1.
Jawi script
–
Jawi is an Arabic alphabet for writing the Malay language, Acehnese, Banjarese, Minangkabau, Tausūg and several other languages in Southeast Asia. Jawi is one of the two scripts in Brunei, used as an alternative script in Malaysia and Malay dominated areas in Indonesia. It can be typed with the Jawi keyboard, day-to-day usage of Jawi is maintained in more conservative Malay-populated areas such as Kelantan in Malaysia and Pattani. Jawi is still used on road and building signs, and taught in primary and religious schools in Brunei. The word Jawi is an adjective for the Arabic noun Jawah, both terms may have originated from the term Javadwipa, the ancient name for Java. Prior to the onset of the Islamisation, when Hindu-Buddhist influences were still firmly established in the region and this is evidenced from the discovery of several stone inscriptions in Old Malay, notably the Kedukan Bukit Inscription and Talang Tuwo inscription. The spread of Islam in Southeast Asia and the subsequent introduction of Arabic writing system began with the arrival of Muslim merchants in the region since the seventh century. The conversion of King Phra Ong Mahawangsa of Kedah in 1136, at the early stage of Islamisation, the Arabic script was taught to the people who had newly embraced Islam in the form of religious practices, such as the recitation of Quran as well as salat. Many Arabic characters are never used as they are not pronounced in Malay language and this was the same for the acceptance of Arabic writing in Turkey, Persia and India which had taken place earlier and thus, the Jawi script was then deemed as the writing of the Muslims. The inscription on the stone contains a proclamation issued by the Sri Paduka Tuan of Terengganu, urging his subjects to extend and uphold Islam and this has attested the strong observance of the Muslim faith in the early 14th century Terengganu specifically and the Malay world as a whole. The development of Jawi script was different from that of Pallava writing which was restricted to the nobility. The Jawi script was embraced by the entire Muslim community regardless of class, with the increased intensity in the appreciation of Islam, scriptures originally written in Arabic were translated in Malay and written in the Jawi script. Additionally local religious scholars later began to elucidate the Islamic teachings in the forms of original writings, moreover, there were also individuals of the community who used Jawi for the writing of literature which previously existed and spread orally. With this inclusion of literature, Malay literature took on a more sophisticated form. This was believed to have taken place from the 15th century, other forms of Arabic-based scripts existed in the region, notably the Pegon alphabet of Javanese language in Java and the Serang alphabet of Bugis language in South Sulawesi. Both writing systems applied extensively the Arabic diacritics and added several alphabets other than Jawi alphabets to suit the languages, due to their fairly limited usage, the spelling system of both scripts did not undergo similar advance developments and modifications as experienced by Jawi script. The script became prominent with the spread of Islam, as the Malays found that the earlier Pallava script was totally unsuited as a vehicle to relay religious concepts. The Malays held the script in high esteem as it is the gateway to understanding Islam and its Holy Book, the use of jawi script was a key factor driving the emergence of Malay as the lingua franca of the region, alongside the spread of Islam
2.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Greater Sunda Islands
–
The Greater Sunda Islands are a group of large islands within the Malay Archipelago. Under some definitions, only Java, Sumatra and Borneo are included in the Greater Sunda Islands, together with the Lesser Sunda Islands, they make up the Sunda Islands. The Greater Sunda islands are mostly territory of Indonesia, however, the island of Borneo is divided among the countries of Brunei, Indonesia, and Malaysia. It contains all of Brunei, the Indonesian provinces of Central, East, West, North, and South Kalimantan, and the Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak and the federal territory of Labuan. Banda Arc Lesser Sunda Islands List of islands of Indonesia Oceanic trench Plate tectonics Sunda Arc Sunda Islands Sunda Trench Sundaland
4.
Mount Kerinci
–
Mount Kerinci is the highest volcano in Indonesia, and the highest peak on the island of Sumatra. It is surrounded by the lush forest of Kerinci Seblat National Park, home to the species of Sumatran tiger. It is part of the Barisan Mountains, a chain of volcanoes that span from the extreme northwest of the all the way to the extreme southeast. At the summit there is a deep 600 m wide crater, Kerinci is more active than most Indonesian volcanoes, with nearly annual phreatic eruptions. In 2004, Kerinci erupted and continues to spew clouds of sulphurous smoke, in 2009, Kerinci erupted again and followed by June 2,2013 eruption with 600 m spewed black smoke. Kerinci can be climbed from the village of Kersik Tuo,6 or 7 hours away from Padang by car or bus, the climb and descent normally takes 2 days and 1 night, when choosing to go all the way to the summit. Climbers may also choose to go up only as far as Camp 2 or 3, skipping the summit attempt, kerincis terrain consists of thick jungle, and can get muddy and slippery even if there are only mild drizzles, which may occur occasionally even during the dry season. To climb the volcano a guide is needed, as there have been cases of people disappearing after attempting to trek alone. The Kerinci Seblat National Park has at least fifteen lakes of note, with the biggest being Kerinci Lake, the 4, 200-hectares of Kerinci Lake lies at a height of 650 meters, and is the host of the annual Kerinci Lake Festival. Gunung Tujuh Lake is a lake formed in an extinct volcano. It is also the highest lake in Southeast Asia at 1,996 meters, based on research in 1973, the Kecik Wok Gedang Wok people are recognized as the first tribe to settle at a plateau around Mount Kerinci 10,000 years ago. Today, the Kecik Wong Gedang Wok people are limited due to assimilation with the Proto-Malay tribes which came later, there are around 135 dialects used only along the valley. This makes ethnographic analysis difficult to conduct, list of volcanoes in Indonesia Kerinci Seblat National Park Kerinci
5.
Aceh
–
Aceh, is a special region of Indonesia. The territory is located at the end of Sumatra. It is close to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India, there are 10 indigenous ethnic groups in this region, the largest being the Acehnese people, accounting for approximately 80% to 90% of the regions population. Aceh is thought to have been the place where the spread of Islam in Indonesia began, Islam reached Aceh around 1250 AD. In the early seventeenth century the Sultanate of Aceh was the most wealthy, powerful, Aceh has a history of political independence and resistance to control by outsiders, including the former Dutch colonists and the Indonesian government. Aceh has substantial natural resources, including oil and natural gas, relative to most of Indonesia, it is a religiously conservative area. It has the highest proportion of Muslims in Indonesia, who live according to Sharia customs. Aceh was the closest point of land to the epicenter of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, approximately 170,000 Indonesians were killed or went missing in the disaster. The disaster helped precipitate the peace agreement between the government of Indonesia and the Free Aceh Movement, Aceh was first known as Aceh Darussalam and then later as the Daerah Istimewa Aceh, Nanggroë Aceh Darussalam and Aceh. Past spellings of Aceh include Acheh, Atjeh, and Achin, according to several archaeological findings, the first evidence of human habitation in Aceh is from a site near the Tamiang River where shell middens are present. Stone tools and faunal remains were found on the site. Archeologists believe the site was first occupied around 10,000 BC, historic names such as Indrapurba, Indrapurwa, Indrapatra, and Indrapuri gave some hint of Indian influence on this region. However, there are no archaeological findings that link this region with Hinduism, evidence concerning the initial coming and subsequent establishment of Islam in Southeast Asia is thin and inconclusive. The historian Anthony Reid has argued that the region of the Cham people on the south-central coast of Vietnam was one of the earliest Islamic centers in Southeast Asia. Furthermore, as the Cham people fled the Vietnamese, one of the earliest locations that they established a relationship with was Aceh, furthermore, it is thought that one of the earliest centers of Islam was in the Aceh region. When Venetian traveller Marco Polo passed by Sumatra on his way home from China in 1292 he found that Peureulak was a Muslim town while nearby Basma, Basma and Samara are often said to be Pasai and Samudra but evidence is inconclusive. The gravestone of Sultan Malik as-Salih, the first Muslim ruler of Samudra, has found and is dated AH696. This is the earliest clear evidence of a Muslim dynasty in the Indonesia-Malay area, ibn Batutah, a Moroccan traveller, passing through on his way to China in 1345 and 1346, found that the ruler of Samudra was a follower of the Shafii school of Islam
6.
Bengkulu
–
Bengkulu, historically known as Bencoolen or British Bencoolen, is one of the Provinces of Indonesia and is located in the southwest coast of Sumatra. It was formed on 18 November 1968 by separating out the former Bengkulu Residency area from South Sumatra province under Law No.9 of 1967 and was realized by Government Regulation No.20 of 1968. Bengkulu is the 25th largest province by area, it is divided into nine regencies and the city of Bengkulu. Bengkulu is also the 26th largest province by population in Indonesia, according to a release by Badan Pusat Statistik, it has the eleventh highest Human Development Index among the provinces, with a score about 0.744 in 2013. By 2014, the province positions 28th highest in gross domestic product, Bengkulu Province comprises not only land on southwest Sumatra, but also includes Mega Island and Enggano Island in the Indian Ocean. Bengkulu has 525 kilometres of coastline along the Indian Ocean on its western side, Bengkulu is home to many natural resources such as coal and gold, and has big and potential geothermal resources. In addition, it is less developed than other provinces in Sumatra, the name Bencoolen is predicted to be taken from a name of the hill in Cullen, Scotland, Bin of Cullen. Traditional sources mention that the Bengkulu or Bangkahulu derived from the word bangkai, according to the story, there were once a war between small kingdoms in Bengkulu. Awhich resulted in casualties on both sides in the river streams in Bengkulu. These casualties soon became rotten corpses as they are not buried, then comes the name Bangkaihulu which gradually are pronounced Bangkahulu or Bengkulu. The region formed part of the Buddhist Srivijaya empire in the 8th century, there were only few smalls ‘kedatuan’ based on ethnicity such as in Sungai Serut, Selebar, Pat Petulai, Balai Buntar, Sungai Lemau, Sekiris, Gedung Agung and Marau Riang. It was then once a region of Banten Sultanate and since 17th century was ruled by Minangkabau’s Inderapura Sultanate. The first European visitors to the area were the Portuguese, followed by the Dutch in 1596, the English East India Company established a pepper-trading center and garrison at Bengkulu in 1685. In 1714 the British built Fort Marlborough, which still stands, the trading post was never profitable for the British, being hampered by a location which Europeans found unpleasant, and by an inability to find sufficient pepper to buy. It became a port of call for the EICs East Indiamen. So Stamford Raffles was here, as were other British governors, despite their difficulties, the British persisted, maintaining their presence for roughly 140 years before ceding it to the Dutch as part of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 in exchange for Malacca. Bengkulu then remained part of the Dutch East Indies until the Japanese occupation in World War 2, during Sukarnos imprisonment by the Dutch in the early 1930s, the future first president of Indonesia lived briefly in Bengkulu. Here he met his wife, Fatmawati, who bore him children, one of whom, Megawati Sukarnoputri
7.
