1.
United States Public Health Service
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The Office of the Surgeon General was created in 1871. The PHS comprises all Agency Divisions of Health and Human Services, the Assistant Secretary for Health oversees the PHS and the United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps. Members of the Commissioned Corps often serve on the frontlines in the fight against disease, as one of the United States seven uniformed services, the PHS Commissioned Corps fills public health leadership and service roles within federal government agencies and programs. Public Health Service Commissioned Corps is to protect, promote, and advance the health and safety of the United States. The origins of the Public Health Service can be traced to the passage, by the 5th Congress of the United States, of An Act for the Relief of Sick and this act created Marine Hospitals to care for sick seamen. At the time this act was passed the east coast was the shore with harbors. As the boundaries of the United States expanded, and harbors were built on other coasts, in the 1830s and 1840s they were built along inland waterways, the Great Lakes, and the Gulf of Mexico. After the acquisition of the Oregon Territory and California hospitals were built in 1850s at Pacific Coast harbors, funding for the hospitals was provided by a mandatory tax of about 1% of the wages of all maritime sailors. A reorganization in 1870 converted the loose network of locally controlled hospitals into a centrally controlled Marine Hospital Service, with its headquarters in Washington. The position of Supervising Surgeon was created to administer the Service and he moved quickly to reform the system and adopted a military model for his medical staff, putting his physicians in uniforms, and instituting examinations for applicants. Woodworth created a cadre of mobile, career service physicians, who could be assigned as needed to the various Marine Hospitals, the commissioned officer corps was established by legislation in 1889, and signed by 22nd/24th President Grover Cleveland. It is now known as the Commissioned Corps of the U. S, starting in the mid-14th century, ships entering harbors were quarantined when any of the crew was sick. This practice was normal procedure at United States harbors, with originally a function of the individual states. The National Quarantine Act of 1878 vested quarantine authority to the Marine Hospital Service, and the National Board of Health. The National Board was not reauthorized by Congress in 1883 and its powers reverted to the Marine Hospital Service, over the next half a century, the Marine Hospital Service increasingly took over quarantine functions from individual state authorities. As immigration increased dramatically in the late 19th Century, the Federal Government also took over the processing of immigrants from the individual states, the Marine Hospital Service was assigned the responsibility for the medical inspection of arriving immigrants at sites such as Ellis Island in New York Harbor. Commissioned officers played a role in fulfilling the Services commitment to prevent disease from entering the country. Because of the broadening responsibilities of the Service, its name was changed in 1902 to the Public Health, the Service continued to expand its public health activities as the Nation entered the 20th Century, with the PHSs Commissioned Corps leading the way
2.
United States Assistant Secretary for Health
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The ASH is a civilian or a uniformed member of the regular corps and is nominated for appointment by the President. The nominee must also be confirmed by the Senate, the ASH serves a four-year term of office at the pleasure of the President. If the appointee is a member of the regular corps. The President may also nominate a civilian appointee to also be appointed a commission into the regular corps if the nominee so chooses. As such the position of ASH is the office in the PHS that merits a four-star grade in the regular corps. The current Acting Assistant Secretary for Health is Don Wright, the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health and Scientific Affairs was established on January 1,1967 following the Reorganization Plan No.3 of 1966. The plan allowed the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare to restructure the Public Health Service to better public health. The office was renamed to the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health following the Department of Education Organization Act in 1972, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health
3.
Hubert H. Humphrey Building
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The Hubert H. Humphrey Building is a low-rise Brutalist office building located in Washington, D. C. in the United States. Originally known as the South Portal Building, the Hubert H. Humphrey Building was dedicated on November 1,1977 and it became the headquarters of the United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. The Hubert H. Humphrey Building is located at 200 Independence Avenue SW in Washington and it is named for Hubert H. Humphrey, then serving as U. S. Senator from Minnesota, and formerly Vice President of the United States, planning for the structure began about 1965. The building was designed by architect Marcel Breuer, in association with his design partner Herbert Beckhard, in the Brutalist style, it was one of the last buildings Breuer designed before his retirement. The Interstate-395 tunnel and a sewer line are situated beneath the structure. The building is designed to act like a bridge over the sewer and tunnel, a grid of steel trusses extend outward from these columns, which are primarily clustered toward the interior of the building. The exterior and interior walls and the floors hang from these trusses, the second through sixth floors of the building are clad in precast concrete panels finished with a thin granite veneer, each of which contains two large windows. The ground floor is contained by a curtain wall, and contains a lobby, exhibition space. The first floor is open space, broken up by the support columns. The interior walls were prefabricated to contain electrical wiring, HVAC, and plumbing, due to the prefabricated nature of the interior, the cost of the building was reduced from $40 million to just $30 million. Dining facilities occupy the penthouse level of the building, there is also a balcony around the penthouse, but it is unused. The lobby is paved with travertine, and originally held two tapestries designed by Breuer and this creates a large plaza in front of the building. In 1974, Congress passed legislation authorizing a major piece of art to be placed at the south entrance to the Humphrey Building. In 1977, James Rosatis Heroic Shore Points I, an aluminum piece painted bright red, was dedicated and emplaced. Construction on the began in early May 1972. In April 1977, as the Humphrey Building neared completion, one of the welds connecting the interior walls to the roof truss cracked. The roof sagged 19 inches, and 200 workers were evacuated from the fifth, sixth, the beam was pulled back into position and rewelded into place
4.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
5.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
6.
United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
7.
