1.
London Underground
–
The London Underground is a public rapid transit system serving London and some parts of the adjacent counties of Buckinghamshire, Essex and Hertfordshire in the United Kingdom. The network has expanded to 11 lines, and in 2015–16 carried 1.34 billion passengers, the 11 lines collectively handle approximately 4.8 million passengers a day. The system has 270 stations and 250 miles of track, despite its name, only 45% of the system is actually underground in tunnels, with much of the network in the outer environs of London being on the surface. In addition, the Underground does not cover most southern parts of Greater London, the current operator, London Underground Limited, is a wholly owned subsidiary of Transport for London, the statutory corporation responsible for the transport network in Greater London. As of 2015, 92% of operational expenditure is covered by passenger fares, the Travelcard ticket was introduced in 1983 and Oyster, a contactless ticketing system, in 2003. Contactless card payments were introduced in 2014, the LPTB was a prominent patron of art and design, commissioning many new station buildings, posters and public artworks in a modernist style. Other famous London Underground branding includes the roundel and Johnston typeface, to prepare construction, a short test tunnel was built in 1855 in Kibblesworth, a small town with geological properties similar to London. This test tunnel was used for two years in the development of the first underground train, and was later, in 1861, the worlds first underground railway, it opened in January 1863 between Paddington and Farringdon using gas-lit wooden carriages hauled by steam locomotives. It was hailed as a success, carrying 38,000 passengers on the opening day, the Metropolitan District Railway opened in December 1868 from South Kensington to Westminster as part of a plan for an underground inner circle connecting Londons main-line termini. The Metropolitan and District railways completed the Circle line in 1884, built using the cut and this opened in 1890 with electric locomotives that hauled carriages with small opaque windows, nicknamed padded cells. The Waterloo and City Railway opened in 1898, followed by the Central London Railway in 1900, the Metropolitan Railway protested about the change of plan, but after arbitration by the Board of Trade, the DC system was adopted. When the Bakerloo was so named in July 1906, The Railway Magazine called it an undignified gutter title, by 1907 the District and Metropolitan Railways had electrified the underground sections of their lines. In January 1913, the UERL acquired the Central London Railway, the Bakerloo line was extended north to Queens Park to join a new electric line from Euston to Watford, but World War I delayed construction and trains reached Watford Junction in 1917. During air raids in 1915 people used the stations as shelters. An extension of the Central line west to Ealing was also delayed by the war, the Metropolitan promoted housing estates near the railway with the Metro-land brand and nine housing estates were built near stations on the line. Electrification was extended north from Harrow to Rickmansworth, and branches opened from Rickmansworth to Watford in 1925, the Piccadilly line was extended north to Cockfosters and took over District line branches to Harrow and Hounslow. In 1933, most of Londons underground railways, tramway and bus services were merged to form the London Passenger Transport Board, the Waterloo & City Railway, which was by then in the ownership of the main line Southern Railway, remained with its existing owners. In the same year that the London Passenger Transport Board was formed, in the following years, the outlying lines of the former Metropolitan Railway closed, the Brill Tramway in 1935, and the line from Quainton Road to Verney Junction in 1936
2.
Docklands Light Railway
–
The Docklands Light Railway is an automated light metro system opened in 1987 to serve the redeveloped Docklands area of London. It reaches north to Stratford, south to Lewisham, west to Tower Gateway and Bank in the City of London financial district, and east to Beckton, London City Airport and Woolwich Arsenal. The system uses minimal staffing on trains and at interchange stations. Similar proposals have made for the Tube. The DLR is operated under a franchise awarded by Transport for London to KeolisAmey Docklands and it was previously run for over 17 years by Serco Docklands, part of the Serco Group. The system is owned by Docklands Light Railway Ltd, part of the London Rail division of Transport for London, in Fiscal Year 2014, the DLR carried 110.2 million passengers. It has been extended several times and further extensions are under consideration, the docks immediately east of Central London began to decline in the early 1960s as cargo became containerised. They had been connected to the railway network via the London and Blackwall Railway. The opening of the Tilbury container docks, further east in Essex, finally rendered them redundant, as early as 1972, consideration was given to how to redevelop the moribund Docklands. Travis Morgan & Partners were commissioned by the London Docklands Study Team to consider the issue, the Greater London Council formed a Docklands Joint Committee with the Boroughs of Greenwich, Lewisham, Newham, Southwark and Tower Hamlets in 1974 to undertake the redevelopment of the area. A light railway system was envisaged, terminating either at Tower Hill tube station or at Fenchurch Street, but both options were seen as too expensive. This was intended to be the stage of the Fleet line – which had been renamed the Jubilee line. The government created the London Docklands Development Corporation in July 1981 to coordinate the redevelopment of the Docklands, the need to provide a cheap public transport solution led to it commissioning London Transport to evaluate a number of exclusively light rail options. The core of the route ran alongside the Great Eastern line out of London, three terminus options were proposed at the west end, at Tower Hill, Minories and Aldgate East. The Tower Hill option would have required a low-level interchange to be constructed alongside the existing Underground station, the Minories option, a high-level station virtually on the site of the old Minories railway station, was selected and became the current Tower Gateway DLR terminus. However, it became apparent that there was no capacity on the existing network for integrating the DLR into the Underground. Two southern terminus options were put forward, at Cubitt Town and Tiller Road, on the west side of Millwall Dock, with two possible routes to reach them. The central option required the West India Docks to be infilled or bridged and would run down the middle of the peninsula, the contract for the initial system was awarded to GEC Mowlem in 1984 and the system was constructed from 1985 to 1987 at a cost of £77 million
3.
London Overground
–
The London Overground is a suburban rail network in the United Kingdom. Established in 2007, it serves a large part of Greater London and parts of Hertfordshire, the network forms part of the National Rail network, but under the franchise control and branding of Transport for London. Operation has been franchised to Arriva Rail London since 13 November 2016, the Overground has been assigned the colour orange as a mode specific colour by Transport for London. This colour is used in the Overground version of the TfL roundel, for the representation of Overground routes on the map, in train interiors. Rail services in Great Britain are mostly run under franchises operated by train operating companies. The concept of developing a network of services around London goes back to the independently produced Ringrail proposals in the early 1970s. The proposal from Barren was for several overlapping services mainly using the North London Line and this was given the marketing name Cross Town Link-Line, and operated with basic 2-car diesel units. The next initiative came from the GLC in 1984, when the government supported the Broadgate development that would entail the demolition of Broad Street Station. The closure process was convoluted because of problems in making arrangements for the North London Line. These would eventually run to and from Liverpool Street via a new section of track and this used a name once associated with a semicircular service that operated from Broad Street to Mansion House, but ceased during World War 1. The pamphlets and briefings, first issued in 1997, initially suggested a route from Clapham Junction to the Greenwich Peninsula, intended to improve access from south London to the Millennium Dome. However, this was thwarted by architect Richard Rogers who considered a railway route on an elevated viaduct could cause community severance, nothing further happened to develop this network until after the new GLA was set up in 2000. But the lobbying discreetly continued with a series of short briefings published by one RDS member based in North London, mayoral and GLA candidates were approached to discuss the viability of the Outer Circle concept. The principle was widely supported and was adopted into the first Mayors Transport Plan, meanwhile, a pilot scheme was launched in 2003 to bring several National Rail local services, mainly in South London and operated by multiple companies, under the ON – Overground Network brand. TfL introduced consistent information displays, station signage and maps on the routes in South London. The pilot scheme was later dropped, in January 2004 the Department for Transport announced a review of the rail industry in Great Britain. As part of review, proposals were put forward by TfL for a London Regional Rail Authority to give TfL regulatory powers over rail services in. A result of consultation was agreement by the then Secretary of State for Transport, Alistair Darling
4.
Crossrail
–
Crossrail is a 118-kilometre railway line under development in London and the home counties of Berkshire, Buckinghamshire and Essex. The project was approved in 2007 and construction began in 2009 on the central section and it has been described as one of Europes largest infrastructure construction projects. Its main feature is 21 km of new twin tunnels through central London and these tunnels will run from Paddington to Stratford and Canary Wharf in the east. Crossrail will be operated by MTR Corporation Ltd as a London Rail concession of Transport for London, in a similar manner to London Overground. The need for extra capacity along this corridor is such that the head of TfL, Sir Peter Hendy. New nine-carriage Class 345 trains will run at frequencies in the section of up to 24 trains per hour in each direction. The project that became Crossrail has origins in the 1943 County of London Plan and 1944 Greater London Plan by Patrick Abercrombie and these led to a specialist investigation by the Railway Committee, appointed in 1944 and reporting in 1946 and 1948. The term Crossrail emerged in the 1974 London Rail Study Report, although the idea was seen as imaginative, only a brief estimate of cost was given, £300 million. A feasibility study was recommended as a priority so that the practicability. It was also suggested that the alignment of the tunnels should be safeguarded while a decision was taken. The Central London Rail Study of 1989 proposed tunnels linking the rail network as the East–West Crossrail, City Crossrail. The City route was shown as a new connection across the City of London linking the Great Northern Route with London Bridge, the report also recommended a number of other schemes including a Thameslink Metro route enhancement, and the Chelsea–Hackney line. The cost of the east–west scheme including rolling stock was estimated at £885 million, in 1991 a private bill was submitted to Parliament for a scheme including a new underground line from Paddington to Liverpool Street. In 2001 Cross London Rail Links, a joint-venture between TfL and the DfT, was formed to develop and promote the Crossrail scheme, the proposal was rejected by Crossrail, and failed to receive the backing of the Mayor of London, Ken Livingstone, or the DfT. In February 2008 the Bill moved to the House of Lords, the Act gave CLRL the powers necessary to build the line. Construction began on 15 May 2009 when construction started, in September 2009 the project received £1 billion in funding. The money was lent to TfL by the European Investment Bank, the original planned schedule was that the first trains would run in 2017, but in 2010 the government delayed this to 2018 in order to save £1 billion. Crossrails central core section will utilise new east–west twin tunnels under central London, the tunnelled sections will be approximately 22 kilometres in length
5.
National Rail
–
The name and the accompanying double arrow symbol are the intellectual property of the Secretary of State for Transport. The National Rail logo was introduced by ATOC in 1999, and was used on the Great Britain public timetable for the first time in the edition valid from 26 September in that year. Rules for its use are set out in the Corporate Identity Style Guidelines published by the Rail Delivery Group, the NR title is sometimes described as a brand. As it was used by British Rail, the operator before franchising, its use also maintains continuity and public familiarity. National Rail should not be confused with Network Rail, the two networks are generally coincident where passenger services are run. Most major Network Rail lines carry traffic and some lines are freight only. About twenty privately owned operating companies, each franchised for a defined term by government. The Rail Delivery Group is the association representing the TOCs and provides core services. It also runs Rail Settlement Plan, which allocates ticket revenue to the various TOCs, and Rail Staff Travel and it does not compile the national timetable, which is the joint responsibility of the Office of Rail Regulation and Network Rail. Since the privatisation of British Rail there is no longer a single approach to design on railways in Great Britain, the look and feel of signage, liveries and marketing material is largely the preserve of the individual TOCs. However, National Rail continues to use BRs famous double-arrow symbol and it has been incorporated in the National Rail logotype and is displayed on tickets, the National Rail website and other publicity. The trademark rights to the arrow symbol remain state-owned, being vested in the Secretary of State for Transport. The double arrow was already prescribed for indicating a railway station, the lettering used in the National Rail logotype is a modified form of the typeface Sassoon Bold. It is a misconception that Rail Alphabet was also used for printed material. The British Rail typefaces of choice from 1965 were Helvetica and Univers, TOCs may use what they like, examples include Futura, Helvetica, Frutiger, Bliss, and a modified version of Precious by London Midland. Several conurbations have their own metro or tram systems, most of which are not part of National Rail, LO now also possesses some infrastructure in its own right, following the reopening of the former East London line of London Underground as the East London Railway of LO. Heathrow Express and Eurostar are also not part of the National Rail network despite sharing of stations, northern Ireland Railways were never part of British Rail, which was always confined to Great Britain, and therefore are not part of the National Rail network. National Rail services have a common ticketing structure inherited from British Rail, through tickets are available between any pair of stations on the network, and can be bought from any station ticket office
6.