Jambi
–
Jambi, is a province of Indonesia. It is located on the east coast of central Sumatra and its capital is Jambi. The province has an area of 50,058.16 km2. Jambi was the site of the Srivijayan kingdom that engaged in throughout the Strait of Malacca. Jambi succeeded Palembang, its economic and military rival, as the capital of the kingdom. The movement of the capital to Jambi was partly induced by the 1025 raid by pirates from the Chola region of southern India and this relationship declined by about 1770, and the sultanate had little contact with the Dutch for about sixty years. In 1833, minor conflicts with the Dutch who were established in Palembang. They coerced Sultan Facharudin to agree to greater Dutch presence in the region and control over trade, in 1858 the Dutch, apparently concerned over the risk of competition for control from other foreign powers, invaded Jambi with a force from their capital Batavia. They met little resistance, and Sultan Taha fled upriver, to the regions of Jambi. The Dutch installed a ruler, Nazarudin, in the lower region. For the next forty years Taha maintained the upriver kingdom, and slowly reextended his influence over the regions through political agreements. Jambis first Resident OL Helfrich was appointed by the Governor General of the Dutch Decree No.20 dated May 4,1906 and his inauguration held on July 2,1906. Jambi province is divided into nine regencies and two cities, listed below with their areas and their populations at the 2010 Census and according to the latest estimates. In addition to an urban Malay koine spoken in Jambi city, Kerinci, Kubu, Lempur Malay, the site was a Buddhist education center that flourished during the 7th and 8th centuries and is made from bricks similar to those used in Buddhist temples in India. Islam is the largest religion in Jambi representing 96. 5% of the whole population Christianity is 3% Hinduism is 0. 25% and Buddhism 0. 25% Putri Tangguk Locher-Scholten, rivals and rituals in Jambi, South Sumatra
8.
Lampung
–
Lampung is a province of Indonesia. It is located on the tip of the island of Sumatra and borders the provinces of Bengkulu. Lampung is the home of the Lampung people, who speak their own language and have their own alphabet. The province had a population of 7,596,115 at the 2010 census, three quarters of the current population of Lampung is descended from migrants from Java, Madura, and Bali. Lampung is commonly known for its instability in terms of earthquakes and volcanoes. On 10 May 2005, an earthquake measuring 6.4 on the Richter scale struck the province, the historical volcano blast of Krakatau which occurred in 1883, had disastrous consequences. In the 7th century, words have spread in China about a region located in the far south there is a kingdom called Tolang Pohwang. To in Lampung language means people while Lang Pohwang is the region in what is now called Lampung, there is strong evidence that Lampung is part of the kingdom of Srivijaya, based in Jambi and controlled most parts of Southeast Asia including Lampung and prevail to the 11th century. Srivijaya came to Lampung as this area was once a source of gold, other smaller kingdoms Tulang Bawang and Scale Brak also once stood at Lampung in about 7-8 century. The center of the Tulang Bawang kingdom was estimated around the Tulang Bawang river, the entry of the Banten Sultanate in Lampung at the 16th century marked the beginning of the spread of Islam in the region. Since the past, Lampung is known for pepper which at time were much in demand. At that time the Dutch began pressing for control of the region, the control of pepper production exercised by the Banten Sultanate has made Lampung as one of the greatest and most prosperous harbor in the archipelago. Similarly pepper plants that attract foreign immigrants from Europe as trading companies of the Dutch East India Company. The trading company in the late 17th century to build a plant in Menggala. But the efforts finally Dutch managed to control 1856, the colonial government for the first time introduced the transmigration program to residents on the island of Java, which involved the migration of people from Java to Lampung. The transmigration program was well received and many residents of the island of Java origin who moved to the transmigration sites located in the eastern region of Lampung. The transmigration program is then increased again at the time of independence in the 1960s and 1970s, a native of the island of Java have brought along their culture device to Lampung like gamelan and wayang. People on the island of Bali then also came to Lampung to follow this transmigration program, the presence of migrants from other regions in Lampung has made this region as an area with diverse cultures
9.
Riau
–
Riau, is a province of Indonesia. It is located in the eastern coast of Sumatra along the Strait of Malacca. The provincial capital of Riau Province and its largest city is Pekanbaru, other major cities include Dumai, Selat Panjang, Bagansiapiapi, Bengkalis, Bangkinang, Rengat and Siak Sri Indrapura. The total area for Riau province is 87,023.66 km², Riau has a wet tropical climate with average rainfall ranging between 2000-3000 millimeters per year, and the average rainfall per year is about 160 days. Riau is currently one of the richest provinces in Indonesia and is rich in resources, particularly petroleum, natural gas, rubber, palm oil. Extensive logging and plantation development in has led to a decline in forest cover Riau. Since the 1970s, much of Indonesia has experienced a decline in growth rates. Riau has been a significant exception, with increasing rates every decade since 1970 to a 4.35 percent annual rise for the 1990s, however, the provincial population was 5,538,367 at the 2010 census. And according to the estimate for January 2014 this had risen to 6,358,636, etymology There are three possibilities for the origin of the word Riau province in the name of the singer. First, from the Portuguese word, meaning rio river, the second version says that Riau riahi comes from the word meaning the sea air. Said the singer came from al-Bahar Sinbad character from the book of a thousand. The third version says that the singer says is derived from the account of communities, derived from the word rioh or boisterous. It is probable that in the name is derived from the naming of the local people, i. e. orangutan Malay who live in the area of Bintan. The name may have started since the famous Raja Kecik move to the center of Johor Malay kingdom to Ulu Riau in 1719. Dutch colonial period Dutch invasion aggressive to the east coast of Sumatra can not be intercepted by Siak, Dutch narrowed the sovereign territory of the Siak, by establishing the residency of Riau under the rule of the Dutch East Indies, located in Tanjung Pinang. The sultan Siak can not do anything because they had tied to an agreement with the Netherlands. Siak notch further weakened by the push-pull between the Netherlands and the United Kingdom who was then control the Strait of Malacca, to strategic areas on the east coast of Sumatra. At almost the time period, Indragiri also started to be influenced by the Dutch
10.
West Sumatra
–
West Sumatra is a province of Indonesia. It lies on the west coast of the island of Sumatra, the latest official estimate for January 2014 shows a population of 5,098,790. West Sumatra is sub-divided into 12 regencies and seven cities and it has relatively more cities than other provinces in Indonesia, except Java province. It borders the provinces of North Sumatra to the north, Riau and Jambi to the east and it includes the Mentawai Islands off the coast. The history of West Sumatra is related to the history of the Minangkabau people, archaeological evidence indicates that the area surrounding the Limapuluh Koto regency forms the first area inhabited by the Minangkabau. Limapuluh Koto regency covers a number of rivers which meet at the eastern part of the Sumatran coastline. The Minangkabau ancestors were believed to have arrived via this route and they sailed from Asia via the South China Sea, crossing the Malacca Strait and later settled along the Kampar, Siak and Indragiri rivers. Some lived and developed their culture and traits around the Limapuluh Koto regency, the first westerner to reach West Sumatra was the French explorer Jean Parmentier in 1529. However, the westerners who came for economic and political reasons were the Dutch, the Dutch commercial fleet was seen along the southern coast of West Sumatra between 1595 and 1598. Apart from the Dutch, other European nationalities also came to the such as the Portuguese. The integration with migrants in the ensuing periods introduced cultural changes and their settlement area gradually became diminished and eventually they spread to other parts of West Sumatra. A portion of them went to the Agam regency while others went to the now Tanah Datar regency, from those areas onward, further spread of the population occurred north of the Agam regency, in particular, the Lubuk Sikaping. Most of them settled in the area such as the coastline and some in the southern parts in Solok, Selayo. The history of the West Sumatra Province became more accessible at the time of the rule by Adityawarman and this ruler left considerable amount of evidence of himself, although he did not proclaim that he was the Minangkabau King. Adityawarman ruled Pagaruyung, a region believed by the Minangkabau to be the center of its culture, Adityawarman was the most important figure in Minangkabau history. Apart from introducing a government system by a monarch, he also contributed significantly to the Minangkabau world. His most important contribution was the spread of Buddhism and this religion had a very strong influence in the Minangkabau life. The evidence of such influence found in West Sumatra today includes names such as Saruaso, Pariangan, Padang Barhalo, Candi, Biaro, Sumpur, since the death of Adityawarman in the middle of the 17th century the history of West Sumatra seems more complex
11.
South Sumatra
–
South Sumatra Province is a province of Indonesia. It is located in the part of Sumatra Island, east of the Bukit Barisan Mountains. It spans 91,592.43 km2 and had a population of 7,450,394 at the 2010 Census, the capital of the province is Palembang. South Sumatra has been settled by humans since the Palaeolithic era, the evidence of those settlements is proven by some discoveries of Palaeolithic tools in the riverbed of Saling and Kikim rivers in Bungamas Village, Lahat Regency. Relics of seven stone chambers believed to be about 2,500 years old were found near a plantation in Kotaraya Lembak. Around 300 BC, the Deutero-Malay people arrived in this region, around 7th century AD, an ancient Buddhist kingdom of Srivijaya was established in an area known today as Palembang. It once controlled a part of what is now Indonesia, Malaysia and Southern Thailand, effectively ruled the Malacca Strait. In 1025, it was defeated by the Chola Empire of southern India, srivijayas capital eventually moved northward to Jambi. After its eventual fall in 14th century AD, some kingdoms were established in South Sumatra. However, there was virtually a power vacuum in the region there was no prominent power to hold the region except for the waning Majapahit Empire. The vacuum allowed pirates to flourish in the region, in the 16th century AD, the Palembang Sultanate was established by Ki Gede Ing Suro, a politician who fled from Demak Sultanate. Clashes with the Dutch had occurred since the 17th century until the sultanate was abolished in 1825 when the Dutch gave a blow to the final Sultan of Palembang. Southern Sumatra was occupied by the Japanese in January 15,1942 after the Battle of Palembang in World War II, after the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence, South Sumatra became a part of Sumatra Province as a residency with Adnan Kapau Gani as the resident. On January 1,1947, the Dutch tried to gain its sovereignty over South Sumatra by invading Palembang, since then, fighting ensued across South Sumatra until Indonesias independence was recognized by the Dutch on December 27,1949. The province is located in the portion of the island of Sumatra. The majority of its area consists of low-lying plains filled with plantations, forest, the natural environment of South Sumatra is hot and humid tropical rain forest. However, most of these forest has been cleared out to make way for oil palm plantation for palm oil production, the Bukit Barisan mountain range is located on the western edge of the province and forms the border with the neighbouring Bengkulu province. The mountains are the source of systems that drain eastward to the Bangka Strait
12.
North Sumatra
–
North Sumatra, is a province of Indonesia. It is located on the island of Sumatra, and its capital is Medan, after independence, the first session of the National Committee of Regions, Sumatra was then divided into three sub-provinces namely North Sumatra, Central Sumatra and South Sumatra. North Sumatra province itself is an amalgamation of three regions called residency namely, Residency of Aceh, East Sumatra Residency, and residency of Tapanuli. With the publication of the Law of the Republic of Indonesia No, date 15 April 1948 subsequently determined as the anniversary of North Sumatra Province. In early 1949, the reorganization of government back in Sumatra, with the decision of the Government Emergency R. I. No.22 / Govt / Emergency Government on May 17,1949, furthermore, the Government Emergency Decree R. I. on December 17,1949, established the province of Aceh and Tapanuli Province / East Sumatra. Then, with a Government Regulation in lieu of Law No.5 Year 1950 on August 14,1950, such provisions shall be lifted and reshaped North Sumatra Province. No.24 of 1956, promulgated on December 7,1956, established an autonomous region of Aceh province, the province of North Sumatra stretches across the island of Sumatra between the Indian Ocean and the Strait Malacca. It borders Aceh province on the northwest and Riau and West Sumatra provinces in the southeast and it has an area of 72,981 km². The province contains a broad, low plain along the Strait of Malacca on which the provincial capital, Medan, is located. In the south and west, the rises to the mountain range that runs the length of Sumatra. Several large islands in the Indian Ocean off the west coast of Sumatra are currently part of North Sumatra, most notably Nias Island, there are 419 islands in propisi North Sumatra. The outer islands is the island Simuk, and the island Berhala in the Strait of Sumatra, Nias archipelago consists of the island as the main island and other smaller islands in the vicinity. Nias Islands located off the coast of western Indian Ocean, administration center located in Gunung Sitoli. Batu Islands consist of 51 islands with four islands, Sibuasi, Pini, Tanahbala. Pulautelo administrative center on the island Sibuasi, Batu Islands located in the southeast of the island of Nias. Other islands in the North Sumatra, Imanna, Pasu, Bawa, Hamutaia, Batumakalele, Lego, Masa, Bau, Simaleh, Makole, Jake, in North Sumatra, there are currently two national parks, the Gunung Leuser National Park and Batang Gadis National Park. According to the Ministerial Decree, No.44 of 2005, but this figure character is de jure alone
13.
