1.
Port Said
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Port Said is a city that lies in north east Egypt extending about 30 kilometres along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, north of the Suez Canal, with an approximate population of 603,787. The city was established in 1859 during the building of the Suez Canal, Port Said is also an important harbour for exports of Egyptian products like cotton and rice, but also a fueling station for ships that pass through the Suez Canal. It thrives on being a port, as well as a tourist resort especially during summer. It is home to the Lighthouse of Port Said, there are numerous old houses with grand balconies on all floors, giving the city a distinctive look. Port Saids twin city is Port Fuad, which lies on the bank of the canal. The two cities coexist, to the extent that there is hardly any town centre in Port Fuad, the only other metropolitan area in the world that also spans two continents is Istanbul. Most of them were from Mediterranean countries, and they coexisted in tolerance, the name of Port Said first appeared in 1855, It was chosen by an International committee composed of Great Britain, France, the Russian Empire, Austria, Spain and Piedmont. It is a name which composed of two parts, Port and Said, who granted Ferdinand de Lesseps the concession to dig the Suez Canal. Port Said was founded by Said of Egypt on Easter Monday, April 25,1859, the first problem encountered was the difficulty for ships to drop anchor nearby. Luckily, a rocky outcrop flush with the shoreline was discovered a few hundred meters away. Equipped with a wharf, it served as a mooring berth for the boats. Soon after, a jetty was built, connecting the departure islet, as it quickly became known. This rock could be considered the heart of the city, and it was on this highly symbolic site, forty years later. There were no local resources here, everything Port Said needed had to be imported, wood, stone, supplies, machinery, equipment, housing, food and even water. Giant water storage containers were erected to supply fresh water until the Sweet Water Canal could be completed, one of the most pressing problems was the lack of stone. Early buildings were imported in kit form and made great use of wood. A newly developed technique was used to construct the jetties called conglomerate concrete or Beton Coignet, artificial blocks of concrete were sunk into the sea to be the foundations of the jetties. Still more innovative was the use of the concrete for the lighthouse of Port Said
2.
Ismailia
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Ismailia is a city in north-eastern Egypt. Known in Egypt as The City of Beauty and Enchantment, Ismailia is situated on the west bank of the Suez Canal, the city has a population of approximately 750,000 inhabitants. It is located halfway between Port Said to the north and Suez to the south. The Canal widens at that point to include Lake Timsah, one of the Bitter Lakes linked by the Canal, Ismailia was founded in 1863, during the construction of the Suez Canal, by Khedive Ismail the Magnificent, after whom the city is named. Following the Battle of Kafr-el-Dawwar in 1882 the British established a base there, the head office of the Suez Canal Authority is located in Ismailia at the shore of Lake Timsah. It still has a number of buildings dating from British. Most of these buildings are used by Canal employees and officials. During World War I the British had an air base there, in 1973 the Battle of Ismailia took place in the city. The Muslim Brotherhood was founded in Ismailia by Hassan al-Banna in March 1928, an underground paramilitary wing was established in the 1940s, primarily to fight British occupation forces. In the early 1950s, Ismailia hosted the British Military HQ, British forces pulled out of Ismailia in 1954. On 1982.12.17 an Eparchy of Ismayliah was established on territory split off from the Coptic Catholic Patriarchate of Alexandria and they face educational problems schools all around Egypt face. Private tutoring is widely accessible and is almost a requirement for all students. Two international schools, Manar Language School and Educational Language Complex School offer American Diploma, Ismailia is the home of Suez Canal University, established in 1976 to serve the region of Suez Canal and Sinai. Suez Canal University now is one of the fastest growing institutions in Egypt with many students studying abroad. The new university of Suez Canal University was established with the help of the Chinese Government, Ismailia hosts two important festivals each year. The first is the International Film Festival for Documentaries and Shorts that is held in June, in June 2014 the 17th consecutive festival was organized. The second is the Ismailia International Folklore Arts Festival that is held in September, in this festival folkloric troupes from all around the globe meet in Ismailia, where they perform folkloric dances representing the culture of their countries. A major attraction is the Ismailia Museum which was built in 1932, visitors will find a variety of significant archaeological finds especially from sites in the Ismailia governorate such as Tell el-Maskhuta, from North Sinai, and from Upper Egypt
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
Suez Canal
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The Suez Canal is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea through the Isthmus of Suez. It was constructed by the Suez Canal Company between 1859 and 1869, after 10 years of construction, it was officially opened on November 17,1869. It extends from the terminus of Port Said to the southern terminus of Port Tewfik at the city of Suez. Its length is 193.30 km, including its northern and southern access channels, in 2012,17,225 vessels traversed the canal. The original canal was a waterway with passing locations in the Ballah Bypass. It contains no locks system, with seawater flowing freely through it, in general, the canal north of the Bitter Lakes flows north in winter and south in summer. South of the lakes, the current changes with the tide at Suez, the canal is owned and maintained by the Suez Canal Authority of Egypt. Under the Convention of Constantinople, it may be used in time of war as in time of peace, by every vessel of commerce or of war, without distinction of flag. In August 2014, construction was launched to expand and widen the Ballah Bypass for 35 km to speed the canals transit time, the expansion was planned to double the capacity of the Suez Canal from 49 to 97 ships a day. At a cost of $8.4 billion, this project was funded with interest-bearing investment certificates issued exclusively to Egyptian entities, the New Suez Canal, as the expansion was dubbed, was opened with great fanfare in a ceremony on 6 August 2015. On 24 February 2016, the Suez Canal Authority officially opened the new side channel and this side channel, located at the northern side of the east extension of the Suez Canal, serves the East Terminal for berthing and unberthing vessels from the terminal anytime of day and night. Ancient west–east canals were built to travel from the Nile River to the Red Sea. One smaller canal is believed to have been constructed under the auspices of Senusret II or Ramesses II. Another canal, probably incorporating a portion of the first, was constructed under the reign of Necho II, the legendary Sesostris may have started work on an ancient canal joining the Nile with the Red Sea. In his Meteorology, Aristotle wrote, One of their kings tried to make a canal to it, so he first, and Darius afterwards, stopped making the canal, lest the sea should mix with the river water and spoil it. Strabo wrote that Sesostris started to build a canal, and Pliny the Elder wrote,165. Later the Persian king Darius had the idea, and yet again Ptolemy II. This proved to be the canal made by the Persian king Darius I
5.
Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
6.