Stratford, London
–
Stratford is a district in the London Borough of Newham, in East London, England. Historically an agrarian settlement in the county of Essex, it was transformed into an industrial suburb following the introduction of the railway in 1839, Stratford is now East London’s primary retail, cultural and leisure centre. It has also become the second most significant business location in the east of the capital, stratford’s early significance was as the point where the originally Roman road from Aldgate in the City, to Romford, Chelmsford and Colchester, crossed the River Lea. At that time the branches of the river were tidal and unchannelised. The Lea valley formed a boundary between Essex on the eastern bank and Middlesex on the west, and was a formidable obstacle to overland trade. The name is first recorded in 1067 as Strætforda and means ford on a Roman road and it is formed from Old English stræt and ford. The former crossing lay at a location north of Stratford High Street. And Stretford Langthorne after a distinctive thorn tree which was mentioned in a charter of 958 AD, the western Stratford then become suffixed by “-atte-Bow”, eventually becoming known simply as Bow, while over time the eastern Stratford lost its “Langthorne” suffix. The Bridge was repaired and upgraded many times over the centuries until eventually demolished and replaced in the 19th Century, in 1135 the Cistercian Order founded Stratford Langthorne Abbey, also known as West Ham Abbey. This became one of the largest and most wealthy monasteries in England, the Abbey lay between the Channelsea River and Marsh Lane. Nothing visible remains on the site, as after it dissolution by Henry VIII in 1538, local landowners took away much of the stone for their own buildings and the land was subsequently urbanised. A stone window and a carving featuring skulls – thought to have been over the door to the charnel house – remain in All Saints Church, the Great Gate of the abbey survived in Bakers Row until 1825. The coat of arms of the Abbey can be seen over the doorway to the Old Court House, in Tramway Avenue. The chevrons from this device, originally from the arms of the Mountfitchet family, the same arms were adopted by the new London Borough of Newham in 1965. The industrialisation of Stratford started slowly and accelerated rapidly in the early Victorian era, Stratford was originally an agricultural community, whose proximity to London provided a ready market for its produce. By the 18th century, the area around Stratford was noted for potato growing, Stratford also became a desirable country retreat for wealthy merchants and financiers, within an easy ride of the City. When Daniel Defoe visited Stratford in 1722, he reported that it had. increased in buildings to a strange degree and he continues that. this increase is, generally speaking, of hansom large houses. An early industrial undertaking at Stratford was the Bow porcelain factory, the site of the factory was to the north of Stratford High Street near the modern Bow Flyover, it was the subject of archaeological excavations in 1921 and 1969
7.
London Borough of Newham
–
It is 5 miles east of the City of London, north of the River Thames. Newham was one of the six host boroughs for the 2012 Summer Olympics, the local authority is Newham London Borough Council. The boroughs motto, from its Coat of Arms, is Progress with the People, the Coat of Arms was derived from that of the County Borough of West Ham, while the motto is a translation of the County Borough of East Hams Latin Progressio cum Populo. Green Street and Boundary Road mark the boundary between the two. North Woolwich also became part of the borough along with an area west of the River Roding which had previously been part of the Municipal Borough of Barking. Newham was devised for the borough as a new name. Unlike most English districts, its council is led by an elected mayor of Newham. From 2002 to 2009 one of the councillors had been appointed as the ambassador and performed the civic. The borough is considered part of Outer London for purposes such as funding and this is because the majority of Newham was not part of the 1889–1965 County of London. The council is actively campaigning to have Newham officially considered part of Inner London in order to increase its level of government grant by £60 million, at the borough elections held in 2014, the Labour Party won all 60 of the seats on the Council. Sir Robin Wales was re-elected as the boroughs Executive Mayor with 61% of the first preference votes cast, Newham has the youngest overall population and one of the lowest White British populations in the country according to the 2011 Census. The borough has the second highest percentage of Muslims in Britain, after the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, at 32%. When using Simpsons Diversity Index on 10 aggregated ethnic groups, the 2001 census identified Newham as the most ethnically diverse district in England and Wales, Newham has the lowest percentage of White British residents of all of Londons boroughs. The joint-lowest wards with White British population are Green Street East and Green Street West, East Ham North is closely followed, at 4. 9%. People of White British ancestry nevertheless remain the largest single group in the borough. The largest non-White British ethnic groups are Indian, African, Bangladeshi, Newham has had for many decades a large Indian community. The ethnic group to increase the most in number since 1991 is the Bangladeshi community, the Borough is the education authority for the district providing education in a mix of Foundation, community and voluntary aided schools. The Essex Primary School in Sheridan Road with over 900 pupils is one of the biggest primary schools in London and this is currently based on the UEL Stratford campus, but is planned to move to its own facilities
8.
Transport for London
–
Transport for London is a local government body responsible for the transport system in Greater London, England. Its head office is in Windsor House in the City of Westminster, the underlying services are provided by a mixture of wholly owned subsidiary companies, by private sector franchisees and by licensees. In 2015-16, TfL had a budget of £11.5 billion, the rest comes from government funding, borrowing, other income and Crossrail funding. On 21 January 2016, it was announced that the responsibility for franchising all of Londons inner suburban services would be transferred from the DfT to TfL. This transfer will take place as current franchises fall due for renewal, TfL was created in 2000 as part of the Greater London Authority by the Greater London Authority Act 1999. It gained most of its functions from its predecessor London Regional Transport in 2000, the first Commissioner of TfL was Bob Kiley. The first Chair was then-Mayor of London Ken Livingstone, and the first Deputy Chair was Dave Wetzel, Livingstone and Wetzel remained in office until the election of Boris Johnson as Mayor in 2008. Johnson took over as Chairman, and in February 2009 fellow-Conservative Daniel Moylan was appointed as his Deputy, TfL did not take over responsibility for the London Underground until 2003, after the controversial Public-private partnership contract for maintenance had been agreed. Management of the Public Carriage Office had previously been a function of the Metropolitan Police, Transport for London Group Archives holds business records for TfL and its predecessor bodies and transport companies. Some early records are held on behalf of TfL Group Archives at the London Metropolitan Archives. After the bombings on the underground and bus systems on 7 July 2005 and they helped survivors out, removed bodies, and got the transport system up and running, to get the millions of commuters back out of London at the end of the work day. Those mentioned include Peter Hendy, who was at the time Head of Surface Transport division, and Tim OToole, head of the Underground division, carrying open containers of alcohol was also banned on public transport operated by TfL. The Mayor of London and TfL announced the ban with the intention of providing a safer, there were Last Round on the Underground parties on the night before the ban came into force. Passengers refusing to observe the ban may be refused travel and asked to leave the premises, the Greater London Authority reported in 2011 that assaults on London Underground staff had fallen by 15% since the introduction of the ban. In an effort to reduce sexual offences and increase reporting, TfL—in conjunction with the British Transport Police, Metropolitan Police Service, TfL is controlled by a board whose members are appointed by the Mayor of London, a position held by Sadiq Khan since May 2016. The Commissioner of Transport for London reports to the Board and leads a management team with individual functional responsibilities, the body is organised in three main directorates and corporate services, each with responsibility for different aspects and modes of transport. This network is sub-divided into three service units, BCV, Bakerloo, Central, Victoria and Waterloo & City lines. JNP, Jubilee, Northern and Piccadilly lines, SSL, Metropolitan, District, Circle and Hammersmith & City lines
9.
Network Rail
–
Network Rail is the owner and infrastructure manager of most of the rail network in England, Scotland and Wales. Network Rail is an arms length public body of the Department for Transport with no shareholders, since 1 September 2014, Network Rail has been classified as a public sector body. Britains railway system was built by companies, but it was nationalised by the Transport Act 1947. Infrastructure and passenger and freight services were separated at that time, between 1994 and 2002 the infrastructure was owned and operated by Railtrack. The Hatfield train crash on 17 October 2000 was a moment in the collapse of Railtrack. The costs of modernising the West Coast Main Line were also spiralling, the purchase was completed on 3 October 2002. The SRA was abolished in November 2006, the company moved its headquarters to Kings Place,90 York Way, from 40 Melton Street, Euston, in August 2008. In October 2008, Sir Ian McAllister announced that he would not stand for re-election as chairman of Network Rail and he had held the position for six years. He noted that as Network Rail moved to a new phase in its development it was appropriate for a new chairman to lead it there, many track safety initiatives have been introduced in the time Network Rail has been responsible for this area. This ruling came into force in January 2009 for maintenance and property workers and in April 2009 for infrastructure, in 2009, allegations appeared in the media from the Transport Salaried Staffs Association concerning treatment of Network Rail employees. Former chief executive Iain Coucher was also accused of financial impropriety involving unspecified payments to his business partner Victoria Pender during his tenure at Network Rail, an internal investigation held by Network Rail in 2010, vetted by its auditors PricewaterhouseCoopers, uncovered no evidence of wrongdoing. An independent enquiry headed by Anthony White QC in 2011 further examined the claims, critical commentary appeared in the media concerning the knighthood awarded to John Armitt in the 2012 New Year Honours for services to engineering and construction. The reorganisation has been interpreted as a move back towards vertical integration of track, in 2016 Network Rail failed to check whether the Flying Scotsman could fit through tunnels along the Borders Route resulting in the cancellation of a trip just 24 hours before departure. Scottish Transport Minister Derek Mackay branded the affair a debacle, Network Rails attempt to electrify the West Coast Mainline has been dogged by poor planning and cost overruns, the projected cost has ballooned from by £1.2 billion to £2. It however owns a fleet of departmental stock, although it owns over 2,500 railway stations, it manages only 18 of the biggest and busiest of them, all the other stations being managed by one or other of the various train operating companies. Network Rail has a 15-year lease on Square One in Manchester with 800 staff in one of Manchesters largest refurbished office spaces, Network Rail should not be confused with National Rail. National Rail is not an organisation, but merely a brand, used to explain, the majority of Network Rail lines also carry freight traffic, some lines are freight only. A few lines that carry passenger traffic are not part of the National Rail network, conversely, a few National Rail services operate over track which is not part of the Network Rail network
10.
Central line (London Underground)
–
The Central line is a London Underground line that runs through central London, from Ealing and Ruislip in the west to Epping, Essex in the north-east. Coloured red on the map, the line serves 49 stations. It is the longest tube line and it is also one of only two lines on the London Underground network to cross the Greater London boundary, the other being the Metropolitan. One of Londons deep-level tube railways, the trains are smaller than those on British main lines. The line was opened as the Central London Railway in 1900, crossing central London on an east–west axis and it was later extended to the western suburb of Ealing. After the Second World War, the line was expanded considerably into the recently constructed suburbs, taking over steam-hauled outer suburban routes to the borders of London and beyond to the east. This realised plans that had delayed by the war, when construction stopped. The Central line has mostly operated by automatic train operation since a major refurbishment in the 1990s. In terms of passengers, the Central line is the busiest line on the London Underground. In the year 2011/12 over 260 million passenger journeys were made on the Central line, the tunnels were bored with the nominal diameter of 11 feet 8 1⁄4 inches, increased on curves, reduced to 11 feet 6 inches near to stations. The tunnels generally rise approaching a station, to aid braking, the Central London Railway was the first underground railway to have the station platforms illuminated electrically. All the platforms were lit by Crompton automatic electric arc lamps, with the white glazed tiling, all underground Central London Railway platforms were very brightly lit. Earlier tube lines generated DC power at the required to run the trains. The line between Shepherds Bush and Bank was formally opened on 30 June 1900, public services beginning on 30 July, with a uniform fare of 2d the railway became known as the Twopenny Tube. This allowed higher-speed and lighter motors to be used, which reduced the weight of the locomotive as well as the unsprung weight. The railway also tried an alternative approach, it converted four coaches to accommodate motors, two of these experimental motor coaches were used in a 6-coach train, the control gear being operated by the system used on the Waterloo and City Railway. The modified locomotives were an improvement, but the motor coaches of an even lower weight were much better still. The CLR ordered 64 new motor cars designed to use Spragues recently developed traction control system, the CLR was exclusively using the resulting electric multiple units by 1903
11.
