerly made up the Federation of Malaya is currently known as Peninsular Malaysia. From 1946 to 1948, the 11 states formed a single British crown colony known as the Malayan Union, due to opposition from Malay nationalists, the Union was disbanded and replaced by the Federation of Malaya, which restored the symbolic positions of the rulers of the Malay states. Within the Federation, while the Malay states were protectorates of the United Kingdom, Penang, like the Malayan Union before it, the Federation did not include Singapore, despite its traditional connections with Malaya. The Federation achieved independence within the Commonwealth of Nations on 31 August 1957, Singapore separated from Malaysia to become an independent republic on 9 August 1965. The Federation of Malaya Agreement was formulated by the British–Malay Pleno Conference between June and December 1946, at the end of the meeting, the Pleno Conference produced a 100-page Blue Book. The Federation of Malaya Agreement was signed on 1 April 1946 at King House by the Malay rulers, the Agreement superseded the Agreement creating the Malayan Union, and prepared for the establishment of the Federation of Malaya on 1 February 1948. The position of the Malay rulers was also restored, as with the Malayan Union, the Federation excluded Singapore, despite its traditional links to Malaya. The Federation of Malaya Executive Council comprised 7 official and 7 unofficial members, additionally,9 State Council Yang Di Pertua, Chief Ministers and 2 representatives from the Straits Settlements became unofficial members. The Malay Conference of Rulers would advise the High Commissioner on immigration issues, the British Resident was replaced with a Chief Minister in each state of the federation. The conditions of citizenship of the Federation of Malaya were further tightened using law enforcement, the federation agreement set the powers of the federal and state governments. Financial matters must be handled by the respective states, the Sultan was given full power on religious issues and Malay customs. Foreign policy and defence continued to be administered by the British government, the federation agreement was made the Constitution of the Federation of Malaya and officially declared on 1 February 1948. The Federation of Malaya Legislative Council held its first meeting in the Tuanku Abdul Rahman Hall and it was opened by the British High Commissioner Sir Edward Gent. Attendees included the British Minister of State for Colonial Affairs, Lord Listowel, the membership of the Council was structured to include, the British High Commissioner,3 ex officio members,11 State and Settlement Members 11 official members, and 34 appointed unofficial members. The unofficial members were required to be either Federation citizens or British subjects, at this first Council meeting, several minor committees were formed, the Standing Committee on Finance, the Election Committee, and the Committee of Privileges. The first session passed the Kuala Lumpur City Bill, the Transfer of Power Bill, in 1950, the Federation of Malaya Government rejected the registration of the Malay Nationalist Party of Malaya as a legitimate political party. PKMM had two wings, namely Angkatan Pemuda Insaf and Angkatan Wanita Sedar, initially, PKMM did not have communist leanings
31.
Colony of Singapore
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The Colony of Singapore was a British Crown colony that existed from 1946 until 1963, when Singapore became part of Malaysia. When the Empire of Japan surrendered to the Allies at the end of World War II, in 1946, the Straits Settlements were dissolved and Singapore together with the Cocos-Keeling and Christmas islands became a separate Crown colony. The colony was governed by the British Empire until it gained partial internal self-governance in 1955, incidents of looting and revenge-killing were widespread. When British troops returned to Singapore in September 1945, thousands of Singaporeans lined the streets to cheer them, Singapore was ruled by a British Military Administration between September 1945 and March 1946, during which it also served as the headquarters of the British governor general for Southeast Asia. However much of the infrastructure had been destroyed, including electricity and water systems, telephone services. There was also a shortage of food including rice, and this led to malnutrition, disease and rampant crimes, unemployment, high food prices, and workers discontent culminated into a series of strikes in 1947 causing massive stoppages in public transport and other services. By late 1947, the economy began to recover, facilitated by the demand for tin. But it would take several years before the economy returned to pre-war levels. On 1 April 1946, the Straits Settlements was dissolved and Singapore became a Crown Colony with an administration headed by a Governor. In July 1947, separate Executive and Legislative Councils were established, the failure of the British to defend Singapore had destroyed their credibility as infallible rulers in the eyes of the locals in Singapore. The British, on their part, were prepared to embark on a program of gradually increasing self-governance for Singapore, the Crown colony was dissolved on 16 September 1963 when Singapore became part of Malaysia, which ended the 144 years British rule of the island. On 9 August 1965, Singapore officially left Malaysia to become the independent Republic of Singapore, the first Singaporean elections, held in March 1948 to select members of the Legislative Council, were rather limited. The right to vote was restricted to adult British subjects, of which only 23,000 or about 10 percent of eligible registered to vote. In addition, only six of the seats on the Legislative Council were to be elected. The other three seats were won by independents, since the left-wing groups were the strongest critics of the colonial system, progress on self-government stalled for several years. The colonial government also tried to prevent contacts between Singaporean Chinese and China, which had just fallen under the rule of the Communist Party of China, tan Kah Kee, a local businessman and philanthropist, was denied re-entry into Singapore after he made a trip to China. A second Legislative Council election was held in 1951 with the number of elected seats increased to nine and this election was again dominated by the SPP which won six seats. This slowly contributed to the formation of a government of Singapore
32.