Suez Crisis
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The Suez Crisis, also named the Tripartite Aggression and the Kadesh Operation or Sinai War, was an invasion of Egypt in late 1956 by Israel, followed by the United Kingdom and France. The aims were to regain Western control of the Suez Canal, after the fighting had started, political pressure from the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Nations led to a withdrawal by the three invaders. The episode humiliated Great Britain and France and strengthened Nasser, on October 29, Israel invaded the Egyptian Sinai. Britain and France issued a joint ultimatum to cease fire, which was ignored, on November 5, Britain and France landed paratroopers along the Suez Canal. The Egyptian forces were defeated, but they did block the canal to all shipping and it later became clear that the Israeli invasion and the subsequent Anglo-French attack had been planned beforehand by the three countries. The three allies had attained a number of their objectives, but the Canal was now useless and heavy political pressure from the United States. U. S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower had strongly warned Britain not to invade, historians conclude the crisis signified the end of Great Britains role as one of the worlds major powers. The Suez Canal was closed from October 1956 until March 1957, Israel fulfilled some of its objectives, such as attaining freedom of navigation through the Straits of Tiran. The Suez Canal was opened in 1869, after ten years of work financed by the French, the canal instantly became strategically important, as it provided the shortest ocean link between the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. The canal eased commerce for trading nations and particularly helped European colonial powers to gain, in 1875, as a result of debt and financial crisis, the Egyptian ruler was forced to sell his shares in the canal operating company to the British government of Benjamin Disraeli. They were willing buyers and obtained a 44 percent share in the operations for less than £4 million. With the 1882 invasion and occupation of Egypt, the United Kingdom took de facto control of the country as well as the canal proper, the 1888 Convention of Constantinople declared the canal a neutral zone under British protection. In ratifying it, the Ottoman Empire agreed to international shipping to pass freely through the canal, in time of war. The Convention came into force in 1904, the year as the Entente cordiale between Britain and France. Following the Japanese surprise attack on the Russian Pacific Fleet based at Port Arthur, the British denied the Russian fleet use of the canal and forced it to steam around Africa, giving the Japanese forces time to consolidate their position in East Asia. The importance of the canal as an intersection was again apparent during the First World War. The attempt by German and Ottoman forces to storm the canal in February 1915 led the British to commit 100,000 troops to the defense of Egypt for the rest of the war. The canal continued to be strategically important after the Second World War as a conduit for the shipment of oil, petroleum business historian Daniel Yergin wrote of the period, In 1948, the canal abruptly lost its traditional rationale
7.
United Nations
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The United Nations is an intergovernmental organization to promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II in order to prevent another such conflict, at its founding, the UN had 51 member states, there are now 193. The headquarters of the UN is in Manhattan, New York City, further main offices are situated in Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states, the UNs mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies. The organization participated in actions in Korea and the Congo. After the end of the Cold War, the UN took on major military, the UN has six principal organs, the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Secretariat, the International Court of Justice, and the UN Trusteeship Council. UN System agencies include the World Bank Group, the World Health Organization, the World Food Programme, UNESCO, the UNs most prominent officer is the Secretary-General, an office held by Portuguese António Guterres since 2017. Non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UNs work, the organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001, and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize. Other evaluations of the UNs effectiveness have been mixed, some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development, while others have called the organization ineffective, corrupt, or biased. Following the catastrophic loss of life in the First World War, the earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939. It incorporated Soviet suggestions, but left no role for France, four Policemen was coined to refer to four major Allied countries, United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and China, which emerged in the Declaration by United Nations. Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries, the term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration. One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom, by 1 March 1945,21 additional states had signed. Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto, the foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are, or which may be, rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism. During the war, the United Nations became the term for the Allies. To join, countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis, at the later meetings, Lord Halifax deputized for Mr. Eden, Wellington Koo for T. V. Soong, and Mr Gromyko for Mr. Molotov. The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, the General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the UN, and the facility was completed in 1952. Its site—like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi—is designated as international territory, the Norwegian Foreign Minister, Trygve Lie, was elected as the first UN Secretary-General
8.
Gamal Abdel Nasser
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Gamal Abdel Nasser Hussein was the second President of Egypt, serving from 1956 until his death. Nasser led the 1952 overthrow of the monarchy and introduced far-reaching land reforms the following year, Nassers popularity in Egypt and the Arab world skyrocketed after his nationalization of the Suez Canal and his political victory in the subsequent Suez Crisis. Calls for pan-Arab unity under his leadership increased, culminating with the formation of the United Arab Republic with Syria, in 1962, Nasser began a series of major socialist measures and modernization reforms in Egypt. Despite setbacks to his pan-Arabist cause, by 1963 Nassers supporters gained power in several Arab countries and he began his second presidential term in March 1965 after his political opponents were banned from running. Following Egypts defeat by Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War, Nasser resigned, after the conclusion of the 1970 Arab League summit, Nasser suffered a heart attack and died. His funeral in Cairo drew five million mourners and an outpouring of grief across the Arab world, Nasser remains an iconic figure in the Arab world, particularly for his strides towards social justice and Arab unity, modernization policies, and anti-imperialist efforts. His presidency also encouraged and coincided with an Egyptian cultural boom, Gamal Abdel Nasser was born on 15 January 1918 in Bakos, Alexandria, the first son of Fahima and Abdel Nasser Hussein. Nassers father was a postal worker born in Beni Mur in Upper Egypt and raised in Alexandria and his parents married in 1917, and later had two more boys, Izz al-Arab and al-Leithi. Nassers family traveled frequently due to his fathers work, in 1921, they moved to Asyut and, in 1923, to Khatatba, where Nassers father ran a post office. Nasser attended a school for the children of railway employees until 1924, when he was sent to live with his paternal uncle in Cairo. Nasser exchanged letters with his mother and visited her on holidays and he stopped receiving messages at the end of April 1926. Upon returning to Khatatba, he learned that his mother had died giving birth to his third brother, Shawki. Nasser later stated that losing her this way was a shock so deep that time failed to remedy and he adored his mother and the injury of her death deepened when his father remarried before the years end. In 1928, Nasser went to Alexandria to live with his maternal grandfather and it was in Alexandria that Nasser became involved in political activism. After witnessing clashes between protesters and police in Manshia Square, he joined the demonstration without being aware of its purpose. The protest, organized by the ultranationalist Young Egypt Society, called for the end of colonialism in Egypt in the wake of the 1923 Egyptian constitutions annulment by Prime Minister Ismail Sidqi, Nasser was arrested and detained for a night before his father bailed him out. When his father was transferred to Cairo in 1933, Nasser joined him and he took up acting in school plays for a brief period and wrote articles for the schools paper, including a piece on French philosopher Voltaire titled Voltaire, the Man of Freedom. Two protesters were killed and Nasser received a graze to the head from a policemans bullet, the incident garnered his first mention in the press, the nationalist newspaper Al Gihad reported that Nasser led the protest and was among the wounded
9.
Helmy Bahgat Badawi
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His doctorate thesis titled La responsabilité du commettant earned him his Doctorate degree in 1929 from the same University. Upon his return to Egypt, he was appointed Professor of Civil Law at Cairo University, Egypt, in the mid-1930s Dr. Badawi was appointed Judge in the Egyptian Court on Issues of Government leading to a subsequent term as Judge at the Egyptian Mixed Tribunals Court. In the early part of the 1940s Dr. Badawi became involved in the arena where he held managerial positions at the Credit Foncier Franco-Egyptien. From the mid-1940s until the time he was appointed Chief of the Suez Canal Authority, in 1955 he also served as an international arbitrator on the tanker dispute between Saudi Arabia and the Arabian American Oil Company. Dr. Badawi was the architect of Egypts nationalization of the Suez Canal Company. From 1954 until the nationalization of the old Suez Canal Company, notes Badawi, Helmy Bahgat Technical Assistance Programmes, Their Role in Stimulating Our Economic Development. د. حلمي بهجت بدوي، أصول الالتزامات، الكتاب الأول في نظرية العقد، مطبعة نوري، القاهرة، 1943م, - بحث- بالفرنسية -الدكتور عبدالرزاق السنهورى بالاشتراك مع الاستاذ حلمى بهجت بدوى- نشرته مجلة القانون والاقتصاد- القاهرة- سنة1932
10.