Jubilee line
–
The Jubilee line is a London Underground line. Opened in 1979, it is the newest line on the network, although sections of track date back to 1932. The later stations are larger and have special safety features, both aspects being attempts to future-proof the line, the Jubilee line is coloured silver/grey on the Tube map, to mark the Silver Jubilee of Elizabeth II after which the line was named. Between Finchley Road and Wembley Park, the Jubilee line shares its route with the Metropolitan line, between Canning Town and Stratford, the line runs parallel to the Stratford International branch of the Docklands Light Railway. In 1932, the Metropolitan Railway built a branch from its line at Wembley Park to Stanmore. The line, as many others in the northwest London area, was designed to absorb commuter traffic from the new. At first, the Metropolitan had advocated a new line roughly following the line of the Edgware Road between the tube station and a point near Willesden Green. Indeed, construction advanced as far as the rebuilding of Edgware Road station to accommodate 4 platforms of 8-car length, things changed, though, with the formation of the London Passenger Transport Board and the subsequent absorption of the Metropolitan. The solution was now a new branch of the Bakerloo line from Baker Street to serve new stations at St, the new line rose between the Metropolitan tracks at Finchley Road, providing cross-platform interchange with the Metropolitan line. At Wembley Park, the new Bakerloo would run on to serve Kingsbury, Queensbury, Canons Park and Stanmore, the Bakerloo extension, built as above, opened in 1939. The planning for the Tube network immediately before and after World War II considered several new routes, Line C opened as the Victoria line, in stages, from 1968 to 1972. Work on the northeast–southwest route continued, the new line was to have been called the Fleet line after the River Fleet. In 1971, construction began on the new Fleet line, economic pressure and doubt over the final destination of the line had led to a staged approach. Under the first stage, the Baker Street-to-Stanmore branch of the Bakerloo line was joined at Baker Street to a new 2, the new tube was to offer cross-platform interchange between the Bakerloo and Fleet at Baker Street, as pioneered on the Victoria line. The work was completed in 1979, as part of the works, Trafalgar Square and Strand stations were combined into a single station complex, Charing Cross. The existing Charing Cross station on the sub-surface District and Circle lines was renamed Embankment, another part of the works included a section of test tunnel, built near New Cross. When the planned route was altered, this section was abandoned as it was effectively useless. However, this idea was rejected because of the costs involved
12.
Tramlink
–
Tramlink is a light rail tram system serving Croydon and surrounding areas in South London, England. It began operation in 2000, the first tram system in London since 1952 and it is owned by London Trams, an arm of Transport for London, and operated by FirstGroup. The Tramlink is the fourth-busiest light rail network in the UK behind Manchester Metrolink, Tyne and Wear Metro, in 1990 Croydon Council with London Regional Transport put the project to Parliament and the Croydon Tramlink Act 1994 resulted, which gave LRT the power to build and run Tramlink. In 1996 Tramtrack Croydon Limited won a 99-year Private Finance Initiative contract to design, build, operate, TCL was a partnership comprising FirstGroup, Bombardier Transportation, Sir Robert McAlpine and Amey, and Royal Bank of Scotland and 3i. TCL kept the revenue generated by Tramlink and LRT had to pay compensation to TCL for any changes to the fares, TCL subcontracted operations to CentreWest Buses. One of the leading to its creation was that the London Borough of Croydon has no London Underground service. There are four routes, Route 1 – Elmers End to Croydon, Route 2 – Beckenham Junction to Croydon, Route 3 – New Addington to Wimbledon, and Route 4 – Therapia Lane to Elmers End. Route 2 runs parallel to the Crystal Palace to Beckenham Junction line of the Southern network between Birkbeck and Beckenham Junction – the National Rail track had been singled some years earlier. At Woodside the old station buildings stand disused, and the platforms have been replaced by accessible low platforms. From Woodside to near Sandilands and from near Sandilands almost to Lloyd Park, Tramlink follows the former Woodside and South Croydon Railway, including the Park Hill tunnels. The section of Route 3 between Wimbledon and West Croydon mostly follows the single-track British Rail route, closed on 31 May 1997 so that it could be converted for Tramlink, a partial obstruction near this point has necessitated the use of interlaced track. A Victorian footbridge beside Waddon New Road was dismantled to make way for the flyover over the West Croydon to Sutton railway line, the footbridge has been re-erected at Corfe Castle station on the Swanage Railway. In March 2008, TfL announced that it had reached agreement to buy TCL for £98m, the purchase was finalised on 28 June 2008. The background to this purchase relates to the requirement that TfL compensates TCL for the consequences of any changes to the fares, in 2007 that payment was £4m, with an annual increase in rate. In October 2008 TfL introduced a new livery, using the blue, white and green of the routes on TfL maps, the colour of the cars was changed to green, and the brand name was changed from Croydon Tramlink to simply Tramlink. These refurbishments were completed in early 2009, the tram stops have low platforms,35 cm above rail level. They are unstaffed and have automated ticket machines, in general, access between the platforms involves crossing the tracks by pedestrian level crossing. There are 39 stops, most being 32.2 m long and they are virtually level with the doors and are all wider than 2 m
13.
World Geodetic System
–
The World Geodetic System is a standard for use in cartography, geodesy, and navigation including GPS. It comprises a standard system for the Earth, a standard spheroidal reference surface for raw altitude data. The latest revision is WGS84, established in 1984 and last revised in 2004, earlier schemes included WGS72, WGS66, and WGS60. WGS84 is the coordinate system used by the Global Positioning System. The coordinate origin of WGS84 is meant to be located at the Earths center of mass, the error is believed to be less than 2 cm. The WGS84 meridian of longitude is the IERS Reference Meridian,5.31 arc seconds or 102.5 metres east of the Greenwich meridian at the latitude of the Royal Observatory. The WGS84 datum surface is a spheroid with major radius a =6378137 m at the equator. The polar semi-minor axis b then equals a times, or 6356752.3142 m, currently, WGS84 uses the EGM96 geoid, revised in 2004. This geoid defines the sea level surface by means of a spherical harmonics series of degree 360. The deviations of the EGM96 geoid from the WGS84 reference ellipsoid range from about −105 m to about +85 m, EGM96 differs from the original WGS84 geoid, referred to as EGM84. Efforts to supplement the national surveying systems began in the 19th century with F. R. Helmerts famous book Mathematische und Physikalische Theorien der Physikalischen Geodäsie. Austria and Germany founded the Zentralbüro für die Internationale Erdmessung, a unified geodetic system for the whole world became essential in the 1950s for several reasons, International space science and the beginning of astronautics. The lack of inter-continental geodetic information, efforts of the U. S. Army, Navy and Air Force were combined leading to the DoD World Geodetic System 1960. Heritage surveying methods found elevation differences from a local horizontal determined by the level, plumb line. As a result, the elevations in the data are referenced to the geoid, the latter observational method is more suitable for global mapping. The sole contribution of data to the development of WGS60 was a value for the ellipsoid flattening which was obtained from the nodal motion of a satellite. Prior to WGS60, the U. S. Army, the Army performed an adjustment to minimize the difference between astro-geodetic and gravimetric geoids. By matching the relative astro-geodetic geoids of the selected datums with an earth-centered gravimetric geoid, since the Army and Air Force systems agreed remarkably well for the NAD, ED and TD areas, they were consolidated and became WGS60
14.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
15.
Interchange station
–
Transfer may occur within the same mode, or between rail modes, or to buses. Such stations usually have more platforms than single route stations and these stations can exist in either commercial centers or on the city outskirts in residential areas. Cities typically plan for use around interchange stations for development. Passengers may be required to pay extra fare for the if they leave a paid area. With the opening of the Woodside and Birkenhead Dock Street Tramway in 1873, Birkenhead Dock railway station in Birkenhead, verney Junction interchange station in Buckinghamshire, England was built at the point of two railway lines intersecting each other in open countryside. The station was built in a remote field being used from 1868 to 1968. The Shing Mun Tunnels Bus Interchange in the New Territories, Hong Kong, manhattan Transfer on the Pennsylvania Railroad was located outside Newark, New Jersey in a relatively isolated area, and was used primarily for passenger interchange. In some cases, no dedicated underground passage or footbridge is provided, examples include Kuramae Station of Toei in Tokyo, Japan and Lexington Avenue-59th Street/Lexington Avenue–63rd Street stations in New York City. There are also bus interchanges, where people can change between different bus routes with no fare or only the differences of the fares of the two routes. Examples include Tai Lam Tunnel Bus Interchange and Shing Mun Tunnel Bus Interchange in the New Territories, Hong Kong, cross-platform interchange Railway station layout Maund, T. B. The Wirral Railway and its Predecessors
16.
Mixed-use development
–
Mixed-use development can take the form of a single building, a city block, or entire neighbourhoods. Traditionally, human settlements have developed in mixed-use patterns, in the United States, the heyday of separate-use zoning was after World War II, but since the 1990s, mixed-use zoning has once again become desirable as the benefits are recognized. Walking was the way that people and goods were moved about. Most people dwelt in buildings that were places of work as well as domestic life, people lived at very high densities because the amount of space required for daily living and movement between different activities was determined by walkability and the scale of the human body. This was particularly true in cities, and the floor of buildings was often devoted to some sort of commercial or productive use. This historical mixed-used pattern of development declined during industrialisation in favor of separation of manufacturing. This period saw massive migrations of people from areas to cities drawn by work in factories. These influxes of new workers needed to be accommodated and many new urban districts arose at this time with domestic housing being their primary function, thus began a separating out of land uses that previously had occurred in the same spaces. Furthermore, many factories produced substantial pollution of various kinds, distance was required to minimize adverse impacts from noise, dirt, noxious fumes and dangerous substances. Even so, at time, most industrialized cities were of a size that allowed people to walk between the different areas of the city. These factors were important in the push for Euclidean or single-use zoning premised on the compartmentalization of land uses into like functions, in the United States, another impetus for Euclidean zoning was the birth of the skyscraper. Fear of buildings blocking out the sun led many to call for zoning regulations, Zoning regulations, first put into place in the 1916 Zoning Resolution, not only called for limits on building heights, but eventually called for separations of uses. This was largely meant to people from living next to polluted industrial areas. This separation, however, was extended to commercial uses as well and this type of zoning was widely adopted by municipal zoning codes. However, it has been the post-second World War dominance of the automobile, throughout the late 20th century, it began to become apparent to many urban planners and other professionals that mixed-use development had many benefits and should be promoted again. As American, British, Canadian and Australian cities deindustrialized, the need to separate residences from hazardous factories became less important, completely separate zoning created isolated islands of each type of development. In 1961, Jane Jacobs influential The Death and Life of Great American Cities argued that a mixture of uses is vital, Zoning laws have been revised accordingly and increasingly attempt to address these problems by using mixed-use zoning. Mixed-use guidelines often result in buildings with streetfront commercial space
17.
Stratford City
–
Stratford City is a mixed-use development project in Stratford, London, England. The main developers are the Westfield Group and Lend Lease, Stratford City is the name given to the urban community centred on the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park. Royal Mail has allocated the postcode E20 to Stratford City and the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park, the whole Queen Elizabeth II Olympic Park site was proposed to be secured under a compulsory purchase order by the London Development Agency. In late 2005, a row broke out between then Mayor of London Ken Livingstone and Newham Council/Westfield over the use of the legal instrument. In November 2005, an agreement was made where by the CPO over the Westfield site was removed, subject to agreed access provisions to the Olympic Village. The Olympic Village, home of the athletes during the 2012 Summer Games, work started in early 2007, and the entire project was completed in 2012. Work was carried out in phases, with Phase 1 completed in 2011, Phase 1 includes 1.9 million ft² of retail and leisure space, a 267-room Premier Inn hotel,1. 1m sq ft of office space, and 4,850 new homes. The site is adjacent to both the existing Stratford Regional station and the new Stratford International station, Stratford International station is served by Southeastern domestic services on High Speed 1 and Docklands Light Railway services to London City Airport, Beckton and Woolwich Arsenal. Currently no international services call, although Eurostar will review stopping after the Olympic Games, a pedestrian bridge will connect the development to the existing Stratford town centre
18.
