1.
Farmer
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A farmer is a person engaged in agriculture, raising living organisms for food or raw materials. The term usually applies to people who do some combination of raising crops, orchards, vineyards, poultry. However, in the not so distant past a farmer was a person who promotes or improves the growth of by labor and attention, farming has been dated back as far as the Neolithic era. By the Bronze Age, the Sumerians had an agriculture specialized labour force by 5000–4000 BCE and they relied on three-person teams when harvesting in the spring. The Ancient Egypt farmers farmed and relied and irrigated their water from the Nile, animal husbandry, the practice of rearing animals specifically for farming purposes, has existed for thousands of years. Dogs were domesticated in East Asia about 15,000 years ago, goats and sheep were domesticated around 8000 BCE in Asia. Swine or pigs were domesticated by 7000 BCE in the Middle East, the earliest evidence of horse domestication dates to around 4000 BCE. In the U. S. of the 1930s, one farmer fed only himself, the same farmer now feeds well over a hundred people. More distinct terms are used to denote farmers who raise specific domesticated animals. For example, those who raise grazing livestock, such as cattle, sheep, goats, sheep, goat, and cattle farmers might also be referred to respectively as shepherds, goatherds, and cowherds. The term dairy farmer is applied to those primarily in milk production, whether from cattle, goats, sheep. A poultry farmer is one who concentrates on raising chickens, turkeys, ducks, or geese, for meat, egg, or feather production, or commonly. A person who raises a variety of vegetables for market may be called a truck farmer or market gardener, dirt farmer is an American colloquial term for a practical farmer, or one who farms his own land. In developed nations, a farmer is usually defined as someone with an ownership interest in crops or livestock, and those who provide only labor are most often called farmhands. Alternatively, growers who manage farmland for a landowner, sharing the harvest are known as sharecroppers or sharefarmers. Historically, one subsisting in this way may have known as a peasant. In developed nations, however, a person using such techniques on small patches of land might be called a gardener, Farmers are often members of local, regional, or national farmers unions or agricultural producers organizations and can exert significant political influence. The Grange movement in the United States was effective in advancing farmers agendas, especially against railroad, the FNSEA is very politically active in France, especially pertaining to genetically modified food
2.
Developing country
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Also, the general term less-developed country should not be confused with the specific least developed country. The term developing describes a currently observed situation and not a dynamic or expected direction of progress, since the late 1990s developing countries tended to demonstrate higher growth rates than the developed ones. There is criticism of the use of the developing country. The term implies inferiority of a country or undeveloped country compared with a developed country. It assumes a desire to develop along the traditional Western model of development which a few countries, such as Cuba and Bhutan. An alternative measurement that has suggested is that of gross national happiness. Countries on the boundary between developed and developing are often categorized under the newly industrialized countries. In the 2016 edition of its World Development Indicators, the World Bank made a decision to no longer distinguish between “developed” and “developing” countries in the presentation of its data, nobody has ever agreed on a definition for these terms in the first place. Various terms are used for whatever is not a developed country, terms used include less developed country or less economically developed country, and for the more extreme, least developed country or least economically developed country. But according to the United Nations Statistics Division, There is no established convention for the designation of developed, the World Bank classifies countries into four income groups. These are set each year on July 1, economies were divided according to 2016 GNI per capita using the following ranges of income, Low income countries had GNI per capita of US$1,025 or less. Lower middle income countries had GNI per capita between US$1,026 and US$4,035, upper middle income countries had GNI per capita between US$4,036 and US$12,475. High income countries had GNI per capita above US$12,476 and this may be by absolute numbers or country ranking. The UN has developed the Human Development Index, an indicator of the above statistics. The UN sets Millennium Development Goals from a blueprint developed by all of the countries and leading development institutions. There is an association between low income and high population growth. The terms utilized when discussing developing countries refer to the intent, other terms sometimes used are less developed countries, least economically developed countries, underdeveloped nations or Third World nations, and non-industrialized nations. Conversely, developed countries, most economically developed countries, First World nations and that is, LEDCs are the poorest subset of LDCs
3.
Capitalism
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Capitalism is an economic system based on private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. Characteristics central to capitalism include private property, capital accumulation, wage labor, voluntary exchange, a price system, economists, political economists, and historians have adopted different perspectives in their analyses of capitalism and have recognized various forms of it in practice. These include laissez-faire or free market capitalism, welfare capitalism, different forms of capitalism feature varying degrees of free markets, public ownership, obstacles to free competition, and state-sanctioned social policies. Most existing capitalist economies are mixed economies, which elements of free markets with state intervention. Capitalism has existed under many forms of government, in different times, places. Following the decline of mercantilism, mixed capitalist systems became dominant in the Western world, Capitalism has been criticized for prioritizing profit over social good, natural resources, and the environment, and that is a cause of inequality and economic instabilities. Supporters believe that it provides better products through competition, and creates strong economic growth, the term capitalist, meaning an owner of capital, appears earlier than the term capitalism. It dates back to the mid-17th century, capitalist is derived from capital, which evolved from capitale, a late Latin word based on caput, meaning head – also the origin of chattel and cattle in the sense of movable property. Capitale emerged in the 12th to 13th centuries in the sense of referring to funds, stock of merchandise, sum of money, by 1283 it was used in the sense of the capital assets of a trading firm. It was frequently interchanged with a number of other words – wealth, money, funds, goods, assets, property, the Hollandische Mercurius uses capitalists in 1633 and 1654 to refer to owners of capital. In French, Étienne Clavier referred to capitalistes in 1788, six years before its first recorded English usage by Arthur Young in his work Travels in France, David Ricardo, in his Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, referred to the capitalist many times. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, an English poet, used capitalist in his work Table Talk, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon used the term capitalist in his first work, What is Property. To refer to the owners of capital, benjamin Disraeli used the term capitalist in his 1845 work Sybil. The initial usage of the term capitalism in its modern sense has been attributed to Louis Blanc in 1850, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels referred to the capitalistic system. And to the capitalist mode of production in Das Kapital, the use of the word capitalism in reference to an economic system appears twice in Volume I of Das Kapital, p.124, and in Theories of Surplus Value, tome II, p.493. Marx did not extensively use the form capitalism but instead those of capitalist, and capitalist mode of production, also according to the OED, Carl Adolph Douai, a German-American socialist and abolitionist, used the phrase private capitalism in 1863. Capital has existed incipiently on a scale for centuries, in the form of merchant, renting and lending activities. Simple commodity exchange, and consequently simple commodity production, which are the basis for the growth of capital from trade, have a very long history
4.
Horticulture
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Horticulture is the branch of agriculture that deals with the art, science, technology, and business of growing plants. It includes the cultivation of plants, fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, herbs, sprouts, mushrooms, algae, flowers, seaweeds and non-food crops such as grass and ornamental trees. It also includes plant conservation, landscape restoration, landscape and garden design, construction, and maintenance, inside agriculture, horticulture contrasts with extensive field farming as well as animal husbandry. Horticulturists apply their knowledge, skills, and technologies used to grow intensively produced plants for food and non-food uses. Their work involves plant propagation and cultivation with the aim of improving plant growth, yields, quality, nutritional value, and resistance to insects, diseases and they work as gardeners, growers, therapists, designers, and technical advisors in the food and non-food sectors of horticulture. Horticulture even refers to the growing of plants in a field or garden, hortus is cognate with the native English word yard and also the borrowed word garden. Turf management includes all aspects of the production and maintenance of grass for sports. Floriculture includes the production and marketing of floral crops, landscape horticulture includes the production, marketing and maintenance of landscape plants. Olericulture includes the production and marketing of vegetables, pomology includes the production and marketing of pome fruits. Viticulture includes the production and marketing of grapes, oenology includes all aspects of wine and winemaking. Postharvest physiology involves maintaining the quality of and preventing the spoilage of plants, Horticulture has a very long history. The practice of horticulture can be retraced for many thousands of years, the cultivation of taro and yam in Papua New Guinea dates back to at least 6950–6440 cal BP. In the Pre-Columbian Amazon Rainforest, natives are believed to have used biochar to enhance productivity by smoldering plant waste. European settlers called it Terra Preta de Indio, in forest areas such horticulture is often carried out in swiddens. A characteristic of horticultural communities is that trees are often to be found planted around communities or specially retained from the natural ecosystem. Horticulture primarily differs from agriculture in two ways, first, it generally encompasses a smaller scale of cultivation, using small plots of mixed crops rather than large fields of single crops. Secondly, horticultural cultivations generally include a variety of crops. Agricultural cultivations however as a focus on one primary crop
5.
Papua New Guinea
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Its capital, located along its southeastern coast, is Port Moresby. The western half of New Guinea forms the Indonesian provinces of Papua, Papua New Guinea is one of the most culturally diverse countries in the world. There are 852 known languages in the country, of which 12 have no known living speakers, most of the population of more than 7 million people live in customary communities, which are as diverse as the languages. It is also one of the most rural, as only 18 percent of its live in urban centres. The country is one of the worlds least explored, culturally and geographically and it is known to have numerous groups of uncontacted peoples, and researchers believe there are many undiscovered species of plants and animals in the interior. Papua New Guinea is classified as an economy by the International Monetary Fund. Strong growth in Papua New Guineas mining and resource sector led to the becoming the sixth fastest-growing economy in the world in 2011. Growth was expected to slow once major resource projects came on line in 2015, mining remains a major economic factor, however. Local and national governments are discussing the potential of resuming mining operations in Panguna mine in Bougainville Province, nearly 40 percent of the population lives a self-sustainable natural lifestyle with no access to global capital. Most of the still live in strong traditional social groups based on farming. Their social lives combine traditional religion with modern practices, including primary education, at the national level, after being ruled by three external powers since 1884, Papua New Guinea established its sovereignty in 1975. This followed nearly 60 years of Australian administration, which started during the Great War and it became an independent Commonwealth realm with Queen Elizabeth II as its head of state and became a member of the Commonwealth of Nations in its own right. Archaeological evidence indicates that humans first arrived in Papua New Guinea around 42,000 to 45,000 years ago and they were descendants of migrants out of Africa, in one of the early waves of human migration. Agriculture was independently developed in the New Guinea highlands around 7000 BC, a major migration of Austronesian-speaking peoples to coastal regions of New Guinea took place around 500 BC. This has been correlated with the introduction of pottery, pigs, in the 18th century, traders brought the sweet potato to New Guinea, where it was adopted and became part of the staples. Portuguese traders had obtained it from South America and introduced it to the Moluccas, the far higher crop yields from sweet potato gardens radically transformed traditional agriculture and societies. Sweet potato largely supplanted the previous staple, taro, and resulted in a significant increase in population in the highlands. In 1901, on Goaribari Island in the Gulf of Papua, missionary Harry Dauncey found 10,000 skulls in the islands Long Houses, traders from Southeast Asia had visited New Guinea beginning 5,000 years ago to collect bird of paradise plumes
6.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
7.