Mohab Mamish
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Vice Admiral Mohab Mamish is the chairman of the Suez Canal Authority. He was the Commander of the Egyptian Navy from 27 September 2007 until August 2012 and he was also a member of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces which governed Egypt de facto after the Egyptian Revolution of 2011. Mamish graduated from the Egyptian Naval Academy in 1969 and he served as an anti-submarine specialist in the 1973 War. He received a fellowship from the Nasser Military Academy in 1977 and he has received additional military training in the United Kingdom, the United States of America, the United Arab Emirates, China, Greece, and France. He is married, with two daughters
11.
Ferdinand de Lesseps
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Eventually, the project was bought out by the United States, which solved the medical problems and changed the design to a non-sea level canal with locks. The origins of de Lesseps family are traceable back as far as the end of the 14th century and his ancestors, it is believed, came from Spain, and settled at Bayonne during the regions occupation by the English. From the middle of the 18th century the ancestors of de Lesseps followed diplomatic careers and his uncle was ennobled by King Louis XVI, and his father was made a count by Emperor Napoleon I. His father, Mathieu de Lesseps, was in the service, his mother, Catherine de Grévigné, was Spanish on her mothers side. She was a daughter of Henri de Grevigné and wife Francisca Antonia Gallegos, Ferdinand de Lesseps was born November 19,1805 in Versailles, Yvelines. His first years were spent in Italy, where his father was occupied with his consular duties and he was educated at the College of Henry IV in Paris. From the age of 18 years to 20 he was employed in the department of the army. From 1825 to 1827 he acted as assistant vice-consul at Lisbon and this uncle was an old companion of Jean-François de La Pérouse and the only survivor of the expedition in which La Pérouse perished. Barthélemy de Lesseps had left the expedition in Kamchatka to travel to St Petersburg overland, in 1828 de Lesseps was sent as an assistant vice-consul to Tunis, where his father was consul-general. He aided the escape of Youssouff, pursued by the soldiers of the Bey, of whom he was one of the officers, Youssouff acknowledged this protection given by a Frenchman by distinguishing himself in the ranks of the French army at the time of the French conquest of Algeria. De Lesseps was also entrusted by his father with missions to Marshal Count Bertrand Clausel, the marshal wrote to Mathieu de Lesseps on 18 December 1830, I have had the pleasure of meeting your son, who gives promise of sustaining with great credit the name he bears. In 1832 de Lesseps was appointed vice-consul at Alexandria, while the vessel de Lesseps sailed to Egypt in was in quarantine at the Alexandrian lazaretto, M. This work struck de Lessepss imagination, and gave him the idea of constructing a canal across the African isthmus, because of this, de Lesseps received a warm welcome from the viceroy and became good friends with his son, Said Pasha. In 1833 de Lesseps was sent as consul to Cairo, and soon given the management of the consulate general at Alexandria. While he was there an epidemic of plague broke out and lasted for two years, resulting in the deaths of more than a third of the inhabitants of Cairo and Alexandria. During this time de Lesseps went from one city to the other and constantly displayed an admirable zeal, towards the close of the year 1837 he returned to France, and on 21 December married Mlle Agathe Delamalle, daughter of the government prosecuting attorney at the court of Angers. By this mariage de Lesseps became the father of five sons, Charles Théodore de Lesseps, Charles Aimé de Lesseps, Ferdinand Marie de Lesseps, Ferdinand Victor de Lesseps and Aimé Victor de Lesseps. In 1839 he was appointed consul at Rotterdam, and in the following year transferred to Málaga, in 1842 he was sent to Barcelona, and soon afterwards promoted to the grade of consul general
12.
Charles Jonnart
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Charles Célestin Auguste Jonnart was a French politician. Born into a family in Fléchin, Pas-de-Calais, Charles Jonnart was educated at Saint-Omer. Interested in the Algeria that he had visited as a young man, in 1884, he was appointed director of the departments Algeria to the Ministry of Interior. Beginning a political career as a liberal, he was elected in 1886 as General Counsel of Saint-Omer, then in 1889 and he distinguished himself in the House by his frequent interventions on colonial issues including the organization of Algeria. Chosen in 1893 by Casimir Périer for the post of Minister of Public Works, the same year an automobile accident forced him to stop his ministry. During 1900, he returned to Algeria, where he was appointed Governor-General and he resigned for health reasons but in 1903 again returned to his post. He helped promote the career of the future Marshal Hubert Lyautey, the latter, still colonel, was promoted to general and was entrusted by Jonnart with policy implementation in the region. In 1911, Charles Jonnart was appointed as minister in the cabinet of Aristide Briand. During the First World War, he was the Senate rapporteur of the Committee on Foreign Affairs and he was briefly Minister of Blockade in the government of Clemenceau. Then the Allied Powers chose him as the representative of King Constantine of Greece. He was elected to the Académie française on 19 April 1923
13.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
14.
Pound sterling
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It is subdivided into 100 pence. A number of nations that do not use sterling also have called the pound. At various times, the sterling was commodity money or bank notes backed by silver or gold. The pound sterling is the worlds oldest currency still in use, the British Crown dependencies of Guernsey and Jersey produce their own local issues of sterling, the Guernsey pound and the Jersey pound. The pound sterling is also used in the Isle of Man, Gibraltar, the Bank of England is the central bank for the pound sterling, issuing its own coins and banknotes, and regulating issuance of banknotes by private banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Sterling is the fourth most-traded currency in the exchange market, after the United States dollar, the euro. Together with those three currencies it forms the basket of currencies which calculate the value of IMF special drawing rights, Sterling is also the third most-held reserve currency in global reserves. The full, official name, pound sterling, is used mainly in formal contexts, otherwise the term pound is normally used. The abbreviations ster. or stg. are sometimes used, the term British pound is commonly used in less formal contexts, although it is not an official name of the currency. The pound sterling is also referred to as cable amongst forex traders, the origins of this term are attributed to the fact that in the 1800s, the dollar/pound sterling exchange rate was transmitted via transatlantic cable. Forex brokers are sometimes referred to as cable dealers, as another established source notes, the compound expression was then derived, silver coins known as sterlings were issued in the Saxon kingdoms,240 of them being minted from a pound of silver. Hence, large payments came to be reckoned in pounds of sterlings, in 1260, Henry III granted them a charter of protection. And because the Leagues money was not frequently debased like that of England, English traders stipulated to be paid in pounds of the Easterlings, and land for their Kontor, the Steelyard of London, which by the 1340s was also called Easterlings Hall, or Esterlingeshalle. For further discussion of the etymology of sterling, see sterling silver, the currency sign for the pound sign is £, which is usually written with a single cross-bar, though a version with a double cross-bar is also sometimes seen. The ISO4217 currency code is GBP, occasionally, the abbreviation UKP is used but this is non-standard because the ISO3166 country code for the United Kingdom is GB. The Crown dependencies use their own codes, GGP, JEP, stocks are often traded in pence, so traders may refer to pence sterling, GBX, when listing stock prices. A common slang term for the pound sterling or pound is quid, since decimalisation in 1971, the pound has been divided into 100 pence. The symbol for the penny is p, hence an amount such as 50p properly pronounced fifty pence is more colloquially, quite often, pronounced fifty pee /fɪfti, pi and this also helped to distinguish between new and old pence amounts during the changeover to the decimal system
15.