Great Eastern Main Line
–
Its numerous branches also connect the main line to such destinations as Braintree, Harwich, Southminster, and Sudbury. The line is heavily used by leisure travellers, as it and its branches serve a number of seaside resorts, shopping areas. The route also provides the main artery for freight traffic to and from Felixstowe and Harwich. The London terminus was moved in July 1840 to Shoreditch in the Metropolitan Borough of Bethnal Green, a further 34 miles of track was added out to Colchester by 1843. The original gauge for the line was 5 ft, but this was converted to 1,435 mm standard gauge in 1844, the section of line between Colchester and Ipswich was built by the Eastern Union Railway to standard gauge and opened to passenger traffic in June 1846. Its sister company, the Ipswich and Bury Railway, built a line to Bury St Edmunds, both companies shared the same office, many directors and key staff, and started operating as a unified company with the EUR name from 1 January 1847. In the late 19th century the main line was expanded with additional tracks being added to cope with more traffic. In 1854 a third track was added between Bow junction and Stratford to help accommodate London, Tilbury and Southend Railway services which at time were operating via Stratford. Until 1860 trains serving the town of Ipswich used a station called Ipswich Stoke Hill which was located south of the Stoke tunnel, the towns current station is located to the north of the tunnel. From November 1872 Bishopsgate became a terminus to relieve the main high level Bishopsgate station while the GER was building its new permanent terminus at Liverpool Street. The latter opened in stages from February 1874, beginning with the first four platforms, at that time the original 1840 Bishopsgate station closed to passengers and was converted into a goods yard. By the 1870s suburbia in the Forest Gate area was developing quickly and these were followed by trains from Fenchurch Street in 1877. By 1882 these services had been extended and were terminating at Ilford, Romford or Brentwood, in 1877 a fourth track was added between Bow junction and Stratford and two goods-only tracks were added between Stratford and Maryland Point. The four-track Bow junction to Stratford section was extended back to James Street junction in 1884 and it was also in this year that two extra tracks were added between Bethnal Green and Liverpool Street which were for the use of West Anglia Main Line services. These tracks were built through the basement warehousing associated with Bishopsgate station located above, the line was quadrupled to Ilford in 1895 and in 1899 out to Seven Kings. In 1902 the quadruple track was extended from Seven Kings to Romford, but it wasn’t until 1913 that four-tracking out to Shenfield was suggested, in 1903 the Fairlop Loop opened and a number of services that had previously terminated at Ilford were extended onto it. These services generally looped round and back to the GEML at Stratford, the GER was grouped in 1923 into the London and North Eastern Railway. In 1931/32 the LNER quadrupled the tracks to Shenfield which became the terminus for inner-suburban operation, the new arrangement also facilitated cross-platform interchange with the Central line at Stratford, with services commencing in 1946
19.
Liverpool Street station
–
The station opened in 1874 as a replacement for Bishopsgate station as the Great Eastern Railways main London terminus. By 1895 it had the largest number of platforms on any railway station in London. During the First World War, an air raid on the station in 1917 led to 162 deaths, in the build-up to the Second World War, the station served as the entry point for thousands of child refugees arriving in London as part of the Kindertransport rescue mission. Liverpool Street was built as a station with provision for the Underground. A tube station opened in 1875 for the Metropolitan Railway, and the station today is served by the Central, Circle, Hammersmith & City and Metropolitan lines, Liverpool Street is the third-busiest railway station in the United Kingdom after Waterloo and Victoria, both also in London. It is managed directly by Network Rail, a few daily express trains to Harwich International provide a connection with the Dutchflyer ferry to Hook of Holland. Stansted Express trains provide a link to Stansted Airport and Southend Victoria-bound services stop at Southend Airport, most passenger services on the Great Eastern Main Line are operated by Greater Anglia. Since 2015, the Shenfield metro service has been controlled by TfL Rail, a small number of late-evening and weekend services operated by c2c run via Barking. The station is split into two halves, the west side for the Lea Valley Lines services and the east side for services via Stratford. The typical off-peak weekday service pattern from Liverpool Street is, Liverpool Street station was built as the new London terminus of the Great Eastern Railway which served Norwich, the GER had been formed from the merger of several railway companies, inheriting Bishopsgate as its London terminus. Consequently, the GER planned a more central station, the station was planned to be around 630 by 200 ft in area, with its main façade onto Liverpool Street and an additional entrance on Bishopsgate-Street. The line and station construction were authorised by the Great Eastern Railway Act 1864, the station was built on a 10 acres site previously occupied by the Bethlem Royal Hospital, adjacent to Broad Street station, west of Bishopsgate and facing onto Liverpool Street to the south. The development land was purchased, displacing around 3,000 residents of the parish of St Botolph-without-Bishopsgate. To manage the disruption caused by rehousing, the company was required by the 1864 Act to run daily low-cost workmens trains from the station. The station was designed by GER engineer Edward Wilson and built by Lucas Brothers, the overall design was approximately Gothic, built using stock bricks and bath stone dressings. The building incorporated booking offices as well as the offices of the GER, including chairmans, board, committee, secretary. The station was built with a connection to the sub-surface Metropolitan Railway, with the platform sunk below ground level, the Metropolitan Railway used the station as a terminus from 1 February 1875 until 11 July 1875, their own underground station opened on 12 July 1875. Local trains began serving the partially completed station from 2 October 1874, the original City terminus at Bishopsgate closed to passengers and was converted for use as a goods station from 1881
20.
Mile End tube station
–
Mile End is a London Underground station in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets in east London. It is served by the Hammersmith & City, District and Central lines and this station features a cross-platform interchange in both directions, with the Central lines tracks to the outside of the District and Hammersmith & City lines tracks. It is in Travelcard Zone 2, the station was opened in 1902 by the Whitechapel & Bow Railway. The first services were provided by the District Railway, the Metropolitan line followed in 1936, in 1946 the station was expanded and rebuilt as part of the Central line eastern extension, with services starting on 4 December 1946. The station passed to London Underground in 1950, on 5 July 2007 a Central line train was derailed when it hit a roll of fire blanket, which had been blown out of a cross-passage between the two tunnels by the strong crosswinds. In November 2009, part of a barrier broke off from a departing train. One woman suffered a 5 cm cut in her forehead, Mile End is the only subterranean station on the network that offers cross-platform interchange between tube and sub-surface trains. The station takes its name from the A11 Mile End Road, however, the stones position was actually closer to Stepney Green than Mile End station itself, which is further east, on the junction with Burdett Road. The station is undergoing renovation works. Metronet, a company in a partnership with Transport for London. After a short period, TfL continued the renovation work. The station is close to Victoria Park and Mile End Park, queen Mary University of London, Mile End Hospital and the now-closed St. Clements Hospital—part of the Royal London Hospital—are nearby
21.
Leyton tube station
–
Leyton is a London Underground station at Leyton. Situated opposite Leyton Mills at the end of Leyton High Road, the station was opened by the Eastern Counties Railway on 22 August 1856 and was called Low Leyton. It was renamed Leyton on 27 November 1868 by the Great Eastern Railway, the station was first served by the Central line on 5 May 1947. Now demolished is the ticket office and entrance, opened in 1901. There was planned to be a new exit from the platform onto Goodall Road. The work was due to be completed by June 2012, Leyton tube station serves Leyton Orient F. C. stadium. London Buses routes 58,69,97 and 158 serve the station with W14,339, W15 and night route N26 nearby
22.
West Ham station
–
On the London Underground it is a stop on the District, Hammersmith & City and Jubilee lines, on the National Rail network it is served by c2c services. The station was opened on 1 February 1901 by the London, Tilbury and it was known as West Ham from 11 February 1924 to 1 January 1969. The station was rebuilt and significantly expanded in 1999 with the addition of four platforms, the North London Line services were withdrawn in 2006 to make way for the Docklands Light Railway Stratford International branch, which opened on 31 August 2011. The London, Tilbury and Southend Railway direct line from Bow to Barking was constructed east to west through the middle of the Parish of West Ham in 1858, before this, trains took a longer route via Stratford and Forest Gate to the north. The new line opened with stations initially at Bromley, Plaistow, the station was completed in May 1900, but did not open until 1 February 1901. The station was known as West Ham. The North London Railway had run a service to Plaistow via the Bow-Bromley curve since 18 May 1869. In 1905 they switched to the platforms, with the opening of a new bay platform at Plaistow on the southern side. The Whitechapel and Bow Railway allowed through services of the Metropolitan District Railway to operate through West Ham to Upminster from 1902, the Metropolitan District converted to electric trains in 1905 and services were cut back to East Ham. Ownership of the passed to the Midland Railway in 1912. The station was renamed West Ham in 1924, when the North London Railway service to Plaistow ceased on 1 January 1916 the southern platforms were unused in normal service. The Metropolitan District Railway was incorporated into London Transport in 1933, Hammersmith & City line services started, as part of the Metropolitan line, in 1936. The southern platforms were removed after war damage in 1940 which had closed the station from 7 September 1940 until 11 August 1941. After nationalisation of the railways in 1948 management of the passed to British Railways. In 1969 ownership was transferred to the London Underground and the station was renamed back to West Ham, on 15 March 1976 nine people were injured here by an explosion caused on a train by a member of the Provisional IRA. Julius Stephen, the driver of the train, was dead at the scene when he attempted to pursue the fleeing bomber. In 1999 platforms were re-established on the line from Fenchurch Street, the Eastern Counties and Thames Junction Railway was constructed north to south through West Ham, linking Stratford with Canning Town in 1846. Platforms were constructed on the line at West Ham in 1979 when the North London Line service, at the known as the Crosstown Linkline
23.
Stratford High Street DLR station
–
Stratford High Street DLR station is a Docklands Light Railway station in the Stratford neighbourhood of the London Borough of Newham, in east London, England. It is located on the Stratford International extension of the Docklands Light Railway, the site was the location of an earlier railway station from 1847 to 1957, known initially as Stratford Bridge and later as Stratford Market. The first station on the site was opened as Stratford Bridge on 14 June 1847 on the Eastern Counties and Thames Junction Railway between Stratford and Canning Town stations, thus Stratford Bridge became a GER station in 1862. The station served a local fruit and vegetable market and was renamed Stratford Market on 1 November 1880, the station was resited in 1892 when the line was widened. On the westbound platform there was a tower that contained steps that allowed access over the goods lines to the adjacent Great Eastern Railways printing works which opened in 1893. As of 2016 this building is still extant, following the 1923 grouping the station was operated by the London & North Eastern Railway. The second station was renamed twice, to Stratford Market in 1898. Following nationalisation of the railways in 1948 the station part of British Railways Eastern Region. The East Coast floods of 31 January 1953 saw tracks in the station flooded, the station closed on 6 May 1957 due to lack of traffic and the proximity of the larger Stratford station, which was also served by other lines. The line through the site to North Woolwich closed in 2006 for works to start on conversion to DLR operation. On 5 April 1905 two trains collided just north of Stratford Market station, the two trains collided on the junction directly north of the station with the goods engine overturning and killing its fireman William Secker, who was crushed under the locomotive after jumping off. The red brick buildings from the original station still stand on the south side of Stratford High Street. The station is located on Stratford High Street and it is provided with a footbridge connection to Bridge Road in order to provide access to the surrounding areas. In order to locate the station part of Bridge Road has been permanently closed to vehicles except for emergency access. This avoided the need to land from Rokeby School whilst also enabling the station to be located close to Stratford High Street. Off-peak, trains run every ten minutes to Stratford International to the North, in the peak hours trains run every eight minutes. A large goods depot was located south of the station on the side of the line. This opened in 1879 for potatoes, roots, hay and straw, additionally there was a coal depot and a siding which served the Patent Victoria Stone Works
24.
Stratford International station
–
Stratford International is a National Rail and connected Docklands Light Railway station located in Stratford in the London Borough of Newham, east London. On the DLR it is a terminus for services via Canning Town. Construction of the National Rail station was completed in 2006 but it opened in 2009. In 2011 an extension of the DLR was opened to connect Stratford International to the wider London public transport network, the DLR station is physically separate and across the road from the HS1 station. Oyster cards are valid for travel to and from the DLR station, which is in Travelcard zone 2/3, the four-platform HS1 station is built within Stratford Box, a 1. 1-kilometre concrete-sided cutting. It is located on the edge of the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park. The station is on the High Speed 1 railway between St. Pancras and Ebbsfleet International, as the station lies just inside the eastern boundary of the London Olympic Park, much of the surrounding land was little more than construction site until mid-2012. The tracks descend into tunnel at both ends of the station as its platforms are closer to the surface than the tunnels, Stratford International has four platforms in the station box, two at the outer edges and two shorter ones forming a central island. The main line tracks run down each side of the station between the adjacent platforms. There is a room on the island platforms but not on the outer platforms. Thirty-five metres beyond the portals, the tunnels pass just below the Central line tunnels turning north from Stratford. The bottom invert of each Central line tunnel is only 4.3 metres and 8.0 metres above the running tunnels. The station was not authorised by the Channel Tunnel Rail Link Act 1996, in the centre of the station is a single-track inclined viaduct, rising to the east end along and above the length of the island platforms. This is to allow trains to leave the station box. The full service started on 13 December 2009 using Class 395 multiple units, the peak hour service is 19 trains arriving at St Pancras between 07,00 and 09,59. During the 2012 Olympic Games, a service of eight trains an hour ran between St Pancras and Ebbsfleet, calling at Stratford, replacing the high speed service, two of these would be extended to Ashford and one to Faversham. Between 11pm and 1am the service between St Pancras and Ebbsfleet would be increased to twelve per hour, to enable the domestic services to stop at platforms previously designed for Eurostar trains the platforms had to be raised. Originally planned to open in July 2010, this was delayed to 31 August 2011, London Buses routes 97,108,308 and 339 and night route N205 serve the station
25.