Sharecropping
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Sharecropping is a form of agriculture in which a landowner allows a tenant to use the land in return for a share of the crops produced on their portion of land. Sharecropping has a history and there are a wide range of different situations. Some are governed by tradition, and others by law, legal contract systems such as the Italian mezzadria, the French métayage, the Spanish mediero, or the Islamic system of muqasat, occur widely. Sharecropping has benefits and costs for both the owners and the tenant and it encourages the cropper to remain on the land, solving the harvest rush problem. At the same time, since the cropper pays in shares of his harvest, owners and croppers share the risks of harvests being large or small and of prices being high or low. Because tenants benefit from larger harvests, they have an incentive to work harder, however, by dividing the working force into many individual workers, large farms no longer benefit from economies of scale. On the whole, sharecropping was not as efficient as the gang agriculture of slave plantations. In the U. S. tenant farmers own their own mules and equipment, and sharecroppers do not, Sharecropping occurred extensively in Scotland, Ireland and colonial Africa, and came into wide use in the Southern United States during the Reconstruction era. The South had been devastated by war - planters had ample land, at the same time, most of the former slaves had labor but no money and no land - they rejected the kind of gang labor that typified slavery. A solution was the system focused on cotton, which was the only crop that could generate cash for the croppers, landowners, merchants. Poor white farmers, who previously had done little cotton farming, needed cash as well, jeffery Paige made a distinction between centralized sharecropping found on cotton plantations and the decentralized sharecropping with other crops. The former is characterized by political conservatism and long lasting tenure, tenants are tied to the landlord through the plantation store. Their work is heavily supervised as slave plantations were and this form of tenure tends to be replaced by wage slavery as markets penetrate. Decentralized sharecropping involves virtually no role for the landlord, plots are scattered, peasants manage their own labor, leases are very short which leads to peasant radicalism. This form of tenure becomes more common when markets penetrate, use of the sharecropper system has also been identified in England. It is still used in many poor areas today, notably in Pakistan. It has therefore been seen as an issue of reform in contexts such as the Mexican Revolution. Sharecropping agreements can however be made fairly, as a form of tenant farming or sharefarming that has a variable rental payment, there are three different types of contracts
8.
Family farm
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A family farm is generally understood to be a farm owned and/or operated by a family, it is sometimes considered to be an estate passed down by inheritance. It contrasts with farms operated as collectives, trusts, non-family corporations or in other institutionalised forms, the concept or definition does not easily translate across languages or cultures, as there are substantial differences in the agricultural traditions and histories between countries. Thus, in the United States, a farm can be of any size, while in Brazil. At least 500 million of the worlds 570 million farms are managed by families, the disparity of definitions reflects national and geographical differences in cultures, rural land tenure, and rural economies, as well as the different purposes for which definitions are coined. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations defines a farm as one that relies primarily on family members for labour. In some usages, family farm implies that the remains within the ownership of a family over a number of generations. Being special-purpose definitions, the found in laws or regulations may differ substantially from commonly understood meanings of family farm. The complete definition can be found in the US Code of Federal Regulations 7 CFR1943.4. The basis of the latifundia in Spain and Sicily was the ager publicus that fell to the dispensation of the state through Romes policy of war in the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD. In the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the largely self-sufficient villa-system of the latifundia remained among the few centres of a fragmented Europe. Manorialism died slowly and piecemeal, along with its most vivid feature in the landscape and it outlasted serfdom as it outlasted feudalism, primarily an economic organization, it could maintain a warrior, but it could equally well maintain a capitalist landlord. It could be self-sufficient, yield produce for the market, or it could yield a money rent, the last feudal dues in France were abolished at the French Revolution. In parts of eastern Germany, the Rittergut manors of Junkers remained until World War II, the common law of the leasehold estate relation evolved in medieval England. That law still retains many archaic terms and principles pertinent to a social order. Under the tenant system, a farm may be worked by the family over many generations. In much of Europe, serfdom was abolished only in the period, in Western Europe after the French Revolution. In the inheritance system known as Salic patrimony refers to this clan-based possession of real estate property, terra salica could not be sold or otherwise disposed, it was not alienable. Historical prevalence of the Germanic system of independent estates or Höfe resulted in dispersed settlement structure, the estate as a whole is referred to by the collective Gehöft, the corresponding Slavic concept being Khutor
9.
Barter
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Barter is a system of exchange where goods or services are directly exchanged for other goods or services without using a medium of exchange, such as money. It is distinguishable from gift economies in many ways, one of them is that the exchange is immediate. It is usually bilateral, but may be multilateral and, in most developed countries, usually only exists parallel to monetary systems to a very limited extent. Barter, as a replacement for money as the method of exchange, is used in times of monetary crisis, examples include the Owenite socialists, the Cincinnati Time store, and more recently Ithaca HOURS and the LETS system. Adam Smith, the father of economics, sought to demonstrate that markets pre-existed the state. He argued that money was not the creation of governments, markets emerged, in his view, out of the division of labour, by which individuals began to specialize in specific crafts and hence had to depend on others for subsistence goods. These goods were first exchanged by barter, specialization depended on trade, but was hindered by the double coincidence of wants which barter requires, i. e. for the exchange to occur, each participant must want what the other has. To complete this hypothetical history, craftsmen would stockpile one particular good, be it salt or metal and this is the origin of money according to Smith. Money, as a universally desired medium of exchange, allows each half of the transaction to be separated, Barter is characterized in Adam Smiths The Wealth of Nations by a disparaging vocabulary, higgling, haggling, swapping, dickering. It has also characterized as negative reciprocity, or selfish profiteering. Anthropologists have argued, in contrast, that something resembling barter does occur in stateless societies it is almost always between strangers. Barter occurred between strangers, not fellow villagers, and hence cannot be used to explain the origin of money without the state. Since most people engaged in trade knew each other, exchange was fostered through the extension of credit, everyday exchange relations in such societies are characterized by generalized reciprocity, or a non-calculative familial communism where each takes according to their needs, and gives as they have. Barter is an option to those who cannot afford to store their small supply of wealth in money, the limitations of barter are often explained in terms of its inefficiencies in facilitating exchange in comparison to money. It is said that barter is inefficient because, There needs to be a coincidence of wants For barter to occur between two parties, both parties need to have what the other wants. Difficulty in storing wealth If a society relies exclusively on perishable goods, however, some barter economies rely on durable goods like pigs or cattle for this purpose. Other anthropologists have questioned whether barter is typically between total strangers, a form of known as silent trade. Silent trade, also called silent barter, dumb barter, or depot trade, is a method by which traders who cannot speak each language can trade without talking
10.
Shifting cultivation
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The period of cultivation is usually terminated when the soil shows signs of exhaustion or, more commonly, when the field is overrun by weeds. The length of time that a field is cultivated is usually shorter than the period over which the land is allowed to regenerate by lying fallow and this technique is often used in LEDCs or LICs. In some areas, cultivators use a practice of slash-and-burn as one element of their farming cycle, others employ land clearing without any burning, and some cultivators are purely migratory and do not use any cyclical method on a given plot. Sometimes no slashing at all is needed where regrowth is purely of grasses, in shifting agriculture, after two or three years of producing vegetable and grain crops on cleared land, the migrants abandon it for another plot. Trees, bushes and forests are cleared by slashing, and the vegetation is burnt. The ashes add potash to the soil, then the seeds are sown after the rains. Over time, fields are cultivated for a short time. Eventually a previously cultivated field will be cleared of the natural vegetation, fields in established and stable shifting cultivation systems are cultivated and fallowed cyclically. This type of farming is called jhumming in India. It is common for fruit and nut trees to be planted in fields to the extent that parts of some fallows are in fact orchards. Soil-enhancing shrub or tree species may be planted or protected from slashing or burning in fallows, many of these species have been shown to fix nitrogen. Fallows commonly contain plants that attract birds and animals and are important for hunting, but perhaps most importantly, tree fallows protect soil against physical erosion and draw nutrients to the surface from deep in the soil profile. The relationship between the time the land is cultivated and the time it is fallowed are critical to the stability of shifting cultivation systems and these parameters determine whether or not the shifting cultivation system as a whole suffers a net loss of nutrients over time. A system in there is a net loss of nutrients with each cycle will eventually lead to a degradation of resources unless actions are taken to arrest the losses. In some cases soil can be exhausted in less than a decade. The secondary forests created by shifting cultivation are commonly richer in plant and animal resources useful to humans than primary forests, shifting cultivators view the forest as an agricultural landscape of fields at various stages in a regular cycle. People unused to living in forests cannot see the fields for the trees, shifting agriculture is none of these things. Stable shifting cultivation systems are variable, closely adapted to micro-environments and are carefully managed by farmers during both the cropping and fallow stages. Shifting cultivators may possess a highly developed knowledge and understanding of their environments and of the crops
11.
Slash-and-burn
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Slash-and-burn agriculture, or fire–fallow cultivation, is a farming method that involves the cutting and burning of plants in a forest or woodland to create a field called a swidden. In subsistence agriculture, slash-and-burn typically uses little technology and it is often applied in shifting cultivation agriculture and in transhumance livestock herding. Slash-and-burn is used by 200–500 million people worldwide, in 2004 it was estimated that in Brazil alone,500,000 small farmers each cleared an average of one hectare of forest per year. The technique is not scalable or sustainable for large human populations, methods such as Inga alley farming have been proposed as alternatives which would cause less environmental degradation. Historically, slash-and-burn cultivation has been practiced throughout much of the world and this happened in the river valleys of Egypt and Mesopotamia. Due to this decrease in food hunting, as human populations increased. Some groups could easily plant their crops in fields along river valleys. In this context, humans used slash-and-burn agriculture to more land to make it suitable for plants. Thus, since Neolithic times, slash-and-burn techniques have been used for converting forests into crop fields. Fire was used before the Neolithic as well, and by hunter-gatherers up to present times, clearings created by fire were made for many reasons, such as to draw game animals and to promote certain kinds of edible plants such as berries. Slash-and-burn fields are used and owned by a family until the soil is exhausted. At this point the ownership rights are abandoned, the family clears a new field, after a few decades, another family or clan may then use the land and claim usufructuary rights. In such a system there is no market in farmland, so land is not bought or sold in the open market. In slash-and-burn agriculture, forests are typically cut months before a dry season, the slash is permitted to dry, and then burned in the following dry season. The resulting ash fertilizes the soil and the field is then planted at the beginning of the next rainy season with crops such as upland rice, maize, cassava. Most of this work is typically done by hand, using basic tools as machetes, axes, hoes. Large families or clans wandering in the lush woodlands long continued to be the most common form of life through human prehistory, axes to fell trees and sickles for harvesting grain were the only tools people might bring with them. All other tools were made from materials found at the site, such as fire stakes of birch, long rods
12.