Euro
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Outside of Europe, a number of overseas territories of EU members also use the euro as their currency. Additionally,210 million people worldwide as of 2013 use currencies pegged to the euro, the euro is the second largest reserve currency as well as the second most traded currency in the world after the United States dollar. The name euro was adopted on 16 December 1995 in Madrid. The euro was introduced to world markets as an accounting currency on 1 January 1999. While the euro dropped subsequently to US$0.8252 within two years, it has traded above the U. S. dollar since the end of 2002, peaking at US$1.6038 on 18 July 2008. In July 2012, the euro fell below US$1.21 for the first time in two years, following concerns raised over Greek debt and Spains troubled banking sector, as of 26 March 2017, the euro–dollar exchange rate stands at ~ US$1.07. The euro is managed and administered by the Frankfurt-based European Central Bank, as an independent central bank, the ECB has sole authority to set monetary policy. The Eurosystem participates in the printing, minting and distribution of notes and coins in all states. The 1992 Maastricht Treaty obliges most EU member states to adopt the euro upon meeting certain monetary and budgetary convergence criteria, all nations that have joined the EU since 1993 have pledged to adopt the euro in due course. Since 5 January 2002, the central banks and the ECB have issued euro banknotes on a joint basis. Euro banknotes do not show which central bank issued them, Eurosystem NCBs are required to accept euro banknotes put into circulation by other Eurosystem members and these banknotes are not repatriated. The ECB issues 8% of the value of banknotes issued by the Eurosystem. In practice, the ECBs banknotes are put into circulation by the NCBs and these liabilities carry interest at the main refinancing rate of the ECB. The euro is divided into 100 cents, in Community legislative acts the plural forms of euro and cent are spelled without the s, notwithstanding normal English usage. Otherwise, normal English plurals are used, with many local variations such as centime in France. All circulating coins have a side showing the denomination or value. Due to the plurality in the European Union, the Latin alphabet version of euro is used. For the denominations except the 1-, 2- and 5-cent coins, beginning in 2007 or 2008 the old map is being replaced by a map of Europe also showing countries outside the Union like Norway
16.
Tugboat
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A tug is a boat or ship that maneuvers vessels by pushing or towing them. Tugboats are powerful for their size and strongly built, and some are ocean-going, some tugboats serve as icebreakers or salvage boats. Early tugboats had steam engines, but today most have diesel engines, many tugboats have firefighting monitors, allowing them to assist in firefighting, especially in harbors. Seagoing tugs fall into four categories, The standard seagoing tug with model bow that tows its payload on a hawser. The notch tug which can be secured in a notch at the stern of a specially designed barge and this configuration is dangerous to use with a barge which is in ballast or in a head- or following sea. Therefore, notch tugs are usually built with a towing winch and these units stay combined under virtually any sea conditions and the tugs usually have poor sea-keeping designs for navigation without their barges attached. Vessels in this category are considered to be ships rather than tugboats. These vessels must show navigation lights compliant with those required of ships rather than required of tugboats. Articulated tug and barge units also utilize mechanical means to connect to their barges, the tug slips into a notch in the stern and is attached by a hinged connection. ATBs generally utilize Intercon and Bludworth connecting systems, aTBs are generally staffed as a large tugboat, with between seven and nine crew members. The typical American ATB operating on the east coast customarily displays navigational lights of a towing vessel pushing ahead, compared to seagoing tugboats, harbour tugboats are generally smaller and their width-to-length ratio is often higher, due to the need for a lower draught. In smaller harbours these are also termed lunch bucket boats, because they are only manned when needed and only at a minimum. The number of tugboats in a harbour varies with the harbour infrastructure, things to take into consideration includes ships with/without bow thrusters and forces like wind, current and waves and types of ship. River tugs are also referred to as towboats or pushboats and their hull designs would make open ocean operation dangerous. River tugs usually do not have any significant hawser or winch and their hulls feature a flat front or bow to line up with the rectangular stern of the barge, often with large pushing knees. Tugboat engines typically produce 500 to 2,500 kW, for safety, tugboats engines often feature two of each critical part for redundancy. A tugboats power is stated by its engines horsepower and its overall bollard pull. The largest commercial harbour tugboats in the 2000s-2010s, used for towing container ships or similar, had around 60-65 tons of bollard pull, Tugboats are highly maneuverable, and various propulsion systems have been developed to increase maneuverability and increase safety
17.
Dredging
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Dredging is an excavation activity usually carried out underwater, in shallow seas or freshwater areas with the purpose of gathering up bottom sediments and disposing of them at a different location. This technique is used to keep waterways navigable. It is also used as a way to replenish sand on some public beaches, fishing dredges are used as a technique for catching certain species of edible clams and crabs. Capital, dredging carried out to create a new harbor, berth or waterway, preparatory, work and excavation for future bridges, piers or docks/wharves, often connected with foundation work. This is often carried out with a trailing suction hopper dredge, most dredging is for this purpose, and it may also be done to maintain the holding capacity of reservoirs or lakes. Land reclamation, dredging to mine sand, clay or rock from the seabed and this is typically performed by a cutter-suction dredge or trailing suction hopper dredge. The material may also be used for flood or erosion control, beach nourishment, mining sand offshore and placing on a beach to replace sand eroded by storms or wave action. This is done to enhance the recreational and protective function of the beaches and this is typically performed by a cutter-suction dredge or trailing suction hopper dredge. Harvesting materials, dredging sediment for elements like gold, diamonds or other valuable trace substances, seabed mining, a possible future use, recovering natural metal ore nodules from the seas abyssal plains. Construction materials, dredging sand and gravels from offshore licensed areas for use in construction industry, very specialist industry focused in NW Europe using specialized trailing suction hopper dredgers self discharging dry cargo ashore. Anti-eutrophication, Dredging is an option for the remediation of eutrophied water bodies. Contaminant remediation, to areas affected by chemical spills, storm water surges. Disposal becomes a large factor in these operations. Removing trash and debris, often done in combination with maintenance dredging, flood prevention, this can help to increase channel depth and therefore increase a channels capacity for carrying water. This tradition has now more or less obsolete and the tools used to do this have also changed significantly. Oyster dredging or harvesting, in Louisiana and other states with salt water estuaries that can sustain bottom oyster beds. A heavy metal rectangular scoop device is towed astern of a boat with a chain bridle attached to a cable. The device is periodically hauled aboard and the oysters in it are sorted and bagged for shipment to a processing facility
18.