North London line
–
The North London line is a railway line of the London Overground, which passes through the inner suburbs of north London, England. Its route is a rough semicircle between the south-west and the north-east, avoiding central London, the line is owned and maintained by Network Rail and London Overground. It is an important freight route and is used by the Richmond to Stratford service of the London Overground, also, between Richmond and Gunnersbury, London Undergrounds District line shares tracks with London Overground services, although this part is also owned and maintained by Network Rail. The line reopened on 1 June 2010 with a service and none on Sundays, and with the upgrade work completed. The later construction of the Royal Victoria Dock necessitated a swing-bridge on the route south of Canning Town which was rerouted in 1850 via Custom House. The original route was retained as the Silvertown Tramway, a freight line connected at both ends to the new main line. The main central section opened from 1850 to 1852 as the East & West India Docks & Birmingham Junction Railway and this gave a link from the Euston main line near Primrose Hill to the docks at Poplar via Bow. In the west, the North & South Western Junction Railway was opened in 1853 from Willesden Junction to a junction with the Hounslow Loop Line near Kew Bridge, the last link in the east was opened between the NLR near Victoria Park and Stratford in 1854. To obviate NLR trains running on the busy Euston main line, to give the NLR direct access to the City of London, the City extension to Broad Street was opened from Dalston Junction in 1865. The final part of the route was the opening of a link from South Acton to Richmond by the London & South Western Railway in 1869, the line from Broad Street to Kew Bridge and Richmond was electrified by the LNWR in 1916 on the 4th-rail DC system. In 1944, passenger services on the NLR Poplar branch ceased, freight traffic continued on the branch to the docks on the Isle of Dogs until 1980. The trackbed of the part of the branch, from Poplar to Bow, was used for the Docklands Light Railway branch to Stratford. The service was listed for closure in the 1963 Beeching Report and it was saved after a huge campaign. The line was Grant Aided under the Transport Act 1968 and came under threat when the Conservative Government of 1970-71 proposed to reduce Grant Aid funding. That threat, eventually lifted, led to the founding of a new group, the North London Line Committee. In 1979, the North Woolwich to Stratford service was extended to Camden Road as the CrossTown LinkLine service, using the same Cravens-built diesel multiple unit trains. There were no stations until, in 1980, Hackney Wick was opened, near the site of the former Victoria Park station and Hackney Central was re-opened. New platforms were built at West Ham for interchange with the adjacent Underground station, in the 1980s, Broad Street station closed and the Tottenham Hale–Stratford link and the station at Lea Bridge ceased to be used by regular passenger trains
26.
Hackney Wick railway station
–
Hackney Wick railway station is on the North London Line in the London Borough of Hackney, on the northern side of the boundary between Hackney and the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, in east London. It is in Travelcard Zone 2, the station and all trains serving it are operated by London Overground. As of Spring 2017 the station is being rebuilt and modernised to become a significantly larger, as part of these works the older platform buildings have been removed. As part of the programme to introduce four-car trains on the London Overground network and this was to enable the installation of a new signalling system and the extension of 30 platforms. Engineering work continued to June 2011, during which reduced services operated, until 9 December 2006, when the line from Stratford to North Woolwich was closed to be converted to a Docklands Light Railway line, the eastbound service ran to North Woolwich. Hackney Wick station was a key point for the 2012 Summer Olympics as it is situated 100m from the western periphery of the Olympic Park. However, due to overcrowding, TfL announced that westbound trains would not stop at this station for the duration of the Games. Hackney Wick is one of four stations located around the park, along with Stratford station, Stratford International, Hackney Wick currently has the following London Overground services, which is operated by Class 378 trainsets. Off-peak, 6tph to Stratford 4tph to Richmond 2tph to Clapham Junction London Buses route 276 serves the station, on 29 December 1985, the station was the scene of one of the murders of the serial rapists John Duffy and David Mulcahy. The station is near the scene of the first railway murder, the victim, Thomas Briggs of 5 Clapton Square, was returning from dining with his niece in Peckham in July 1864 and, aged 69, had the misfortune to meet his murderer on the train. Two clerks discovered a compartment sticky with blood at Hackney, the victim was discovered on the line between Bow and Hackney Wick and was brought initially into the Mitford Castle public house in Cadogan Terrace and subsequently taken home, where he died. A hat belonging to Muller was discovered in the compartment, in the next few days, a Cheapside jeweller came forward with Briggss missing watch and chain, and a description of Muller. The theft was to pay for Mullers emigration to America, and he departed soon after on the Victoria and he was returned to England, tried, convicted, and hanged at Newgate Prison
27.
TfL Rail
–
It is operated by MTR Corporation Ltd under contract to Transport for London, and forms part of the future Crossrail route from Shenfield to Reading and Heathrow Airport. TfL Rail took control of the Liverpool Street to Shenfield metro service in May 2015, in May 2018 Heathrow Connect services between Paddington and the airport and the Heathrow Express shuttle from Heathrow Central to Terminal 4 will also come under TfL Rail operation. TfL Rail will then be re-branded as the Elizabeth line in December 2018, between opening in May 2015 and the end of the 2015/2016 period TfL Rail carried over 38 million passengers. In July 2014 TfL awarded the contract to MTR, with a duration of eight years with an option to extend by a two years. The existing Class 315 trains were re-painted in the TfL Rail livery, every station is also staffed from first train to last of the day. TfL Rail utilises the existing 20 miles 16 chains of track on the Great Eastern Main Line between Liverpool Street and Shenfield, during peak times, service frequency is increased and calling patterns vary, with some stations omitted on certain services. On Sundays there are two trains per hour between Liverpool Street and Shenfield and two trains per hour between Liverpool Street and Gidea Park. TfL Rail operations commenced with the fleet of Class 315 rolling stock. These units will be replaced by 66 new Class 345 trains built by the Canadian firm Bombardier Transportation, the Class 315 trains will continue to be maintained at the existing Ilford depot. The Class 345 fleet will be maintained at a new depot at Old Oak Common
28.
Shenfield railway station
–
Shenfield railway station is on the Great Eastern Main Line and is also the western terminus of the Shenfield to Southend Line in the East of England, serving the town of Shenfield, Essex. It is 20 miles 16 chains down-line from London Liverpool Street and is between Brentwood to the west and Ingatestone and Billericay to the east and its three-letter station code is SNF. The station was opened in 1843 and has expanded from its original three platforms to the current five. From 2019 Shenfield will also become the terminus of the Crossrail line to Reading. Shenfield station was opened by the Eastern Counties Railway company on 29 March 1843 on the extension from Brentwood to Colchester, as it was situated in a rural area, patronage was low, so it was closed in March 1850. There were three platforms, two up and one down, under the London and North Eastern Railway, two extra tracks for terminating local trains opened in 1934, resulting in the current five platforms. The 1920 survey of the shows good sidings and a turntable on the London side of the up platforms. The goods yard was closed on 4 May 1964 and it became the car park. The Hutton Junction suffix in the name was removed on 20 February 1969. The station is 20 miles 16 chains down line from Liverpool Street, immediately west of the station is Brentwood bank, which descends steeply in the up direction. This bank presented a significant climb to steam trains, there are extensive sidings on the London side of the station just before the start of the descent down the bank. To the east of the station, the lines for Southend diverge with the line passing under the main line towards Norwich. West of Shenfield there are five tracks, but to the east these split, oyster card readers were installed for pay-as-you-go journeys in 2013. Today, Shenfield is served by fast trains on the line towards London. From 2019, Shenfield will additionally form the terminus of Crossrail. The two remaining western sidings and three new eastern sidings will also be used by Crossrail and it is estimated that Crossrail will cut morning peak journey times by up to seven minutes although there will be no reduction to some journey times. During peak times, service frequencies may be increased and calling patterns varied, service frequencies are generally reduced on Sundays. Train times and station information for Shenfield railway station from National Rail Excel file displaying National Rail station usage information for 2005/06
29.
Greater Anglia (train operating company)
–
Abellio began operating the franchise, then known as the Greater Anglia franchise, in February 2012. It traded initially under the name until it rebranded as Abellio Greater Anglia in December 2013. In May 2015, most of the suburban services were transferred to London Overground. The franchise was re-tendered as the East Anglia franchise and awarded to Abellio in August 2016, the company resumed trading as Greater Anglia on 16 October 2016 when the new franchise commenced. In January 2017, Abellio announced that subject to gaining Department for Transport approval, the sale was completed in March 2017. In December 2003 the Strategic Rail Authority awarded the Greater Anglia franchise to National Express, the franchise was to run until March 2011, with provision for a three-year extension if performance targets were met. As a result, National Express East Anglia was granted an extension until October 2011. In March 2011 the Department for Transport announced that Abellio, Go-Ahead, in October 2011 it awarded the new franchise to Abellio, the services operated by National Express East Anglia transferred to Greater Anglia on 5 February 2012. The franchise was originally to run until July 2014, in March 2013 the Secretary of State for Transport announced the franchise would again be extended until 15 October 2016. Greater Anglia was rebranded as Abellio Greater Anglia in December 2013, on 31 May 2015 the Liverpool Street to Enfield Town, Cheshunt and Chingford services, as well as the Romford to Upminster service, transferred to London Overground Rail Operations. On the same day, the Liverpool Street to Shenfield stopping services transferred to the TfL Rail concession managed by MTR, the refurbishment programme was completed in 2016. In June 2015, an Abellio /Stagecoach joint venture, FirstGroup, in December 2015 it was announced that Stagecoach had pulled out of the joint bid with Abellio, and that Abellio would continue the bid alone. In August 2016, it was announced that Abellio had successfully bid to retain the franchise until 2025, a franchise commitment is to purchase 1,043 new carriages,660 from Bombardiers Derby Litchurch Lane Works with the other 383 to be built by Stadler Rail. In January 2017, Abellio announced that subject to gaining Department for Transport approval, extensive refurbishment of some of the existing vehicles, prior to replacement. Raise Public Performance Measure scores to at least 92. 9%, two weekday trains operating between Norwich and Ipswich to London with a journey time of 90 min and 60 min respectively. Free WiFi on trains and stations, £60M investment for station upgrades with a focus on Broxbourne, Cambridge, Cheshunt, Harlow Town and Southend Victoria stations. Introduction of digital screens on all stations with improvements in car and cycle parking along with upgrades to ticket offices. New ticketing programs with offers for infrequent travelers and part-time workers, introduction of an automatic delay repay service for season and advance ticket holders
30.