Bhotiyas
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Bhotiya or Bot are groups of ethno-linguistically related Tibetan people living in the Transhimalayan region of the SAARC countries. The word Bhotiya comes from the classical Tibetan name for Tibet, the Bhotiya speak Ladakhi, a Tibetic language. The Bhotiya identify as Raghuvanshi Rajput and prefer to be referred as Thakur or Rajvanshi, the Bhotiya may be the original immigrants to north Oudh in the period of Nawab Asaf-Ud-Dowlah. The Bhotiya people are related to several other groups and ethnic boundaries are porous. One group is the Bhutia, the main group of the northern part of the Indian state of Sikkim. A second is the Uttarakhand Bhotiya of the upper Himalayan valleys of the Kumaon and these include the Shauka tribe of Kumaon, the Tolchhas and the Marchhas of Garhwal. A third related group are the Dzongkha speaking Ngalop people, the main group of Bhutan. The Bhotiya are also related to several dispersed groups in Nepal, in Nepal, Bhotiya are 0.1 percent of the population. They live in villages through the Himilayas, the language of the Bhotiya people is Ladkahi. It is usually written in the Tibetan alphabet, bhoti is spoken in Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Uttarakhand, Arunachal Pradesh, Bhutan, Nepal, Tibet, and parts of Pakistan and West Bengal. Bhoti is not included in the languages official status in India. The Bhotiya, recognised by Mongoloid facial features, live in the northern and eastern regions of Nepal, the Bhotiya also live in the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and Tripura. In Uttar Pradesh, the Bhotiya live in the Bahraich, Gonda, Lakhimpur, Lucknow, Barabanki, Kanpur, and Kheri districts. The Bhotiya have six recognisable sub-groups, the Bhot, Bhotiya, the Bhutia of Sikkim, the Tibbati, the Bhut, the Gyakar Khampa of Khimling, Bhidang of Uttarakhand and the Bhutola. In Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh, in Uttarakhand, the Bhotiya are a Scheduled Tribe under the Schedule caste order 1950, the constitutional Scheduled tribe 1967 SC/ST. The Constitution of India recognizes the Bhotiya, Bhotiya marriages are similar to Hindu weddings. When the brides palanquin arrives at her husbands house, gods are worshipped, rice, silver or gold is put in the hands of bridegroom, which he passes on to the bride. She places them in a fan, and hands them as a present to the wife of the barber
13.
Gujjars
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Gurjar or Gujjar are a pastoral agricultural ethnic group with populations in India and Pakistan and a small number in northeastern Afghanistan. Alternative spellings include Gurjara, Gurjjar, Gojar and Gūjar, although they are able to speak the language of the country where they live, Gurjars have their own language, known as Gujari. They variously follow Hinduism, Islam, and Sikhism, the Gurjars are classified as Other Backward Class in some states in India, however, Gurjars in Jammu and Kashmir and parts of Himachal Pradesh are categorised as a Scheduled Tribe. Hindu Gurjars were assimilated into various varnas in the medieval period, historians and anthropologists differ on issue of Gurjar origin. According to this view, Gurjars came in waves of migration. Aydogdy Kurbanov states that some Gurjars, along with people from northwestern India, according to scholars such as Baij Nath Puri, the Mount Abu region of present-day Rajasthan had been abode of the Gurjars during medieval period. The association of the Gurjars with the mountain is noticed in many inscriptions and these Gurjars migrated from the Arbuda mountain region and as early as in the 6th century A. D. In Sanskrit texts, the ethnonym has sometimes been interpreted as destroyer of the enemy, gur meaning enemy, irawati Karve, the Indologist and historian, believed that the Gurjars position in society and the caste system generally varied from one linguistic area of India to another. In Maharashtra, Karve thought that they were absorbed by the Rajputs and Marathas. Bhandarkar believed that Gurjara-Pratiharas were a clan of Gurjars, in the 18th century, several Gurjar chieftains and small kings were in power. During the reign of Rohilla Nawab Najib-ul-Daula, Dargahi Singh, the Gurjar chieftain of Dadri possessed 133 villages at a revenue of Rs.29,000. A fort at Parlchhatgarh in Meerut District, also known as Qila Parikishatgarh, is ascribed to a Gurjar Raja Nain Singh, during the revolt of 1857, the Gurjars of Chundrowli rose against the British, under the leadership of Damar Ram. The Gurjars of Shunkuri village, numbering around three thousand, joined the rebel sepoys, according to British records, the Gurjars plundered gunpowder and ammunition from the British and their allies. In Delhi, the Metcalfe House was sacked by Gurjar villagers from whom the land was taken to erect the building, the British records claim that the Gurjars carried out several robberies. Twenty Gurjars were reported to have been beheaded by Rao Tula Ram for committing dacoities in July 1857, in September 1857, the British were able to enlist the support of many Gurjars at Meerut. The colonial authors always used the word turbulent for the castes who were generally hostile to British rule. They cited proverbs that appear to evaluate the caste in an unfavorable light, a British administrator, William Crooke, described that Gurjars seriously impeded the operations of the British Army before Delhi. Small pockets of Gurjars are found in Afghanistans northeastern region, particularly in, some in India remain Hindu, although further west many are Muslim
14.
Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras
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The Ifugao Rice Terraces reach a higher altitude and were built on steeper slopes than many other terraces. The Ifugao Rice Terraces illustrate the ability of human culture to adapt to new social and climate pressures as well as to implement and develop new ideas. Although listed by the UNESCO as a World Heritage site believed to be older than 2,000 years, the rice terraces of the Cordilleras are one of the few monuments in the Philippines that show no evidence of having been influenced by colonial cultures. The history of the terraces is intertwined with that of its people, their culture and it is believed that terracing began in the Cordilleras less than one thousand years ago as Taro cultivation. It is evidence of a level of knowledge of structural. The knowledge and practices, supported by rituals, involved in maintaining the terraces are transferred orally from generation to generation, Taro was later replaced by rice around 1600 A. D. which is the predominant crop today. The five clusters inscribed as part of the Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras are Batad, Bangaan, Hungduan, Mayoyao Central, Batad and Bangaan are under the jurisdiction of the Municipality of Banaue but are not referred to as the Banaue Rice Terraces. The Banaue Rice Terraces refer to the close to the Banaue poblacion as seen from the viewpoint. Contrary to popular belief, these terraces are not part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site and they were not included in the UNESCO inscription due to the presence of numerous modern structures, making it score low in the integrity criterion of UNESCO. The Banaue Rice Terraces are however a National Cultural Treasure under Ifugao Rice Terraces and they are supported by indigenous knowledge management of muyong, a private forest that caps each terrace cluster. The muyong is managed through an effort and under traditional tribal practices. The communally managed forestry area on top of the terraces contains about 264 indigenous plant species, the terraces form unique clusters of microwatersheds and are part of the whole mountain ecology. They serve as a filtration system and are saturated with irrigation water all year round. A biorhythm technology, in cultural activities are harmonized with the rhythm of climate. The Hudhud consists of narrative chants performed mainly by elder Ifugao women usually during the sowing season, at harvest time and at funeral wakes. The Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras were named as a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO World Heritage Centre in 1995 and it has passed by UNESCO’s standards due to the blending of the physical, socio-cultural, economic, religious, and political environment as a living cultural landscape. The Ifugao Rice Terraces have also been inscribed in the List of World Heritage in Danger in 2001 as the dangers of deforestation, the Philippines sought danger listing as a way to raise national and international support and cooperation in the preservation of the heritage site. In 2012, UNESCO has removed the Rice Terraces from the list of sites in danger in recognition of the success of the Philippines in improving its conservation, Banaue Rice Terraces Honghe Hani Rice Terraces UNESCO World Heritage Site Link
15.
Cash crop
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A cash crop is an agricultural crop which is grown for sale to return a profit. It is typically purchased by parties separate from a farm, the term is used to differentiate marketed crops from subsistence crops, which are those fed to the producers own livestock or grown as food for the producers family. In earlier times cash crops were only a small part of a farms total yield, while today, especially in developed countries. In the least developed countries, cash crops are usually crops which attract demand in developed nations. Prices for major crops are set in commodity markets with global scope, with some local variation based on freight costs and local supply. A consequence of this is that a nation, region, or individual producer relying on such a crop may suffer low prices should a bumper crop elsewhere lead to excess supply on the global markets and this system has been criticized by traditional farmers. Coffee is an example of a product that has been susceptible to significant commodity futures price variations, Issues involving subsidies and trade barriers on such crops have become controversial in discussions of globalization. The practice of exporting at artificially low prices is known as dumping, the Arctic climate is generally not conducive for the cultivation of cash crops. However, one potential cash crop for the Arctic is Rhodiola rosea, there is currently consumer demand for the plant, but the available supply is less than the demand. Cash crops grown in regions with a temperate climate include many cereals, oil-yielding crops, vegetables, tree fruit or top fruit, in regions with a subtropical climate, oil-yielding crops and some vegetables and herbs are the predominant cash crops. In regions with a climate, coffee, cocoa, sugar cane, bananas, oranges, cotton. The oil palm is a palm tree, and the fruit from it is used to make palm oil. Around 60 percent of African workers are employed in the agricultural sector, for example, in Burkina Faso 85% of its residents are reliant upon cotton production for income, and over half of the countrys population lives in poverty. Larger farms tend to grow crops such as coffee, tea, cotton, cocoa, fruit. These farms, typically operated by corporations, cover tens of square kilometres. Subsistence farms provide a source of food and a small income for families. Africa has realized significant growth in plantations, many of which are on lands which were purchased by British companies. Jatropha curcas is a crop grown for biofuel production in Africa
16.
Commercial agriculture
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Intensive farming or intensive agriculture is any of various types of agriculture that involve higher levels of input and output per unit of agricultural land area. It is characterised by a low ratio, higher use of inputs such as capital and labour. This is in contrast to agriculture in which the inputs per unit land are lower. The term intensive has various senses, some of which refer to organic farming methods and others of which refer to nonorganic, both increase the yields of food and fiber per acre as compared to traditional animal husbandry. In CAFO, feed is brought to the animals, while in MIRG the animals are repeatedly moved to fresh forage. Most commercial agriculture is intensive in one or more ways, forms that rely especially heavily on industrial methods are often called industrial agriculture, which is characterised by innovations designed to increase yield. Techniques include planting multiple crops per year, reducing the frequency of fallow years, intensive farms are widespread in developed nations and increasingly prevalent worldwide. Most of the meat, dairy, eggs, fruits and vegetables available in supermarkets are produced by such farms, smaller intensive farms usually include higher inputs of labor and more often use sustainable intensive methods. The farming practices commonly found on farms are referred to as appropriate technology. These farms are widespread in both developed countries and worldwide, but are growing more rapidly. Most of the food available in specialty markets such as farmers markets is produced by these smallholder farms, agricultural development in Britain between the 16th century and the mid-19th century saw a massive increase in agricultural productivity and net output. This in turn supported unprecedented population growth, freeing up a significant percentage of the workforce, historians cited enclosure, mechanization, four-field crop rotation, and selective breeding as the most important innovations. Industrial agriculture arose along with the Industrial Revolution, by the early 19th century, agricultural techniques, implements, seed stocks and cultivars had so improved that yield per land unit was many times that seen in the Middle Ages. The industrialization phase involved a process of mechanization. Horse-drawn machinery such as the McCormick reaper revolutionized harvesting, while inventions such as the cotton gin reduced the cost of processing, during this same period, farmers began to use steam-powered threshers and tractors, although they were expensive and dangerous. Mechanical harvesters, planters, transplanters and other equipment were then developed and these inventions increased yields and allowed individual farmers to manage increasingly large farms. The identification of nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus as critical factors in plant growth led to the manufacture of synthetic fertilizers, in 1909 the Haber-Bosch method to synthesize ammonium nitrate was first demonstrated. Farmers adopting this approach were initially referred to as humus farmers, chemicals developed for use in World War II gave rise to synthetic pesticides
17.