Crane vessel
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A crane vessel, crane ship or floating crane is a ship with a crane specialized in lifting heavy loads. The largest crane vessels are used for offshore construction, conventional monohulls are used, but the largest crane vessels are often catamaran or semi-submersible types as they have increased stability. On a sheerleg crane, the crane is fixed and cannot rotate, in medieval Europe, crane vessels which could be flexibly deployed in the whole port basin were introduced as early as the 14th century. During the age of sail, the hulk was used extensively as a floating crane for tasks that required heavy lift. At the time, the heaviest single components of ships were the main masts, and sheer hulks were essential for removing and replacing them, in 1920, the 1898-built battleship USS Kearsarge was converted to a crane ship when a crane with a capacity of 250 tons was installed. Later it was renamed Crane Ship No.1 and it was used, amongst other things, to place guns and other heavy items on other battleships under construction. Another remarkable feat was the raising of the submarine USS Squalus in 1939, in 1942, the crane ships a. k. a. Heavy Lift Ships SS Empire Elgar, SS Empire Bard, and SS Empire Purcell were sent to the Russian Arctic ports of Archangel and their role was to enable the unloading of the Arctic convoys where port installations were either destroyed by German bombers or were non existent. In 1949, J. Ray McDermott had Derrick Barge Four built, the arrival of this type of vessel changed the direction of the offshore construction industry. Instead of constructing oil platforms in parts, jackets and decks could be built onshore as modules, for use in the shallow part of the Gulf of Mexico, the cradle of the offshore industry, these barges sufficed. In 1963, Heerema converted a Norwegian tanker, Sunnaas, into a vessel with a capacity of 300 tons. This type of vessel was better adapted to the harsh environment of the North Sea. In 1978, Heerema had two semi-submersible crane vessels built, Hermod and Balder, each with one 2,000 ton, later both were upgraded to a higher capacity. This type of vessel was much less sensitive to sea swell. The high stability also allowed for heavier lifts than was possible with a monohull, the larger capacity of the cranes reduced the installation time of a platform from a whole season to a few weeks. Inspired by this success similar vessels were built, in 1985 DB-102 was launched for McDermott, with two cranes with a capacity of 6,000 tons each. Micoperi had M7000 built in 1986 with two cranes of 7,000 tons each, however, due to a oil glut in the mid 1980s, the boom in the offshore industry was over, resulting in collaborations. In 1988, a joint venture between Heerema and McDermott was formed, HeereMac, in 1990 Micoperi had to apply for bankruptcy
19.
Ahmed Hamdi Tunnel
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The Ahmed Hamdi Tunnel is 1640 meter long tunnel, for automobiles, under the Suez Canal, at Shallufa. The tunnel is named for Ahmed Hamdi, an Egyptian engineer and it has two lanes of traffic, one in each direction, and connects the Asian Sinai Peninsula to the town of Suez on the African mainland. It was originally constructed as a tunnel by the Tarmac Construction in November 1981. In 1992, the Japanese government granted aid to a project aimed at rehabilitating the tunnel which had developed leaks and it is 1.63 km long and has an outside diameter of 11.6 m. Trans-African Highway network Ahmed Hamdi Tunnel
20.
Suez Governorate
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Suez Governorate is one of the governorates of Egypt. It is located in the part of the country and is coterminous with the city of Suez. It is situated north of the Gulf of Suez, according to population estimates from 2015 all 622,859 residents of the governorate live in urban areas. With an urbanization rate of 100% the Suez Governorate is one of the most urbanized in the country, along with Cairo, natural resources in the Suez Governorate include limestone, clay, coal, petroleum, marble, and lime. The chief exports of Suez are papayas, ein El-Sokhna, a well known recreational and medical destination. Moses springs Judaic Hill at El-Khoor In 1975, the Suez Public Free Zone was established and it is divided between two main locations, Port Tewfik and Adabeya. Suez Canal Suez crisis Official website Ministry of Trade and Industry Free Zones site
21.
Ismailia Governorate
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Ismailia Governorate is one of the Canal Zone governorates of Egypt. Located in the part of the country, its capital is the city of Ismailia. It was named after Ismail Pasha, who as Ottoman Viceroy of Egypt and it is located between the other two Canal governorates, Port Said Governorate, in the Northern part of Egypt and Suez Governorate. According to population estimates from 2015 the majority of residents in the live in rural areas. Out of an estimated 1,178,641 people residing in the governorate,643,778 people live in areas as opposed to only 534,863 in urban areas. Instead this festival has been celebrating its annual events in Ismailia Governorate and it is sponsored by the Ministry of Culture, Ismailia Governorate, The National Cinema Center and other sponsors. The Ismailia Governorate is on the banks of the Suez Canal and its Ismailia Canal extends from the Nile River near Cairo, to the Suez Canal at the city of Ismailia, the Ismailia Canal was built to provide fresh water to workers during the building of the Suez Canal. The Suez Canal Authority headquarters is located in Ismailia, from 1967 to 1970, Ismailia became a war zone and was damaged in the conflict with Israel. There are several official fishing landing sites in Ismailia, one is at Lake Timsah and the other at Bitter Lake. After a successful SIP from 1992-1997, the United Nations expanded the project to include the entire Governorate of Ismailia calling it SGIP and its goal is to work with local partners to improve the communities in Ismailia
22.
Port Said Governorate
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Port Said Governorate is one of the Canal Zone governorates of Egypt. It is located in the part of the country, on the Mediterranean Sea at the northern gate of the Suez Canal. Its capital is the city of Port Said, it is the home of the Suez Canal Authority headquarters and it is urban with 98. 2% of the area populated. Port Said Governorate also includes Port Fuad, in 2015 a huge natural gas reserve was discovered and was described as the largest ever found in the Mediterranean Sea. It was found off the coast of Port Said, Egypt now has one of the largest areas of natural gas and Italian company, ENI has been contracted to work on the natural gas liquefaction for Egypt. It was welcome news as Egypt has long suffered an energy crisis, the New Suez Canal project launched in 2015 included dredging of the East Port Said Canal. Port Said Port Fuad At the 2006 Census, there were 570,768 people,2015 estimates put that figure at 666,599. With an urbanization rate of 100%, the Port Said Governorate is one of the most urbanized in the country, along with Cairo, in February,2012, more than 70 people died in the Port Said Stadium Riot after a soccer match. Social unrest in early 2013 continued for at least two weeks, while protesting, on March 5,2013, protesters set fire to the governorates headquarters and several people were injured. In October,2016 Egyptians protested the increase in their rent on apartments, one official and several residents were arrested. Port Said Governorate is a transit point for trade, importing and exporting millions of tons of goods each year. Tourism is also promoted for the region, there are several museums in this area. For cultural tourism one may want to visit the Port Said National Museum of Antiquities which opened in 1987 and is located at the confluence of the Suez Canal waters and the Mediterranean Sea. It houses about 9,000 artifacts from all eras, ranging from the Pharaonic, Greek, Roman, the Military Museum of Port Said, established in 1964, commemorates the 1956 the tripartite aggression on the city. It features armory and military artifacts, equipment used in the wars fought between 1956 -1967 and in 1973, al-Nasr Museum of Modern Art in Port Said opened on December 25,1995 and includes artwork by Egyptian artists in various branches of Fine Art. This makes it a favorite with tourists, nearby, is the Suez Canal Authority building built on the banks of Port Said at the start of the project. The lighthouse and jetties at Port Said, located at the terminus of the Suez canal. The lighthouse is a monolith 180 feet high, in the construction 120,000 tons of Teil hydraulic lime were used
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Port Fuad
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Port Fouad is a city in north-eastern Egypt under the jurisdiction of Port Said Governorate, located across the Suez Canal from Port Said. It forms the northwesternmost part of Sinai Peninsula and has a population of 560,000, Port Fouad and Port Said are on opposite sides of the canal and face each other. Together they form a metropolitan area, Port Fouad was established in 1926, principally to relieve overcrowding in Port Said, and was named after King Fuad I, the first holder of the title King of Egypt in the modern era. The Suez Canal Authority forms the main employment of the city, residents of Port Fouad travel to Port Said by ferry. After the war of 1967 Port Fouad was the piece of Sinai held by the Egyptians. The Israeli army tried to capture Port Fouad during the War of Attrition, after the October War, the Camp David Accord in 1978 Israel agreed to return Sinai to Egypt peacefully, and later the two countries signed a peace treaty. Today Port Fouad is a major Air Defence Position for Egypt, despite its important location, as of 2006, Port Fouad was still considered a residential zone, with very few facilities and no major downtown or city center
24.