Term of office
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A term of office is the length of time a person serves in a particular elected office. In many jurisdictions there is a limit on how long terms of office may be before the officeholder must be subject to re-election. Some jurisdictions exercise term limits, setting a number of terms an individual may hold in a particular office. Being the origin of the Westminster system, aspects of the United Kingdoms system of government are replicated in other countries. The monarch serves as head of state until his or her death or abdication, in the United Kingdom Members of Parliament in the House of Commons are elected for the duration of the parliament. Following dissolution of the Parliament, an election is held which consists of simultaneous elections for all seats. For most MPs this means that their terms of office are identical to the duration of the Parliament, an MP elected in a by-election mid-way through a Parliament, regardless of how long they have occupied the seat, is not exempt from facing re-election at the next general election. The Septennial Act 1715 provided that a Parliament expired seven years after it had been summoned, prior to the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 parliaments had no minimum duration. Parliaments could be dissolved early by the monarch at the Prime Ministers request, the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 mandated that Parliaments should last their full five years. Early dissolution is possible, but under much more limited circumstances. Hereditary peers and life peers retain membership of the House of Lords for life, Lords Spiritual hold membership of the House of Lords until the end of their time as bishops, though a senior bishop may be made a life peer upon the end of their bishopric. The devolved administrations in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland are variations on the system of government used at Westminster, the office of the leader of the devolved administrations has no numeric term limit imposed upon it. However, in the case of the Scottish Government and the Welsh Assembly Government there are fixed terms for which the legislatures can sit and this is imposed at four years. Elections may be held before this time but only if no administration can be formed, offices of local government other regional elected officials follow similar rules to the national offices discussed above, with persons elected to fixed terms of a few years. Federal judges have different terms in office, however, the majority of the federal judiciary, Article III judges, such as those of the Supreme Court, courts of appeal, and federal district courts, serve for life. The terms of office for officials in state governments according to the provisions of state constitutions. The term for state governors is four years in all states but Vermont and New Hampshire, the National Conference of State Legislatures reported in January 2007 that among state legislatures,44 states had terms of office for the lower house of the state legislature at two years. Five had terms of office at four years,37 states had terms of office for the upper house of the state legislature at four years
8.
John Maynard Woodworth
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John Maynard Woodworth was an American physician and member of the Woodworth political family. He served as the first Supervising-Surgeon General under U. S. president Ulysses S. Grant, Woodworth was born at Big Flats, Chemung County, New York. His family soon moved to Illinois, where Woodworth attended school in Warrenville and he studied pharmacy at the University of Chicago and worked as a pharmacist for a time. Woodworth was one of the organizers of the Chicago Academy of Science, in this capacity, he made several trips west of the Mississippi River to collect natural history specimens. He was appointed naturalist by the University of Chicago in 1859, Woodworth also spent time working at the Smithsonian Institution over the next few years. He then decided to embark on studies, and graduated from the Chicago Medical College in 1862. Almost immediately upon graduating from school, Woodworth was appointed Assistant Surgeon in the Union Army. He was soon promoted to Surgeon and eventually became Medical Director of the Army of the Tennessee, after the war, Woodworth became a companion of the Pennsylvania Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States. Following the Civil War, Woodworth spent a year in Europe, receiving clinical instruction chiefly in the hospitals of Berlin, in 1866, he became demonstrator in anatomy at the Chicago Medical College. He was also appointed Surgeon of the Soldiers home of Chicago, in 1871, Woodworth was appointed the first Supervising Surgeon of the Marine Hospital Service. The Service had its origins in a 1798 Act of Congress for the relief of sick, the marine hospital fund was administered by the Treasury Department and financed through a monthly deduction from the wages of the seamen. Medical care was provided through contracts with existing hospitals and, increasingly as time went on, the marine hospitals hardly constituted a system in the Antebellum period. During the Civil War, the Union and Confederate forces occupied the hospitals for their own use, the 1870 reorganization converted the loose network of locally controlled hospitals into a centrally controlled Marine Hospital Service, with its headquarters in Washington, D. C. The position of Supervising Surgeon was created to administer the Service, Woodworth began his service in the position on March 29,1871, and he moved quickly to reform the system. He adopted a model for his medical staff, instituting examinations for applicants instead of appointing physicians on the recommendation of the local Collector of Customs. Physicians, whom Woodworth placed in uniforms, were no longer appointed to serve in a particular facility, in this way, Woodworth created a cadre of mobile, career service physicians who could be assigned and moved as needed to the various marine hospitals. The uniformed services component of the Marine Hospital Service was formalized as the Commissioned Corps by legislation enacted in 1889 under Woodworths successor, in 1872, Woodworth initiated the publication of annual reports of the Marine Hospital Service. That same year he served as one of the founders of the American Public Health Association
9.
Public health
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It is concerned with threats to health based on population health analysis. The population in question can be as small as a handful of people, Public health incorporates the interdisciplinary approaches of epidemiology, biostatistics and health services. Environmental health, community health, behavioral health, health economics, public policy, mental health and occupational safety, the focus of public health intervention is to improve health and quality of life through prevention and treatment of disease and other physical and mental health conditions. This is done through surveillance of cases and health indicators, there is a great disparity in access to health care and public health initiatives between developed nations and developing nations. In the developing world, public health infrastructures are still forming, many diseases are preventable through simple, nonmedical methods. For example, research has shown that the act of hand washing with soap can prevent many contagious diseases. Public health communications programs, vaccination programs and distribution of condoms are examples of public health measures. Measures such as these have contributed greatly to the health of populations, Public health plays an important role in disease prevention efforts in both the developing world and in developed countries, through local health systems and non-governmental organizations. The World Health Organization is the agency that coordinates and acts on global public health issues. Most countries have their own government public health agencies, sometimes known as ministries of health, for example, in the United States, the front line of public health initiatives are state and local health departments. In Canada, the Public Health Agency of Canada is the agency responsible for public health, emergency preparedness and response. The Public health system in India is managed by the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare of the government of India with state-owned health care facilities. Public health programs providing vaccinations have made strides in promoting health, including the eradication of smallpox, antibiotic resistance, also known as drug resistance, was the theme of World Health Day 2011. Although the prioritization of pressing public health issues is important, Laurie Garrett argues that there are following consequences, when foreign aid is funnelled into disease-specific programs, the importance of public health in general is disregarded. This public health problem of stovepiping is thought to create a lack of funds to other existing diseases in a given country. For example, the WHO reports that at least 220 million people suffer from diabetes. Its incidence is increasing rapidly, and it is projected that the number of diabetes deaths will double by the year 2030, the risk of type 2 diabetes is closely linked with the growing problem of obesity. The WHO’s latest estimates highlighted that globally approximately 1.5 billion adults were overweight in 2008, the United States is the leading country with 30. 6% of its population being obese
10.