Straits dollar
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The Straits dollar was the currency of the Straits Settlements from 1898 until 1939. At the same time, it was used in the Federated Malay States, the Unfederated Malay States, Sarawak, Brunei. Locally issued coinages included the Kelantan and Trengganu keping, and the Penang dollar, in 1837, the Indian rupee was made the sole official currency in the Straits Settlements, as it was administered as part of India. In 1867, administration of the Straits Settlements was separated from India, from 1898, the Straits dollar was issued by a new Board of Commissioners of Currency and private banks were prevented from issuing notes. Its value depreciated over the eight years and was then pegged at two shillings four pence sterling in 1906. The Straits dollar was replaced at par by the Malayan dollar in 1939, to this day, Brunei and Singapore still use the successor to this unit, but Malaysia broke away in 1973. The first coins issued for the Straits Settlements in 1845 were 1⁄4 and they were issued by the East India Company and did not bear any indication of where they were to be used. A second issue of the denominations was produced in 1862 by the government of British India. These bore the inscription India - Straits, in 1871, silver coins were issued in the name of the Straits Settlements for 5,10 and 20 cents, followed by copper 1⁄4, 1⁄2 and 1 cent the next year and silver 50 cents in 1886. Silver dollars were first minted in 1903 and this pegging occurred when the Straits dollar reached the value of two shillings and four pence against sterling. Within a few years, the value of silver rose rapidly such as to make the value of the Straits dollar higher than its gold exchange value. To prevent these dollars from being melted down, a new smaller dollar was issued in 1907 with a silver content. A parallel story occurred in the Philippines at the same time, the last 1⁄4 cent coins were issued in 1916. Dollars were last struck for circulation in 1926, with 50 cents production ending in 1921, the remaining coins continued in production until 1935. The Board of Commissioners of Currency introduced 5 and 10 dollar notes in 1898, emergency issues of 10 and 25 cents were made between 1917 and 1920. 1000 dollar notes were issued in 1930 but during the remainder of the 1930s only 1,5 and 10 dollar notes were issued. Queen Victoria The Government of Straits Settlements was first authorised to issue currency notes by Ordinance VIII of 1897 and these notes, although dated 1 September 1898, were not issued to the public until 1 May 1899. Both the Chartered Bank and Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank continued to issue banknotes, all notes were freely exchangeable with the Mexican dollar or the various other silver coins that were legal tender in the Colony
33.