Extensive agriculture
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Extensive farming or extensive agriculture is an agricultural production system that uses small inputs of labor, fertilizers, and capital, relative to the land area being farmed. Here, owing to the age and poverty of the soils, yields per hectare are very low. Nomadic herding is an example of extensive farming, where herders move their animals to use feed from occasional rainfalls. Extensive farming is found in the sections of most continents. The nature of extensive farming means it requires less rainfall than intensive farming, the farm is usually large in comparison with the numbers working and money spent on it. Extensive farming has a number of advantages over intensive farming, Less labour per unit areas is required to farm large areas, mechanisation can be used more effectively over large, flat areas. Greater efficiency of labour means generally lower product prices, animal welfare is generally improved because animals are not kept in stifling conditions. Lower requirements of such as fertilizers. If animals are grazed on pastures native to the locality, there is likely to be problems with exotic species. Local environment and soil are not damaged by overuse of chemicals, the use of machinery and scientific methods of farming produce a large quantity of crops. Extensive farming can have the problems, Yields tend to be much lower than with intensive farming in the short term. Large land requirements limit the habitat of species, as is the case with intensive farming Intensive farming Canadian Wheat Board Forest gardening Permaculture Polyculture Rural sociology
18.
Industrial agriculture
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Intensive farming or intensive agriculture is any of various types of agriculture that involve higher levels of input and output per unit of agricultural land area. It is characterised by a low ratio, higher use of inputs such as capital and labour. This is in contrast to agriculture in which the inputs per unit land are lower. The term intensive has various senses, some of which refer to organic farming methods and others of which refer to nonorganic, both increase the yields of food and fiber per acre as compared to traditional animal husbandry. In CAFO, feed is brought to the animals, while in MIRG the animals are repeatedly moved to fresh forage. Most commercial agriculture is intensive in one or more ways, forms that rely especially heavily on industrial methods are often called industrial agriculture, which is characterised by innovations designed to increase yield. Techniques include planting multiple crops per year, reducing the frequency of fallow years, intensive farms are widespread in developed nations and increasingly prevalent worldwide. Most of the meat, dairy, eggs, fruits and vegetables available in supermarkets are produced by such farms, smaller intensive farms usually include higher inputs of labor and more often use sustainable intensive methods. The farming practices commonly found on farms are referred to as appropriate technology. These farms are widespread in both developed countries and worldwide, but are growing more rapidly. Most of the food available in specialty markets such as farmers markets is produced by these smallholder farms, agricultural development in Britain between the 16th century and the mid-19th century saw a massive increase in agricultural productivity and net output. This in turn supported unprecedented population growth, freeing up a significant percentage of the workforce, historians cited enclosure, mechanization, four-field crop rotation, and selective breeding as the most important innovations. Industrial agriculture arose along with the Industrial Revolution, by the early 19th century, agricultural techniques, implements, seed stocks and cultivars had so improved that yield per land unit was many times that seen in the Middle Ages. The industrialization phase involved a process of mechanization. Horse-drawn machinery such as the McCormick reaper revolutionized harvesting, while inventions such as the cotton gin reduced the cost of processing, during this same period, farmers began to use steam-powered threshers and tractors, although they were expensive and dangerous. Mechanical harvesters, planters, transplanters and other equipment were then developed and these inventions increased yields and allowed individual farmers to manage increasingly large farms. The identification of nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus as critical factors in plant growth led to the manufacture of synthetic fertilizers, in 1909 the Haber-Bosch method to synthesize ammonium nitrate was first demonstrated. Farmers adopting this approach were initially referred to as humus farmers, chemicals developed for use in World War II gave rise to synthetic pesticides
19.
Subsistence fishing
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Artisanal fishing are various small-scale, low-technology, low-capital, fishing practices undertaken by individual fishing households. Many of these households are of coastal or island ethnic groups and these households make short fishing trips close to the shore. Their produce is not processed and is mainly for local consumption. Artisan fishing uses traditional fishing techniques such as rod and tackle, fishing arrows and harpoons, cast nets, artisan fishing may be undertaken for both commercial and subsistence reasons. It contrasts with modern commercial fishing practices in that it is often less wasteful. ISBN 978-92-5-105664-6 Diegues, Antonio Carlos Sea Tenure, traditional knowledge, pauly, D Major trends in small-scale marine fisheries, with emphasis on developing countries, and some implications for the social sciences Maritime Studies 4, 7-22. Tietze, U, Siar, S, Upare, Suchitra M and Upare, M A Livelihood, naar presenting the story of the smallest Bolivian fishing community of Uru-Muratos, Puñaca Tintamaria. See a 12 minutes fragment from the film on YouTube
20.
Simple living
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Simple living or voluntary simplicity encompasses a number of different voluntary practices to simplify ones lifestyle. These may include reducing ones possessions, generally referred to as minimalism, or increasing self-sufficiency, Simple living may be characterized by individuals being satisfied with what they have rather than want. Although asceticism generally promotes living simply and refraining from luxury and indulgence, Simple living is distinct from those living in forced poverty, as it is a voluntary lifestyle choice. Simple living can also be a reaction to materialism and conspicuous consumption, some cite socio-political goals aligned with the anti-consumerist or anti-war movements, including conservation, degrowth, social justice, and tax resistance. A number of religious and spiritual traditions encourage simple living, early examples include the Sramana traditions of Iron Age India, Gautama Buddha, and biblical Nazirites. The biblical figure Jesus is said to have lived a simple life and he is said to have encouraged his disciples to take nothing for their journey except a staff—no bread, no bag, no money in their belts—but to wear sandals and not put on two tunics. Diogenes of Sinope, a figure in the ancient Greek philosophy of Cynicism, claimed that a simple life was necessary for virtue. Plain people are Christian groups who have for centuries practiced lifestyles in which forms of wealth or technology are excluded for religious or philosophical reasons. Groups include the Shakers, Mennonites, Amish, Hutterites, Amana Colonies, Bruderhof, Old German Baptist Brethren, Harmony Society, there is a Quaker belief called Testimony of Simplicity that a person ought to live her or his life simply. Jean-Jacques Rousseau strongly praised the life in many of his writings, especially in his Discourse on the Arts and Sciences. Epicureanism, based on the teachings of the Athens-based philosopher Epicurus, epicureanism upheld the untroubled life as the paradigm of happiness, made possible by carefully considered choices. Specifically, Epicurus pointed out that troubles entailed by maintaining an extravagant lifestyle tend to outweigh the pleasure of partaking in it. Henry David Thoreau, an American naturalist and author, is considered to have made the classic secular statement advocating a life of simple and sustainable living in his book Walden. Thoreau conducted a two-year experiment living a plain and simple life on the shores of Walden Pond, in Victorian Britain, Henry Stephens Salt, an admirer of Thoreau, popularised the idea of Simplification, the saner method of living. Other British advocates of the life included Edward Carpenter, William Morris. C. R. Ashbee and his followers also practiced some of these ideas, British novelist John Cowper Powys advocated the simple life in his 1933 book A Philosophy of Solitude. John Middleton Murry and Max Plowman practised a simple lifestyle at their Adelphi Centre in Essex in the 1930s, irish poet Patrick Kavanagh championed a right simplicity philosophy based on ruralism in some of his work. George Lorenzo Noyes, a naturalist, mineralogist, development critic, writer and he lived a wilderness lifestyle, advocating through his creative work a simple life and reverence for nature
21.
DIY ethic
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DIY ethic refers to the ethic of self-sufficiency through completing tasks without the aid of a paid expert. Literally meaning do it yourself, the DIY ethic promotes the idea that anyone is capable of performing a variety of rather than relying on paid specialists. The DIY ethic requires that the adherent seeks out the required to complete a given task. The term can refer to a variety of disciplines, including home improvement, rather than belittling or showing disdain for those who engage in manual labor or skilled crafts, DIY champions the average individual seeking such knowledge and expertise. In the punk subculture, the DIY ethic is tied to punk ideology and it espouses the rejection of consumer culture, using existing systems or existing processes that would foster dependence on established societal structures. According to the aesthetic, one can express oneself and produce moving. Arguably the earliest example of this attitude was the music scene of the 1970s. Since many venues tend to shy away from experimental music, houses. Riot Grrrl, associated with feminism, also adopted the core values of the DIY punk ethic by leveraging creative ways of communication through zines. Adherents of the DIY punk ethic can also work collectively, for example, punk impresario David Fergusons CD Presents was a DIY concert production, recording studio, and record label network. The German punk band Mono für Alle, perfected the mass production of the self-made DIY album. Their album included a wooden cover and sold over 6000 units from their website. The DIY punk ethic also applies to simple living, such as. Sewing, repairing, or modifying clothing rather than buying new clothes, reclaiming recyclable products by dumpster diving. Some educators also engage in DIY teaching techniques, sometimes referred to as Edupunk, DIY music has its origins in the mid 1970s punk rock scene. It developed as a way to circumnavigate the mainstream music industry, in 2014, speaking about the 80s and 90s, Steve Albini told of the difficulties of getting record and played on the radio, saying So these independent bands had to be resourceful. They’d built their own infrastructure of independent clubs, promoters, fanzines, DIY music bands do everything themselves or with independent collaborators, from album production to marketing and communication. This choice primarily reflects a need to emphasize its independence in relation to big record labels, advances in technology and lowering costs have progressively made it easier for bands to be independent
22.