Federal government of the United States
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The Federal Government of the United States is the national government of the United States, a republic in North America, composed of 50 states, one district, Washington, D. C. and several territories. The federal government is composed of three branches, legislative, executive, and judicial, whose powers are vested by the U. S. Constitution in the Congress, the President, and the courts, including the Supreme Court. The powers and duties of these branches are defined by acts of Congress. The full name of the republic is United States of America, no other name appears in the Constitution, and this is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in legal cases to which it is a party. The terms Government of the United States of America or United States Government are often used in documents to represent the federal government as distinct from the states collectively. In casual conversation or writing, the term Federal Government is often used, the terms Federal and National in government agency or program names generally indicate affiliation with the federal government. Because the seat of government is in Washington, D. C, Washington is commonly used as a metonym for the federal government. The outline of the government of the United States is laid out in the Constitution, the government was formed in 1789, making the United States one of the worlds first, if not the first, modern national constitutional republics. The United States government is based on the principles of federalism and republicanism, some make the case for expansive federal powers while others argue for a more limited role for the central government in relation to individuals, the states or other recognized entities. For example, while the legislative has the power to create law, the President nominates judges to the nations highest judiciary authority, but those nominees must be approved by Congress. The Supreme Court, in its turn, has the power to invalidate as unconstitutional any law passed by the Congress and these and other examples are examined in more detail in the text below. The United States Congress is the branch of the federal government. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate, the House currently consists of 435 voting members, each of whom represents a congressional district. The number of each state has in the House is based on each states population as determined in the most recent United States Census. All 435 representatives serve a two-year term, each state receives a minimum of one representative in the House. There is no limit on the number of terms a representative may serve, in addition to the 435 voting members, there are six non-voting members, consisting of five delegates and one resident commissioner. In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each state, regardless of population, there are currently 100 senators, who each serve six-year terms
11.
Vice admiral (United States)
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Vice admiral ranks above rear admiral and below admiral. Vice admiral is equivalent to the rank of lieutenant general in the uniformed services. U. S. Code of law explicitly limits the number of vice admirals that may be on active duty at any given time. The total number of active-duty flag officers is capped at 160 for the navy, for the navy, no more than 16. 7% of the services active-duty flag officers may have more than two stars. Some of these slots can be reserved by statute, officers serving in certain Defense Agency Director positions such as the Director of the Defense Logistics Agency, when filled by a naval officer, are vice admirals. The Superintendent of the United States Naval Academy is usually always a vice admiral, the President may also add vice admirals to the Navy if they are offset by removing an equivalent number of three-star officers from other services. Finally, all statutory limits may be waived at the Presidents discretion during time of war or national emergency, the three-star grade goes hand-in-hand with the position of office it is linked to, so the rank is temporary. Officers may only achieve three-star grade if they are appointed to positions that require the officer to hold such a rank and their rank expires with the expiration of their term of office, which is usually set by statute. The nominee must be confirmed via majority vote by the Senate before the appointee can take office, the standard tour length for most vice admiral positions is three years but some are set four or more years by statute. Some statutory limits under the U. S. Code can be waived in times of emergency or war. Three-star ranks may also be given by act of Congress but this is extremely rare, other than voluntary retirement, statute sets a number of mandates for retirement. Three-star officers must retire after 38 years of service unless appointed for promotion or reappointed to grade to serve longer, otherwise all flag officers must retire the month after their 64th birthday. The Secretary of Defense, however, can defer a three-star officers retirement until the officers 66th birthday, flag officers typically retire well in advance of the statutory age and service limits, so as not to impede the upward career mobility of their juniors. Since there is a number of three-star slots available to each service
12.
Admiral (United States)
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Admiral ranks above vice admiral and below fleet admiral in the Navy, the Coast Guard and the Public Health Service do not have an established grade above admiral. Admiral is equivalent to the rank of general in the uniformed services. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Officer Corps has never had a hold the grade of admiral. However,37 U. S. C. §201 of the U. S. Code established the grade for the NOAA Corps in the case a position is created that merits the four-star grade. The United States Navy did not have any admirals until 1862 because many felt the title too reminiscent of royalty, such as the British Royal Navy. Others saw the need for ranks above captain, among them John Paul Jones and he also felt there must be ranks above captain to avoid disputes among senior captains. Two years later Congress authorized the appointment of an admiral from among the nine rear admirals. Another bill allowed the President of the United States to appoint Farragut to admiral on July 25,1866, when Farragut died in 1870, Porter became admiral and Stephen C. Rowan was promoted to vice admiral, there was one admiral in the interim, however. In 1899, Congress recognized George Deweys accomplishments during the Spanish–American War by authorizing the President to appoint him Admiral of the Navy and he held that rank until he died in 1917. Nobody has since held that title, in 1944, Congress approved the five-star grade of fleet admiral. The first to hold it were William D. Leahy, Ernest J. King, the Senate confirmed their appointments December 15,1944. Fleet Admiral William F. Halsey got his star in December 1945. The rear admiral got his two-inch stripe and one half-inch stripe in 1866, the sleeve stripes had been more elaborate. When the rear admiral rank started in 1862 the sleeve arrangement was three stripes of three-quarter-inch lace alternating with three stripes of quarter-inch lace and it was some ten inches from top to bottom. The vice admiral, of course, had even more stripes, on their dress uniforms the admirals wore bands of gold embroidery of live oak leaves and acorns. The admirals of the 1860s wore the number of stars on their shoulders as admirals of corresponding grades do today. During the 20th century, the ranks of the modern U. S. admiralty were firmly established, an oddity that did exist was that the navy did not have a one-star rank except briefly during World War II when Congress established a temporary war rank of commodore
13.
Health professional
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A health professional may operate within all branches of health care, including medicine, surgery, dentistry, midwifery, pharmacy, psychology, nursing or allied health professions. A health professional may also be a public/community health expert working for the good of the society. They often work in hospitals, healthcare centres, and other service points, but also in academic training, research. Some provide care and treatment services for patients in private homes, many countries have a large number of community health workers who work outside formal healthcare institutions. Managers of healthcare services, health technicians, and other assistive personnel. Healthcare practitioners are commonly grouped into health professions, within each field of expertise, practitioners are often classified according to skill level and skill specialization. In addition, unlicensed assistive personnel assist with providing health services as permitted. A mental health practitioner is a worker who offers services for the purpose of improving the mental health of individuals or treating mental illness. These health care providers often deal with the illnesses, disorders, conditions. The most significant difference across categories of health practitioners is education. A maternal and newborn health practitioner is a worker who deals with the care of women and their children before, during and after pregnancy. Such health practitioners include obstetricians, midwives, obstetrical nurses and many others, one of the main differences between these professions is in the training and authority to provide surgical services and other life-saving interventions. A surgical practitioner is a professional who specializes in the planning and delivery of a patients perioperative care, including during the anaesthetic, surgical. Medical diagnosis providers are health workers responsible for the process of determining which disease or condition explains a persons symptoms and it is most often referred to as diagnosis with the medical context being implicit. This usually involves a team of healthcare providers in various diagnostic units and these include radiographers, radiologists, medical laboratory scientists, pathologists, and related professionals. A dental care practitioner is a worker who provides care and treatment to promote. These include dentists and dental surgeons, dental assistants, dental auxiliaries, dental hygienists, dental nurses, dental technicians, dental therapists, and related professionals. Care and treatment for the foot, ankle, and lower leg may be delivered by podiatrists, pedorthists, foot health practitioners, podiatric medical assistants, podiatric nurse and others
14.