History of Penang
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Penang was previously part of the sultanate of Kedah until it became a British possession in 1786. It later became part of the Federation of Malaya in 1957, the earliest name of Penang “Ping-lang-yu” can be found in the reproduced chart based on Zheng Hes voyages in a printed work entitled Wubei Zhi compiled by Mao Yuanji about 1621. 16th-century Portuguese traders from Goa, India sailing to the Far East in search of spices found an island where they replenished their water supplies. He returned to England in May 1594, Penang was the first British possession in the Malay States and Southeast Asia. The settlement on the tip of the island was named George Town after King George III of the United Kingdom. Unbeknownst to the Sultan, Light had acted without the approval of the East India Company when he promised military protection, when the Company failed to aid Kedah when it was attacked by Siam, the Sultan tried to retake the island in 1790. The attempt was unsuccessful, and the Sultan was forced to cede the island to the Company for an honorarium of 6,000 Spanish dollars per annum and this was later increased to 10,000 dollars, with Province Wellesley being added to Penang in 1800. An annual honorarium of 18,800 ringgit continues to be paid by the Penang State Government to the Sultan of Kedah, the settlement was first built around the harbour with Fort Cornwallis forming the islands defence. Light became the first Superintendent of the Prince of Wales Island, to expedite jungle clearing by labourers, Light fired silver coins from his ship cannons into the dense vegetation, and the land was cleared in no time. The original four streets of George Town were Beach Street, Light Street, Pitt Street and Chulia Street, other early roads include Church Street, Bishop Street, China Street and Market Street, and by the early 19th century also Armenian Street and Acheen Street. Light declared Prince of Wales Island a free port to trade away from the Dutch who were then the colonial rulers of the Dutch East Indies. This strategy drew many immigrant traders to Penang, settlers were allowed to claim whatever land they could clear. By 1789, Penang had 5,000 residents and this doubled by the end of the following decade, the first Chinese settlers in Penang came from an existing community in Kedah, with their leader, called a Kapitan Cina, being Koh Lay Huan, a Baba. Light died of malaria on 21 October 1794 and was buried at the Protestant cemetery at the end of Northam Road and his son, William Light went on to found the city of Adelaide in Australia. Lieutenant-Colonel Arthur Wellesley arrived in Penang to coordinate the islands defences, the East India Company auctioned off licences to gambling dens, brothels and opium traders In 1805, Penangs colonial status was elevated to that of a Residency. Stamford Raffles arrived in Penang to work as the Deputy Secretary to the Governor of Penang, Philip Dundas from 1805 to 1810. and subsequently founded Singapore in 1819. John Crawfurd had earlier resided on the island for three years and, while embarked on a mission to the courts of Siam and Cochin China and he also criticises British administration policy on licences and taxation, both on the island and on the Continent. In 1826, Penang, along with Malacca and Singapore, became part of the Straits Settlements under the British administration in India, George Town became the capital of the Straits Settlements but its status was soon supplanted by rapidly developing Singapore whose importance eclipsed Penangs
34.
Dutch Malacca
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Dutch Malacca was the longest period that Malacca was under foreign control. The Dutch ruled for almost 183 years with intermittent British occupation during the Napoleonic Wars and this era saw relative peace with little serious interruption from the Malay kingdoms due to the understanding earlier on forged between the Dutch and the Sultanate of Johor in 1606. This time also marked the decline of the importance of Malacca, in the early 17th century, the Dutch East India Company began the campaign to destroy Portuguese power in the East. At that time, the Portuguese had transformed Malacca into a fortress, controlling access to the sea lanes of the Straits of Malacca. The Dutch started by launching small incursions and skirmishes against the Portuguese, the Dutch with their local allies assaulted and wrested Malacca from the Portuguese in January 1641. This combined Dutch-Johor effort effectively destroyed the last bastion of Portuguese power, as per the agreement with Johor in 1606, the Dutch took control of Malacca and agreed not to seek territories or wage war with the Malay kingdoms. Malacca was controlled as a colony of the VOC, all the chief administrators of Malacca were Dutch governors except for the brief period that the city was under British Residents during the Wars of Napoleon. The governors and residents list is as follows, The Dutch improved and expanded the Portuguese fortress and built walls to protect the harbour, during their rule the famous city hall or Stadthuys was also constructed, which still stands today. History of the Dutch in Malaysia
35.