Medan
–
Medan is the capital of North Sumatra province in Indonesia. Located along the northeastern coast of Sumatra Island, Medan is the third biggest city in Indonesia, behind Jakarta, with 2,097,610 inhabitants at the 2010 census, Medan remains the largest settlement outside of Java Island. Bordered by the Strait of Malacca, Medan is a trading city as the strait is one of the most important shipping lanes in the world. Medan is the gateway to the part of Indonesia, accessible via the Port of Belawan. Both the seaport and the airport are connected to the city center via toll road, Medan became the first city in Indonesia to have an airport supported with train service. The city was founded by Guru Patimpus, a Karonese man who named a swampy land in confluence of Deli River, in 1632, the Deli Sultanate was established by Tuanku Gocah Pahlawan, who became its first king. In the 18th century, the king, Sultan Mahmud Al Rasyid Perkasa Alam. Jacob Nienhuys, a Dutch tobacco merchant, pioneered the opening of plantations in Deli Land. The areas name changed to Medan-Deli when it was established by Dutch tobacco commerce after the formation of the Deli Company. The Deli Railway was established for shipping rubber, tea, timber, palm oil, and sugar industries from the city to Belawan, following the establishment of the Republic of Indonesia, Medan became the capital of North Sumatra in mid-1950. Medan was dubbed by the Dutch Parijs van Sumatra due to the resemblance to Paris. Residential property prices in Medan have also trended upward over the period from 2013 to the first quarter of 2015, according to Bank Indonesia. According to BI, Medan’s residential property price index rose from 205.24 in the quarter of 2013 to 212.17 in the fourth quarter of 2014. One of the Karo-Indonesia dictionaries written by Darwin Prinst SH published in 2002 stated that Medan could also be defined as recover or be better, in ancient times the city of Medan was known as Kampung Medan. It was a piece of land with an area of approximately 4000 ha. Some of the crossing the city of Medan drain into the Straits of Malacca. These rivers are Sei Deli, Sei Babura, Sei Sikambing, Sei Denai, Sei Putih, Sei Percut, Medan started as a village called Kampung Medan. Kampung Medan was founded by Guru Patimpus Sembiring Pelawi, a Karonese man who came from the Karo Land, before he became a Muslim, he was a Pemena follower
14.
Acehnese people
–
The Acehnese are an ethnic group from Aceh, Indonesia in the northernmost tip of the island of Sumatra. The area has a history of struggle against the Dutch. Their language, the Acehnese, belongs to the Aceh–Chamic groups of Malayo-Polynesian branch of the Austronesian language family, the 14th century Suruaso inscription was found in Tanah Datar Regency, and written in two languages, Old Malay and Tamil. The Tamils were also assimilated with Acehnese people, and many of them has physical resemblance to that of Tamils, however, they do not practice Tamil culture or speak Tamil language anymore. They were at one time Hinduised, as is evident from their traditions and they have been Muslims for several centuries and are generally considered the most conservative Muslim ethnic group in Indonesia with the implementation of Sharia law in their home province of Aceh. The estimated number of Acehnese ranges between 3,526,000 people and at least 4.2 million people Traditionally, there have been a number of Acehnese agriculturists. Traditionally matrilocal, their organisation is communal. They live in gampôngs, which combine to form districts known as mukims, Aceh came to international attention as being the hardest-hit region of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake with 120,000 people dead. Due to conflict since Dutch invasion to Aceh until Martial Law in Aceh and 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, the most significant number of Acehnese can be found in Malaysia and Scandinavia countries. Acehnese immigrants also can be significantly in Singapore, Thailand, Australia, United States. Traditional Acehnese dance portrays the culture, religion and folklore of the common folk. Acehnese dance are performed in groups, either in standing or in sitting position. If seen from the musical standpoint, the dance can be grouped into two types, one is accompanied with vocals and physical percussive movements of the dancers themselves, and the other is simply accompanied by an assemble of musical instruments. A variety of Acehnese food is cooked with curry or curry and coconut milk, of which is combined with meat such as buffalo meat, beef, mutton, fish. Several types of traditional recipe uses a blend of cannabis as a flavoring spice, however today, those substance are no longer used
15.
Batak (Indonesia)
–
Batak is a collective term used to identify a number of ethnic groups predominantly found in North Sumatra, Indonesia. The term is used to include the Karo, Pakpak, Simalungun, Toba, Angkola, while the archaeology of southern Sumatra testifies to the existence of neolithic settlers, it seems that the northern part of Sumatra was settled by agriculturalists at a considerably later stage. Reliable historical records of the Batak before 1800 are virtually non-existent, the Batak may be mentioned in Zhao Ruguas 13th-century Description of the Barbarous People, which refers to a Ba-ta dependency of Srivijaya. The Suma Oriental, of the 15th century, also refers to the kingdom of Bata, bounded by Pasai and it has been suggested that the important port of Barus in Tapanuli was populated primarily by Batak people. Tamil remains have been found on key trade routes to the Batak lands, tamil influence on Karo religious practices are also noted, with the pekualuh secondary cremation ritual being specific to the Karo and Dairi people. Moreover the Pustaka Kembaren, a story of the Sembiring Kembaren suggests linkages with Pagarruyung in Minangkabau Highlands. From the 16th century onward, Aceh increased the production of pepper, an important export commodity, in exchange for rice, which grew well in the Batak wetlands. Batak people in different areas cultivated either sawah or ladang, the increasing importance of rice had religious significance, which increased the power of the Batak high priests, who had responsibility for ensuring agricultural success. The Batak speak a variety of related languages, all members of the Austronesian language family. Simalungun is an offspring of the southern branch. Some Simalungun dialects can be understood by speakers of Batak Karo and this is due to the existence of a linguistic continuum that often blurs the lines between the Batak dialects. Batak dialect still influences the dialects in Medan city today, the Batak possess their own script known as the Surat Batak. The writing has chiefly ceremonial importance within traditional religious ceremonies, and was subject to change for this reason. It is likely that the Batak people originally received their writing system from southern Sumatra, the traditional occupation of the Batak was agriculture, hunting and farming. The great lake of Toba provided vast opportunity for freshwater aquaculture since ancient times, the port of Barus on the western coast of Batak lands has become famous as the source of kapur barus. In ancient times, Batak warriors were recruited by neighboring Malay courts as mercenaries. In the colonial era, the Dutch introduced commercial cash crops, such as coffee, sawit palm oil, throughout the history of modern Indonesia, the Batak community has been a significant contributor. Batak people have filled a range of occupations, from running modest tire service workshops to serving as state ministers
16.
Minangkabau people
–
Minangkabau people, also known as Minang, is an ethnic group indigenous to the Minangkabau Highlands of West Sumatra, Indonesia. This custom is called Lareh Bodi Caniago and is known as Adat perpatih in Malaysia, today 4.5 million Minangs live in the homeland of West Sumatra, while about 4.5 million more are scattered throughout many Indonesian and Malay Peninsular cities and towns. The Minangkabau are strongly Islamic, but also follow their ethnic traditions, the Minangkabau adat was derived from animist and Hindu-Buddhist beliefs before the arrival of Islam, and remnants of animist beliefs still exist even among some practising Muslims. The present relationship between Islam and adat is described in the tradition founded upon Islamic law, Islamic law founded upon the Quran. As one of the worlds most populous matrilineal ethnicity, Minangkabau gender dynamics have been studied by anthropologists. With the arrival of the Dutch and other Muslim groups, the traditions have gradually influenced by both western and conservative Islamic thought. Based on the Raffles vision, Minangkabau is believed to have been the cradle of the Malay race and their West Sumatran homelands was the seat of the Pagaruyung Kingdom and the location of the Padri War. The name Minangkabau is thought to be a conjunction of two words, minang and kabau, there is a legend that the name is derived from a territorial dispute between the Minangkabau and a neighbouring prince. To avoid a battle, the local people proposed a fight to the death between two water buffalo to settle the dispute, the prince agreed and produced the largest, meanest, most aggressive buffalo. The Minangkabau produced a hungry baby buffalo with its small horns ground to be as sharp as knives, seeing the adult buffalo across the field, the baby ran forward, hoping for milk. The big buffalo saw no threat in the buffalo and paid no attention to it. But when the baby thrust his head under the big belly, looking for an udder, the sharpened horns punctured and killed the bull, and the Minangkabau won the contest. The roofline of traditional houses in West Sumatra, called Rumah Gadang, curve upward from the middle and end in points, until the 20th century the majority of the Sumatran population lived in the highlands. The highlands are well suited for human habitation, with fresh water, fertile soil, a cool climate. It is probable that wet rice cultivation evolved in the Minangkabau Highlands long before it appeared in parts of Sumatra. By the 16th century, the time of the report after the reign of Adityawarman. They were the King of the World, the King of Adat, and the King of Religion, the Minangkabau kings were charismatic or magical figures, but did not have much authority over the conduct of village affairs. It was around the 16th century that Islam started to be adopted by the Minangkabau, the first contact between the Minangkabau and western nations occurred with the 1529 voyage of Jean Parmentier to Sumatra
17.
Malays (ethnic group)
–
These locations today are part of the modern nations of Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, Brunei, and southern Thailand. In literature, architecture, culinary traditions, traditional dress, performing arts, martial arts, throughout their history, the Malays have been known as a coastal-trading community with fluid cultural characteristics. The epic literature, the Malay Annals, associates the etymological origin of Melayu to Sungai Melayu in Sumatra, the English term Malay was adopted via the Dutch word Malayo, itself derived from Portuguese, Malaio, which originates from the original Malay word, Melayu. Prior to the 15th century, the term Melayu and its variants appear to apply as an old toponym to the Strait of Malacca region in general. Malaya Dwipa, Malaya Dvipa, is described in chapter 48, Vayu Purana as one of the provinces in the sea that was full of gold. Some scholars equate the term with Sumatra, but several Indian scholars believe the term should refer to the mountainous Malay peninsula, maleu-kolon - appeared in Ptolemys work, Geographia. Mo-lo-yu - mentioned by Yijing, a Tang dynasty Chinese Buddhist monk who visited the Southeast Asia in 688–695, according to Yijing, the Mo-Lo-Yu kingdom was located in a distance of 15 day sail from Bogha, the capital of Sribhoga. It took a 15-day sail as well to reach Ka-Cha from Mo-lo-yu, therefore, a popular theory relates Mo-Lo-Yu with the Jambi in Sumatra, however the geographical location of Jambi contradicts with Yi Jings description of a half way sail between Ka-Cha and Bogha. Among the terms used was Bok-la-yu, Mok-la-yu, Ma-li-yu-er, Oo-lai-yu - traced from the source of monk Xuanzang). Malayur - inscribed on the wall of the Brihadeeswarar Temple in Tamil Nadu. It was described as a kingdom that had a mountain for its rampart in Malay peninsula. Bhūmi Mālayu -, a transcription from Padang Roco Inscription dated 1286 CE by Slamet Muljana, the term is associated with Dharmasraya kingdom. Ma-li-yu-er - mentioned in the chronicle of Yuan Dynasty, referring to a nation of Malay peninsula that faced the southward expansion of Sukhothai Kingdom, the chronicle stated. Animosity occurred between Siam and Ma-li-yu-er with both killing each other. In response to the Sukhothais action, a Chinese envoy went to the Ram Khamhaengs court in 1295 bearing an imperial decree, Keep your promise and do no evil to Ma-li-yu-er. Malauir - mentioned in Marco Polos account as a kingdom located in the Malay peninsula, malayapura -, inscribed on the Amoghapasa inscription dated 1347 CE. The term was used by Adityawarman to refer to Dharmasraya. The word Malay refer to Mountain, other evidence that supports this theory include, stone tools found in the Malay Archipelago are analogous to Central Asian tools, the similarity of Malay customs and Assam customs. The New Guinea theory - The proto-Malays are believed to be knowledgeable in oceanography. Over the years they settled at places and adopted various cultures
18.