Surgeon General's Medallion
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The Surgeon General’s Medallion is the third highest award of the Public Health Service and the United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps. The medal is awarded in the name of the United States Surgeon General for actions of exceptional achievement to the cause of public health and it is awarded by the Surgeon General of the United States. The exact award criteria for the Surgeon General’s Medal are open to the interpretation of the sitting U. S. Surgeon general, due to the prestige of the Surgeon General’s Medallion, the award is authorized for wear on active duty uniforms of the United States armed forces. Recipients of the Surgeon Generals Medallion include RADM Jerrold Michael who was also the youngest person to become an admiral in the PHS at the age of 33, awards and decorations of the Public Health Service Revision to the USPHS Commissioned Corps Personnel Manual
15.
Tobacco packaging warning messages
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Tobacco packaging warning messages are warning messages that appear on the packaging of cigarettes and other tobacco products concerning their health effects. They have been implemented in an effort to enhance the publics awareness of the effects of smoking. In general, warnings used in different countries try to emphasize the same messages, warnings for some countries are listed below. Such warnings have been required in tobacco advertising for many years, a 2009 review summarises that There is clear evidence that tobacco package health warnings increase consumers’ knowledge about the health consequences of tobacco use. The warning messages contribute to changing attitudes towards tobacco use as well as changing consumers’ behaviour. At the same time, such warning labels have been subject to criticism, translation of words in box, Smoking is very bad for health. It can cause disease, gangrene, lung cancer, reduced lung function, chronic bronchitis, stroke, throat and mouth cancer. If you smoke despite all this, dont say that we did not warn you, on 1 December 2012, Australia introduced groundbreaking legislation and the worlds toughest tobacco packaging warning messages to date. All marketing and brand devices were removed from the package and replaced with warnings, all tobacco products sold, offered for sale or otherwise supplied in Australia were plain packaged and labelled with new and expanded health warnings. Brazil was the country in the world and the first country in Latin America to adopt mandatory warning images in cigarette packages. Warnings and graphic images illustrating the risks of smoking occupy 100% of the back of cigarettes boxes since 2001, in 2008, the government elected a third batch of images, aimed at younger smokers. Since 2003, the sentence Este produto contém mais de 4,7 mil substâncias tóxicas, não existem níveis seguros para consumo dessas substâncias. is displayed in all packs. Canada has had 3 phases of tobacco warning labels, the first set of warnings was introduced in 1989 under the Tobacco Products Control Act, and required warnings to be printed on all tobacco products sold legally in Canada. The set consisted of 4 messages printed in black-and-white on the front and back of the package, in 2000, the Tobacco Products Information Regulations were passed under the Tobacco Act. The regulations introduced a new set of 16 warnings, 80% of lung cancer victims die within three years. Accompanied by a picture of a human lung detailing cancerous growths, the side of the package also featured information on toxic emissions and constituent levels. In 2011, the TPIR were replaced for cigarettes and little cigars with the Tobacco Products Labelling Regulations and these regulations introduced the third and current set of 16 warnings in Canada. Currently, cigarette and little cigar packages in Canada must bear new graphic warning messages that cover 75% of the front, the interior of each package contains 1 of 8 updated health warning messages, all including the number for a national quitline
16.
Marine Hospital Service
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The Marine-Hospital Service was an organization of Marine Hospitals dedicated to the care of ill and disabled seamen in the U. S. Merchant Marine, U. S. Coast Guard and other federal beneficiaries, the Service was created by the act of the 5th United States Congress, which was signed into law on 16 July 1798 by President John Adams. The Act required the Department of the Treasury to provide for the relief and this Act led to the formation of several loosely controlled hospitals at sea and river ports all across the United States, which was officially the Marine-Hospital Fund. The Act specified the revenue for the Hospital Fund to come from the merchant seamen, the Congressional Act of 1798 was signed into law by President John Adams. It created a tax of 20 cents each month to be withheld from wages for support of marine hospitals. The money was paid to the U. S, the Act was expanded in 1799 to include all officers, seamen and marines of the navy of the United States. This practice continued until 1870, excepting one year from April 1837 to 1838 and this series of hospitals to care for merchant seamen was based on the British practice of establishing hospitals to care for sailors and merchant seamen. Prior to its union with Scotland, the Kingdom of England established its first hospitals in 1588, the Marine Hospital Fund was a unique and early mechanism to provide the first publicly funded health care and disease prevention federal agency in the United States. Following the Civil War, public outcry and scandal surrounded the Marine Hospital Fund, in 1869, Dr. John Shaw Billings--a prominent Army surgeon—was appointed to head an investigation of the Marine Hospital Fund. Dr. Billings found the hospital fund to be inadequate and completely unorganized, in 1871, the Marine Hospital Fund was formally reorganized as the Marine Hospital Service, under the direction of Dr. John Maynard Woodworth. Dr. Woodworth was appointed to the Service as Supervising Surgeon and he reorganized the service into a disciplined organization based on his experience in the Union Army as a surgeon. Dr. Woodworth required his physicians to be a work force stationed where the service was in need. This eventually led to the creation of the modern-day Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, Dr. Woodworth, using Army-style heraldry, created the Marine Hospital Service fouled anchor and caduceus seal which is used to this day by the Public Health Service. In 1873, Dr. Woodworth’s title was changed to Supervising Surgeon General, the Marine Hospitals, as their name suggests, were hospitals constructed at key sea and river ports across the nation to provide health care for merchant marine sailors. Aside from the well-being of these sailors, the hospitals provided a key monitoring and gate-keeping function against pathogenic diseases, as the nation grew, the scope of Marine Hospital Services scope of duties grew to include domestic and foreign quarantine and other national public health functions. In 1902, the Marine Hospital Service was renamed the Public Health, in 1912, the name of the service was changed to the Public Health Service to encompass its diverse and changing mission. Over time, the hospitals of the service were also expanded to include research, the hospitals themselves were, by the middle of the 19th century, fairly imposing and architecturally grand structures in many cases. As long as federal funding was available for their construction
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Health care in the United States