Suez Canal Container Terminal
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Suez Canal Container Terminal is a container terminal located at Port Said East and functions as a transshipment centre for the Eastern Mediterranean at the northern entrance to the Suez Canal. The terminal has been operational since October 2004, Suez Canal Container Terminal is a private joint venture company that obtained the concession to build, operate, and manage this new terminal. The majority shareholding of SCCT is held by APM Terminals, 20% of the shares are held by COSCO, 10% are held by Suez Canal & Affiliates, 5% by the National Bank of Egypt, and the remaining 10% are held by the Egyptian private sector. The Egyptian government signed an agreement for a term of 30 years in relation to the need for a container terminal in Port Said. In 2002, Egypt ratified an additional concession agreement, following approval of terminal design in 2001. Construction on the SCCT first started in 2003, and a date of October 1 of the following year was established. The Suez Canal Container Terminal became operational in October 2004, in 2007, the Egyptian government signed a concession agreement for the progression of Phase II of the SCCT facility. APM Terminals A. P. Moller-Maersk Group Port Said Port Authority SCCT Suez Canal Container Terminal
25.
Suez
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Suez is a seaport city in north-eastern Egypt, located on the north coast of the Gulf of Suez, near the southern terminus of the Suez Canal, having the same boundaries as Suez governorate. It has three harbors, Adabya, Ain Sukhna and Port Tawfiq, and extensive port facilities, together they form a metropolitan area. Railway lines and highways connect the city with Cairo, Port Said, Suez has a petrochemical plant, and its oil refineries have pipelines carrying the finished product to Cairo. In the 7th century AD a town named Kolzum stood just north of the site of present-day Suez and served as terminus of a canal built by Amr ibn al-As linking the Nile River. Kolzums trade fell following the closure of the canal in 770 by the second Abbasid caliph al-Mansur to prevent his enemies in Arabia from accessing supplies from Egypt, nonetheless, the town benefited from the trade that remained between Egypt and Arabia. By 780 al-Mansurs successor al-Mahdi restored part of the canal, the Qarmatians led by Hasan ibn Ahmad defeated a Fatimid army headed by Gawhar al-Siqilli at Kolzum in 971 and thereby captured the town. Following his defeat in Cairo by al-Siqilli at the end of year, Hasan. Suez was situated nearby and served as a source of drinking water for Kolzum according to Arab traveler al-Muqaddasi who visited in 986, the Ayyubid sultan of Egypt, Saladin, fortified both Kolzum and Suez in to defend Egypts eastern frontier from Crusader raids by Raynald of Chatillon. Between 1183-84, Raynald had ships stationed in the Red Sea to prevent the Ayyubid garrison at Kolzum from accessing water, in response, Saladins brother al-Adil had Husam ad-Din Lulu build a naval fleet which sailed to the southern port of Aidab to end Raynalds venture. By the 13th century it was recorded that Kolzum was in ruins as was Suez which had replaced the former as a population center. According to Muslim historians al-Maqrizi and al-Idrisi, Kolzum had once been a prosperous town, Arab geographer al-Dimashqi noted that Kolzum belonged to the Mamluk province of al-Karak at the time. Following the Ottomans conquest of Egypt at the beginning of the 16th century, the Ottoman fleets at Suez were instrumental in disputing control with the Portuguese over Indian Ocean trade. However, by 1798, during Napoleonic invasion, Suez had devolved into an unimportant town, fighting between the French and the British in 1800 left most of the town in ruins. Its importance as a port increased after the Suez Canal opened in 1869, the city was virtually destroyed during battles in the late 1960s and early 1970s between Egyptian and Israeli forces occupying the Sinai Peninsula. The town was deserted following the Six Day War in 1967, reconstruction of Suez began soon after Egypt reopened the Suez Canal, following the October War with Israel. Suez was the first city to major protests against the government of Hosni Mubarak during the 2011 Egyptian revolution and was the scene of the first fatality of that uprising. On account of this, it has called the Sidi Bouzid of Egypt. The city is divided into five districts, It is most populous district of the city
26.
Suez Port
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The Suez Port is an Egyptian port located at the southern boundary of the Suez Canal. It is bordered by the line extending from Ras-El-Adabieh to Moussa sources including the North Coast until the entrance of Suez Canal. Originally Port Tewfik was named as the entrance of the canal, Port Suez covers a larger area with multiple harbours. Enclosed in breakwaters is the artificial El Mira-El Gedda bay, Port Tawfik To the West of the Suez Canal entrance. It uses the enclosed Ibrahim Dock, Petroleum Dock in the Western part of the El Gedda bay. Borders are limited by the port breakwaters, the waters outside the boundaries of Ibrahim Dock, Petroleum Dock, Ataka Port, Adabiya Port and New Petroleum berth are within the Suez Canal jurisdiction. Transportation in Egypt Port Tewfik Memorial The Suez port
27.
Suezmax
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Suezmax is a naval architecture term for the largest ship measurements capable of transiting the Suez Canal in a laden condition, and is almost exclusively used in reference to tankers. Since the canal has no locks, the only serious limiting factors are draft, the current channel depth of the canal allows for a maximum of 20. The canal was deepened in 2009 from 18 to 20 metres, the typical deadweight of a Suezmax ship is about 160,000 tons and typically has a beam of 50 m. Also of note is the maximum head room—air draft—limitation of 68 m, Suez Canal Authority produces tables of width and acceptable draft, which are subject to change. The similar terms Panamax, Malaccamax, and Seawaymax are used for the largest ships capable of fitting through the Panama Canal, aframax tankers are those with a capacity of 80,000 tonnes deadweight to 120,000 DWT. The term Chinamax refers to vessels able to use a number of harbours while fully laden, Capesize refers to bulk carriers too big to pass through the Suez Canal—and needing to go around the Cape of Good Hope—but recent dredging means many Capesize vessels can use the canal. Plans to deepen the draft to 70 feet could lead to a redefinition of the Suezmax specification, list of Panamax ports Cargo ship size categories Ship sizes
28.