Chinese Indonesians
–
Chinese Indonesians, are Indonesians descended from various Chinese ethnic groups, primarily the Han Chinese. Chinese came to Indonesia as workers both directly and through Maritime Southeast Asia and their population grew rapidly during the colonial period when workers were contracted from their home provinces in southern China. Evidence of discrimination against Chinese Indonesians can be throughout the history of Indonesia. Resentment of ethnic Chinese economic aptitude grew in the 1950s as native Indonesian merchants felt they could not remain competitive, in some cases, government action only propagated the stereotype that ethnic Chinese-owned conglomerates were corrupt. The development of local Chinese society and culture is based upon three pillars, clan associations, ethnic media, and Chinese-language schools, one group supported political reforms in mainland China, while others worked towards improved status in local politics. The New Order government dismantled the pillars of ethnic Chinese identity in favor of policies as a solution to the Chinese Problem. Patterns of assimilation and ethnic interaction can be found in Indonesias literature, architecture, the Chinese Indonesian population of Sumatra accounts for nearly half of the groups national population. Although they are more urbanized than Indonesias indigenous population, significant rural and agricultural communities exist throughout the country. Declining fertility rates have resulted in a shift in the population pyramid. Emigration has contributed to a population, and communities have emerged in more industrialized nations in the second half of the 20th century. Some have participated in programs to the Peoples Republic of China. Among the overseas residents, their identities are noticeably more Indonesian than Chinese, the first recorded movement of people from China into Maritime Southeast Asia was the arrival of Mongol forces under Kublai Khan that culminated in the invasion of Java in 1293. The Mongols introduced Chinese technologies to the island, including shipbuilding and their intervention hastened the decline of the classical kingdoms such as Singhasari and precipitated the rise of the Majapahit empire. Chinese Muslim traders from the eastern coast of China arrived at the towns of Indonesia and Malaysia in the early 15th century. They were led by the mariner Zheng He, who commanded several expeditions to southeastern Asia between 1405 and 1430, in the book Yingya Shenglan, his translator Ma Huan documented the activities of the Chinese Muslims in the archipelago and the legacy left by Zheng He and his men. These traders settled along the northern coast of Java, but there is no documentation of their settlements beyond the 16th century, the Chinese Muslims were likely to have been absorbed into the majority Muslim population. Between 1450 and 1520, the Ming Dynastys interest in southeastern Asia reached a low point and trade, the Portuguese made no mention of any resident Chinese minority population when they arrived in Indonesia in the early 16th century. Trade from the north was re-established when China legalized private trade in 1567 through licensing 50 junks a year, several years later silver began flowing into the region, from Japan, Mexico, and Europe, and trade flourished once again
19.
Indonesian language
–
Indonesian is the official language of Indonesia. It is a register of Malay, an Austronesian language that has been used as a lingua franca in the multilingual Indonesian archipelago for centuries. Indonesia is the fourth most populous nation in the world, of its large population, the majority speak Indonesian, making it one of the most widely spoken languages in the world. However, most formal education, and nearly all national mass media, governance, administration, judiciary, the Indonesian name for the language is Bahasa Indonesia or sometimes simplified as Bahasa. This term is occasionally found in English and other languages. Indonesian is a register of Riau Malay, which despite its common name is not the Malay dialect native to Riau. Originally spoken in Northeast Sumatra, Malay has been used as a lingua franca in the Indonesian archipelago for half a millennium and it might be attributed to its ancestor, the Old Malay language. The Kedukan Bukit Inscription is the oldest surviving specimen of Old Malay, trade contacts carried on by various ethnic peoples at the time were the main vehicle for spreading the Old Malay language, which was the main communications medium among the traders. Ultimately, the Old Malay language became a lingua franca and was spoken widely by most people in the archipelago, Indonesian is essentially the same language as the official Malaysian, Singaporean and Brunei standards of Malay. However, it does differ from Malaysian in several respects, with differences in pronunciation and these differences are due mainly to the Dutch and Javanese influences on Indonesian. Indonesian was also influenced by the Melayu pasar, which was the lingua franca of the archipelago in colonial times, and thus indirectly by other spoken languages of the islands. Malaysian Malay claims to be closer to the classical Malay of earlier centuries, even though modern Malaysian has been influenced, in lexicon as well as in syntax. The question of whether High Malay or Low Malay was the parent of the Indonesian language is still in debate. Some linguists have argued that it was the more common Low Malay that formed the base of the Indonesian language, however, the language had never been dominant among the population of the Indonesian archipelago as it was limited to mercantile activity. The VOC adopted the Malay language as the language of their trading outpost in the east. Following the bankruptcy of the VOC the Dutch crown took control of the colony in 1799 and it was then that education in. Even then, Dutch administrators were reluctant to promote the use of Dutch compared to other colonial regimes. Dutch thus remained the language of a elite, in 1940
20.
Indonesia
–
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
21.
Borneo
–
Borneo is the third-largest island in the world and the largest island in Asia. At the geographic centre of Maritime Southeast Asia, in relation to major Indonesian islands, it is located north of Java, west of Sulawesi, the island is politically divided among three countries, Malaysia and Brunei in the north, and Indonesia to the south. Approximately 73% of the island is Indonesian territory, in the north, the East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak make up about 26% of the island. Additionally, the Malaysian federal territory of Labuan is situated on an island just off the coast of Borneo. The sovereign state of Brunei, located on the north coast, antipodal to an area of Amazon rainforest, Borneo is itself home to one of the oldest rainforests in the world, and to Bornean orangutans. The island is known by names, internationally it is known as Borneo, after Brunei. The name Brunei possibly was derived from the Sanskrit word váruṇa, meaning either ocean or the mythological Varuna. Indonesian natives called it Kalimantan, which was derived from the Sanskrit word Kalamanthana, prior to that the island was also known by other names. In 977 Chinese records began to use the term Po-ni to refer to Borneo or Brunei, in 1225 it was also mentioned by the Chinese official Chau Ju-Kua. The Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama, written by Majapahit court poet Mpu Prapanca in 1365, mentioned the island as Nusa Tanjungnagara, to the west of Borneo are the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. To the south and east are islands of Indonesia, Java and Sulawesi, to the northeast are the Philippine Islands. With an area of 743,330 square kilometres, it is the third-largest island in the world and its highest point is Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, Malaysia, with an elevation of 4,095 m. The largest river system is the Kapuas in West Kalimantan, with a length of 1,143 km, other major rivers include the Mahakam in East Kalimantan, the Barito in South Kalimantan, and Rajang in Sarawak. Clearwater Cave, for example, has one of the worlds longest underground rivers, deer Cave is home to over three million bats, with guano accumulated to over 100 metres deep. The South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand now submerge the former low-lying areas of the peninsula, the Borneo rainforest is 140 million years old, making it one of the oldest rainforests in the world. There are about 15,000 species of flowering plants with 3,000 species of trees,221 species of mammals and 420 species of resident birds in Borneo. There are about 440 freshwater fish species in Borneo and it is the centre of the evolution and distribution of many endemic species of plants and animals. The Borneo rainforest is one of the few remaining habitats for the endangered Bornean orangutan
22.
New Guinea
–
New Guinea is a large Island in the South West Pacific region. It is the worlds second-largest island, after Greenland, covering an area of 785,753 km2. The island is divided between two countries, Papua New Guinea to the east, and Indonesia to the west, the island has been known by various names. The name Papua was used to refer to parts of the island before contact with the West and its etymology is unclear, one theory states that it is from Tidore, the language used by the Sultanate of Tidore, which controlled parts of the islands coastal region. The name came from papo and ua, which means not united or, ploeg reports that the word papua is often said to derive from the Malay word papua or pua-pua, meaning frizzly-haired, referring to the highly curly hair of the inhabitants of these areas. When the Portuguese and Spanish explorers arrived in the island via the Spice Islands, when the Dutch colonized it as part of Netherlands East Indies, they called it Nieuw Guinea. The name Irian was used in the Indonesian language to refer the island and Indonesian province, the name was promoted in 1945 by Marcus Kaisiepo, brother of the future governor Frans Kaisiepo. It is taken from the Biak language of Biak Island, and means to rise and this name of Irian is the name used in the Biak language and other languages such as Serui, Merauke and Waropen. The name was used until 2001, when the name Papua was again used for the island, the name Irian, which was originally favored by natives, is now considered to be a name imposed by the authority of Jakarta. New Guinea is an island to the north of Australia, and it is isolated by the Arafura Sea to the west and the Torres Strait and Coral Sea to the east. A spine of east–west mountains, the New Guinea Highlands, dominates the geography of New Guinea, stretching over 1,600 km from the head to the tail of the island. The western half of the island of New Guinea contains the highest mountains in Oceania, rising up to 4,884 m high, the tree line is around 4,000 m elevation and the tallest peaks contain permanent equatorial glaciers—which have been retreating since at least 1936. Various other smaller mountain ranges occur both north and west of the central ranges, except in high elevations, most areas possess a warm humid climate throughout the year, with some seasonal variation associated with the northeast monsoon season. At 4,884 metres, Puncak Jaya makes New Guinea the worlds fourth highest landmass, Puncak Mandala, located in Papua, is the second highest peak on the island at 4,760 metres. Puncak Trikora, also in Papua, is 4,750 metres, mount Wilhelm is the highest peak on the PNG side of the border at 4,509 metres. Its granite peak is the highest point of the Bismarck Range, mount Giluwe 4,368 metres is the second highest summit in PNG. It is also the highest volcanic peak in Oceania, another major habitat feature is the vast southern and northern lowlands. Stretching for hundreds of kilometres, these include lowland rainforests, extensive wetlands, savanna grasslands, the southern lowlands are the site of Lorentz National Park, also a UNESCO World Heritage Site
23.
List of islands by area
–
This list of islands by area includes all islands in the world greater than 2,500 km2 and several other islands over 500 km2, sorted in descending order by area. For comparison, continents are also shown, although the continental landmasses listed below are not normally called islands, they are, in fact, land entirely surrounded by water. In effect, they are enormous islands and are here for that reason. The figures are approximations and are for the mainland only. Although an island is, in general, any mass that is completely surrounded by water. Placing Australia in the latter category makes Greenland the largest island and this section of the list might not be complete, but covers almost all of the islands in the world over 1,000 km2. The area of some Antarctic islands is uncertain and this section of the list is not complete, although it should cover all European islands over 500 km2 and most islands of other continents. Norwegian University of Science and Technology
24.