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Health care in the United States is provided by many distinct organizations. Health care facilities are owned and operated by private sector businesses. 58% of US community hospitals are non-profit, 21% are government owned, according to the World Health Organization, the United States spent more on health care per capita, and more on health care as percentage of its GDP, than any other nation in 2011. 64% of health spending was paid for by the government in 2013, funded via programs such as Medicare, Medicaid, the Childrens Health Insurance Program, and the Veterans Health Administration. People aged under 67 acquire insurance via their or a family members employer, by purchasing health insurance on their own, Health insurance for public sector employees is primarily provided by the government. The United States life expectancy of 78.4 years at birth, up from 75.2 years in 1990, ranks it 50th among 221 nations, and 27th out of the 34 industrialized OECD countries, down from 20th in 1990. A2014 survey of the systems of 11 developed countries found the US healthcare system to be the most expensive and worst-performing in terms of health access, efficiency. Americans undergo cancer screenings at significantly higher rates than people in developed countries. Diabetics are more likely to receive treatment and meet treatment targets in the U. S. than in Canada, England, or Scotland. A2012 study for the years 2002–2008 found that about 25% of all senior citizens declared bankruptcy due to medical expenses, in 2010 the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act became law, providing for major changes in health insurance. The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of most of the law in June 2012, together, such issues place the U. S. at the bottom of the list for life expectancy. On average, a U. S. male can be expected to live almost four years than those in the top-ranked country. A large portion of this cost difference is in the lifespan of men. There is evidence, however, that a proportion of health outcomes. As a study by the National Research Council concluded, more than half the men who die before 50 die due to murder, traffic accidents, for women, the percentages are different. 53% of women who die before 50 die due to disease, whereas 38% die due to accidents, homicide, however maternal deaths related to childbirth have increased. In 2013,18.5 mothers died for every 100,000 births, in 1987, the mortality rate was 7.2 per 100,000. The American rate is now more than double the maternal mortality rate in Saudi Arabia and Canada, and more than triple the rate in the United Kingdom
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Luther Terry
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Luther Terry was an American physician and public health official. He was appointed the ninth Surgeon General of the United States from 1961 to 1965, and is best known for his warnings against the dangers, Luther Leonidas Terry was born in Red Level, Alabama. His father, James Edward Terry, M. D. a graduate of the University of Alabama School of Medicine, was the doctor for Red Level. Luther Terry earned a B. S. degree at Birmingham-Southern College in 1931 and he then received an M. D. degree at Tulane University in 1935. In 1942, Terry joined the staff of the Public Health Service Hospital in Baltimore, when the National Institutes of Healths Clinical Center opened in 1953, Terrys Heart Institute program was moved to the new facility and he devoted his full-time to the job. Terry and his team laid the foundations for what has called the golden era of cardiovascular clinical investigation. In 1958, Terry became the Assistant Director of the National Heart Institute and he came to public prominence when President John F. Kennedy selected him as Surgeon General of the Public Health Service, effective March 2,1961. At the end of the decade, the Royal College of Physicians in the United Kingdom appointed a committee to investigate the relationship between smoking and health. The committees report, issued on March 7,1962, clearly indicated cigarette smoking as a cause of cancer and bronchitis. Shortly after the release of report, Terry established the Surgeon Generals Advisory Committee on Smoking and Health. The committee concluded that smoking was a health hazard of sufficient importance to warrant appropriate remedial action. The same warning would be required in all cigarette advertising effective July 1,1965 and it also motivated the tobacco industry to intensify its efforts to question the scientific evidence linking smoking and disease. The report was also responsible for the passage of the Cigarette Labeling and Advertising Act of 1965, Cigarette smoking of nicotine was defined as not an addiction in the Surgeon Generals first report on smoking. Luther Terry himself continued to play a role in the campaign against smoking after leaving the post of Surgeon General. Terry helped to obtain a ban on advertisements on radio. Late in his life he led the effort to eliminate smoking from the workplace, when Terry retired from government service in 1965, he became Vice President for Medical Affairs, as well as Professor of Medicine and Community Medicine, at the University of Pennsylvania. Terry was responsible for managing the Universitys health sciences schools, comprising some 40 percent of the Universitys budget and he retained his professorial appointment until 1975, when he became Adjunct Professor, and then in 1981 Emeritus Professor. From 1970 to 1983, he served as President of University Associates
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C. Everett Koop
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Charles Everett Koop, MD was an American pediatric surgeon and public health administrator. He was an admiral in the Public Health Service Commissioned Corps. According to the Associated Press, Koop was the surgeon general to become a household name. Koop was known for his work to prevent tobacco use, AIDS, and abortion, Koop was born in Brooklyn, New York, the only child of John Everett Koop, a banker and descendant of 17th-century Dutch settlers, and Helen Koop. In 1937, he earned his A. B. degree from Dartmouth College and his interest in medicine followed a year in hospital following a childhood skiing accident and brain hemorrhage. He earned his MD degree from Cornell Medical College in 1941, from 1946 to 1981, Koop was the surgeon-in-chief at the Childrens Hospital of Philadelphia. Koop was able to establish the nations first neonatal intensive care unit there in 1956. He helped establish the biliary atresia program at CHOP when pioneering surgeon Morio Kasai came to work him in the 1970s. He also established the pediatric surgery fellowship training program at CHOP, Koop became a professor of pediatric surgery in 1959 and professor of pediatrics in 1971 at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine. Koop was active in publishing articles in the medical literature, Koop later wrote that Each day of those early years in pediatric surgery I felt I was on the cutting edge. Some of the problems that landed on the operating table at Childrens had not even been named. Many of the operations I performed had never been done before and it was an exuberant feeling, but also a little scary. Koop helped rectify this by publishing his own findings and results, additionally, he became the first editor of the Journal of Pediatric Surgery when it was founded in 1966. During the course of his career, for example, he performed some seventeen thousand inguinal hernia repairs. He developed new procedures, such as the colon interposition graft for correcting esophageal atresia or ventriculoperitoneal shunts for treatment of hydrocephalus. He also tackled many difficult cases ranging from cancer to surgeries done on conjoined twins, of which he. In all he operated on many children and babies with congenital defects incompatible with life, in 1976, Koop wrote The Right to Live, The Right to Die, setting down his concerns about abortion, infanticide, and euthanasia. Based on the book of the title that was previously written by the elder Schaeffer
20.