Manjung District
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The Manjung District is a district in the southwestern part of the state of Perak, Malaysia. The district is known for its Pangkor Island, a major attraction in Perak. Since the population is increasing, residential and commercial infrastructure is being developed, Dinding was once part of the British Straits Settlements colony. Bandar Seri Manjung is the principal urban center while smaller towns include Lumut town, Sitiawan town, Ayer Tawar, Pantai Remis. Other areas of importance are Acheh Industrial Estates, Desa Manjung Raya, Manjung Point, Damai Laut Country Resort. The town also has a centre and shopping malls. The district is located between Sitiawan and Lumut, prior to 1973 the district was called Dindings. It used to be part of the Straits Settlements then under the administration of Penang, Dindings district became part of the Pangkor Engagement, signed by Britain and the British appointed Sultan of Perak, Sultan Abdullah, in January 1874. Sultan Ismail was to step down from the throne of Perak, during the British colonial era, Colonial Dindings comprised three main areas, Sitiawan, Lumut and Pangkor Island. In 1937, the Sultan of Perak, Sultan Iskandar Alang successfully appealed to the British for the return of Dindings to Perak, the Perak Government united the former colony with Bruas and coastal areas to the south, forming the Dindings district. In 1973, Dindings district was given the current name Manjung, in August 2016, Sembilan Island was separated from Manjung District and incorporated into Bagan Datoh District. Manjung District has the second highest Average Annual Growth Rate after Kinta, manjungs land is devoted largely to agriculture, with an agricultural area of 833.75 square kilometres or about 71. 20% of Manjung District. Forest reserves account for another 168.81 km2, while residential area is about 29.32 km2, Manjung District has plenty of land for development purposes in the future with small barrier due to its large landbank of agricultural land, mining areas and uncultivated lands. On 24 April 2009, Lumut was declared by the Sultan Perak as the Royal Malaysian Navys Town – or simply called as TLDM Town or Navy Town, Manjung also was declared as Bandar Pelancongan Dan Maritim by government of Perak. Manjung also has numerous schools along with its population growth. There are 24 Chinese primary schools and five Chinese secondary schools in the district, of these, five schools were founded by Ong Seok Kim. They are SJK Chung Cheng, Sitiawan in 1920, SMJK Nan Hwa in 1935, SJK Ping Min, Lumut in 1951, Ong Seok Kim died in 1964. The following year, the Manjung community established the Ong Seok Kim Memorial Education Fund in his honour, the fund offers scholarships and loans to students in the Manjung District, irrespective of ethnicity
36.
Malayan Union
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The Malayan Union was a union of the Malay states and the Straits Settlements of Penang and Malacca. It was the successor to British Malaya and was conceived to unify the Malay Peninsula under a government to simplify administration. Following opposition by the ethnic Malays, the union was reorganized as the Federation of Malaya in 1948, the capital of the Union was Kuala Lumpur. The former Strait Settlement of Singapore was administered as a crown colony. The idea of the Union was first expressed by the British on October 1945 in the aftermath of the Second World War by the British Military Administration, Sir Harold MacMichael was assigned the task of gathering the Malay state rulers approval for the Malayan Union in the same month. In a short period of time, he managed to obtain all the Malay rulers’ approval, hence the approval was given, though it was with utmost reluctance. When it was unveiled, the Malayan Union gave equal rights to people who wished to apply for citizenship, however, the citizenship proposal was never actually implemented. Due to opposition to the proposal, it was postponed then modified. The Sultans, the rulers of the Malay states, conceded all their powers to the British Crown except in religious matters. The Malayan Union was placed under the jurisdiction of a British Governor, State Councils became an extended hand of the Federal government that had to do its bidding. Also, British Residents replacing the Sultans as the head of the State Councils meant that the status of the Sultans were greatly reduced. A Supreme Court was established in 1946 of which Harold Curwen Willan was the only Chief Justice, the Malays generally opposed the creation of the Union. The opposition was due to the methods Sir Harold MacMichael used to acquire the Sultans approval, the reduction of the Sultans powers, and easy granting of citizenship to immigrants. The United Malays National Organisation or UMNO, a Malay political association formed by Dato Onn bin Jaafar on 1 March 1946, Malays also wore white bands around their heads, signifying their mourning for the loss of the Sultans political rights. They also encouraged Malay opposition to the Malayan Union, after the inauguration of the Malayan Union, the Malays, under UMNO continued opposing the Malayan Union. They utilised civil disobedience as a means of protest by refusing to attend the ceremonies of the British governors. They had also refused to participate in the meetings of the Advisory Councils, hence Malay participation in the government bureaucracy, the British had recognised this problem and took measures to consider the opinions of the major races in Malaya before making amendments to the constitution. The Malayan Union was dissolved and replaced by the Federation of Malaya on 1 February 1948, odyssey, Perspectives on Southeast Asia – Malaysia and Singapore 1870–1971
37.