Dry toilet
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A composting toilet is a type of dry toilet or micro-flush toilet system that uses a predominantly aerobic process to treat human excreta by composting or managed aerobic decomposition. These toilets generally use little to no water and may be used as an alternative to flush toilets that are coupled with septic systems or city sewer systems and they have found use in situations where no suitable water supply or sewer system and sewage treatment plant is available. They are in use in many facilities and national parks in Sweden, Canada, US, UK. They are used in holiday homes in Sweden and Finland. The human excreta is usually mixed with sawdust, coconut coir or peat moss to facilitate processing, liquid absorption. Most composting toilets use slow, cold composting conditions, sometimes connected to a secondary external composting step, Composting toilets produce a compost that may be used for horticultural or agricultural soil enrichment if the local regulations allow this. A secondary stage is often needed to allow mesophilic composting to further reduce potential pathogens, the term composting toilet is used quite loosely, and its meaning may vary by country. For example, in English-speaking countries, the term composting is used. In Germany and Scandinavian countries, composting always refers to an aerobic process. This aerobic composting may take place with an increase in temperature due to microbial action, if earth worms are used then there is also no increase in temperature. They also differ from urine-diverting dry toilets where pathogen reduction is achieved through dehydration, Composting toilets target a certain degree of moisture in the composting chamber. Composting toilets usually do not divert urine, offering a waterless urinal in addition to the toilet can help keep excess amounts of urine out of the composting chamber. Composting toilets can be used to implement an ecological sanitation approach for resource recovery, however, this is not recommended as the two terms are not identical. Composting toilets have also been called sawdust toilets, which can be if the amount of aerobic composting taking place in the toilets container is very limited. The Clivus multrum is a type of composting toilet which has a large composting chamber below the toilet seat, Composting toilets can be suitable in areas such as a rural area or a park that lacks a suitable water supply, sewers and sewage treatment. They can also increase the resilience of existing sanitation systems in the face of possible natural disasters such as climate change. Composting toilets can reduce or perhaps eliminate the need for a tank system to reduce environmental footprint. These types of toilets can be used for recovery by reusing sanitized feces and urine as fertilizer
23.
Forest gardening
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Making use of companion planting, these can be intermixed to grow in a succession of layers, to build a woodland habitat. Forest gardening is a method of securing food in tropical areas. In the 1980s, Robert Hart coined the term forest gardening after adapting the principles, Forest gardens are probably the worlds oldest form of land use and most resilient agroecosystem. They originated in prehistoric times along jungle-clad river banks and in the wet foothills of monsoon regions, in the gradual process of families improving their immediate environment, useful tree and vine species were identified, protected and improved whilst undesirable species were eliminated. Eventually superior foreign species were selected and incorporated into the gardens and these are also called agroforests and, where the wood components are short-statured, the term shrub garden is employed. Forest gardens have been shown to be a significant source of income, Robert Hart adapted forest gardening for the United Kingdoms temperate climate during the 1980s. His theories were developed by Martin Crawford from the Agroforestry Research Trust and various permaculturalists such as Graham Bell, Patrick Whitefield, Dave Jacke. Forest gardens, or home gardens, are common in the tropics, using intercropping to cultivate trees, crops, in Kerala in south India as well as in northeastern India, the home garden is the most common form of land use and is also found in Indonesia. One example combines coconut, black pepper, cocoa and pineapple and these gardens exemplify polyculture, and conserve much crop genetic diversity and heirloom plants that are not found in monocultures. Forest gardens have been compared to the religious concept of the Garden of Eden. This was also explored in the bestselling book 1491 by author Charles C. Mann, since the 1970s, numerous geoglyphs have also been discovered on deforested land in the Amazon rainforest, furthering the evidence about Pre-Columbian civilizations. On the Yucatán Peninsula, much of the Maya food supply was grown in orchard-gardens, the system takes its name from the low wall of stones that characteristically surrounds the gardens. Most well known are the Chaga or Chagga gardens on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro in Tanzania and these are an excellent example of an agroforestry system. In many countries, women are the actors in home gardening. In North-Africa, oasis layered gardening with palm trees, fruit trees and vegetables is a type of forest garden. The term “home garden” is often considered synonymous to the kitchen garden, however, they differ in terms of function, size, diversity, composition and features. In Nepal, 72% of households have home gardens of an area 2–11% of the land holdings. Because of their size, the government has never identified home gardens as an important unit of food production and they thereby remain neglected from research
24.
Freeganism
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Freeganism is a practice and ideology of limited participation in the conventional economy and minimal consumption of resources, particularly through recovering wasted goods like food. The word freegan is a derived from free and vegan. The pamphlet Why Freegan. —written by former Against Me, the first organized group of self-described freegans formed in 2003 as an offshoot of the Wetlands Preserve nightclub and associated Activism Center in New York City. We came to realize that the problem isn’t just a few bad corporations, from 2005, freegan. info organized regular events including sewing and bicycle workshops, wild food foraging expeditions, and trash tours—public dumpster dives open to the public and to media. S. The majority of groups are now inactive, however, and many people. Studies usually find that most people that participate in practices associated with freeganism, dumpster diving for food, Freegan practices in theory reject the commoditization of basic necessities, the imperative of economic growth, and an economy based on money exchange rather than free gifting or sharing. Freegan organizations also often use consensus-based decision-making, popularized by the anti-globalization movement, the word freegan originated as a play on the label veganism and research on freegan. info in New York found that most participants were vegetarian or vegan prior to becoming freegan. In many cases, though, freegans critique vegans by arguing that vegans ignore the environmental and labor impacts of the products they buy, in some instances, one-time vegans return to eating animal products if found from the dumpster, sometimes referred to as meaganism. Freegans rejection of veganism is often tied to their discovery of food waste, estimated as up to 40% of the supply in the United States. Some freegans associate themselves with back-to-the-landers or anarcho-primitivism, the latter of which asserts that human beings should not only capitalism. With some exceptions, though, freeganism is an urban or suburban phenomenon. However, dumpster diving is not limited to rummaging for food, freegans report recovering clothing, books, appliances, bicycles and these events attracted significant media coverage, particularly between 2005 and 2009, from outlets such as The New York Times, Oprah, and MSNBC. Instead of buying conventionally grown foods, wild foragers find and harvest food, some freegans participate in guerrilla or community gardens, with the stated aim of rebuilding community and reclaiming the capacity to grow ones own food. Sharing is also presented as a common practice, associated with the anarchist idea of a gift economy. For example, Food Not Bombs recovers food that would go to waste to serve warm meals on the street to anyone who wants them. Really, Really Free Markets are free social events in which freegans can share goods instead of discarding them, share skills, give presents, a free store is a temporary market where people exchange goods and services outside of a money-based economy. In New York City, freegan. info often distributes recovered food items for free in an ad-hoc manner after trash tours, freegans also advocate sharing travel resources. Internet-based ridesharing or hitchhiking reduces but does not eliminate use of cars and all the resources needed to maintain
25.
Gift economy
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A gift economy, gift culture, or gift exchange is a mode of exchange where valuables are not traded or sold, but rather given without an explicit agreement for immediate or future rewards. This contrasts with an economy or a market economy, where goods. Social norms and custom govern gift exchange, Gifts are not given in an explicit exchange of goods or services for money or some other commodity. The nature of gift economies forms the subject of a debate in anthropology. Anthropological research into gift economies began with Bronisław Malinowskis description of the Kula ring in the Trobriand Islands during World War I. The Kula trade appeared to be gift-like since Trobrianders would travel great distances over dangerous seas to give what were considered valuable objects without any guarantee of a return. According to anthropologists Maurice Bloch and Jonathan Parry, it is the relationship between market and non-market exchange that attracts the most attention. Gift economies are said, by some, to communities. Gift ideology in highly commercialized societies differs from the typical of non-market societies. Gift economies must also be differentiated from several closely related phenomena, such as common property regimes, however, he claims that anthropologists, through analysis of a variety of cultural and historical forms of exchange, have established that no universal practice exists. Gift exchange is frequently embedded in political, kin, or religious institutions, gift-giving is a form of transfer of property rights over particular objects. The nature of property rights varies from society to society, from culture to culture. The nature of gift-giving is thus altered by the type of property regime in place, property is not a thing, but a relationship amongst people about things. According to Chris Hann, property is a relationship that governs the conduct of people with respect to the use. Anthropologists analyze these relationships in terms of a variety of actors bundle of rights over objects, an example is the current debates around intellectual property rights. Hann and Strangelove both give the example of a book, over which the author retains a copyright. The gifts given in Kula exchange still remain, in some respects, in the example used above, copyright is one of those bundled rights that regulate the use and disposition of a book. Gift-giving in many societies is complicated because private property owned by an individual may be limited in scope
26.
Local currency
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In economics, a local currency is a currency that can be spent in a particular geographical locality at participating organisations. A regional currency is a form of local currency encompassing a larger geographical area, a local currency acts as a complementary currency to a national currency, rather than replacing it, and aims to encourage spending within a local community, especially with locally-owned businesses. The currency may not be backed by a government or be legal tender. About 300 complementary currencies, including local currencies, are listed in the Complementary Currency Resource Center worldwide database, local currency - a complementary currency used in a locality. Regional currency - a local currency where the locality is a larger region, auxiliary currency, microcurrency, Eco-Money - less common synonyms for community or local currency. Private currency - a currency issued by an individual, business or non-governmental organization, Complementary currencies are a type of private currency. Sectoral currency - a complementary currency used within one economic sector, the Wörgl experiment illustrates some of the common characteristics and major benefits of local currencies. Local currencies with negative interest rate or demurrage tend to much more rapidly than national currencies. The same amount of currency in circulation is employed more times and it produces greater benefit per unit. The higher velocity of money is a result of the negative interest rate which encourages people to spend the more quickly. Local currencies enable the community to fully utilize its existing productive resources, especially unemployed labor. They are based on the premise that the community is not fully utilizing its productive capacities, the alternative currency is utilized to increase demand, resulting in a greater exploitation of productive resources. Since local currencies are accepted within the community, their usage encourages the purchase of locally produced and locally-available goods. Thus, for any level of activity, more of the benefit accrues to the local community. For instance, construction work undertaken with local currencies employs local labor, the enhanced local effect becomes an incentive for the local population to accept and utilize the scrips. Some forms of currency can promote fuller utilization of resources over a much wider geographic area. The Fureai kippu system in Japan issues credits in exchange for assistance to senior citizens, family members living far from their parents can earn credits by offering assistance to the elderly in their local community. The credits can then be transferred to their parents and redeemed by them for local assistance, airline frequent flyer miles are a form of complementary currency that promotes customer-loyalty in exchange for free travel
27.