Presidency of Ronald Reagan
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The presidency of Ronald Reagan began on January 20,1981, at noon Eastern Standard Time, when Ronald Reagan was inaugurated as President of the United States, and ended on January 20,1989. Reagan, a Republican, took office as the 40th United States president following a win over Democratic incumbent President Jimmy Carter in the 1980 presidential election. The election was an election, the Reagan Revolution, that changed the trajectory of the nation. Reagan was succeeded by his president, George H. W. Bush. Domestically, the claimed to support reducing government programs. The economic policies enacted in 1981, known as Reaganomics, were an example of supply-side economics, economic growth was strong for most of the 1980s, however, there was a recession in the beginning of his term and the national debt increased significantly. S. Troops since the end of the Vietnam War and it also controversially granted aid to paramilitary forces seeking to overthrow leftist governments, particularly in war-torn Central America and Afghanistan. In diplomacy, he forged an alliance and friendship with Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher of Great Britain. Reagan also held multiple meetings with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. In June 1987, when visiting West Berlin and standing at the Berlin Wall, Reagan demanded, Mr. Gorbachev tear down this wall. This dramatic moment helped Reagan claim that his approach beat Communism as the Berlin Wall fell, Soviet domination of Eastern Europe came to an end, and, by 1991, the damaging Iran–Contra affair engulfed several Reagan aides during his second term. His administration was criticized for lending support to right-wing military movements that committed human rights violations, Reagan was the first president since Dwight D. Eisenhower to serve two full terms. Reagan was an advocate of free markets and laissez-faire economics and believed that the U. S. economy was hampered by excessive regulations and social programs. His first act as president was to issue an order ending price controls on domestic oil, which had contributed to the 1973 oil crisis. Reagan focused his first months in office on two goals, tax reforms and increased military spending, during Reagans first term, the nation fell into a recession that lasted from 1981 to 1982, with unemployment remaining high, as much as 10%, during 1982 and 1983. Income inequality in the U. S. also rose substantially during Reagans presidency, despite this, the economy made a strong recovery and experienced one of the longest periods of peacetime growth in its history.7 percent. Despite Reagans stated desire to cut spending, federal spending grew during his administration, one of Reagans most controversial early moves was to fire most of the countrys air traffic controllers after they took part in a strike action. Reagan also reduced Social Security by cutting disability and survivor benefits and he also took tougher positions against some crime, and declared a renewed War on Drugs
21.
Joycelyn Elders
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Dr. Minnie Joycelyn Elders is an American pediatrician and public health administrator. She was an admiral in the Public Health Service Commissioned Corps. Elders is best known for her frank discussion of her views on issues such as drug legalization. She was forced to resign in December 1994 amidst controversy as a result of her views and she is currently a professor emerita of pediatrics at the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences. Dr. Elders was born Minnie Lee Jones in Schaal, Arkansas, to a poor farm sharecropping family, and was the eldest of eight children, the family also spent two years near a defense plant in Richmond, California. In college, she changed her name to Minnie Joycelyn Lee, in 1952, she received her B. S. degree in Biology from Philander Smith College in Little Rock, Arkansas, where she also pledged Delta Sigma Theta. After working as an aide in a Veterans Administration hospital in Milwaukee for a period. During her 3 years in the Army, she was trained as a physical therapist and she then attended the University of Arkansas Medical School, where she obtained her M. D. degree in 1960. After completing an internship at the University of Minnesota Hospital and a residency in pediatrics at the University of Arkansas Medical Center, Elders earned an M. S. in Biochemistry in 1967. In 1987, then-Governor Bill Clinton appointed Dr. Elders as Director of the Arkansas Department of Health and she also worked hard to promote the importance of sex education, proper hygiene, and prevention of substance abuse in public schools. In 1992, she was elected President of the Association of State, even though Dr. Elders was a pediatric endocrinologist and a professor at one of the nations top medical schools, she was not immune from racism in the workplace. Some people in the American Medical Association, a group of them. Dr. Elders was able to be the voice for the African American community and speak on poverty and its role in teenage pregnancy, as an endocrinologist, Dr. Elders was especially concerned with young diabetic women getting pregnant. If young teen women who have diabetes get pregnant, they have a chance of their bodies rejecting the fetus or the fetus developing abnormalities in utero. Of the approximately 260 young diabetic women she treated, only one of them became pregnant, Dr. Elders strongly advocated sex and reproductive education, especially in African American communities. She criticized older textbooks that said only white females had naturally regular periods, Black females did not readily seek out birth control because their ministers were up on the pulpit saying the birth control pills were black genocide. Dr. Elders has received a National Institutes of Health career development award and she was promoted to associate professor in 1971 and professor in 1976. Her research interests focused on endocrinology, and she received board certification as a pediatric endocrinologist in 1978, Elders received a D. Sc. degree from Bates College in 2002
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Bill Clinton
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William Jefferson Clinton is an American politician who served as the 42nd President of the United States from 1993 to 2001. Prior to the Presidency he was the 40th Governor of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981, before that, he served as Arkansas Attorney General from 1977 to 1979. A member of the Democratic Party, Clinton was ideogically a New Democrat, Clinton is married to Hillary Clinton, who served as United States Secretary of State from 2009 to 2013 and U. S. Senator from New York from 2001 to 2009, and served the Democratic nominee for President in 2016, Bill Clinton and Hillary Rodham both earned degrees from Yale Law School, where they met and began dating. As Governor of Arkansas, Clinton overhauled the states education system, Clinton was elected President of the United States in 1992, defeating incumbent George H. W. Bush. At age 46, he was the third-youngest president and the first from the Baby Boomer generation, Clinton presided over the longest period of peacetime economic expansion in American history and signed into law the North American Free Trade Agreement. After failing to pass health care reform, the Democratic House was ousted when the Republican Party won control of the Congress in 1994. Two years later, in 1996, Clinton became the first Democrat since Franklin D. Roosevelt to be elected to a second term, Clinton passed welfare reform and the State Childrens Health Insurance Program, providing health coverage for millions of children. Clinton was acquitted by the U. S. Senate in 1999, the Congressional Budget Office reported a budget surplus between the years 1998 and 2000, the last three years of Clintons presidency. In foreign policy, Clinton ordered U. S. Clinton left office with the highest end-of-office approval rating of any U. S. President since World War II, since then, Clinton has been involved in public speaking and humanitarian work. He created the William J. Clinton Foundation to address international causes, such as the prevention of AIDS, in 2004, Clinton published his autobiography, My Life. In 2009, Clinton was named the United Nations Special Envoy to Haiti, since leaving office, Clinton has been rated highly in public opinion polls of U. S. Presidents. Clinton was born on August 19,1946, at Julia Chester Hospital in Hope, Arkansas and he was the son of William Jefferson Blythe Jr. a traveling salesman who had died in an automobile accident three months before his birth, and Virginia Dell Cassidy. His parents had married on September 4,1943, but this later proved to be bigamous. Soon after their son was born, his mother traveled to New Orleans to study nursing, leaving her son in Hope with her parents Eldridge and Edith Cassidy, who owned and ran a small grocery store. At a time when the Southern United States was segregated racially, in 1950, Bills mother returned from nursing school and married Roger Clinton Sr. who owned an automobile dealership in Hot Springs, Arkansas, with his brother and Earl T. Ricks. The family moved to Hot Springs in 1950, although he immediately assumed use of his stepfathers surname, it was not until Clinton turned fifteen that he formally adopted the surname Clinton as a gesture toward his stepfather. In Hot Springs, Clinton attended St. Johns Catholic Elementary School, Ramble Elementary School, and Hot Springs High School—where he was a student leader, avid reader
23.