Lake Manzala
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Lake Manzala, also Manzaleh, is a brackish lake, sometimes called a lagoon, in northeastern Egypt on the Nile Delta near Port Said and a few miles from the ancient ruins at Tanis. It is the largest of the northern lakes of Egypt. As of 2008 it is 47 km long and 30 km wide, Lake Manzala is long but quite shallow. Before construction of the Suez Canal, Lake Manzala was separated from the Mediterranean Sea by a strip of sand 200 to 300 yards wide, Port Said was established adjacent to Lake Manzala during the nineteenth century to support canal construction and related travel. The lakes location directly south of the Port Said Airport restricts the capacity for growth. Lake Manzala is the northernmost of three natural lakes intersected by the Suez Canal, the two being Lake Timsah and the Great Bitter Lake. Construction of the canal proceeded from north to south, reaching Manzala first, due to the lakes shallowness, it was necessary to dig a banked channel for ships to pass. Lake Manzala served as a significant source of fish for human consumption in Egypt. In 1985, the fishery was an open area of 89,000 ha. The government of Egypt drained substantial portions of the lake in an effort to convert its rich Nile deposits to farmland. The project was unprofitable, crops did not grow well in the salty soil, by 2001, Lake Manzala had lost approximately 80 percent of its former area through the effects of drainage efforts. Restoring and protecting the lakes and reservoirs. Penn, James R. Rivers of the world
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Lake Timsah
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Lake Timsah, also known as Crocodile Lake, is a lake in Egypt on the Nile delta. It lies in a basin developed along a fault extending from the Mediterranean Sea to the Gulf of Suez through the Bitter Lakes region. In 1800, a flood filled the Wadi Tumilat, which caused Timsahs banks to overflow, in 1862, the lake was filled with waters from the Red Sea. Lake Timsah lies within a depression that spans the isthmus between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, the lowest points of the depression form shallow natural lakes, of which Timsah is one. The surface area of Lake Timsah covers 5.4 square miles, most of the lake is marshy and depth rarely exceeds 3 feet. It has been asserted that, in ancient times, Lake Timsah was the terminus of the Red Sea. March 4,1863, the city of Ismailia, named in honor of the viceroy Ismail Pasha, several beaches overlook the lake, including the Moslem Youth, Fayrouz, Melaha, Bahary, Taawen, and a few Suez Canal Authority beaches. Lake Timsah possibly first became a juncture for canal construction approximately 4,000 years ago during the Middle Kingdom of Egypt, Suez Canal construction in the vicinity of Lake Timsah began in 1861 on the segment north of the lake. Initial preparations included the construction of sheds to house 10,000 workers, steam sawmills,3,000 laborers dug a channel from the Nile to Lake Timsah in 1861 and 1862, which brought a fresh water supply to the area. It was also proposed to construct a port at this point along the canal. The Ismailia section of the Suez Canal, which connected Lake Manzala to Lake Timsah, was completed in November 1862, construction of the segment was completed with forced labor, which expanded the workforce to 18,000 men. The trench measured 50 feet wide by four to six feet deep, work began south of Lake Timsah in 1862-1863 as expansion continued on the northern segment. Forced labor was used during construction from March 1862 until Ismail Pasha outlawed the practice in 1864. As a result of the canal, waters from Lake Manzaleh flowed into Lake Timsah, expansion continued on the northern segment until 1867 and on the southern segment until 1876. Lake Timsah is a lake that experiences significant variations in salinity. Human engineering projects have impacted salinity, with resulting changes in the lakes biota, the El-Gamil outlet serves as Lake Timsahs principal source of salt water. Timsahs main source of water was annual Nile flooding until the Aswan High Dam interrupted these flows in 1966. Lake Timsah experiences both stratification variations in salinity and seasonal variations in salinity, and in recent decades freshwater taxa have been overtaking brackish taxa
30.
Great Bitter Lake
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The Great Bitter Lake is a saltwater lake in Egypt, connected to the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea via the Suez Canal. It is connected to the Small Bitter Lake, through which the canal also runs, before the canal was built, the site was a dry salt valley or basin. References are made to the Great Bitter Lake in the ancient Pyramid Texts, ships traveling through the Suez Canal use the Great Bitter Lake as a passing lane, where they can change their position in line or turn around. When the Suez Canal was closed, during the war, the salinity of the lake increased substantially, the salinity of the lake depends on how much fresh water flows into it from the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. As the canal has no locks, sea water flows freely into the lake from the Mediterranean, in general, north of the lakes the current reverses seasonally, being north-going in winter and south-going in summer. South of the lakes, the current is tidal, reversing with the tides in the Red Sea, fish can migrate, generally in a northerly direction, through the canal and lakes in what is known as a Lessepsian migration. This means that some Red Sea species have come to colonize the eastern Mediterranean, on 14 February 1945, Great Bitter Lake was the site of the Quincy Agreement. President Roosevelts interpreter was U. S. Marine Corps Colonel Bill Eddy who recorded the conversation in his book FDR Meets Ibn Saud. The meeting is the subject of a BBC documentary by Adam Curtis, during the Six-Day War in 1967, the canal was closed, leaving 15 ships trapped in the lake until 1975. These ships became known as the Yellow Fleet, because of the sands which soon covered their decks. The crews of the ships would eventually organize, share resources, two German-flagged ships eventually sailed out of the canal on their own power. Stranded cargo included various perishables, T-shirts, and a load of toys destined for Woolworths
31.
Sweet Water Canal
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Sweet Water Canal, also known as Fresh Water Canal and currently known as Ismaïlia Canal, is a canal which was dug by thousands of Egyptian fellahin to facilitate the construction of the Suez Canal. The canal travels east-west across Ismailia Governorate and it was dug to provide fresh water to the arid area, from Lake Timsah to Suez and Port Said. The canal facilitated the growth of settlements along the Suez Canal. Like the Suez Canal, it was designed by French engineers and it runs through the now-dry distributary of the Wadi Tumilat, incorporating portions of an ancient Suez Canal that existed between Old Cairo and the Red Sea. In February 1862, after thousands of workers excavated 1.1 million cubic meters, as soon as the fresh water reached the area, more laborers could be hired for the Suez Canal construction project. The canal also allowed for the transportation of materials and food with ferries traveling along its narrow ways. The Battle of Kassassin Lock was fought near Sweet Water Canal, less than 100 years later, the canal no longer provided clean, fresh water but was disturbingly polluted. During the 1950s when British soldiers were stationed in the area, royal Air Force personnel were advised to avoid contact with the water and were warned that the canal was where deserters would end up
32.
Port Said Lighthouse
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The Port Said Lighthouse is one of the most important architectural and tourist landmarks in the city of Port Said in Egypt. Construction was completed in 1869, one prior to the inauguration of the Suez Canal. The lighthouse was built to guide ships passing through the canal, the lighthouse has an octagonal shaped tower that is 56 m high. From 1868 until the end of his reign, Khedive Ismail ordered the construction of lighthouses at different points across Egypts Mediterranean coast. Among these, the lighthouse of Port Said had special significance owing to its connection to the Suez Canal, Ismail commissioned French architect François Coignet to design the lighthouse, and oversee its construction. Coignet used the technique of building the lighthouse out of reinforced concrete. The lack of stone quarries and the cost of importing stone from elsewhere caused those in charge of construction to become interested in the use of concrete. At the time, the lighthouse was a paragon of modernism worthy of an international reputation, the lighthouse was constructed by layering liquid 20 –25 cm in thickness. To ensure the structural cohesion of the whole, iron ties were inserted. The use of concrete was doubly innovative, employed as a material, not merely a substance for filling. Quite simply, reinforced concrete had been invented, the use of electric light made it possible to display a consistent flashing light and it was a state of the art lighthouse at the time. In 2010, intellectuals called for it to be turned into a museum of maritime transport, in January 2011, the Port Said lighthouse was officially registered as a national monument in Egypt
33.