Indian Ocean
–
The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the worlds oceanic divisions, covering 70,560,000 km2. It is bounded by Asia on the north, on the west by Africa, on the east by Australia, the Indian Ocean is known as Ratnākara, the mine of gems in ancient Sanskrit literature, and as Hind Mahāsāgar, in Hindi. The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean is approximately 30° north in the Persian Gulf, the oceans continental shelves are narrow, averaging 200 kilometres in width. An exception is found off Australias western coast, where the width exceeds 1,000 kilometres. The average depth of the ocean is 3,890 m and its deepest point is Diamantina Deep in Diamantina Trench, at 8,047 m deep, Sunda Trench has a depth of 7, 258–7,725 m. North of 50° south latitude, 86% of the basin is covered by pelagic sediments. The remaining 14% is layered with terrigenous sediments, glacial outwash dominates the extreme southern latitudes. The major choke points include Bab el Mandeb, Strait of Hormuz, the Lombok Strait, the Strait of Malacca, the Indian Ocean is artificially connected to the Mediterranean Sea through the Suez Canal, which is accessible via the Red Sea. All of the Indian Ocean is in the Eastern Hemisphere and the centre of the Eastern Hemisphere is in this ocean, marginal seas, gulfs, bays and straits of the Indian Ocean include, The climate north of the equator is affected by a monsoon climate. Strong north-east winds blow from October until April, from May until October south, in the Arabian Sea the violent Monsoon brings rain to the Indian subcontinent. In the southern hemisphere, the winds are milder. When the monsoon winds change, cyclones sometimes strike the shores of the Arabian Sea, the Indian Ocean is the warmest ocean in the world. Long-term ocean temperature records show a rapid, continuous warming in the Indian Ocean, Indian Ocean warming is the largest among the tropical oceans, and about 3 times faster than the warming observed in the Pacific. Research indicates that human induced greenhouse warming, and changes in the frequency, among the few large rivers flowing into the Indian Ocean are the Zambezi, Shatt al-Arab, Indus, Godavari, Krishna, Narmada, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Jubba and Irrawaddy River. The oceans currents are controlled by the monsoon. Two large gyres, one in the northern hemisphere flowing clockwise and one south of the equator moving anticlockwise, during the winter monsoon, however, currents in the north are reversed. Deep water circulation is controlled primarily by inflows from the Atlantic Ocean, the Red Sea, north of 20° south latitude the minimum surface temperature is 22 °C, exceeding 28 °C to the east. Southward of 40° south latitude, temperatures drop quickly, surface water salinity ranges from 32 to 37 parts per 1000, the highest occurring in the Arabian Sea and in a belt between southern Africa and south-western Australia
25.
Simeulue
–
Simeulue is an island of Indonesia,150 kilometres off the west coast of Sumatra. Simeulue was once a part of West Aceh Regency but was split off in 1999, from the ethnic point of view the inhabitants of Simeulue are similar to the people of neighboring Nias Island. Two languages and a number of dialects are spoken on the island, Devayan and Sigulai, the majority of the islands population is Muslim. Simeulue was close to the epicenter of the 9.3 magnitude 26 December 2004 earthquake, on 28 March 2005, an 8.7 magnitude earthquake struck with its epicenter just off the south end of the island. During the earthquake, Simeulue rose at least six feet on the western coast, on the east coast, the land was submerged, with seawater flooding fields and settlements. Simeulue scops owl Media related to Simeulue at Wikimedia Commons
26.
Nias
–
Nickeline or niccolite is a mineral consisting of nickel arsenide containing 43. 9% nickel and 56. 1% arsenic. Small quantities of sulfur, iron and cobalt are usually present and this last forms an isomorphous series with breithauptite. They blamed a mischievous sprite of German mythology, Nickel for besetting the copper and this German equivalent of copper-nickel was used as early as 1694. In 1751, Baron Axel Fredrik Cronstedt was attempting to extract copper from kupfernickel mineral, in modern German, Kupfernickel and Kupfer-Nickel designates the alloy Cupronickel. The names subsequently given to the ore, nickeline from F. S. Beudant,1832, in 1971, the International Mineralogical Association recommended use of the name nickeline rather than niccolite. This typically results in mineral assemblaged including millerite, heazelwoodite and metamorphic pentlandite-pyrite via sulfidation, associated minerals include, arsenopyrite, barite, silver, cobaltite, pyrrhotite, pentlandite, chalcopyrite, breithauptite and maucherite. Nickeline alters to annabergite on exposure to moist air, most of these minerals can be found in the areas surrounding Sudbury and Cobalt, Ontario. Other occurrences include within similarly modified nickel mines of the Kambalda area, the unit cell of nickeline is used as the prototype of a class of solids with similar crystal structures. Compounds adopting the NiAs structure are generally the chalcogenides, arsenides, antimonides and bismuthides of transition metals, when nickel sulfide ore deposits have been altered to produce nickeline, often the presence of arsenic renders the ore uneconomic when concentrations of As reach several hundred parts per million. However, arsenic bearing nickel ore may be treated by blending with clean ore sources, to produce a blended feedstock which the mill, the primary problem for treating nickeline in conventionally constructed nickel mills is the specific gravity of nickeline versus that of pentlandite. This renders the ore difficult to treat via the froth flotation technique, within the smelter itself, the nickeline contributes to high arsenic contents which require additional reagents and fluxes to strip from the nickel metal. Danas Manual of Mineralogy ISBN 0-471-03288-3
27.
Mentawai Islands
–
The Mentawai Islands are a chain of about seventy islands and islets off the western coast of Sumatra in Indonesia. Siberut at 4,030 square kilometres is the largest of the islands, the other major islands are Sipura, North Pagai and South Pagai. The islands lie approximately 150 kilometres off the Sumatran coast, across the Mentawai Strait, the indigenous inhabitants of the islands are known as the Mentawai people. The Mentawai Islands have become a destination for surfing. The Mentawai Islands have been administered as a regency within the West Sumatra province since 1999, the regency seat is Tua Pejat, on the island of Sipora. Padang, the capital of the province, lies on the Sumatran mainland opposite Siberut, the regency is divided into ten districts, tabulated below from south to north with their 2010 Census populations. This includes five endemic primates, the Mentawai or kloss gibbon, Mentawai macaque, Siberut macaque, Mentawai leaf monkey and they are highly endangered due to logging, unsustainable hunting, and conversion of rainforest to palm oil plantations. Some areas of the Mentawai Islands rain forest ecoregion are protected, red junglefowl, the Asian palm civet and crab-eating macaque are also native. The Mentawai Islands lie above the Sunda megathrust, an active zone responsible for many great earthquakes. This megathrust runs along the side of Sumatra island, forming the interface between the Eurasian Plate and Indo-Australian Plate. Earthquake and tsunami activity has been high since the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, in 1833, the region was hit with an earthquake, possibly similar in size to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, another large earthquake struck in 1797. On October 25,2010, an earthquake in southern Sumatra led to a tsunami that devastated villages in South and North Pagai. Mentawai ethnic group Anthropology of the Mentawai Islands Native Planet, The Mentawai Mentawai Islands rain forests
28.
Strait of Malacca
–
The Strait of Malacca or Straits of Malacca is a narrow,550 mi stretch of water between the Malay Peninsula and the Indonesian island of Sumatra. It is named after the Malacca sultanate that ruled over the archipelago between 1400 and 1511, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Strait of Malacca as follows, On the West. A line joining Pedropunt, the Northernmost point of Sumatra and Lem Voalan the Southern extremity of Goh Puket in Siam, a line joining Tanjong Piai, the Southern extremity of the Malay Peninsula and The Brothers and thence to Klein Karimoen. The Southwestern coast of the Malay Peninsula, the Northeastern coast of Sumatra as far to the eastward as Tanjong Kedabu thence to Klein Karimoen. From an economic and strategic perspective, the Strait of Malacca is one of the most important shipping lanes in the world. The strait is the shipping channel between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean, linking major Asian economies such as India, China, Japan, Taiwan. Over 94,000 vessels pass through the strait each year, carrying about one-fourth of the traded goods, including oil, Chinese manufactured products. About a quarter of all oil carried by sea passes through the Strait, in 2007, an estimated 13.7 million barrels per day were transported through the strait, increasing to an estimated 15.2 million barrels per day in 2011. In addition, it is one of the worlds most congested shipping choke points because it narrows to only 2.8 km wide at the Phillips Channel. The maximum size of a vessel that can pass through the Strait is referred to as Malaccamax, for some of the worlds largest ships, the Straits minimum depth isnt deep enough. In addition, the next closest passageway is even more shallow and narrow than Malacca, therefore, these large ships must detour several thousand miles/kilometers and use the Lombok Strait, Makassar Strait, Sibutu Passage, or Mindoro Strait instead. Piracy has been a problem in the strait, piracy had been high in the 2000s, with additional increase after the events of September 11,2001. After attacks rose again in the first half of 2004, regional navies stepped up their patrols of the area in July 2004, subsequently, attacks on ships in the Strait of Malacca dropped, to 79 in 2005 and 50 in 2006. Recent reports indicate that attacks have dropped to levels in recent years. There are 34 shipwrecks, some dating to the 1880s, in the Traffic Separation Scheme and these pose a collision hazard in the narrow and shallow strait. Another risk is the annual haze due to raging bush fires in Sumatra and it may reduce visibility to 200 metres, forcing ships to slow down in the busy strait. The strait is used by Ships longer than 350 metres. Thailand has developed plans to diminish the economic significance of the strait
29.
Malay Peninsula
–
The Malay Peninsula is a peninsula in Southeast Asia. The land mass runs approximately north-south and, at its terminus, is the southernmost point of the Asian mainland, the area contains the southernmost tip of Myanmar, Peninsular Malaysia, and Southern Thailand. The Titiwangsa Mountains are part of the Tenasserim Hills system, and they form the southernmost section of the central cordillera which runs from Tibet through the Kra Isthmus into the Malay Peninsula. The Strait of Malacca separates the Malay Peninsula from the Indonesian island of Sumatra while the south coast is separated from the island of Singapore by the Straits of Johor, the Malay term Tanah Melayu is derived from the word Tanah and Melayu, thus it means the Malay land. The term can be found in various pre-modern Malay texts, of which the oldest dating back to the early 17th century and it is frequently mentioned in the Hikayat Hang Tuah, a well known classical work that began as oral tales associated with the legendary heroes of Malacca Sultanate. Tanah Melayu in the text is consistently employed to refer to the area under Melakan dominance, prior to the foundation of Melaka, reference to Malay peninsula was made in different terms from various foreign sources. According to several Indian scholars, the word Malayadvipa, mentioned in the ancient Indian text, Vayu Purana, may possibly refer to the Malay peninsula. Another Indian source, an inscription on the wall of the Brihadeeswarar Temple, recorded the word Malaiur. The Greek source, Geographia, written by Ptolemy, labelled a geographical part of Golden Chersonese as Maleu-kolon, a term thought to derive from Sanskrit malayakolam or malaikurram. During the same era, Marco Polo made a reference to Malauir in his travelogue, as a kingdom located in the Malay peninsula, possibly similar to the one mentioned in Yuan chronicle
30.
Sunda Strait
–
The Sunda Strait is the strait between the Indonesian islands of Java and Sumatra. It connects the Java Sea to the Indian Ocean, the name comes from the Indonesian term Pasundan, meaning West Java. It also comes from the name of the Sundanese people, the people of West Java, with the Javanese people being found mostly in Central. The strait stretches in a roughly north-east/south-west orientation, with a width of 24 km at its north-eastern end between Cape Tua on Sumatra and Cape Pujat on Java. It is very deep at its end but as it narrows to the east it becomes much shallower. This makes it difficult to navigate, with sandbanks, very strong tidal flows. It had been an important shipping route for centuries, especially during the period when the Dutch East India Company used it as the gateway to the Spice Islands of Indonesia. However, the narrowness, shallowness, and lack of accurate charting makes it unsuitable for many modern large ships. The strait is dotted by a number of islands, including Sangiang, Sebesi, Sebuku, Panaitan and most notably, the Krakatau Islands, Lang, Verlaten, Krakatau. Many of these are volcanic in origin, but the best known volcano is Krakatau, the eruption drastically altered the topography of the strait, with as much as 18–21 km³ of ignimbrite being deposited over an area of 1.1 million km² around the volcano. Some areas have never been resettled, but much of the coastline is now densely populated. The two Allied cruisers were sunk, while a Japanese minesweeper and a vessel were sunk by friendly fire. In the 1960s proposals were made for a bridge across the Sunda Strait, Construction was projected beginning in 2014 if funding, estimated to be at least US$10 billion, could be secured. An accord was signed in April 2012 with China Railway Construction Corporation for a $11bn road, however, in November 2014, the incoming Joko Widodo government announced that plans to build the bridge would be shelved. Lampung Bay, Sumatra Semangka Bay, Sumatra Welcome Bay, Java Java Head Kra Canal Lombok Strait Makassar Strait Malaccamax List of road-rail bridges
31.