Surgeon General of the United States Army
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The Surgeon General of the United States Army is the senior-most officer of the U. S. Army Medical Department. By policy, the Surgeon General serves as Commanding General, U. S. Army Medical Command as well as head of the AMEDD, the surgeon generals office and staff are known as the Office of the Surgeon General and are located in Falls Church, Virginia. Since 1959, TSG has been appointed in the grade of lieutenant general, by law, TSG may be appointed from any of the six officer branches of the AMEDD. However, prior to the 43rd Surgeon General, Lt. Gen. Patricia Horoho, the incumbent Surgeon General, Lt. Gen. Nadja West, is a military physician. He or she is responsible for development, policy direction, organization and these duties include formulating policy regulations on health service support, health hazard assessment and the establishment of health standards. TSG is assisted by a Deputy Surgeon General, congress established the Medical Service of the Continental Army on July 27,1775 and placed a Chief physician & director general of the Continental Army as its head at that time. The first five surgeons general of the U. S. Army served under this title, an Act of May 28,1789 established a Physician general of the U. S. Army. An Act of March 13,1813 cited the Physician & surgeon general of the U. S. Army and this nomenclature remained in place until the Medical Department was established by the Reorganization Act of April 14,1818. Note, The AMEDD Museum at Fort Sam Houston, San Antonio, military Vaccine Agency Borden Institute U. S. Historical Register and Dictionary of the United States Army, from Its Organization, September 29,1789, to March 2,1903, Washington, DC, OTSG Portal Surgeon General Consultant Program The Surgeons General of the U. S
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Surgeon General of the United States Navy
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The Surgeon General of the United States Navy is the most senior commissioned officer of the Medical Corps of the United States Navy. The Surgeon General of the Navy is a member of the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations, on 31 August 1842, the United States Congress passed a Navy appropriation bill that was a blueprint for efficiency. Heading each of the bureaus was a “Chief” to be appointed by the President of the United States, the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery became the central administrative headquarters for the Navy Medical Department, and those names became interchangeable. Overseeing all of these duties, and directing the medical department, was the Chief of BUMED, barton served at this post until 1844. He was followed by Thomas Harris, William Whelan, Phineas Horwitz, since the days of Barton’s directorship the most senior ranking physician in the Navy Medical Department has held the title of Chief of the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery. On 3 March 1871, Congress passed legislation granting medical and other officers of the Navy “relative rank” with grades “equal to. The Chief of the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery now had the additional title “Surgeon General, at the helm of this “revitalized” organization stood the first Surgeon General, William Maxwell Wood, a man entering his 42nd year of a naval service as unusual and varied as could be. Wood had served aboard USS Poinsett, one of the first steam vessels of the Navy, however fitting he may have been as the first Navy Surgeon General, he served less than two years. In November 2011, VADM Matthew L. Nathan, took office becoming the 37th Surgeon General of the United States Navy, and 41st Chief of the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery. 757 pp. describe the role of naval medical units ashore and afloat partly online A History of Medicine in the Early U. S. Navy
25.
Surgeon General of the United States Air Force
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The Surgeon General of the Air Force is the senior-most Medical Service officer in the United States Department of the Air Force. In recent times, this has been a Lieutenant General who serves as head of the United States Air Force Medical Service, the Surgeon General is usually the senior Medical Corps officer, but acting surgeons general have been from other branches of the medical service. In September 1947 the combat elements of the Army Air Forces separated from the U. S. Army, but a few Air Force support functions, such as medical care, remained U. S. Army responsibilities for the next two years. Starting in 1948, the Air Force and the Air Surgeon, grow, began to convince the U. S. Army and the administration of President Harry S. Truman that the Air Force needed its own medical service. In the summer of 1949, Air Force General Order No, Surgeon General of the United States Surgeon General of the United States Army Surgeon General of the United States Navy Official website Chronology Of The Air Force Surgeons General
26.
Caduceus as a symbol of medicine
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The caduceus is the traditional symbol of Hermes and features two snakes winding around an often winged staff. It is often used as a symbol of medicine instead of the Rod of Asclepius. The two-snake caduceus design has ancient and consistent associations with trade, eloquence, trickery, tangential association of the caduceus with medicine has occurred through the ages, where it was sometimes associated with alchemy and wisdom. It is likely linked to the alchemical Universal Solvent, Azoth, the Guildhall Museum in London holds a 3rd-century oculists seal with caduceus symbols both top and bottom. The seal was used to mark preparations of eye medicine. Beginning with the 16th century there is limited evidence of the use of the caduceus in what is arguably a medical context, however, this evidence is also ambiguous. In some cases it is clear that the caduceus symbolized wisdom, similar use of the caduceus in printers marks continues to the present day, with companies including F. A. Davis Company still using the symbol as an element of their insignia. There are a few examples of use in this period. It may have used as a symbol by Sir William Butts. This use was adduced by the medical historian Fielding Garrison to support his argument that the caduceus was used as a symbol of medicine as far back as the 16th Century. However, as Walter Friedlander noted, what Caius used was a non-specific heralds wand, in support of this assertion he quotes Caiuss own words on why he chose a heralds wand as a symbol, making it clear that he chose it as a symbol of prudence. This same passage was also referenced by Engle in refuting Garrisons claim. Friedlander has examined this subject in detail, and shows that Churchill was well aware that the rod of Asclepius was the symbol of medicine. During the remaining part of the century several United States publishers appear to have copied or modified Churchills caduceus. Other contemporary British publishers did not use a caduceus and the caduceus had never been as widely connected to medicine in Great Britain or in Europe as it has been in the United States. In any case, in Great Britain, as late as 1854, in his article On Tradesmens Signs of London A. H. As pointed out by Garrison, the caduceus had appeared on the chevrons of Army hospital stewards as early as 1856, later, in 1871, the Surgeon General designated the caduceus as the seal of the Marine Hospital Service. The caduceus was formally adopted by the Medical Department of the United States Army in 1902 and was added to the uniforms of Army medical officers
27.