Suez Canal Bridge
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The Mubarak Peace Bridge, also known as the Egyptian-Japanese Friendship Bridge, Al Salam Bridge, or Al Salam Peace Bridge, is a road bridge crossing the Suez Canal at El Qantara. The bridge links the continents of Africa and Eurasia, the bridge was built with assistance from the Japanese government. The main contractor was Kajima Corporation, the bridge was opened in October 2001. The bridge, which has a 70-metre clearance over the canal and is 3.9 kilometres long, consists of a 400-metre cable-stayed main span, the height of the two main pylons supporting the main span is 154 metres each. The towers were designed in the shape of Pharaonic obelisks, the clearance under the bridge is 70 metres. Therefore, the height of ships that can pass through the Suez Canal is 68 metres above the waterline. Embassy of Japan in Egypt, Economic Cooperation Planning, design and construction aspects of the Suez Canal cable stayed bridge
34.
El Ferdan Railway Bridge
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The El Ferdan Railway Bridge is a swing bridge that spans the Suez Canal near Ismailia, Egypt. It is the longest swing bridge in the world, with a span of 1,100 feet, the first El Ferdan Railway Bridge over the Suez Canal was completed in April 1918 for the Palestine Military Railway. It was considered a hindrance to shipping so after the First World War it was removed, a steel swing bridge was built in 1942, but this was damaged by a steamship and removed in 1947. A double swing bridge was completed in 1954 but the 1956 Anglo-Franco-Israeli war with Egypt severed rail traffic across the canal for a third time, a replacement bridge was completed in 1963 which was destroyed in 1967 in the Six-Day War by the Egyptian engineering General Ahmed Hamdy. The current bridge was constructed in 2001, another channel was dug in 2014/2015, and there is a need for another bridge there. Therefore El Ferdan bridge with the present situation, is obsolete, El Ferdan Swing Bridge at Structurae
35.
Suez Canal overhead powerline crossing
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The Suez Canal overhead powerline crossing is a major electrical power line built across the Suez Canal in 1998, located near Suez, Egypt. It is designed for two 500 kV circuits, because the required clearance over the Suez Canal is 152 metres, the overhead line has two 221 metres high pylons in spite of its small span width of 600 metres. The pylons each have four crossarms, three for the conductors and one for catching the conductors in case of an insulator string failure and it was constructed by a consortium between STFA Enerkom and Siemens. Electric power transmission List of towers
36.
Lessepsian migration
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Lessepsian migration is the ongoing migration of marine species across the Suez Canal, usually from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea, more rarely in the opposite direction. It is named after Ferdinand de Lesseps, the French diplomat in charge of the canals construction, the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 created the first salt-water passage between the Mediterranean and Red Seas. The Red Sea is slightly higher than the Eastern Mediterranean, so the canal serves as a strait that pours Red Sea water into the Mediterranean. The Red Sea is generally saltier and more nutrient-poor than the Atlantic, so the Red Sea species have advantages over Atlantic species in the less salty, accordingly, most invasions are of Red Sea species into the Mediterranean, and only few in the opposite direction. To this day, about 300 species native to the Red Sea have been identified in the Mediterranean Sea, brevipinna off Madagascar and its finding in the Mediterranean has arguably confirmed the previously disputed status of C. brevipinna as a Lessepsian migrant. In addition the parasites originating in the Red Sea have shown an ability to use related native Mediterranean fish species as alternative hosts, the invasion of these parasites may have the effect of reducing the competitive advantages that the Red Sea invaders have in the Mediterranean. Up until 1992 none of the specimens collected were infected with the parasite Heterosaccus dollfusi, the parasite is a barnacle which de-sexes its host and within three years the parasite had spread to southern Turkey and 77% of the crabs collected in Haifa Bay were infected. This rapid increase and high rate is attributed to the extremely high population density of the host. One effect of this was that the population of the Mediterranean native swimming crab Liocarcinus vernalis recovered somewhat, only a comparatively few species have colonised the Red Sea from the Mediterranean, and these are referred to as anti-Lessepsian migrants. The sea slug Chelidonura fulvipunctata was originally described from waters around Japan and is widespread in the eastern Indian Ocean and it was first identified in the Mediterranean in 1961 and was seen in the Red Sea in 2005, most likely as a result of anti-Lessepsian migration. In addition, a survey of polychaete worms in the southern Suez Canal found six species that were regarded as anti-Lessepsian migrants. The deepening of the Welland Canal in 1919 allowed the sea lamprey to bypass the barrier created by the falls, the alewife, a species of shad from the western Atlantic also invaded the Great Lakes by using the Welland Canal to bypass Niagara Falls. They colonised the Great Lakes and became abundant mostly in Lake Huron and Lake Michigan, reaching their peak abundance by the 1950s and 1980s
37.
Canal of the Pharaohs
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The Canal of the Pharaohs, also called the Ancient Suez Canal or Nechos Canal, is the forerunner of the Suez Canal, constructed in ancient times. It followed a different course than its counterpart, by linking the Nile to the Red Sea via the Wadi Tumilat. Another possibility is that it was finished in the Ptolemaic period under Ptolemy II, probably first cut or at least begun by Necho II, in the late 6th century BC, Darius the Great either re-dug or completed it. Exactly when it was completed is not known as the classical sources disagree. They were located along the Darius Canal through the valley of Wadi Tumilat, in his Meteorology, Aristotle wrote, One of their kings tried to make a canal to it, but he found that the sea was higher than the land. So he first, and Darius afterwards, stopped making the canal, lest the sea should mix with the river water, strabo also wrote that Sesostris started to build a canal, and Pliny the Elder wrote,165. Later the Persian king Darius had the idea, and yet again Ptolemy II. Pliny the Elder also says that Ptolemy II, who took up the work again, diodorus, however, reports that it was completed by Ptolemy II after being fitted with a lock. Ptolemy II was the first to solve the problem of keeping the Nile free of water when his engineers invented the water lock around 274/273 BC. In the 2nd century AD, Ptolemy the Astronomer mentions a River of Trajan, during his Egyptian expedition, Napoleon found the canal in 1799. Ancient Egyptian trade Froriep, Siegfried, Ein Wasserweg in Bithynien. Bemühungen der Römer, Byzantiner und Osmanen, Antike Welt, 2nd Special Edition, pp. 39–50 Moore, Frank Gardner, Three Canal Projects, Roman and Byzantine, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol.54, No. 2, pp. 97–111 Schörner, Hadwiga, Künstliche Schiffahrtskanäle in der Antike, der sogenannte antike Suez-Kanal, Skyllis, Vol.3, No