Low-impact development (UK)
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Low-impact development has been defined as development which through its low negative environmental impact either enhances or does not significantly diminish environmental quality. These LIDs often strive to be self-sufficient in terms of management, energy. There are numerous examples of LIDs throughout the UK, and local and national authorities have come to recognise the need for the concept to be incorporated into planning strategies, fairlie later wrote, Neither the term nor the concept was new. People have been living low impact lifestyles in low impact buildings for centuries, others have expanded on the definition. Residents will be allocated from the housing needs register. Findhorn Ecovillage has won a number of international awards, steve Jamess Straw House, Dumfries was built for £4,000. The House of the Future, Cardiff, completed in 2000, was originally a showcase of the latest green building technologies, in West Wales, Lammas Ecovillage is a community of independent, off-grid households begun in 2009. That Roundhouse was granted planning permission in 2008 with a review in 3 years, substantial research has concluded that LID represents some of the most innovative and sustainable development in the UK. LID has also shown a capacity to local biodiversity and public access to local space. This has been attributed to lift-sharing, to greater use of public transport, walking and cycling. As the Welsh Assembly Government has noted, such. Development therefore is not just describing a physical development and it is describing a way of living differently where there is a symbiotic relationship between people and land, making a reduction in environmental impacts possible. Over the years, there have been various struggles with planning authorities over LID in the UK, Tony Wrench spent over a decade fighting the planning authorities until he was granted planning permission for That Roundhouse. Similarly, since 1986 Tir Penrhos Isaf has tried several times to get planning permission and only succeeded in December 2006, the residents of Tir Penrhos Isaf consider, that current planning and building legislation represent some of the greatest obstacles to developing sustainable systems in Britain. The extensive research interest in LID, backed up by the examples of the existing LIDs, has led to a growing number of planning policies in the UK designed to allow for LIDs. The first development to receive permanent planning permission under the One Planet scheme was Nant-y-Cwm, the criteria for OPD in Wales include the requirement that 65% of all subsistence, or 30% of food and 35% of livelihood, come from the land. Degrowth Diggers and Dreamers Ecovillage Radical Routes Bird, Chris, local Sustainable Homes – How to make them happen in your community. Green Books,2010 ISBN9781900322768 Cotterell, Jane & Dadeby, the Passivhaus Handbook, A practical guide to constructing and retrofitting buildings for ultra-low-energy performance. ISBN9780857840196 Evans, Ianto, Smith, Michael, Smiley, the Hand Sculpted House, A Practical and Philosophical Guide to Building a Cob Cottage
28.
Minimalism
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In visual arts, music, and other mediums, minimalism is a style that uses pared-down design elements. Minimalism began in post–World War II Western art, most strongly with American visual arts in the 1960s, prominent artists associated with minimalism include Donald Judd, John McCracken, Agnes Martin, Dan Flavin, Robert Morris, Anne Truitt, and Frank Stella. It derives from the reductive aspects of modernism and is interpreted as a reaction against abstract expressionism. Minimalism in music often features repetition and iteration such as those of the compositions of La Monte Young, Terry Riley, Steve Reich, Philip Glass, the term minimalist often colloquially refers to anything that is spare or stripped to its essentials. It has accordingly been used to describe the plays and novels of Samuel Beckett, the films of Robert Bresson, the stories of Raymond Carver, and the automobile designs of Colin Chapman. The word was first used in English in the early 20th century to describe a 1913 composition by the Russian painter Kasimir Malevich of a square on a white ground. Guggenheim Museum curated by Lawrence Alloway also in 1966 that showcased Geometric abstraction in the American art world via Shaped canvas, Color Field, in the wake of those exhibitions and a few others the art movement called minimal art emerged. Minimal art is inspired in part by the paintings of Barnett Newman, Ad Reinhardt, Josef Albers, and the works of artists as diverse as Pablo Picasso, Marcel Duchamp, Giorgio Morandi. Minimalism was also a reaction against the painterly subjectivity of Abstract Expressionism that had been dominant in the New York School during the 1940s and 1950s. The philosopher or art historian who can envision me—or anyone at all—arriving at aesthetic judgments in this way reads shockingly more into himself or herself than into my article. They very explicitly stated that their art was not about self-expression, in general, minimalisms features included geometric, often cubic forms purged of much metaphor, equality of parts, repetition, neutral surfaces, and industrial materials. Robert Morris, a theorist and artist, wrote a three part essay, Notes on Sculpture 1-3, originally published across three issues of Artforum in 1966. In these essays, Morris attempted to define a conceptual framework and formal elements for himself and these essays paid great attention to the idea of the gestalt - parts. Bound together in such a way that create a maximum resistance to perceptual separation. Morris later described an art represented by a marked lateral spread, the general shift in theory of which this essay is an expression suggests the transition into what would later be referred to as postminimalism. Stellas decisions about structures on the front surface of the canvas were therefore not entirely subjective, in the show catalog, Carl Andre noted, Art excludes the unnecessary. Frank Stella has found it necessary to paint stripes, there is nothing else in his painting. Because of a tendency in art to exclude the pictorial, illusionistic and fictive in favor of the literal, there was a movement away from painterly
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No frills
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A no-frills or no frills service or product is one for which the non-essential features have been removed to keep the price low. The term frills originally refers to a style of fabric decoration, something offered to customers for no additional charge may be designated as a frill - for example, free drinks on airline journeys, or a radio installed in a rental car. No-frills businesses operate on the principle that by removing luxurious additions, most common products and services for which no-frills brands exist include budget airlines, supermarkets, vacations and pre-owned vehicles. No-frills supermarkets are recognisable by their design and business model. They do not decorate aisles and sometimes dont even fill shelves. In this case, pallets of the products on offer are simply parked alongside the aisles, when all items on a pallet have been sold, they are replaced. Prices are given on plain labels, queueing at the checkout is relatively common, as staffing levels reflect average demand rather than peak demand. At actual peak times, customers often have to wait, shopping bags are charged for, as they are seen as a frill. They somewhat employ the Pareto principle when choosing which goods to offer, meaning that in most supermarkets, therefore, they only stock the most commonly sold products. They only take cash and debit cards and they only open at peak times, e. g.9 am to 6 pm Monday to Saturday, although some stores are open 24 hours. They often do not sell branded items, except in the case of special purchases, instead, they sell generic or private label products. Products are sold in one size, which is usually the best selling size of that product, the shopping carts have a coin-operated slot, to ensure that the trolleys are kept on site. They usually lack butcher, bakery and deli counters, No in-store background music, although some use Satellite Radio. Examples of no-frills supermarkets are, *Dia, Minipreço and Ed are all part of the Dia Group, in the United States, a no-frills automobile model typically has a minimum of convenience equipment, a less powerful engine and spartan trim. Frequently, these represent the lowest-priced version of a larger selection of more lavishly equipped and trimmed models of that same car. Often, the models are sold with a manual transmission and have a shorter options list. Early 1950s American examples include the Chevrolet 150 and Kaiser-Frazer Henry J and these were larger cars than those produced in the US in the 1940s gasoline rationing period by Crosley, who shut down in 1952. One of the more famous no-frills cars was the Studebaker Scotsman, buyers were allowed to buy only a low-cost heater and a few other trim and convenience items from a short options list, a radio was not offered as an option on this model
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Off-the-grid
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Off-the-grid is a system and lifestyle designed to help people function without the support of remote infrastructure, such as an electrical grid. In electricity, off-grid can be stand-alone power system or mini-grids typically to provide a community with electricity. Off-grid electrification is an approach to access electricity used in countries and areas with access to electricity. The term off-the-grid can refer to living in a self-sufficient manner without reliance on one or more public utilities, people who adopt this lifestyle are called off-gridders. Off-the-grid homes are autonomous, they do not rely on water supply, sewer, natural gas, electrical power grid. A true off-grid house is able to operate independently of all traditional public utility services. The idea has been popularized by certain celebrities including Ed Begley. Electrical power can be generated on-site with renewable sources such as solar, wind, micro hydro, geothermal, with a generator or Micro combined heat. Such a system is called a power system or sometimes referred to as a Hybrid power system. In addition, it is possible to simply eliminate electric power such as in Old Order Amish, on-site water sources can include a well, stream, tank, or lake. Depending on the source, this may include pumps and/or filtration. Filters can be advanced running off a source of boiling. Assuming the same rate of growth, there would be a quarter million off-grid households in the United States by late 2007, because many Third World citizens have never had the chance to go on the grid, current estimates are that 1.7 billion people live off-grid worldwide. A wave of TV shows and articles came out after the publication of Off the Grid, Inside the Movement for More Space, Less Government, the concept of a sustainable off-grid community must take into consideration the basic needs of all who live in the community. To become truly self-sufficient, the community would need to all of its own electrical power, food. Using renewable energy, a water source, sustainable agriculture. A recent concept design by Eric Wichman shows a multi-family community, to grow the community you simply add neighborhoods using the same model as the first. A self-sustained community reduces its impact on the environment by controlling its waste, the State of California is encouraging solar and wind power generation that is connected to the electrical grid to avoid the use of toxic lead acid batteries for night time storage
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Permaculture
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Permaculture is a system of agricultural and social design principles centered on simulating or directly utilizing the patterns and features observed in natural ecosystems. Permaculture was developed, and the term coined by Bill Mollison, smith saw the world as an inter-related whole and suggested mixed systems of trees and crops underneath. This book inspired many individuals intent on making agriculture more sustainable, the definition of permanent agriculture as one that can be sustained indefinitely was supported by Australian P. A. Yeomans in his 1964 book Water for Every Farm. Yeomans introduced an approach to land use in Australia in the 1940s. Stewart Brand’s works were an early influence noted by Holmgren, in the late 1960s, Bill Mollison and David Holmgren started developing ideas about stable agricultural systems on the southern Australian island state of Tasmania. This was a result of the danger of the growing use of industrial-agricultural methods. A design approach called permaculture was their response and was first made public with the publication of their book Permaculture One in 1978, by the early 1980s, the concept had broadened from agricultural systems design towards sustainable human habitats. After Permaculture One, Mollison further refined and developed the ideas by designing hundreds of sites and writing more detailed books, notably Permaculture. Mollison lectured in over 80 countries and taught his two-week Permaculture Design Course to many hundreds of students, Mollison encouraged graduates to become teachers themselves and set up their own institutes and demonstration sites. This multiplier effect was critical to permaculture’s rapid expansion, the three core tenets of permaculture are, Care for the earth, Provision for all life systems to continue and multiply. This is the first principle, because without a healthy earth, Care for the people, Provision for people to access those resources necessary for their existence. Return of surplus, Reinvesting surpluses back into the system to provide for the first two ethics and this includes returning waste back into the system to recycle into usefulness. The third ethic is sometimes referred to as Fair Share to reflect each of us should take no more than what we need before we reinvest the surplus. Permaculture design emphasizes patterns of landscape, function, and species assemblies and it determines where these elements should be placed so they can provide maximum benefit to the local environment. The central concept of permaculture is maximizing useful connections between components and synergy of the final design, Permaculture design therefore seeks to minimize waste, human labor, and energy input by building systems with maximal benefits between design elements to achieve a high level of synergy. The design principles which are the foundation of permaculture were derived from the science of systems ecology. Permaculture draws from several disciplines including organic farming, agroforestry, integrated farming, sustainable development, catch and store energy, By developing systems that collect resources at peak abundance, we can use them in times of need. Obtain a yield, Ensure that you are getting truly useful rewards as part of the work that you are doing, apply self-regulation and accept feedback, We need to discourage inappropriate activity to ensure that systems can continue to function well