Java
–
Java is an island of Indonesia. With a population of over 141 million or 145 million as of 2015 Census released in December 2015, the Indonesian capital city, Jakarta, is located on western Java. Much of Indonesian history took place on Java and it was the center of powerful Hindu-Buddhist empires, the Islamic sultanates, and the core of the colonial Dutch East Indies. Java was also the center of the Indonesian struggle for independence during the 1930s and 1940s, Java dominates Indonesia politically, economically and culturally. Formed mostly as the result of eruptions, Java is the 13th largest island in the world. A chain of mountains forms an east–west spine along the island. Three main languages are spoken on the island, Javanese, Sundanese, of these, Javanese is the dominant, it is the native language of about 60 million people in Indonesia, most of whom live on Java. Furthermore, most residents are bilingual, speaking Indonesian as their first or second language, while the majority of the people of Java are Muslim, Java has a diverse mixture of religious beliefs, ethnicities, and cultures. Java is divided into four provinces, West Java, Central Java, East Java, and Banten, the origins of the name Java are not clear. One possibility is that the island was named after the plant, which was said to be common in the island during the time. There are other sources, the word jaú and its variations mean beyond or distant. And, in Sanskrit yava means barley, a plant for which the island was famous, Yawadvipa is mentioned in Indias earliest epic, the Ramayana. Sugriva, the chief of Ramas army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa and it was hence referred to in India by the Sanskrit name yāvaka dvīpa. Java is mentioned in the ancient Tamil text Manimekalai by Chithalai Chathanar that states that Java had a kingdom with a capital called Nagapuram, another source states that the Java word is derived from a Proto-Austronesian root word, Iawa that meaning home. The great island of Iabadiu or Jabadiu was mentioned in Ptolemys Geographia composed around 150 CE Roman Empire, Iabadiu is said to mean barley island, to be rich in gold, and have a silver town called Argyra at the west end. The name indicate Java, and seems to be derived from Hindu name Java-dvipa, Java lies between Sumatra to the west and Bali to the east. Borneo lies to the north and Christmas Island is to the south and it is the worlds 13th largest island. Java is surrounded by the Java Sea to the north, Sunda Strait to the west, Java is almost entirely of volcanic origin, it contains thirty-eight mountains forming an east–west spine that have at one time or another been active volcanoes
32.
Andaman Islands
–
The Andaman Islands form an archipelago in the Bay of Bengal between India, to the west, and Myanmar, to the north and east. Most are part of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands Union Territory of India, while a number in the north of the archipelago, including the Coco Islands. The Andaman Islands are home to the Sentinelese, who have had no contact with any other people, the name of the Andaman Islands is ancient. A theory that became prevalent in the late 19th century is that it derives from Andoman, a form of Hanuman, another Italian traveller, Niccolò de Conti, mentioned the islands and said that the name means Island of Gold. The Andaman islands have been inhabited for several years, at the very least. The indigenous Andamanese people appear to have lived on the islands in substantial isolation from that time until the 18th century CE, from 800 to 1200 CE, the Tamil Chola dynasty created an empire that eventually extended from southeastern peninsular India to parts of Malaysia. Rajendra Chola I took over the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and maintained them as a naval base to launch a naval expedition against the Srivijaya empire. In 1789, Bengal Presidency established a base and penal colony on Chatham Island in the southeast bay of Great Andaman. The settlement is now known as Port Blair, after two years, the colony was moved to the northeast part of Great Andaman and was named Port Cornwallis after Admiral William Cornwallis. However, there was disease and death in the penal colony. In 1824, Port Cornwallis was the rendezvous of the carrying the army to the First Burmese War. In the 1830s and 1840s, shipwrecked crews who landed on the Andamans were often attacked and killed by the natives, in 1855, the government proposed another settlement on the islands, including a convict establishment, but the Indian Rebellion of 1857 forced a delay in its construction. However, because the rebellion gave the British so many prisoners, it made the new Andaman settlement and prison urgently necessary. Construction began in November 1857 at Port Blair using inmates labour,17 May 1859 was another major day for Andaman. The Battle of Aberdeen was fought between the Great Andamanese Tribe and the British, today, a memorial stands in Andaman Water sports complex as a tribute to the people who lost their life. Fearing foreign invasion and with help from a convict from Cellular Jail, the great Andamanese tribe stormed the British post. Later, it was identified that a convict named Doodnath had changed sides. Today, the tribe has been reduced to some 50 people, the government of Andaman Islands is making efforts to increase the headcount of this tribe
33.
Karimata Strait
–
The Karimata Strait is the wide strait that connects the South China Sea to the Java Sea, dividing the islands of Sumatra and Borneo, both bordering the strait from Indonesian territory. It was known to British sailors in the 18-19th century as the Caramata Passage, the strait is about 150 kilometres wide, as measured from the east coast of the island of Belitung to the west coast of Borneo. The much narrower Gaspar Strait separates Belitung from Bangka Island to the west, Bangka lies close to the east coast of Sumatra, separated from it by the Bangka Strait. The Karimata Islands lie in the part of the Karimata strait, north-east of Belitung. On 28 December 2014 Indonesia AirAsia Flight 8501 crashed into the strait away from the Java Sea
34.
Java Sea
–
The Java Sea is a large shallow sea on the Sunda Shelf. It lies between the Indonesian islands of Borneo to the north, Java to the south, Sumatra to the west, karimata Strait to its northwest links it to the South China Sea. The Java Sea covers the section of the 1,790,000 km2 Sunda Shelf. A shallow sea, it has a depth of 46 m. It measures about 1,600 km east-west by 380 km north-south and it formed as sea levels rose at the end of the last ice age. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the Java Sea as being one of the waters of the East Indian Archipelago, the IHO defines its limits as follows, On the North. By the Southern limit of the South China Sea, the South coast of Borneo, by the Western limit of Flores Sea. By the Northern and Northwestern limits of Bali Sea, the North and West coasts of Java to Java Hoofd its Western point, the East coast of Sumatra between Vlakke Hoek and Lucipara Point. The Battle of the Java Sea from February to March 1942, was one of the costliest naval battles of World War II, the naval forces of the Netherlands, Britain, Australia, and the United States were nearly destroyed trying to defend Java from Japanese attack. On 28 December 2014, Indonesia AirAsia Flight 8501 crashed into the Java Sea while on route to Singapore from Surabaya, the southern section of the seafloor has long been recognized as geologically similar to northern Java, where oil fields occur and extend under the sea. Prospects are also favourable for oil fields in the waters off southeast Kalimantan, as the site of successful exploration for petroleum and natural gas, the Java Sea has become the basis of Indonesia’s export program. Fishing is an important economic activity in the Java Sea, over 3,000 species of marine life are found in the area. A number of parks exist in the area such as Karimunjawa. The Thousand Islands are located north of the national capital Jakarta, the area around the Java Sea is also a popular tourist destination. Scuba diving offers a chance to explore and photograph underwater caverns, wrecks, coral, sponges, and other marine life. Touwen, Jeroen Shipping and trade in the Java Sea region, 1870-1940, a collection of statistics on the major Java Sea ports ISBN 90-6718-162-5 Java Sea a study on its economic impacts
35.
Bukit Barisan
–
The Bukit Barisan or the Barisan Mountains are a mountain range on the western side of Sumatra, Indonesia, covering nearly 1,700 km from the north to the south of the island. The Bukit Barisan range consists primarily of volcanoes shrouded in dense jungle cover, the highest peak of the range is Mount Kerinci at 3,800 metres. The Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park is situated towards the end of the range. The name Bukit Barisan actually means row of hills or hills that make a row in Malay, there are 35 active volcanoes in Bukit Barisan. The largest volcano is the supervolcano Toba within the 100 km ×30 km Lake Toba, the eruption is estimated to have been at level eight on the VEI scale, the largest possible for a volcanic eruption. The following list is sourced from the Smithsonian Institutions Global Volcanism Program
36.
Equator
–
The Equator usually refers to an imaginary line on the Earths surface equidistant from the North Pole and South Pole, dividing the Earth into the Northern Hemisphere and Southern Hemisphere. The Equator is about 40,075 kilometres long, some 78. 7% lies across water and 21. 3% over land, other planets and astronomical bodies have equators similarly defined. Generally, an equator is the intersection of the surface of a sphere with the plane that is perpendicular to the spheres axis of rotation. The latitude of the Earths equator is by definition 0° of arc, the equator is the only line of latitude which is also a great circle — that is, one whose plane passes through the center of the globe. The plane of Earths equator when projected outwards to the celestial sphere defines the celestial equator, in the cycle of Earths seasons, the plane of the equator passes through the Sun twice per year, at the March and September equinoxes. To an observer on the Earth, the Sun appears to travel North or South over the equator at these times, light rays from the center of the Sun are perpendicular to the surface of the Earth at the point of solar noon on the Equator. Locations on the Equator experience the quickest sunrises and sunsets because the sun moves nearly perpendicular to the horizon for most of the year. The Earth bulges slightly at the Equator, the diameter of the Earth is 12,750 kilometres. Because the Earth spins to the east, spacecraft must also launch to the east to take advantage of this Earth-boost of speed, seasons result from the yearly revolution of the Earth around the Sun and the tilt of the Earths axis relative to the plane of revolution. During the year the northern and southern hemispheres are inclined toward or away from the sun according to Earths position in its orbit, the hemisphere inclined toward the sun receives more sunlight and is in summer, while the other hemisphere receives less sun and is in winter. At the equinoxes, the Earths axis is not tilted toward the sun, instead it is perpendicular to the sun meaning that the day is about 12 hours long, as is the night, across the whole of the Earth. Near the Equator there is distinction between summer, winter, autumn, or spring. The temperatures are usually high year-round—with the exception of high mountains in South America, the temperature at the Equator can plummet during rainstorms. In many tropical regions people identify two seasons, the wet season and the dry season, but many places close to the Equator are on the oceans or rainy throughout the year, the seasons can vary depending on elevation and proximity to an ocean. The Equator lies mostly on the three largest oceans, the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Indian Ocean. The highest point on the Equator is at the elevation of 4,690 metres, at 0°0′0″N 77°59′31″W and this is slightly above the snow line, and is the only place on the Equator where snow lies on the ground. At the Equator the snow line is around 1,000 metres lower than on Mount Everest, the Equator traverses the land of 11 countries, it also passes through two island nations, though without making a landfall in either. Starting at the Prime Meridian and heading eastwards, the Equator passes through, Despite its name, however, its island of Annobón is 155 km south of the Equator, and the rest of the country lies to the north
37.