East of England
–
The East of England is one of nine official regions of England at the first level of NUTS for statistical purposes. It was created in 1994 and was adopted for statistics from 1999 and it includes the ceremonial counties of Bedfordshire, Cambridgeshire, Essex, Hertfordshire, Norfolk and Suffolk. Essex has the highest population in the region and its population at the 2011 census was 5,847,000. Bedford, Luton, Basildon, Peterborough, Southend-on-Sea, Norwich, Ipswich, Colchester, Chelmsford, the southern part of the region lies in the London commuter belt. The region has the lowest elevation range in the UK, North Cambridgeshire and the Essex Coast have most of the around 5% of the region which is below 10 metres above sea level. The Fens are partly in North Cambridgeshire which is notable for the lowest point in the country in the land of the village of Holme 2.75 metres below sea level which was once Whittlesey Mere. The highest point is at Clipper Down at 817 ft, in the far corner of the region in the Ivinghoe Hills. In the late 1960s, the Roskill Commission considered Thurleigh in Bedfordshire, Nuthampstead in Hertfordshire, the East of England succeeded the standard statistical region East Anglia. The East of England civil defence region was identical to todays region, England between the Wash and Thames Estuary has since post-Roman times been and continues to be known as East Anglia, including the county traversing the west of this line, Cambridgeshire. Essex, despite meaning East-Saxons, previously formed part of the South East England, as did Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire, the earliest use of the term is from 1695. Charles Davenant, in An essay upon ways and means of supplying the war, wrote, The Eleven Home Counties, then cited a list including these four. The term does not appear to have used in taxation since the 18th century. East Anglia is one of the driest parts of the United Kingdom with average rainfall ranging from 450 mm to 750 mm. This is usually because low pressure systems and weather fronts from the Atlantic have lost a lot of their moisture over land by the time they reach Eastern England, however the Fens in Cambridgeshire are prone to flooding should a strong system affect the area. Northerly winds can also be cold but are not usually as cold as easterly winds, westerly winds bring milder and, typically, wetter weather. Southerly winds usually bring mild air but chill if coming from further east than Spain, spring is a transitional season that can be chilly to start with but is usually warm by late-April/May. The weather at this time is often changeable and occasionally showery, summer is usually warm and continental air from mainland Europe or the Azores High usually leads to at least a few weeks of hot, balmy weather with prolonged warm to hot weather. The number of storms from the Atlantic, such as the remnants of a tropical storm usually coincides with the location of the jet stream
31.
C2c
–
C2c is an English train operating company owned by Trenitalia. It manages 25 stations and its trains call at 28, originally trading as LTS Rail under Prism Rail ownership, it has operated the London, Tilbury & Southend and replacement Essex Thameside franchises since May 1996. It was included in the July 2000 sale of Prism Rail to National Express, in February 2017 National Express sold c2c to Trenitalia. C2c trades under the name Trenitalia c2c ltd, in May 1996, the franchise was awarded to Prism Rail by the Director of Passenger Rail Franchising for 15 years. It began operating as LTS Rail on 26 May 1996, in May 2000, the business was rebranded as c2c. In July 2000, c2c was included in the sale of Prism Rail to National Express, the franchise was originally due to conclude on 26 May 2011. In December 2010, the Department for Transport granted National Express an extension until 26 May 2013 to allow it time to conduct a review of the franchising process, the Secretary of State for Transport announced the franchise would again be extended until 13 September 2014. A further delay saw this extended until 8 November 2014, since February 2012, c2c has been National Express only UK rail franchise, in 2003 it operated nine. On 9 November 2014, c2c commenced a new 15-year franchise having successfully tendered against Abellio, FirstGroup, the new franchise retains the c2c brand, albeit operated through a new legal entity, NXET Trains Limited in lieu of c2c Limited. In February 2017 National Express sold c2c to Trenitalia, the c2c name could be conceived to represent city to coast or capital to coast, reflecting the nature of the route, or commitment to customers. The c2c website stated, The name c2c doesnt mean anything specific, in a sense it can mean anything you want it to. Its uniqueness reflects the young, vibrant character of the people we serve, C2c could stand for coast to capital, or capital to coast. From our point of view, one of the most important things it stands for is commitment to customers, National Express now also referred to the c2c route as City to Coast. C2c used the slogan way2go, but now uses the Making travel simpler slogan also used by other National Express companies. All stations on the route are managed by c2c except West Ham and Stratford, the line has a speed limit of 75 mph, although the Class 357 Electrostar trains are capable of 100 mph. In the rush hour there are services, with a few services to/from London starting/terminating at Laindon. In the morning, one time service doesnt call at West Ham and Limehouse and one calls at West Ham, missing Limehouse, other than this, all trains call at West Ham. In the evening, all stop at Limehouse and very few miss out West Ham
32.
London, Tilbury and Southend Railway
–
The line is also heavily used by leisure travellers, as it and its branches serve a number of seaside resorts, shopping areas and countryside destinations. Additionally the route provides an artery for traffic to and from the port of Tilbury. The route was extended in phases and partnerships were formed with the Midland Railway, the main line runs from Fenchurch Street to Shoeburyness via Basildon over a distance of 39 miles 40 chains. A loop line between Barking and Pitsea provides a route via Grays and Tilbury, and there is a short branch line connecting the two via Ockendon. The line has a speed limit of 75 mph, although the Class 357 electric trains which run on it are capable of a speed of 100 mph. The line forms part of Network Rails strategic route 6 and it is classified as a London and South East commuter line. Passenger services form the Essex Thameside franchise that is operated by train operating company c2c. The construction of the London, Tilbury and Southend Railway line was authorised by Parliament on 17 June 1852. The first section, built by Peto and Grissell, was opened between Forest Gate junction on the Eastern Counties Railway line and Tilbury, via Barking and Grays on 13 April 1854. Services initially ran from Fenchurch Street and Bishopsgate stations over existing lines to Stratford, further extensions opened in late 1854 to Horndon, to Leigh-on-Sea on 1 July 1855 and finally to Southend on 1 March 1856. Under the management of civil engineer Arthur Lewis Stride, the line was extended from Southend to Shoeburyness in 1884, a more direct route from Barking to Pitsea via Upminster was built between 1885 and 1888, completing the current main route. A single-track branch was constructed between Romford and Grays via Upminster in 1892-93, the connection allowed through-running of District Railway trains from the tunnels under central London to provide local services to Upminster from 2 June 1902. The electrified tracks were extended to Barking and that opened on 1 April 1908. Delayed by World War I, the tracks were eventually extended to Upminster and District line services started to. Of course, the Waterloo & City tunnels would have had to be bored out to size for this proposal to succeed. In 1974 a station was opened to serve the new town of Basildon, platforms were re-established and opened at West Ham in 1999 to provide interchange with the extended Jubilee line. The railway was jointly promoted by the Eastern Counties Railway and London and Blackwall Railway and was leased for 21 years to Peto, Brassey. The lease expired in 1875, leaving the LTSR to take over operation itself, the Midland Railway and LTSR jointly constructed the Tottenham and Forest Gate Railway, which enabled through-running of trains between St. Pancras and the Tilbury docks
33.
Shoeburyness railway station
–
Shoeburyness railway station is the eastern terminus of the London, Tilbury and Southend Railway line, serving the town of Shoeburyness, Essex. It is 39 miles 40 chains down-line from London Fenchurch Street via Basildon and its three-letter station code is SRY. The station and all trains serving it are operated by c2c. Shoeburyness is arranged in a through-station layout despite being a terminus and it was opened on 1 February 1884 by the London, Tilbury and Southend Railway. As a result of this layout, the station has access from the towns high street to all of its platforms. A connection exists to the Ministry of Defence site nearby at Pigs Bay, to the east over a crossing on the high street. The ticket office is equipped with the TRIBUTE ticket issuing system, the station has sheltered bicycle storage, a taxicab rank, and a car park. The station was renovated in January 2013, when the London Undergrounds District line operated a seasonal non-stop excursion train service between 1910 and 1939 through to the Southend area, Shoeburyness was the terminus
34.
London Paddington station
–
Paddington, also known as London Paddington, is a central London railway terminus and London Underground station complex, located on Praed Street in the Paddington area. The site has been the London terminus of the Great Western Railway, much of the main-line station dates from 1854 and was designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel. It was first served by London Underground trains in 1863, as the western terminus of the Metropolitan Railway. Today, Paddington tube station is served by the Bakerloo, Circle, District and it is also the terminus for the Heathrow Express and Heathrow Connect services to and from London Heathrow Airport. It is one of 19 stations in the United Kingdom managed directly by Network Rail and it is situated in fare zone 1. The station complex is bounded at the front by Praed Street and at the rear by Bishops Bridge Road, on the west side of the station is Eastbourne Terrace, while the east side is bounded by the Paddington arm of the Grand Union Canal. The station is in a cutting, a fact obscured at the front by a hotel building. The surrounding area is residential, and includes the major St Marys Hospital, restaurants. Until recently there was little office accommodation in the area, however, recent redevelopment of derelict railway and canal land, marketed as Paddington Waterside, has resulted in new office complexes nearby. In addition to the Underground stations at Paddington, Lancaster Gate tube station on the Central line is a walk away to the south. A little further to the south lie the conjoined parks of Hyde Park, the National Rail station is officially named London Paddington, a name commonly used outside London but rarely by Londoners, who call it just Paddington, as on the London Underground map. Parts of the station, including the train shed, date from 1854. It is one of 19 stations managed by Network Rail, the first station was a temporary terminus for the GWR on the west side of Bishops Bridge Road, opened on 4 June 1838. The first GWR service from London to Taplow, near Maidenhead, after the main station opened in 1854, this became the site of the goods depot. It opened on 29 May 1854, the glazed roof is supported by wrought iron arches in three spans, respectively spanning 68 feet,102 feet and 70 feet. The roof is 699 feet long, and the original roof spans had two transepts connecting the three spans and it is commonly believed that these were provided by Brunel to accommodate traversers to carry coaches between the tracks within the station. However recent research, using documents and photographs, does not seem to support this belief. The Great Western Hotel was built on Praed Street in front of the station in 1851–1854 by architect Philip Charles Hardwick, the station was substantially enlarged in 1906–1915 and a fourth span of 109 feet was added on the north side, parallel to the others
35.
Reading railway station
–
Reading railway station is a major transport hub in Reading, England. On the northern edge of the centre, near the main retail and commercial areas. Reading is the ninth-busiest station in the UK outside London, Reading is one of 19 stations managed by Network Rail. The station is served by three train operating companies, Great Western Railway, CrossCountry and South West Trains, the first Reading station was opened on 30 March 1840 as the temporary western terminus of the original line of the Great Western Railway. The time taken to travel from London to Reading was reduced to one hour and five minutes, the line was extended to its intended terminus at Bristol in 1841. In 1844, the Great Western Hotel, was opened across the Forbury Road for people visiting the town and it is thought to be the oldest surviving railway hotel in the world. New routes soon joined the London to Bristol line, with the line from Reading to Newbury and Hungerford opening in 1847, in 1860, a new station building, in Bath Stone and incorporating a tower and clock, was constructed for the Great Western Railway. In 1898 the single sided station was replaced by a design with up, down. Access to the station from Broad Street was not direct, until Queen Victoria Street was built in 1903 and this provided a route through to Friar Street and Station Road. The station was originally named Reading and became Reading General on 26 September 1949 to distinguish it from the ex-South Eastern Railway station nearby, the General suffix was dropped from British Rail timetables in 1973, but some of the station nameboards still stated Reading General in 1974. From 6 September 1965, services from the former Reading Southern station were diverted into a newly constructed terminal platform in the General station. At the same time a new station car park was built on the site of the former goods yard and signal works to the north of the station. The station facilities in the 1860 station building were converted into The Three Guineas public house, the Queen reopened the station on 4 April 1989. By 2007, the station had become a bottleneck on the railway network. This was caused by limited number of through-platforms, the flat junctions immediately east and west of the station, the Great Western Main Line at Reading has two pairs of tracks – the main lines on the southern side and the relief lines on the northern side. Passenger and freight trains transferring between the Reading to Taunton Line and Reading to Basingstoke Line and the lines had to cross the Main lines. On 10 September 2008 Network Rail unveiled a £400 million regeneration and reconfiguration of the station, the plans included an underpass to allow freight and passenger trains to transit from the to the Relief lines without blocking the Main lines. This was planned to alleviate current delays, due to slow moving freight trains passing through the station
36.