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Sustainable living
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Sustainable living is a lifestyle that attempts to reduce an individuals or societys use of the earths natural resources and personal resources. Practitioners of sustainable living often attempt to reduce their footprint by altering methods of transportation, energy consumption. The practice and general philosophy of living is highly interrelated with the overall principles of sustainable development. Lester R. Sustainable living is fundamentally the application of sustainability to lifestyle choice, another broader conception describes sustainable living in terms of four interconnected social domains, economics, ecology, politics and culture. In the first conception, sustainable living can be described as living within the carrying capacities defined by these factors. Sustainable design and sustainable development are critical factors to sustainable living, Sustainable design encompasses the development of appropriate technology, which is a staple of sustainable living practices. Sustainable development in turn is the use of technologies in infrastructure. Sustainable architecture and agriculture are the most common examples of this practice,1954 The publication of Living the Good Life by Helen and Scott Nearing marked the beginning of the modern day sustainable living movement. The publication paved the way for the movement in the late 1960s. 1962 The publication of Silent Spring by Rachel Carson marked another milestone for the sustainability movement. 1972 Donella Meadows wrote the international bestseller The Limits to Growth, which reported on a study of global trends in population, economics. It sold millions of copies and was translated into 28 languages,1973 E. F. Schumacher published a collection of essays on shifting towards sustainable living through the appropriate use of technology in his book Small is Beautiful. 1992–2002 The United Nations held a series of conferences, which focused on increasing sustainability within societies to conserve the Earths natural resources, the Earth Summit conferences were held in 1992,1972 and 2002. 2007 the United Nations published Sustainable Consumption and Production, Promoting Climate-Friendly Household Consumption Patterns, on a global scale, shelter is associated with about 25% of the greenhouse gas emissions embodied in household purchases and 26% of households land use. Sustainable homes are built using sustainable methods, materials, and facilitate green practices and their construction and maintenance have neutral impacts on the Earth. Sometimes, they are off-the-grid homes that do not require any energy, water. If not off-the-grid, sustainable homes may be linked to a grid supplied by a plant that is using sustainable power sources. Additionally, sustainable homes may be connected to a grid, but generate their own electricity through renewable means, there are two common methods to approaching this option, net metering and double metering
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Sustainable sanitation
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Sustainable sanitation is a type of sanitation system which strives to be sustainable in all respects. Sustainable sanitation, defined in this way, may or may not have an emphasis on reuse of excreta and this approach to sanitation requires a systems approach, rather than only focussing on the toilet itself. The experience of the user, waste collection methods, transportation or conveyance of waste, waste treatment, the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation of the WHO and UNICEF was responsible for monitoring progress towards the Millennium Development Goal for drinking water and sanitation. For reasons of simplicity — being able to monitor the situation with household surveys — the JMP had to find a simple differentiation between improved sanitation and unimproved sanitation. In some circumstances improved sanitation facilities can be regarded as not sustainable and this is because it depends on the sanitation system, of which the toilet is only one part. In comparison, ecological sanitation has a focus on the reuse of excreta. The main objective of a system is to protect and promote human health by providing a clean environment. The topic also covers such as hygiene, nutrition and the improvement of livelihood achieved by the application of a certain sanitation system. Technology and operation aspects incorporate the functionality and the ease with which the system can be constructed, operated and monitored using the human resources. It also concerns the suitability to achieve an efficient substance flow management from a point of view. Financial and economic issues relate to the capacity of households and communities to pay for sanitation, including the construction, maintenance and depreciation of the system. Most sanitation systems have been designed with the five aspects in mind, in line with good governance principles, decision-making should involve participation of all stakeholders, especially the consumers and providers of services. Waste should be considered a resource, and its management should be holistic and form part of integrated water resource, nutrient flow, the domain in which environmental sanitation problems are resolved should be kept to the minimum practicable size. These planning guidelines have been revised further and are now used in training courses for urban planners. Simple urinals with separate collector systems could be installed instead of using toilets, greywater could be source-separated from the blackwater from toilets thus simplifying its treatment and providing opportunities for reuse. Cess pits e. g. from pour-flush toilets could be equipped with a safety zone of additional material to prevent contamination of ground water. Above ground dry toilets with urine diversion could be installed in dry areas lacking water, rocky areas where pits are expensive to dig and areas with water tables. With respect to the other sustainability factors, key areas of attention the creation of an environment, market development
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Veganism
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Veganism is both the practice of abstaining from the use of animal products, particularly in diet, and an associated philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals. A follower of either the diet or the philosophy is known as a vegan, distinctions are sometimes made between several categories of veganism. Dietary vegans refrain from consuming animal products, not only meat but also eggs, dairy products and other animal-derived substances. The term ethical vegan is often applied to those who not only follow a diet but extend the philosophy into other areas of their lives. Donald Watson coined the term vegan in 1944 when he co-founded the Vegan Society in England, at first he used it to mean non-dairy vegetarian, but from 1951 the society defined it as the doctrine that man should live without exploiting animals. Interest in veganism increased in the 2010s, more vegan stores opened, and vegan options became increasingly available in supermarkets and restaurants in many countries. Well-planned vegan diets can reduce the risk of some types of chronic disease and they are regarded as appropriate for all stages of the life-cycle by the American Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. The German Society for Nutrition cautions against vegan diets for children, because uncontaminated plant foods do not provide vitamin B12, researchers agree that vegans should eat B12-fortified foods or take a supplement. The origin of the English term vegetarian is unknown, the earliest known use is attributed to the actress Fanny Kemble, writing around 1839 in Georgia in the United States. The practice can be traced to Indus valley civilization in 3300 -1300 BCE Ancient India, the earliest known vegan was the Arab poet Al-Maʿarri. Vegetarianism established itself as a significant movement in 19th-century England and the United States, a minority of vegetarians avoided animal food entirely. Lambe called animal food an habitual irritation, and argued that ilk eating and flesh eating are but branches of a common system, and they must stand or fall together. Sylvester Grahams meatless Graham diet—mostly fruit, vegetables, water, several vegan communities were established around this time. In 1843 members of Alcott House created the British and Foreign Society for the Promotion of Humanity and Abstinence from Animal Food, led by Sophia Chichester, Alcott House also helped to establish the British Vegetarian Society, which held its first meeting in 1847 in Ramsgate, Kent. Belongs to the more moderate division. The first known vegan cookbook, Rupert H. Wheldons No Animal Food, the consumption of milk and eggs became a battleground over the following decades. There were regular discussions about it in the Vegetarian Messenger, it appears from the pages that many opponents of veganism came from within the vegetarian community. This lent support to the position, although Gandhi himself drank goats milk
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Vegetarianism
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Vegetarianism /vɛdʒɪˈtɛəriənɪzəm/ is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat, and may also include abstention from by-products of animal slaughter. Vegetarianism may be adopted for various reasons, many people object to eating meat out of respect for sentient life. Such ethical motivations have been codified under various religious beliefs, as well as animal rights advocacy, other motivations for vegetarianism are health-related, political, environmental, cultural, aesthetic, economic, or personal preference. A vegan diet excludes all animal products, including eggs and dairy, some vegans also avoid other animal products such as beeswax, leather or silk clothing, and goose-fat shoe polish. Often, prior to purchase or consumption, vegetarians will scrutinize products for animal-derived ingredients, vegetarians feelings vary with regard to these ingredients. Semi-vegetarian diets consist largely of vegetarian foods but may include fish or poultry, or sometimes other meats and those with diets containing fish or poultry may define meat only as mammalian flesh and may identify with vegetarianism. A pescetarian diet has been described as fish but no other meat, the term vegetarian has been in use since 1839 to refer to what was previously described as a vegetable diet. The word is believed to be a compound of vegetable. The term was popularized with the foundation of the Vegetarian Society in Manchester, the earliest occurrences of the term seem to be related to Alcott House, a school on the north side of Ham Common, London, opened in July 1838 by James Pierrepont Greaves. The earliest record of vegetarianism comes from Indus Valley Civilization as early as the 7th century BCE, in the Indian culture, the diet was closely connected with the attitude of nonviolence towards animals and was promoted by religious groups and philosophers. The ancient Indian work of Tirukkural explicitly and unambiguously emphasizes vegetarianism, chapter 26 of the Tirukkural, through couplets 251 to 260, deals exclusively on vegetarianism or veganism. Among the Hellenes, Egyptians and others, it had medical or ritual purification purposes and those nanny goats, ewes and sows which are with young or giving milk to their young are protected, and so are young ones less than six months old. Cocks are not to be caponized, husks hiding living beings are not to be burnt, one animal is not to be fed to another. —Edicts of Ashoka, Fifth Pillar Following the Christianization of the Roman Empire in late antiquity, vegetarianism practically disappeared from Europe, as it did on other continents, except India. Several orders of monks in medieval Europe restricted or banned the consumption of meat for ascetic reasons and it re-emerged during the Renaissance, becoming more widespread in the 19th and 20th centuries. In 1847, the first Vegetarian Society was founded in the United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands, in 1886, the vegetarian colony Nueva Germania was founded in Paraguay, though its vegetarian aspect would prove short-lived. The International Vegetarian Union, an association of the societies, was founded in 1908. In the Western world, the popularity of vegetarianism grew during the century as a result of nutritional, ethical
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Tax resistance