Tropical
–
The tropics are a region of the Earth surrounding the equator. The tropics are also referred to as the zone and the torrid zone. The tropics include all the areas on the Earth where the Sun is at a point directly overhead at least once during the solar year. The tropics are distinguished from the climatic and biomatic regions of Earth, which are the middle latitudes. Tropical is sometimes used in a sense for a tropical climate to mean warm to hot and moist year-round. Many tropical areas have a dry and wet season, the wet season, rainy season or green season, is the time of year, ranging from one or more months, when most of the average annual rainfall in a region falls. Areas with wet seasons are disseminated across portions of the tropics and subtropics, under the Köppen climate classification, for tropical climates, a wet season month is defined as a month where average precipitation is 60 millimetres or more. Tropical rainforests technically do not have dry or wet seasons, since their rainfall is distributed through the year. When the wet season occurs during the season, or summer, precipitation falls mainly during the late afternoon. The wet season is a time when air quality improves, freshwater quality improves and vegetation grows significantly, floods cause rivers to overflow their banks, and some animals to retreat to higher ground. Soil nutrients diminish and erosion increases, the incidence of malaria increases in areas where the rainy season coincides with high temperatures. Animals have adaptation and survival strategies for the wetter regime, unfortunately, the previous dry season leads to food shortages into the wet season, as the crops have yet to mature. Regions within the tropics may well not have a tropical climate, there are alpine tundra and snow-capped peaks, including Mauna Kea, Mount Kilimanjaro, and the Andes as far south as the northernmost parts of Chile and Argentina. Under the Köppen climate classification, much of the area within the tropics is classed not as tropical but as dry including the Sahara Desert. Tropical plants and animals are those native to the tropics. Tropical ecosystems may consist of rainforests, dry forests, spiny forests, desert. There are often significant areas of biodiversity, and species present, particularly in rainforests. In biogeography, the tropics are divided into Paleotropics and Neotropics, together, they are sometimes referred to as the Pantropic
38.
Tropical rain forest
–
True rainforests are typically found between 10 degrees north and south of the equator, they are a sub-set of the tropical forest biome that occurs roughly within the 28 degree latitudes. Within the World Wildlife Funds biome classification, tropical rainforests are a type of tropical moist broadleaf forest that includes the more extensive tropical seasonal forests. Tropical rainforests can be characterized in two words, hot and wet, mean monthly temperatures exceed 18 °C during all months of the year. Average annual rainfall is no less than 1,680 mm and this high level of precipitation often results in poor soils due to leaching of soluble nutrients in the ground. Tropical rainforests exhibit high levels of biodiversity, around 40% to 75% of all biotic species are indigenous to the rainforests. Rainforests are home to half of all the animal and plant species on the planet. Two-thirds of all flowering plants can be found in rainforests, a single hectare of rainforest may contain 42,000 different species of insect, up to 807 trees of 313 species and 1,500 species of higher plants. Tropical rainforests have been called the worlds largest pharmacy, because over one quarter of natural medicines have been discovered within them and it is likely that there may be many millions of species of plants, insects and microorganisms still undiscovered in tropical rainforests. Tropical rainforests are among the most threatened ecosystems globally due to large-scale fragmentation as a result of human activity, habitat fragmentation caused by geological processes such as volcanism and climate change occurred in the past, and have been identified as important drivers of speciation. However, fast human driven habitat destruction is suspected to be one of the causes of species extinction. Tropical rain forests have been subjected to heavy logging and agricultural clearance throughout the 20th century, tropical rainforests have existed on earth for hundreds of millions of years. Most tropical rainforests today are on fragments of the Mesozoic era supercontinent of Gondwana, the separation of the landmass resulted in a great loss of amphibian diversity while at the same time the drier climate spurred the diversification of reptiles. The division left tropical rainforests located in five regions of the world, tropical America, Africa, Southeast Asia, Madagascar. However, the specifics of the origin of rainforests remain uncertain due to a fossil record. Several biomes comprise the general term tropical forest, Lowland equatorial evergreen rain forests are forests which receive rainfall throughout the year. These true rainforests occur in a belt around the equator, with the largest areas in the Amazon basin of South America, the Congo Basin of Central Africa, Borneo, Mindanao, Indonesia, and New Guinea. Moist tropical seasonal forests receive high rainfall with a warm summer wet season. Some trees in these forests drop some or all of their leaves during the dry season
39.
Critically endangered
–
A critically endangered species is one which has been categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild. Its the highest risk category assigned by the IUCN Red List for wild species, as of 2014, there are 2464 animal and 2104 plant species with this assessment, compared with 1998 levels of 854 and 909, respectively. As the IUCN Red List does not consider a species extinct until extensive, targeted surveys have been conducted, IUCN maintains a list of possibly extinct CR and possibly extinct in the wild CR species, modelled on categories used by BirdLife International to categorize these taxa. To be defined as critically endangered in the Red List, a species must meet any of the criteria, A, Occurring over less than 100 km². Severe habitat fragmentation or existing at just one location 2, decline in extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, area/extent/quality of habitat, number of locations/subpopulations, or amount of MI.3. Extreme fluctuations in extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, number of locations/subpopulations, B, As above, but less than 10 km². C, Declining population of less than 250 MI and either,1, a decline of 25% over 3G/10Y,2. Extreme fluctuations, or over 90% of MI in a single subpopulation, D, Numbers less than 50 MI. E, At least 50% chance of going Extinct in the Wild over 3G/10Y, lists of IUCN Red List Critically Endangered species for lists ordered by taxonomic rank. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, International Union for Conservation of Nature. The Criteria for Critically Endangered, IUCN
40.
Sumatran tiger
–
The Sumatran tiger is a rare tiger subspecies that inhabits the Indonesian island of Sumatra. The Sumatran tiger is the surviving member of the Sunda Islands group of tigers that included the now extinct Bali tiger. Sequences from complete mitochondrial genes of 34 tigers support the hypothesis that Sumatran tigers are diagnostically distinct from mainland populations, pocock first described the Sumatran tiger on the basis of several skull, pelage, and striping features, which are distinct from the Bengal and Javan tigers. It is darker in fur colour and has broader stripes than the Javan tiger, stripes tend to dissolve into spots near their ends, and on the back, flanks and hind legs are lines of small, dark small spots between regular stripes. The frequency of stripes is higher than in other subspecies, males have a prominent ruff, which is especially marked in the Sumatran tiger. The Sumatran tiger is one of the smallest tiger subspecies and about the size of big leopards, males weigh 100 to 140 kg and measure 2.2 to 2.55 m in length between the pegs with a greatest length of skull of 295 to 335 mm. In agreement with this history, the Sumatran tiger is genetically isolated from all living mainland tigers. Sumatran tigers persist in isolated populations across Sumatra and they have been repeatedly photographed at 2,600 m in a rugged region of northern Sumatra, and are present in 27 habitat patches larger than 250 km2. In 1978, the Sumatran tiger population was estimated at 1,000 individuals, in 1985, a total of 26 protected areas across Sumatra containing about 800 tigers were identified. In 1992, an estimated 400–500 tigers lived in five national parks, at that time, the largest population, comprising 110-180 individuals, was reported from the Gunung Leuser National Park. However, a recent study shows that the Kerinci Seblat National Park in central Sumatra has the highest population of tigers on the island. The park also was shown to have the highest tiger occupancy rate of the protected areas, more tigers are in the Kerinci Seblat National Park than in all of Nepal, and more than in China, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam combined. Sumatran tigers strongly prefer uncultivated forest and make use of plantations of acacia. Within natural forest areas, they tend to use areas with elevation, lower annual rainfall, farther from forest edge. They prefer forest with dense cover and steep slope. In acacia plantations, they tend to use areas closer to water, and prefer areas with plants, more leaf litter. Tiger records in oil palm plantations and in plantations are scarce. The availability of vegetation cover at the ground level serves as an environmental condition fundamentally needed by tigers regardless of the location
41.
Sumatran elephant
–
The Sumatran elephant is one of three recognized subspecies of the Asian elephant, and native to the Indonesia island of Sumatra. In 2011, the Sumatran elephant has been classified as endangered by IUCN as the population has declined by at least 80% over the last three generations, estimated to be about 75 years. The subspecies is threatened by habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation. Much of the remaining forest cover is in smaller than 250 km2. In general, Asian elephants are smaller than African elephants and have the highest body point on the head, the tip of their trunk has one finger-like process. Their back is convex or level, females are usually smaller than males, and have short or no tusks. Sumatran elephants reach a height of between 2 and 3.2 m, weigh between 2,000 and 4,000 kg, and have 20 pairs of ribs. Their skin color is lighter than of maximus and indicus with least depigmentation, the Sumatran elephant was once widespread on the island, and Riau Province was believed to have the largest elephant population in Sumatra with over 1,600 individuals in the 1980s. In 1985, a rapid survey suggested that between 2,800 and 4,800 elephants lived in all eight mainland provinces of Sumatra in 44 populations. Twelve of these occurred in Lampung Province, where only three populations were extant in 2002 according to surveys carried out between September 2000 and March 2002. The population in Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park was estimated at 498 individuals, the third population in Gunung Rindingan–Way Waya complex was considered to be too small to be viable over the long-term. By 2008, elephants had become extinct in 23 of the 43 ranges identified in Sumatra in 1985. By 2008, the elephant was locally extinct in West Sumatra Province, in Riau Province only about 350 elephants survived across nine separate ranges. The current Sumatran elephant population is estimated at 2, 400–2,800 wild individuals, excluding elephants in camps, more than 85% of their habitat is outside of protected areas. Female elephants stop reproducing after 60 years of age, the maximum longevity in the wild is around 60 years. Female captive elephants have survived until 75 years while males have survived 60 years, birth happens at night and lasts approximately 10 seconds. The infant is able to stand up on its own after 10 to 30 minutes, due to conversion of forests into human settlements and agricultural areas, many of the Sumatran elephant populations have lost their habitat to humans. As a result, many elephants have been removed from the wild or directly killed, in addition to conflict related death, elephants are also targets of poaching for their ivory
42.
Sumatran rhinoceros
–
The Sumatran rhinoceros, also known as the hairy rhinoceros or Asian two-horned rhinoceros, is a rare member of the family Rhinocerotidae and one of five extant rhinoceroses. It is the extant species of the genus Dicerorhinus. It is the smallest rhinoceros, although it is still a large mammal, it stands 112–145 cm high at the shoulder, with a length of 2. 36–3.18 m. The weight is reported to range from 500 to 1,000 kg, averaging 700–800 kg, like both African species, it has two horns, the larger is the nasal horn, typically 15–25 cm, while the other horn is typically a stub. A coat of hair covers most of the Sumatran rhinos body. Members of the species once inhabited rainforests, swamps, and cloud forests in India, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, in historical times, they lived in southwest China, particularly in Sichuan. They are now endangered, with only five substantial populations in the wild, four on Sumatra. Their numbers are difficult to determine because they are animals that are widely scattered across their range. Survival of the Peninsular Malaysia population is in doubt, and one of the Sumatran populations may already be extinct. In 2015, researchers announced that the Bornean rhinoceros had become extinct from the part of Borneo, however. The Sumatran rhino is a solitary animal except for courtship. It is the most vocal rhino species and also communicates through marking soil with its feet, twisting saplings into patterns, and leaving excrement. The species is much better studied than the similarly reclusive Javan rhinoceros, there was little or no information about procedures that would assist in ex situ breeding. Though a number of rhinos died once at the destinations and no offspring were produced for nearly 20 years. In March 2016, a Sumatran rhinoceros was spotted in Indonesian Borneo, the first documented Sumatran rhinoceros was shot 16 km outside Fort Marlborough, near the west coast of Sumatra, in 1793. Drawings of the animal, and a description, were sent to the naturalist Joseph Banks, then president of the Royal Society of London. In 1814, the species was given a name by Johann Fischer von Waldheim. The scientific name Dicerorhinus sumatrensis comes from the Greek terms di, cero, sumatrensis signifies of Sumatra, the Indonesian island where the rhinos were first discovered
43.