Heathrow Airport
–
Heathrow Airport is a major international airport in London, United Kingdom. In 2016, it handled a record 75.7 million passengers, Heathrow lies 14 miles west of Central London, and has two parallel east–west runways along with four operational terminals on a site that covers 12.27 square kilometres. London Heathrow is the hub for British Airways and the primary operating base for Virgin Atlantic. In September 2012, the UK government established the Airports Commission, in July 2015, the commission backed a third runway at Heathrow and the government approved a third runway in October 2016. Heathrow is 14 mi west of central London, near the end of the London Borough of Hillingdon on a parcel of land that is designated part of the Metropolitan Green Belt. The airport is surrounded by the areas of Harlington, Harmondsworth, Longford and Cranford to the north and by Hounslow. To the south lie Bedfont and Stanwell while to the west Heathrow is separated from Slough in Berkshire by the M25 motorway, Heathrow falls entirely under the TW postcode area. As the airport is west of London and as its runways run east–west, for a chronicled history of Heathrow Airport, see History of Heathrow Airport. Heathrow Airport originated in 1929 as an airfield on land south-east of the hamlet of Heathrow from which the airport takes its name. At that time there were farms, market gardens and orchards there, there was a Heathrow Farm about where Terminal 1 is now, a Heathrow Hall and a Heathrow House. This hamlet was largely along a lane which ran roughly along the east. Development of the whole Heathrow area as a much larger airport began in 1944. But by the time the airfield was nearing completion, World War II had ended, the government continued to develop the airport as a civil airport, it opened as London Airport in 1946 and was renamed Heathrow Airport in 1966. Heathrow Airport is used by over 80 airlines flying to 185 destinations in 84 countries, the airport is the primary hub of British Airways and is a base for Virgin Atlantic. It has four terminals and a cargo terminal. Of Heathrows 73.4 million passengers in 2014, 93% were international travellers, the busiest single destination in passenger numbers is New York, with over 3 million passengers flying between Heathrow and JFK Airport in 2013. As the required length for runways has grown, Heathrow now has two parallel runways running east–west. These are extended versions of the two east–west runways from the original hexagram, from the air, almost all of the original runways can still be seen, incorporated into the present system of taxiways
37.
Stratford-upon-Avon railway station
–
Stratford-upon-Avon railway station is a railway station that serves the town of Stratford-upon-Avon in Warwickshire, England. The station is operated by London Midland, train services are provided by London Midland and Chiltern Railways. Stratford-upon-Avon was once a station on the Great Western Railway main line from Birmingham Snow Hill to Cheltenham. Two railway lines terminate at Stratford, the North Warwickshire Line from Birmingham and the Leamington-Stratford Line, the first line to reach Stratford was the Oxford, Worcester and Wolverhampton Railway branch from Honeybourne to the south, which opened on 12 July 1859. This was soon followed by the Stratford Railways branch from Hatton from the north, both branches initially had separate termini, but they soon agreed to join the two branches and open a single station at the present site, which was opened on 24 July 1861. Both branches later came under the control of the Great Western Railway, in 1908 the GWR opened the North Warwickshire Line, which incorporated parts of the two original branch lines into a new main line from Birmingham to Cheltenham. This put Stratford on a line, and at this date, the station was expanded. Between 1873 and 1952 Stratford was also served by Stratford Old Town railway station on the Stratford-upon-Avon, a new Stratford Parkway railway station north of the town, next to the A46 road was opened on 19 May 2013. It is intended to ease congestion, as passengers from outside Stratford will no longer need to drive into the town to catch a train, rail services between Birmingham and Stratford have been increased from hourly to half-hourly in conjunction with the opening of the new parkway station. On 26 November 2015 it was announced that a footbridge and lifts had been completed. It was also announced that a new café, waiting room, the typical Monday-Friday off-peak service is as follows,2 trains per hour to Birmingham Snow Hill, one of which runs via Whitlocks End, and the other via Solihull. Three of these services daily run to/from London Marylebone on weekdays, through service was more frequent until 2015, but was cut following the introduction of the new route to Oxford Parkway and the timetable recast that followed. A steam service to Birmingham operated by Vintage Trains operates on summer Sundays, before 2004 services towards Leamington were operated jointly between Thames Trains and Central Trains, both being replaced on the route by Chiltern Railways in 2004. Thames Trains / First Great Western Link operated services to London Paddington via Ealing Broadway, Slough, Reading, Didcot, Oxford, Banbury, Leamington Spa, Hatton and Wilmcote. It also operated some shuttle trains between Stratford and Leamington Spa and a limited service calling at Bearley and Claverdon on weekdays, like all of Thames / Great Western Link services at the time, these services were operated using Class 165 and 166 units. Central Trains operated a service between Stratford and Leamington Spa, in conjunction with those operated by the Thames Trains. Central Trains services were operated using Class 150 units, the same as with most of its services in the area, the Shakespeare Line Promotion Group is promoting a scheme to reopen the 9 miles of line south of Stratford to Honeybourne where it would link to the Cotswold Line. There is, however, a business case for Stratford-Cotswolds link. warwickshirerailways. com
38.
2012 Summer Olympics
–
It took place in London and to a lesser extent across the United Kingdom from 25 July to 12 August 2012. The first event, the stage in womens football began on 25 July at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff. 10,768 athletes from 204 National Olympic Committees participated, London is the first and only city thus far to host the modern Olympic Games three times, having previously done so in 1908 and in 1948. Construction for the Games involved considerable redevelopment, with an emphasis on sustainability, the main focus was a new 200-hectare Olympic Park, constructed on a former industrial site at Stratford, East London. The Games also made use of venues that already existed before the bid, the Games received widespread acclaim for their organisation, with the volunteers, the British military and public enthusiasm praised particularly highly. During the Games, Michael Phelps became the most decorated Olympic athlete of all time, saudi Arabia, Qatar, and Brunei entered female athletes for the first time, so that every currently eligible country has sent a female competitor to at least one Olympic Games. Womens boxing was included for the first time, thus the Games became the first at which every sport had female competitors and these were the final Olympic Games under the IOC presidency of Jacques Rogge. The final medal tally was led by the United States, followed by China, several world and Olympic records were set at the games. Furthermore, the focus on sporting legacy and post-games venue sustainability was seen as a blueprint for future Olympics. On 18 May 2004, as a result of a technical evaluation. All five submitted their candidate files by 19 November 2004 and were visited by the IOC inspection team during February, throughout the process, Paris was widely seen as the favourite, particularly as this was its third bid in recent years. London was initially seen as lagging behind Paris by a considerable margin and its position began to improve after the appointment of Lord Coe as the new head of London 2012 on 19 May 2004. In late August 2004, reports predicted a tie between London and Paris, on 6 June 2005, the IOC released its evaluation reports for the five candidate cities. They did not contain any scores or rankings, but the report for Paris was considered the most positive, London was close behind, having closed most of the gap observed by the initial evaluation in 2004. New York and Madrid also received positive evaluations. On 1 July 2005, when asked who would win, Jacques Rogge said, but my gut feeling tells me that it will be very close. Perhaps it will come down to a difference of say ten votes, on 6 July 2005, the final selection was announced at the 117th IOC Session in Singapore. Moscow was the first city to be eliminated, followed by New York, the final two contenders were London and Paris
39.
2012 Summer Paralympics
–
They were the first-ever organized sporting event for disabled athletes, and served as a precursor to the modern Paralympic Games. Stoke Mandeville also co-hosted the 1984 Summer Paralympics with Long Island, New York, after its original host, at the 117th IOC Session in Singapore, the rights to host the 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympics were awarded to London. As with the Olympics, the 2012 Summer Paralympics were overseen by LOCOG, LOCOG was responsible for overseeing the staging of the games, while the ODA dealt with infrastructure and venues. The Government Olympic Executive within the Department for Culture, Media, the GOE reported through the DCMS Permanent Secretary to the Minister for Sports and the Olympics Hugh Robertson. It focused on oversight of the Games, cross-programme management and the London 2012 Olympic Legacy, the 2012 Summer Paralympics used many of the same venues as the 2012 Summer Olympics, along with two new locations such as Eton Manor for wheelchair tennis and Brands Hatch for road cycling. Londons purpose-built Olympic venues and facilities, including the Olympic Village itself, were designed to be accessible as possible so they could accommodate the Paralympics. Some venues also contained additional accessible seating areas during the Paralympics, transport for London operated the Paralympic Route Network to facilitate road traffic between venues and facilities. The network provided 8.7 miles of lanes specifically reserved for Paralympic athletes, TfL continued to operate its Get Ahead of the Games website during the Paralympics, which provided updates and advice for commuters during the Games. Prior to the Games, concerns were raised by TfL commissioner Peter Hendy that Londons transportation system might not be able to handle the Paralympics adequately, Sevenoaks railway station was designated as the preferred station for spectators travelling to watch the cycling at Brands Hatch. Organisers chose Sevenoaks over the closer Swanley railway station because of its existing step-free access and excellent transport links, whilst organisers did not believe that Swanley would be able to have wheelchair lifts installed by the start of the Paralympics, the station finished their installation by early August 2012. The formal handover occurred during the ceremony of the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing. This was followed by a presentation by Britain, which was similar to its presentation during the Olympics closing ceremony. It featured urban dance group ZooNation, the Royal Ballet, and Candoco, a double-decker bus drove around the stadium, guided by Ade Adepitan, to music composed by Philip Sheppard. The top of the bus was open and folded down to show a privet hedge featuring London landmarks such as Tower Bridge, The Gherkin and the London Eye. Cherisse Osei, drummer for Mika, and Sam Hegedus then performed, before the top of the bus folded up into its original form, both the Paralympic and Olympic flags were formally raised outside of Londons City Hall on 26 September 2008. British Paralympians Helene Raynsford and Chris Holmes raised the Paralympic flag, on 8 September 2011 Trafalgar Square staged International Paralympic Day, hosted by Rick Edwards, Ade Adepitan and Iwan Thomas, to coincide with a visit to London by representatives of the IPC. The event celebrated the Paralympic Games, showcasing and demonstrating the 20 sports that would feature during the Games and it also featured appearances by Paralympic athletes Oscar Pistorius, Ellie Simmonds and Sascha Kindred, and the unveiling of a bronze statue of Pistorius by Ben Dearnley. British Prime Minister David Cameron and Londons mayor Boris Johnson also appeared, two days later on 10 September, supermarket chain Sainsburys and Channel 4 presented Sainsburys Super Saturday, a family event at Clapham Common
40.
Broxbourne railway station
–
Broxbourne railway station, opened in 1840, serves the towns of Broxbourne and Hoddesdon in Hertfordshire, England. It is on the West Anglia Main Line, and train services are provided by Abellio Greater Anglia, Broxbourne Station was officially opened by the Northern and Eastern Railway on 15 September 1840. It was on their line to Cambridge, but the next section of the line to Latton Mill was not opened until August 1841. Therefore, for a period of time Broxbourne served as the terminus for the line which ran up the Lea Valley from Stratford Junction where it joined the Eastern Counties Railway. The station was moved from its site in Station Road to the present site in 1959. The station was Grade II listed in March 2009, one of a small number of post-war railway stations of clear architectural distinction. Ticket barriers were installed in 2011, the centre platforms were extended to accommodate 12-coach trains in December 2011, though initially no 12-coach trains were scheduled to call. The typical Monday-Saturday off-peak service is,4 tph to London Liverpool Street, of which,2 call at Cheshunt and Tottenham Hale,2 call at Cheshunt, Waltham Cross, Enfield Lock, Brimsdown, Ponders End, Tottenham Hale and Hackney Downs, taking 36 minutes. 2 tph to Stratford, of which 1 calls at Cheshunt, Enfield Lock, Northumberland Park and Tottenham Hale,1 calls at Cheshunt, Waltham Cross and Tottenham Hale. 2 tph to Hertford East, calling at Rye House, St Margarets and Ware,1 calls at Roydon, Harlow Town, Harlow Mill, Sawbridgeworth, Bishops Stortford, Stansted Mountfitchet, Elsenham, Newport, Audley End, Great Chesterford and Whittlesford Parkway, taking 59 minutes. On Sundays the off-peak service is,3 tph to London Liverpool Street, of which,1 calls at Cheshunt and Tottenham Hale,1 calls at Cheshunt, Tottenham Hale and Hackney Downs. 1 call at Cheshunt, Waltham Cross, Enfield Lock, Brimsdown, Ponders End and Tottenham Hale, 1tph to Stratford, calling at Cheshunt, Waltham Cross and Tottenham Hale. 2 tph to Hertford East as above, taking 18 minutes,2 tph to Cambridge, of which,1 calls at Harlow Town, Sawbridgeworth, Bishops Stortford, Audley End and Whittlesford Parkway, taking 50 minutes. Train times and station information for Broxbourne railway station from National Rail
41.