Bengal Presidency
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The Bengal Presidency was once the largest colonial subdivision of British India, with its seat in Calcutta, the capital of British-held territories in South Asia until 1911. At its territorial peak in the 19th century, the presidency extended from the present-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan in the west to Burma, Singapore, the Governor of Bengal was concurrently the Viceroy of India for many years. Most of the territories were eventually incorporated into other British Indian provinces. In 1905, Bengal proper was partitioned, with Eastern Bengal and Assam headquartered in Dacca, British India was reorganised in 1912 and the presidency was reunited into a single Bengali-speaking province. The Bengal Presidency was established in 1765, following the defeat of the last independent Nawab of Bengal at the Battle of Plassey in 1757, Bengal was the economic, cultural and educational hub of the British Raj. It was the centre of the late 19th and early 20th century Bengali Renaissance, the Partition of British India resulted in Bengals division on religious grounds, between West Bengal and East Bengal. Under Warren Hastings the consolidation of British imperial rule over Bengal was solidified, while the formation of a regularised system of legislation was brought in under John Shore. Acting through Lord Cornwallis, then Governor-General, he ascertained and defined the rights of the landholders over the soil. In 1793 Lord Cornwallis declared their rights perpetual, and gave over the land of Bengal to the previous quasi-proprietors or zamindars and this piece of legislation is known as the Permanent Settlement of the Land Revenue. It was designed to introduce ideas of property rights to India, the former aim misunderstood the nature of landholding in India, and the latter was an abject failure. The Cornwallis Code, while defining the rights of the proprietors, failed to give recognition to the rights of the under-tenants. Furthermore, the Permanent Settlement took no account of inflation, meaning that the value of the revenue to Government declined year by year, whilst the heavy burden on the peasantry grew no less. This was compounded in the early 19th century by compulsory schemes for the cultivation of Opium and Indigo, the former by the state, peasants were forced to grow a certain area of these crops, which were then purchased at below market rates for export. This added greatly to rural poverty, so unsuccessful was the Permanent Settlement that it was not introduced in the North-Western Provinces after 1831, in Punjab after its conquest in 1849, or in Oudh which was annexed in 1856. These regions were part of the Bengal Presidency, but remained administratively distinct. Officially Punjab, Agra and Allahabad had Lieutenant-Governors subject to the authority of the Governor of Bengal in Calcutta, the only all-Presidency institutions which remained were the Bengal Army and the Civil Service. The partition of the province of Bengal, which was decided upon by Lord Curzon, was carried into execution in October 1905. The princely states of Sikkim and the states of Odisha and Chhota Nagpur were not part of Bengal
38.
Malaysia
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Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy located in Southeast Asia. Peninsular Malaysia shares a land and maritime border with Thailand and maritime borders with Singapore, Vietnam, East Malaysia shares land and maritime borders with Brunei and Indonesia and a maritime border with the Philippines and Vietnam. The capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government, with a population of over 30 million, Malaysia is the 44th most populous country. The southernmost point of continental Eurasia, Tanjung Piai, is in Malaysia, located in the tropics, Malaysia is one of 17 megadiverse countries on earth, with large numbers of endemic species. Malaysia has its origins in the Malay kingdoms present in the area which, from the 18th century, the first British territories were known as the Straits Settlements, whose establishment was followed by the Malay kingdoms becoming British protectorates. The territories on Peninsular Malaysia were first unified as the Malayan Union in 1946, Malaya was restructured as the Federation of Malaya in 1948, and achieved independence on 31 August 1957. Malaya united with North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore on 16 September 1963 to become Malaysia, less than two years later in 1965, Singapore was expelled from the federation. The country is multi-ethnic and multi-cultural, which plays a role in politics. About half the population is ethnically Malay, with minorities of Malaysian Chinese, Malaysian Indians. The constitution declares Islam the state religion while allowing freedom of religion for non-Muslims, the government system is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system and the legal system is based on common law. The head of state is the king, known as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and he is an elected monarch chosen from the hereditary rulers of the nine Malay states every five years. The head of government is the prime minister, since its independence, Malaysia has had one of the best economic records in Asia, with its GDP growing at an average of 6. 5% per annum for almost 50 years. The economy has traditionally been fuelled by its resources, but is expanding in the sectors of science, tourism, commerce. Today, Malaysia has a newly industrialised market economy, ranked third largest in Southeast Asia, the name Malaysia is a combination of the word Malay and the Latin-Greek suffix -sia/-σία. The word melayu in Malay may derive from the Tamil words malai and ur meaning mountain and city, land, malayadvipa was the word used by ancient Indian traders when referring to the Malay Peninsula. Whether or not it originated from these roots, the word melayu or mlayu may have used in early Malay/Javanese to mean to steadily accelerate or run. This term was applied to describe the current of the river Melayu in Sumatra. The name was adopted by the Melayu Kingdom that existed in the seventh century on Sumatra
39.