Sumatran orangutan
–
The Sumatran orangutan is one of the two species of orangutans. Found only on the island of Sumatra in Indonesia, it is rarer than the Bornean orangutan and its common name is based on two separate local words, orang and hutan, and translates as man of the forest. Male Sumatran orangutans grow to about 1.4 m tall and 90 kg, females are smaller, averaging 90 cm and 45 kg. Compared to the Bornean species, Sumatran orangutans are thinner and have longer faces, compared with the Bornean orangutan, the Sumatran orangutan tends to be more frugivorous and especially insectivorous. Preferred fruits include figs and jackfruits and it will also eat bird eggs and small vertebrates. Sumatran orangutans spend far less time feeding on the bark of trees. Wild Sumatran orangutans in the Suaq Balimbing swamp have been observed using tools, an orangutan will break off a tree branch that is about a foot long, snap off the twigs and fray one end. With its teeth, the orangutan will use the stick to dig in tree holes for termites and they will also use the stick to poke a bees nest wall, move it around and catch the honey. In addition, orangutans use tools to eat fruit, when the fruit of the Neesia tree ripens, its hard, ridged husk softens until it falls open. Inside are seeds that the orangutans enjoy eating, but they are surrounded by fiberglass-like hairs that are painful if eaten, tools are created differently for different uses. Sticks are often made longer or shorter depending on whether they will be used for insects or fruits, if a particular tool proves useful, the orangutan will often save it. Over time they will collect entire toolboxes, a Neesia-eating orangutan will select a five-inch stick, strip off its bark, and then carefully collect the hairs with it. Once the fruit is safe, the ape will eat the seeds using the stick or its fingers, although similar swamps can be found in Borneo, wild Bornean orangutans have not been seen using these types of tools. NHNZ filmed the Sumatran orangutan for its show Wild Asia, In the Realm of the Red Ape, it showed one of them using a simple tool, there is also a sequence of an animal using a large leaf as an umbrella in a tropical rainstorm. As well as being used as tools, tree branches are a means of transportation for the Sumatran orangutan, the orangutans are the heaviest mammals to travel by tree. This makes them susceptible to the changes in arboreal compliance. To deal with this their locomotion is characterized by the movement, long contact times. The Sumatran orangutan is more arboreal than its Bornean cousin
44.
Deforestation
–
Deforestation, clearance or clearing is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where the land is thereafter converted to a non-forest use. Examples of deforestationinclude conversion of forestland to farms, ranches, or urban use, the most concentrated deforestation occurs in tropical rainforests. About 30% of Earths land surface is covered by forests, Deforestation occurs for multiple reasons, trees are cut down to be used for building or sold as fuel, while cleared land is used as pasture for livestock and plantation. The removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in damage to habitat, biodiversity loss and it has adverse impacts on biosequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Deforestation has also used in war to deprive the enemy of cover for its forces. Modern examples of this were the use of Agent Orange by the British military in Malaya during the Malayan Emergency, as of 2005, net deforestation rates have ceased to increase in countries with a per capita GDP of at least US$4,600. Deforested regions typically incur significant adverse soil erosion and frequently degrade into wasteland, disregard of ascribed value, lax forest management and deficient environmental laws are some of the factors that allow deforestation to occur on a large scale. In many countries, deforestation, both naturally occurring and human-induced, is an ongoing issue, Deforestation causes extinction, changes to climatic conditions, desertification, and displacement of populations as observed by current conditions and in the past through the fossil record. More than half of all plant and land animal species in the live in tropical forests. Between 2000 and 2012,2.3 million square kilometres of forests around the world were cut down, as a result of deforestation, only 6.2 million square kilometres remain of the original 16 million square kilometres of forest that formerly covered the Earth. Experts do not agree on whether industrial logging is an important contributor to global deforestation, some argue that poor people are more likely to clear forest because they have no alternatives, others that the poor lack the ability to pay for the materials and labour needed to clear forest. One study found that population increases due to fertility rates were a primary driver of tropical deforestation in only 8% of cases. Other causes of contemporary deforestation may include corruption of government institutions, the distribution of wealth and power, population growth and overpopulation. Globalization is often viewed as another cause of deforestation, though there are cases in which the impacts of globalization have promoted localized forest recovery. The degradation of forest ecosystems has also traced to economic incentives that make forest conversion appear more profitable than forest conservation. Some commentators have noted a shift in the drivers of deforestation over the past 30 years, Deforestation is ongoing and is shaping climate and geography. Deforestation is a contributor to global warming, and is cited as one of the major causes of the enhanced greenhouse effect. Tropical deforestation is responsible for approximately 20% of world greenhouse gas emissions, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change deforestation, mainly in tropical areas, could account for up to one-third of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions
45.
2013 Southeast Asian haze
–
The haze period was caused by large-scale burning in many parts of Sumatra and Borneo. Satellite imagery from NASAs Terra and Aqua satellites showed that the haze was mainly due to smoke from burning in Riau province. The 2013 Southeast Asian haze was notable for causing high levels of pollution in Singapore. The 3-hour Pollution Standards Index in Singapore reached a high of 401 on 21 June 2013. As stated by a local Indonesian official, the source of the haze might be a 3,000 hectare peatland in Bengkalis Regency, Riau Province, as many as 187 hotspots were picked up by satellites on 18 June, down to 85 on 20 June. On 21 June 2013, a total of 437 hotspots were detected in Sumatra, two days later, the number was down to 119. On 24 June 159 hotspots were detected in Riau, out of a total of 227 detected in Sumatra. An air force officer explained that the low number of hotspots detected on some days was due to cloud cover. The Malaysia Department of Environment said that 173 hotspots were detected in Malaysia on 24 June, with 1 in Negeri Sembilan,1 in Terengganu,3 in Sabah, and 168 in Sarawak. However, Singapores Prime Minister, Lee Hsien Loong, said that the fires were most likely started by errant companies, on 25 June, Indonesias president Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono issued a formal apology to Malaysia and Singapore for the hazardous smog. On 26 June 2013,265 hotspots were detected by satellites, the number of hotspots in Sumatra continued to decrease on 27 June, with 42 hotspots recorded at 4pm. At the same time on 28 June, only 15 hotspots were detected by satellites, Singapores National Environment Agency said that this could be the reason for the improving haze conditions in Singapore and Malaysia over the past week. The number of hotspots decreased further to just 7 on 29 June, the World Wide Fund for Nature renewed calls for the enaction and enforcement of zero-burn policies. Based on satellite detection of hotspots, the province of Riau in Sumatra was found to contain over 88% of the hotspots that caused the worst haze over Singapore and Peninsular Malaysia since 1997. From 1 to 24 June, NASA satellites have detected a total of more than 9,000 hotspots in Sumatra, by 29 June, a total of 2,800 military personnel, as well as helicopters and aircraft, were being deployed to fight the fires. About 3,000 civilians were also helping with the firefighting, the fires reduced from an area of 16, 500ha to 4, 081ha. On 1 July 4 hotspots were detected in Riau, the lowest number so far since the burning started, on 19 July 43 hotspots were detected in Sumatra. The next day, the number of hotspots rose sharply as Sumatra was experiencing dry weather, there were 159 hotspots in Sumatra, with 63 of them located in Riau
46.
Malaysia
–
Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy located in Southeast Asia. Peninsular Malaysia shares a land and maritime border with Thailand and maritime borders with Singapore, Vietnam, East Malaysia shares land and maritime borders with Brunei and Indonesia and a maritime border with the Philippines and Vietnam. The capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government, with a population of over 30 million, Malaysia is the 44th most populous country. The southernmost point of continental Eurasia, Tanjung Piai, is in Malaysia, located in the tropics, Malaysia is one of 17 megadiverse countries on earth, with large numbers of endemic species. Malaysia has its origins in the Malay kingdoms present in the area which, from the 18th century, the first British territories were known as the Straits Settlements, whose establishment was followed by the Malay kingdoms becoming British protectorates. The territories on Peninsular Malaysia were first unified as the Malayan Union in 1946, Malaya was restructured as the Federation of Malaya in 1948, and achieved independence on 31 August 1957. Malaya united with North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore on 16 September 1963 to become Malaysia, less than two years later in 1965, Singapore was expelled from the federation. The country is multi-ethnic and multi-cultural, which plays a role in politics. About half the population is ethnically Malay, with minorities of Malaysian Chinese, Malaysian Indians. The constitution declares Islam the state religion while allowing freedom of religion for non-Muslims, the government system is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system and the legal system is based on common law. The head of state is the king, known as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and he is an elected monarch chosen from the hereditary rulers of the nine Malay states every five years. The head of government is the prime minister, since its independence, Malaysia has had one of the best economic records in Asia, with its GDP growing at an average of 6. 5% per annum for almost 50 years. The economy has traditionally been fuelled by its resources, but is expanding in the sectors of science, tourism, commerce. Today, Malaysia has a newly industrialised market economy, ranked third largest in Southeast Asia, the name Malaysia is a combination of the word Malay and the Latin-Greek suffix -sia/-σία. The word melayu in Malay may derive from the Tamil words malai and ur meaning mountain and city, land, malayadvipa was the word used by ancient Indian traders when referring to the Malay Peninsula. Whether or not it originated from these roots, the word melayu or mlayu may have used in early Malay/Javanese to mean to steadily accelerate or run. This term was applied to describe the current of the river Melayu in Sumatra. The name was adopted by the Melayu Kingdom that existed in the seventh century on Sumatra
47.
Singapore
–
Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, sometimes referred to as the Lion City or the Little Red Dot, is a sovereign city-state in Southeast Asia. It lies one degree north of the equator, at the tip of peninsular Malaysia. Singapores territory consists of one island along with 62 other islets. Since independence, extensive land reclamation has increased its size by 23%. During the Second World War, Singapore was occupied by Japan, after early years of turbulence, and despite lacking natural resources and a hinterland, the nation developed rapidly as an Asian Tiger economy, based on external trade and its workforce. Singapore is a global commerce, finance and transport hub, the country has also been identified as a tax haven. Singapore ranks 5th internationally and first in Asia on the UN Human Development Index and it is ranked highly in education, healthcare, life expectancy, quality of life, personal safety, and housing, but does not fare well on the Democracy index. Although income inequality is high, 90% of homes are owner-occupied, 38% of Singapores 5.6 million residents are permanent residents and other foreign nationals. There are four languages on the island, Malay, Mandarin, Tamil. English is its language, most Singaporeans are bilingual. Singapore is a multiparty parliamentary republic, with a Westminster system of unicameral parliamentary government. The Peoples Action Party has won every election since self-government in 1959, however, it is unlikely that lions ever lived on the island, Sang Nila Utama, the Srivijayan prince said to have founded and named the island Singapura, perhaps saw a Malayan tiger. There are however other suggestions for the origin of the name, the central island has also been called Pulau Ujong as far back as the third century CE, literally island at the end in Malay. In 1299, according to the Malay Annals, the Kingdom of Singapura was founded on the island by Sang Nila Utama and these Indianized Kingdoms, a term coined by George Cœdès were characterized by surprising resilience, political integrity and administrative stability. In 1613, Portuguese raiders burned down the settlement, which by then was part of the Johor Sultanate. The wider maritime region and much trade was under Dutch control for the following period, in 1824 the entire island, as well as the Temenggong, became a British possession after a further treaty with the Sultan. In 1826, Singapore became part of the Straits Settlements, under the jurisdiction of British India, prior to Raffles arrival, there were only about a thousand people living on the island, mostly indigenous Malays along with a handful of Chinese. By 1860 the population had swelled to over 80,000, many of these early immigrants came to work on the pepper and gambier plantations
Sumatra travel guide from Wikivoyage