Stratford TMD
–
Stratford TMD was a traction maintenance depot located in Stratford, London, England on the Great Eastern Main Line. It was located just west of Stratford station on the site occupied in July 2012 by Stratford International station, the depot was at one time the biggest on the London and North Eastern Railway with locomotives covering duties from crack express services to freight workings in Londons docks. Each UK depot has a code that is used when allocating locomotives to the depots, the original code was STF which was first used in 1875 and was replaced by the British Railways code for the depot which was 30A. In 1973 the depot carried the was coded as SX before becoming SF, Locomotive construction took place at the adjacent Stratford Works and Stratford TMD was initially located on this site located in the V between the Lea Bridge and Great Eastern Main Lines. In 1871 the depot moved to the teardrop of lines to the west of the present Stratford Regional station, the site of the depot is now taken up by Stratford International station. Stratford Depot, as it was called, was built by the Northern and Eastern Railway whose line from Stratford to Broxbourne opened in 1840. On 19 February 1846 additional accommodation was authorised, which resulted in completion of the Erecting Shop the following year and it was in 1847 that the Eastern Counties Railway works in Romford were shut and moved to this site. From this time, the accommodation grew by accretion so that by 1867 the carriage department was using a building 370 ft by 80 ft attached to the side of the Polygon. See the entry on Stratford Works for further information on this site, the Great Eastern Railway was formed in 1862 by the amalgamation of several East Anglian Railways. In the 1860s moves were made to increase the accommodation with a new shed for forty locos proposed. In 1877 the Jubilee shed (named after Queen Victorias jubilee was opened and this was a straight-through shed and with capacity for 130 engines. In 1917 during World War I the site was bombed by a Zeppelin and one driver was killed, three engines were also damaged by other bombs. In 1920 locomotive superintendent LP Parker wrote about the depot, some of the key facts are reproduced below, There were 550 locomotives allocated to Stratford of which 110 were allocated to sub-sheds. The main line services were dealt with B12 4-6-0 and D15 4-4-0s, Main line freight was in the hands of the J15 class and local freight in and around East London was in the hands of 0-6-0Ts belonging to classes J67, J68 and J69. One of these engines is preserved as part of the collection at York. Stratford was responsible for all the suburban services working out of Liverpool Street station, There was a 70-foot turntable installed a few years before Parkers article and part of a re-modelling scheme improving access to the depot. There was also a 65-foot turntable and both were electrically powered, the locomotive coaling plant was one of the biggest in the country and had opened in 1915. Up to that point all coaling had been done by hand with 36 men being employed on each shift and it is possible that with the demand on men in the war that women may have been employed in this role as they certainly were in some other depots
42.
Track gauge
–
In rail transport, track gauge is the spacing of the rails on a railway track and is measured between the inner faces of the load-bearing rails. All vehicles on a network must have running gear that is compatible with the track gauge, as the dominant parameter determining interoperability, it is still frequently used as a descriptor of a route or network. There is a distinction between the gauge and actual gauge at some locality, due to divergence of track components from the nominal. Railway engineers use a device, like a caliper, to measure the actual gauge, the nominal track gauge is the distance between the inner faces of the rails. In current practice, it is specified at a distance below the rail head as the inner faces of the rail head are not necessarily vertical. In some cases in the earliest days of railways, the company saw itself as an infrastructure provider only. Colloquially the wagons might be referred to as four-foot gauge wagons, say and this nominal value does not equate to the flange spacing, as some freedom is allowed for. An infrastructure manager might specify new or replacement track components at a variation from the nominal gauge for pragmatic reasons. Track is defined in old Imperial units or in universally accepted metric units or SI units, Imperial units were established in United Kingdom by The Weights and Measures Act of 1824. In addition, there are constraints, such as the load-carrying capacity of axles. Narrow gauge railways usually cost less to build because they are lighter in construction, using smaller cars and locomotives, as well as smaller bridges, smaller tunnels. Narrow gauge is often used in mountainous terrain, where the savings in civil engineering work can be substantial. Broader gauge railways are generally expensive to build and require wider curves. There is no single perfect gauge, because different environments and economic considerations come into play, a narrow gauge is superior if ones main considerations are economy and tight curvature. For direct, unimpeded routes with high traffic, a broad gauge may be preferable, the Standard, Russian, and 46 gauges are designed to strike a reasonable balance between these factors. In addition to the general trade-off, another important factor is standardization, once a standard has been chosen, and equipment, infrastructure, and training calibrated to that standard, conversion becomes difficult and expensive. This also makes it easier to adopt an existing standard than to invent a new one and this is true of many technologies, including railroad gauges. The reduced cost, greater efficiency, and greater economic opportunity offered by the use of a common standard explains why a number of gauges predominate worldwide
43.
5 ft and 1520 mm gauge railways
–
Railways with a railway track gauge of 5 ft/1,524 mm were first constructed in the United Kingdom and the United States. This gauge is commonly called Russian gauge because this gauge was later chosen as the common track gauge for the Russian Empire. The gauge was redefined by Russian Railways to be 1520 mm, the primary region where Russian gauge is used is the former Soviet Union, Mongolia and Finland, with about 225,000 km of track. Russian gauge is the second most common gauge in the world, in 1748, the Wylam waggonway was built to a 5 ft gauge for the shipment of coal from Wylam to Lemington down the River Tyne. In 1839, the Eastern Counties Railway was constructed, and in 1840, in 1844, both lines were converted to 1,435 mm standard gauge. In 1903, the East Hill Cliff Railway, a funicular, was opened. In 1827, Horatio Allen, the engineer of the South Carolina Canal and Rail Road Company, prescribed the usage of 5 ft gauge. The presence of several distinct gauges was a disadvantage to the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War. In 1886, when around 11,500 miles of 5 ft gauge track existed in the United States, while of almost no practical importance the railway did demonstrate that this gauge was viable. The second railway in the Russian Empire was the Warsaw–Vienna railway which was built to 1,435 mm, for the building of Russias first major railway, the Moscow – Saint Petersburg Railway, engineer Pavel Melnikov hired as consultant George Washington Whistler, a prominent American railway engineer. Melnikov, of the Construction Commission overseeing the railway, recommended 6 ft following the example of the first railway and his study of US Railways. Following a report sent by Whistler the head of the Main Administration of Transport and Buildings recommended 5 ft and it was approved for the railway by Tsar Nicholas I on February 14,1843. The next lines built were also approved with this gauge but it was not until March 1860 that a Government decree stated all major railways in Russia would be 5 ft gauge. It is widely and incorrectly believed that Imperial Russia chose a gauge broader than standard gauge for military reasons, in 1841 a Russian army engineer wrote a paper stating that such a danger did not exist since railways could be made dysfunctional by retreating forces. Finally for the Moscow - Saint Petersburg Railway, which became the benchmark, despite this the difference in gauge did play a role in hindering invading armies, especially in World War II, it was just not selected with that in mind. The 5-foot gauge became the standard in the whole Russian Empire and that includes the Baltic states, Ukraine, Belarus, the Caucasian and Central Asian republics, Finland, and in the once Soviet-influenced Mongolia. This formed a break of gauge between Changchun and Kuancheng, until the rest of the former Chinese Eastern Railway was converted to standard gauge, unlike in South Manchuria, the Soviet Unions reconquest of southern Sakhalin from Japan did not result in regauging of the railway system. Southern Sakhalin has continued with the original Japanese 1,067 mm gauge simultaneously with the Russian gauge railway, constructed in the northern part of the island in 1930-1932
44.
Great Western Railway
–
The Great Western Railway was a British railway company that linked London with the south-west and west of England, the Midlands, and most of Wales. It was founded in 1833, received its enabling Act of Parliament on 31 August 1835, Goods wagons were painted red but this was later changed to mid-grey. Great Western trains included long-distance express services such as the Flying Dutchman, the Cornish Riviera Express and it also operated many suburban and rural services, some operated by steam railmotors or autotrains. The company pioneered the use of larger, more economic goods wagons than were usual in Britain and it operated a network of road motor routes, was a part of the Railway Air Services, and owned ships, docks and hotels. The Great Western Railway originated from the desire of Bristol merchants to maintain their city as the port of the country. The company was founded at a meeting in Bristol in 1833 and was incorporated by Act of Parliament in 1835. Isambard Kingdom Brunel, then aged twenty-nine, was appointed engineer and this was by far Brunels largest contract to date. Firstly, he chose to use a gauge of 7 ft to allow for the possibility of large wheels outside the bodies of the rolling stock which could give smoother running at high speeds. Secondly, he selected a route, north of the Marlborough Downs and this meant the line was not direct from to London to Bristol. From Reading heading west, the line would curve in a northerly sweep back to Bath, the first 22.5 miles of line, from Paddington station in London to Maidenhead Bridge station, opened on 4 June 1838. When Maidenhead Railway Bridge was ready the line was extended to Twyford on 1 July 1839, the cutting was the scene of a railway disaster two years later when a goods train ran into a landslip, ten passengers who were travelling in open trucks were killed. This accident prompted Parliament to pass the 1844 Railway Regulation Act requiring railway companies to provide carriages for passengers. The next section, from Reading to Steventon crossed the Thames twice, a 7. 25-mile extension took the line to Faringdon Road on 20 July 1840. Meanwhile, work had started at the Bristol end of the line, on 17 December 1840, the line from London reached a temporary terminus at Wootton Bassett Road west of Swindon and 80.25 miles from Paddington. The section from Wootton Bassett Road to Chippenham was opened on 31 May 1841, as was Swindon Junction station where the Cheltenham and Great Western Union Railway to Cirencester connected. That was an independent line worked by the GWR, as was the Bristol and Exeter Railway, in 1851, the GWR purchased the Kennet and Avon Canal, which was a competing carrier between London, Reading, Bath and Bristol. The GWR was closely involved with the C&GWUR and the B&ER, the South Wales Railway had opened between Chepstow and Swansea in 1850 and became connected to the GWR by Brunels Chepstow Bridge in 1852. It was completed to Neyland in 1856, where a port was established
45.
Isambard Kingdom Brunel
–
Brunel built dockyards, the Great Western Railway, a series of steamships including the first propeller-driven transatlantic steamship, and numerous important bridges and tunnels. His designs revolutionised public transport and modern engineering, though Brunels projects were not always successful, they often contained innovative solutions to long-standing engineering problems. Brunel set the standard for a railway, using careful surveys to minimise grades and curves. This necessitated expensive construction techniques, new bridges, new viaducts, one controversial feature was the wide gauge, a broad gauge of 7 ft 1⁄4 in, instead of what was later to be known as standard gauge of 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in. Brunel astonished Britain by proposing to extend the Great Western Railway westward to North America by building steam-powered iron-hulled ships and he designed and built three ships that revolutionised naval engineering, the Great Western, the Great Britain, and the Great Eastern. In 2002, Brunel was placed second in a BBC public poll to determine the 100 Greatest Britons, in 2006, the bicentenary of his birth, a major programme of events celebrated his life and work under the name Brunel 200. Brunels name is an amalgamation of his parents names and he inherited the family name of his father, and his middle name is his mothers surname. Brunels first name, Isambard, comes from his fathers middle name, Isambard is a Norman name of Germanic origin, meaning iron-bright. A cognate name is the German surname Eisenbarth, which can still be found today among Bavarians and German-Americans and he had two older sisters, Sophia and Emma, and the whole family moved to London in 1808 for his fathers work. Brunel had a childhood, despite the familys constant money worries. His father taught him drawing and observational techniques from the age of four, during this time he also learned fluent French and the basic principles of engineering. He was encouraged to draw interesting buildings and identify any faults in their structure, when Brunel was eight he was sent to Dr Morrells boarding school in Hove, where he learned the classics. When Brunel was 15, his father Marc, who had accumulated debts of over £5,000, was sent to a debtors prison. After three months went by with no prospect of release, Marc let it be known that he was considering an offer from the Tsar of Russia. In August 1821, facing the prospect of losing a prominent engineer, Brunel subsequently studied under the prominent master clockmaker and horologist Abraham-Louis Breguet, who praised Brunels potential in letters to his father. In late 1822, having completed his apprenticeship, Brunel returned to England, Brunels father, Marc, was the chief engineer, and the project was funded by the Thames Tunnel Company. The composition of the riverbed at Rotherhithe was often more than waterlogged sediment. The latter incident, in 1828, killed the two most senior miners, and Brunel himself narrowly escaped death and he was seriously injured, and spent six months recuperating
.jpg)
54.50 million[6]
61.99 million[6]
London transport portal
UK Railways portal_p19b_-_Stratford_Junction.jpg)