Singapore
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Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, sometimes referred to as the Lion City or the Little Red Dot, is a sovereign city-state in Southeast Asia. It lies one degree north of the equator, at the tip of peninsular Malaysia. Singapores territory consists of one island along with 62 other islets. Since independence, extensive land reclamation has increased its size by 23%. During the Second World War, Singapore was occupied by Japan, after early years of turbulence, and despite lacking natural resources and a hinterland, the nation developed rapidly as an Asian Tiger economy, based on external trade and its workforce. Singapore is a global commerce, finance and transport hub, the country has also been identified as a tax haven. Singapore ranks 5th internationally and first in Asia on the UN Human Development Index and it is ranked highly in education, healthcare, life expectancy, quality of life, personal safety, and housing, but does not fare well on the Democracy index. Although income inequality is high, 90% of homes are owner-occupied, 38% of Singapores 5.6 million residents are permanent residents and other foreign nationals. There are four languages on the island, Malay, Mandarin, Tamil. English is its language, most Singaporeans are bilingual. Singapore is a multiparty parliamentary republic, with a Westminster system of unicameral parliamentary government. The Peoples Action Party has won every election since self-government in 1959, however, it is unlikely that lions ever lived on the island, Sang Nila Utama, the Srivijayan prince said to have founded and named the island Singapura, perhaps saw a Malayan tiger. There are however other suggestions for the origin of the name, the central island has also been called Pulau Ujong as far back as the third century CE, literally island at the end in Malay. In 1299, according to the Malay Annals, the Kingdom of Singapura was founded on the island by Sang Nila Utama and these Indianized Kingdoms, a term coined by George Cœdès were characterized by surprising resilience, political integrity and administrative stability. In 1613, Portuguese raiders burned down the settlement, which by then was part of the Johor Sultanate. The wider maritime region and much trade was under Dutch control for the following period, in 1824 the entire island, as well as the Temenggong, became a British possession after a further treaty with the Sultan. In 1826, Singapore became part of the Straits Settlements, under the jurisdiction of British India, prior to Raffles arrival, there were only about a thousand people living on the island, mostly indigenous Malays along with a handful of Chinese. By 1860 the population had swelled to over 80,000, many of these early immigrants came to work on the pepper and gambier plantations
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Southeast Asia
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Southeast Asia or Southeastern Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of India, west of New Guinea and north of Australia. The region lies near the intersection of geological plates, with seismic and volcanic activity. Southeast Asia consists of two regions, Mainland Southeast Asia, also known historically as Indochina, comprising Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Myanmar. Maritime Southeast Asia, comprising Indonesia, East Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines, East Timor, Brunei, Cocos Islands, definitions of Southeast Asia vary, but most definitions include the area represented by the countries listed below. All of the states are members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the area, together with part of South Asia, was widely known as the East Indies or simply the Indies until the 20th century. Sovereignty issues exist over some territories in the South China Sea, Papua New Guinea has stated that it might join ASEAN, and is currently an observer. Southeast Asia is geographically divided into two subregions, namely Mainland Southeast Asia and Maritime Southeast Asia, Mainland Southeast Asia includes, Maritime Southeast Asia includes, The Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India are geographically considered part of Southeast Asia. Eastern Bangladesh and the Seven Sister States of India are culturally part of Southeast Asia, the eastern half of Indonesia and East Timor are considered to be biogeographically part of Oceania. Homo sapiens reached the region by around 45,000 years ago, homo floresiensis also lived in the area up until 12,000 years ago, when they became extinct. Austronesian people, who form the majority of the population in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, East Timor. Solheim and others have shown evidence for a Nusantao maritime trading network