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Tax resistance is the refusal to pay tax because of opposition to the government that is imposing the tax, or to government policy, or as opposition to taxation in itself. Tax resistance is a form of action and, if in violation of the tax regulations. Examples of tax resistance campaigns include those advocating home rule, such as the Salt March led by Mahatma Gandhi, and those promoting womens suffrage, such as the Womens Tax Resistance League. War tax resistance is the refusal to pay some or all taxes that pay for war, Tax resisters are distinct from tax protesters, who deny that the legal obligation to pay taxes exists or applies to them. Tax resisters may accept that some law commands them to pay taxes, the earliest and most widespread forms of taxation were the corvée and tithe, both of which can be traced back to the beginning of civilization. The corvée was state-imposed forced labour on peasants too poor to pay other forms of taxation, because taxation is oppressive, governments have always struggled with tax noncompliance and resistance. Indeed, it has suggested that tax resistance played a significant role in the collapse of several empires, including the Egyptian, Roman, Spanish. Reports of collective tax refusal include Zealots resisting the Roman poll tax during the 1st century AD, other historic events that originated as tax revolts include the Magna Carta, the American Revolution and the French Revolution. War tax resisters often highlight the relationship between tax and war. Tax resisters come from a range of backgrounds with diverse ideologies. For example, Henry David Thoreau and William Lloyd Garrison drew inspiration from the American Revolution, some tax resisters refuse to pay tax because their conscience will not allow them to fund war, whilst others resist tax as part of a campaign to overthrow the government. Some taxpayers pay their taxes, but include protest letters along with their tax forms, others pay in a protesting form — for instance, by writing their cheque on a toilet seat or a mock-up of a missile. Others pay in a way that creates inconvenience for the collector — for instance, other tax resisters change their lifestyles so that they owe less tax. For example, UK citizens pay no income tax if their income is below the personal allowance. Opposition to war has led some, such as Ammon Hennacy and Ellen Thomas and these individuals believe that their government is engaged in immoral, unethical or destructive activities such as war, and paying taxes inevitably funds these activities. A resister may decide to reduce their tax paid through tax evasion. For instance, one way to evade tax is to only work for cash-in-hand. Some tax resisters refuse to pay all or a portion of the taxes due, in this way, they demonstrate that the intent of their resistance is not selfish and that they want to use a portion of their earnings to contribute to the common good
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WWOOF
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World Wide Opportunities on Organic Farms, or Willing Workers on Organic Farms, is a loose network of national organizations that facilitate placement of volunteers on organic farms. Australia with 2,600 hosts has the most host farms and enterprises, followed by New Zealand with 2,340, the UK has 688 WWOOF hosts. While there are WWOOF hosts in 99 countries around the world, as there is no single international WWOOF membership, all recognised WWOOF country organizations strive to maintain similar standards, and work together to promote the aims of WWOOF. WWOOF volunteers generally do not receive financial payment, the host provides food, accommodation, and opportunities to learn, in exchange for assistance with farming or gardening activities. The duration of the visit can range from a few days to years, workdays average five to six hours, and participants interact with WWOOFers from other countries. WWOOF farms include private gardens through smallholdings, allotments, and commercial farms, Farms become WWOOF hosts by enlisting with their national organization. WWOOF originally stood for Working Weekends On Organic Farms and began in England in 1971, sue Coppard, a woman working as a secretary in London, wanted to provide urban dwellers with access to the countryside, while supporting the organic movement. Her idea started with trial working weekends for four people at the farm at Emerson College in Sussex. Both to eliminate that problem and also in recognition of WWOOFings worldwide scope, some WWOOF groups choose to retain the older name, however. In the year 2000 the first International WWOOF conference was held with representatives from 15 countries and it was agreed to, Develop guidelines as to what is meant by being a WWOOFer, a WWOOF host and to go WWOOFing. Encourage and support emerging WWOOF organisations in developing countries, volunteers must first choose what country they would like to visit and volunteer in. They can sign up for their country on the WWOOF website. After signing up volunteers will receive a list of farms located in their country of choice, from this point it is up to the volunteer to contact their desired farms and arrange the dates and duration of their stay. The duration of a stay can range from days to months. Volunteers can expect to work for 4–6 hours a day for a days food. WWOOF promotes participation as a way to experience first hand a local culture, customs, as of 2016,61 countries have a national WWOOF organization. 8 of these are located in Africa,12 in North and South America,13 in Asia-Pacific,26 in Europe and 2 in the Middle East, WWOOF Independents list hosts located in 53 other countries. Forest farming Natural farming Permaculture Ecotourism Agritourism Agroecology Organic Farming WWOOF - The Federation of WWOOF Organisations
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Asceticism
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Asceticism is a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from worldly pleasures, often for the purpose of pursuing spiritual goals. Asceticism is classified into two types, Asceticism has been historically observed in many religious traditions, including Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Jainism and Judaism. Mainstream Islam has lacked asceticism, except for its minority Sufi sect whose long tradition has included strict asceticism, the practitioners of these religions eschewed worldly pleasures and led an abstinent lifestyle, in the pursuit of redemption, salvation or spirituality. Asceticism is seen in the ancient theologies as a journey towards spiritual transformation, where the simple is sufficient, the bliss is within, the adjective ascetic derives from the ancient Greek term askēsis, which means training or exercise. The original usage did not refer to self-denial, but to the training required for athletic events. Its usage later extended to rigorous practices that are used in all religious traditions, in varying degrees to attain redemption. Asceticism has been classified into natural and unnatural forms of asceticism, natural asceticism is defined as a lifestyle where material aspects of life are reduced to utmost simplicity and minimum. This may include minimal, simple clothing, sleeping on floor or caves, natural asceticism, state Wimbush and Valantasis, does not include maiming the body or harsher austerities that make the body suffer. Self-discipline and abstinence in some form and degree are parts of religious practice within many religious, ascetic lifestyle is associated particularly with monks, nuns, fakirs in Abrahamic religions, and bhikkhus, munis, sannyasis, yogis in Indian religions. Christian authors of antiquity such as Origen, St. Jerome, St. Ignatius, John Chrysostom. Scriptural examples of asceticism could be found in the lives of John the Baptist, Jesus, the twelve apostles, the Dead Sea Scrolls revealed ascetic practices of the ancient Jewish sect of Essenes who took vows of abstinence to prepare for a holy war. An emphasis on a religious life was evident in both early Christian writings and practices. Other Christian practitioners of asceticism include individuals such as Simeon Stylites, Saint David of Wales, according to Richard Finn, much of early Christian asceticism has been traced to Judaism, but not to traditions within Greek asceticism. Some of the thoughts in Christianity nevertheless, Finn states, have roots in Greek moral thought. Virtuous living is not possible when an individual is craving bodily pleasures with desire, the deserts of the Middle East were at one time inhabited by thousands of Christian hermits including St. Anthony the Great, St. Mary of Egypt, and St. Simeon Stylites. In 963 CE, an association of monasteries called Lavra was formed on Mount Athos and this became the most important center of orthodox Christian ascetic groups in the centuries that followed. In the modern era, Mount Athos and Meteora have remained a significant center, sexual abstinence such as those of the Encratites sect of Christians was only one aspect of ascetic renunciation, and both natural and unnatural asceticism have been part of Christian asceticism. The natural ascetic practices have included simple living, begging, fasting and ethical practices such as humility, compassion, patience, such ascetic practices were linked to the Christian concepts of sin and redemption
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Cynicism (philosophy)
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Cynicism is a school of Ancient Greek philosophy as practiced by the Cynics. For the Cynics, the purpose of life is to live in virtue, as reasoning creatures, people can gain happiness by rigorous training and by living in a way which is natural for themselves, rejecting all conventional desires for wealth, power, sex, and fame. Instead, they were to lead a life free from all possessions. The first philosopher to outline these themes was Antisthenes, who had been a pupil of Socrates in the late 5th century BC and he was followed by Diogenes of Sinope, who lived in a tub on the streets of Athens. Diogenes took Cynicism to its extremes, and came to be seen as the archetypal Cynic philosopher. He was followed by Crates of Thebes who gave away a fortune so he could live a life of Cynic poverty in Athens. Cynicism spread with the rise of Imperial Rome in the 1st century and it finally disappeared in the late 5th century, although similar ascetic and rhetorical ideas appear in early Christianity. The name Cynic derives from Ancient Greek κυνικός, meaning dog-like, one explanation offered in ancient times for why the Cynics were called dogs was because the first Cynic, Antisthenes, taught in the Cynosarges gymnasium at Athens. The word cynosarges means the place of the white dog and it seems certain, however, that the word dog was also thrown at the first Cynics as an insult for their shameless rejection of conventional manners, and their decision to live on the streets. Diogenes, in particular, was referred to as the Dog, later Cynics also sought to turn the word to their advantage, as a later commentator explained, There are four reasons why the Cynics are so named. First because of the indifference of their way of life, for they make a cult of indifference and, like dogs, eat and make love in public, go barefoot, and sleep in tubs and at crossroads. The second reason is that the dog is an animal, and they make a cult of shamelessness, not as being beneath modesty. The third reason is that the dog is a good guard, the fourth reason is that the dog is a discriminating animal which can distinguish between its friends and enemies. So do they recognize as friends those who are suited to philosophy, Cynicism is one of the most striking of all the Hellenistic philosophies. It offered people the possibility of happiness and freedom from suffering in an age of uncertainty, eudaimonia is achieved by living in accord with Nature as understood by human reason. Arrogance is caused by false judgments of value, which cause negative emotions, unnatural desires, eudaimonia, or human flourishing, depends on self-sufficiency, equanimity, arete, love of humanity, parrhesia and indifference to the vicissitudes of life. One progresses towards flourishing and clarity through ascetic practices which help one become free from influences – such as wealth, fame, examples include Diogenes practice of living in a tub and walking barefoot in winter. A Cynic practices shamelessness or impudence and defaces the nomos of society, the laws, customs, thus a Cynic has no property and rejects all conventional values of money, fame, power and reputation
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Detachment (philosophy)
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Detachment as release from desire and consequently from suffering is an important principle, or even ideal, in the Baháí Faith, Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism and Taoism. In Buddhist and Hindu religious texts the opposite concept is expressed as upādāna, attachment, that is the inability to practice or embrace detachment, is viewed as the main obstacle towards a serene and fulfilled life. Many other spiritual traditions identify the lack of detachment with the continuous worries and restlessness produced by desire and it is well known to thee that by detachment is intended the detachment of the soul from all else but God. That is, it consisteth in soaring up to an eternal station, in other words, he is not veiled from divine love or from busying himself with the mention of God by the love of any other thing or by his immersion therein. Regarding the concept of detachment, or non-attachment, Buddhist texts in Pali mention nekkhamma and this word also conveys more specifically the meaning of giving up the world and leading a holy life or freedom from lust, craving and desires. The writings of Milarepa, are canonical Mahayana Buddhist texts that emphasize the nature of the physical body. Detachment is a concept in Zen Buddhist philosophy. One of the most important technical Chinese terms for detachment is wú niàn and this does not signify the literal absence of thought, but rather the state of being unstained by thought. Therefore, detachment is being detached from ones thoughts and it is to separate oneself from ones own thoughts and opinions in detail as to not be harmed mentally and emotionally by them. In Christian faith, the focus then becomes agape, first and foremost as worshipful devotion to God, the Ignatian emphasis of Christian spirituality emphasizes interior freedom. To choose rightly, we should strive to be free of personal preferences, superfluous attachments and preformed opinions. St. Ignatius of Loyola counseled radical detachment, “We should not fix our desires on health or sickness, wealth or poverty, success or failure, most Protestant Christian denominations never mention detachment in general. The Hindu view of detachment comes from the understanding of the nature of existence, in other words, while one is responsible and active, one does not worry about the past or future. The detachment is towards the result of actions rather than towards everything in life. Vairagya is a Hindu term which is translated as detachment. The Islamic word for asceticism is zuhd, the Prophet Mohammed is quoted to have said, What have I to do with worldly things. My connection with the world is like that of a traveler resting for a while underneath the shade of a tree, not relying on people and things as the true source of spiritual fulfillment is part of tawwakul or relying on God. Outright detachment is not permitted in Sunni and Ahmadiyya Islam