ranging from Vietnam to the rest of the archipelago as early as 5000 BC to 1 AD. The peoples of Southeast Asia, especially those of Austronesian descent, have been seafarers for thousands of years and their vessels, such as the vinta, were ocean-worthy. Magellans voyage records how much more manoeuvrable their vessels were, as compared to the European ships, Passage through the Indian Ocean aided the colonisation of Madagascar by the Austronesian people, as well as commerce between West Asia and Southeast Asia. Gold from Sumatra is thought to have reached as far west as Rome and this was later replaced by Hinduism. Theravada Buddhism soon followed in 525, in the 15th century, Islamic influences began to enter. This forced the last Hindu court in Indonesia to retreat to Bali, in Mainland Southeast Asia, Burma, Cambodia and Thailand retained the Theravada form of Buddhism, brought to them from Sri Lanka. This type of Buddhism was fused with the Hindu-influenced Khmer culture, very little is known about Southeast Asian religious beliefs and practices before the advent of Indian merchants and religious influences from the 2nd century BCE onwards. Prior to the 13th century CE, Hinduism and Buddhism were the religions in Southeast Asia
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1826
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As of the start of 1826, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 15 – The French newspaper Le Figaro begins publication in Paris, january 30 – The Menai Suspension Bridge, built by engineer Thomas Telford, is opened between the island of Anglesey and the mainland of Wales. February 8 – Unitarian Bernardino Rivadavia becomes the first President of Argentina, February 11 University College London is founded, under the name University of London. Swaminarayan writes the Shikshapatri, an important text within Swaminarayan Hinduism, February 13 – The American Temperance Society is founded. February 24 – Treaty of Yandabo ends First Anglo-Burmese War, Britain gains Assam, Manipur, Rakhine, march 1 – Chunee the elephant is put to death in London. After arsenic and shooting fail, he is killed with a sword, march 10 – João VI, King of Portugal and the former Emperor of Brazil, dies after a short illness that had started six day earlier after he had been served dinner while visiting Jerónimos Monastery. An investigative autopsy 174 years later discover that he had been killed by arsenic poisoning. King Joãos son, the Emperor Pedro I of Brazil, sails back to Portugal and briefly reigns as King Pedro IV before turning over the Portuguese throne to his daughter, april 1 – Samuel Morey patents an internal combustion engine. April 10 – Third Siege of Missolonghi ends with the massacre of thousands of the Greek defenders by the Ottoman besiegers, may 28 – Pedro I of Brazil abdicates as King of Portugal. June – Photography, Nicéphore Niépce makes a true photograph, june 14–15 – The Auspicious Incident, Mahmud II, sultan of Ottoman Empire, crushes the last mutiny of janissaries in Istanbul. June 21 – Greek War of Independence, Attempted Ottoman–Egyptian invasion of Mani begins, june 22 – The Pan-American Congress of Panama tries to unify the republics of the Americas. Early July – Ludwig van Beethoven puts the finishing touches on the String Quartet in C sharp Minor, Opus 131, July 4 – Former US Presidents Thomas Jefferson and John Adams both die on the 50th Anniversary of the signing of the United States Declaration of Independence. July 26 – The last auto-da-fé is held in Valencia, august – The town of Crawford Notch suffers a landslide. Those killed include the Willey family, after whom Mount Willey is named, august 10 – The first Cowes Regatta is held on the Isle of Wight in the UK. August 18 – Explorer Alexander Gordon Laing becomes the first European to reach Timbuktu, september 21 – Construction of the Rideau Canal begins in Canada. October 1 – Opening of the Monkland and Kirkintilloch Railway in Scotland, october 7 – The first train operates over the Granite Railway in Massachusetts. November 3 –The Paris Stock Exchange opens at the Palais de la Bourse, december 21 – Fredonian Rebellion, American settlers in Mexican Texas make the first attempt to secede from Mexico, establishing the Republic of Fredonia, which will survive for just over a month. December 25 The Eggnog Riot breaks out at the United States Military Academy in West Point, New York during the morning hours
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World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
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Malaysia
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One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Clifford, Hugh Charles (1911). "Straits Settlements". In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 980–981.