Rod of Asclepius
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The symbol has continued to be used in modern times, where it is associated with medicine and health care, yet frequently confused with the staff of the god Hermes, the caduceus. Theories have been proposed about the Greek origin of the symbol, the Rod of Asclepius takes its name from the god Asclepius, a deity associated with healing and medicinal arts in Greek mythology. Asclepius attributes, the snake and the staff, sometimes depicted separately in antiquity, are combined in this symbol, the most famous temple of Asclepius was at Epidaurus in north-eastern Peloponnese. Another famous healing temple was located on the island of Kos, where Hippocrates, other asclepieia were situated in Trikala, Gortys, and Pergamum in Asia. These snakes were introduced at the founding of new temple of Asclepius throughout the classical world. From about 300 BC onwards, the cult of Asclepius grew very popular, ritual purification would be followed by offerings or sacrifices to the god, and the supplicant would then spend the night in the holiest part of the sanctuary – the abaton. Any dreams or visions would be reported to a priest who would prescribe the appropriate therapy by a process of interpretation, Some healing temples also used sacred dogs to lick the wounds of sick petitioners. The original Hippocratic Oath began with the invocation I swear by Apollo the Physician and by Asclepius and by Hygieia and Panacea, the serpent and the staff appear to have been separate symbols that were combined at some point in the development of the Asclepian cult. Snake venom appears to have been prescribed in cases as a form of therapy. The staff has also been variously interpreted, one view is that it, like the serpent, conveyed notions of resurrection and healing, while another is that the staff was a walking stick associated with itinerant physicians. The staff also seems to be a symbol of some similar thing, in any case the two symbols certainly merged in antiquity as representations of the snake coiled about the staff are common. It has been claimed that the snake wrapped around the staff was a species of rat snake, AKA Aesculapian snake Some commentators have linked the symbol to the Nehushtan, a sacred object consisting of a serpent wrapped around a pole mentioned in the Bible in the Book of Numbers. The section in the Book of Numbers reads as follows,5 And the people spake against God, for there is no bread, neither is there any water, and our soul loatheth this light bread. 6 And the Lord sent fiery serpents among the people, and they bit the people, and much people of Israel died. 7 Therefore the people came to Moses, and said, We have sinned, for we have spoken against the Lord, and against thee, pray unto the Lord, and Moses prayed for the people. 8 And the Lord said unto Moses, Make thee a fiery serpent, and set it upon a pole, and it shall come to pass, that one that is bitten. 9 And Moses made a serpent of brass, and put it upon a pole, and it came to pass, that if a serpent had bitten any man, when he beheld the serpent of brass, he lived. King Hezekiah later destroyed the bronze serpent, which, by time, had existed for 700 years
28.
Uniformed services of the United States
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Department of Defense is set by DOD Directive 1005.8 and is not dependent on the date of creation by the U. S. Congress. United States Coast Guard,4 August 1790 Note, The U. S. Coast Guard was a part of the U. S. Department of Transportation from 1967 to 2002. Prior to 1967, it was a part of the U. S. Department of the Treasury, United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps,4 January 1889 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Officer Corps,22 May 1917. The NOAA Corps was created as the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps, the ESSA Corps became the NOAA Corps as a component of NOAA when ESSA was abolished and NOAA simultaneously was created on 3 October 1970. Under all three names, the Corps has been an element of the Department of Commerce throughout its existence, the seven uniformed services are defined by 10 U. S. C. §101, The five uniformed services make up the United States Armed Forces are defined in the previous clause 10 U. S. C. §101, The term armed forces means the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, five of the uniformed services make up the U. S. Armed Forces, four of which are within the U. S. Department of Defense, the Coast Guard is part of the Department of Homeland Security and has both military and law enforcement duties. Title 14 states that the Coast Guard is part of the military at all times, during a declared state of war, however, the President or Congress may direct that the Coast Guard operate as part of the Navy. Reserve components of the United States Armed Forces are all members of the military, the National Guard was first formed in the Colony of Virginia in 1607 and is the oldest uniformed military force founded in the New World. The National Guard can also be mobilized by the President to operate under Federal authority through Title 10, however, in Federal service command and control of National Guard organizations will fall under the designated Geographic or Functional Combatant Commander. The National Guard of the United States serves as a component for both the Army and the Air Force and can be called up for federal active duty in times of war or national emergencies. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Corps is a branch of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. The United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps is the personnel system of the United States Public Health Service. Commissioned officers of NOAA and PHS wear uniforms that are derived from U. S. Navy uniforms, except that the devices, buttons. Uniformed officers of NOAA and PHS are paid on the scale as members of the armed services with respective rank. Additionally, PHS Officers are covered by the Uniformed Services Employment and Reemployment Act, furthermore, all seven uniformed services are subject to the provisions of 10 USC1408, the Uniformed Services Former Spouses Protection Act. PHS and NOAA consist of commissioned officers only and have no warrant ranks or enlisted ranks, Commissioned officers of the PHS and NOAA may be militarized by the President
29.
Geneva Conventions
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The Geneva Conventions comprise four treaties, and three additional protocols, that establish the standards of international law for the humanitarian treatment in war. The treaties of 1949 were ratified, in whole or with reservations, the Swiss businessman Henry Dunant went to visit wounded soldiers after the Battle of Solferino in 1859. He was shocked by the lack of facilities, personnel, as a result, he published his book, A Memory of Solferino, in 1862, on the horrors of war. The latter led to the 1864 Geneva Convention, the first codified international treaty that covered the sick, for both of these accomplishments, Henry Dunant became corecipient of the first Nobel Peace Prize in 1901. The ten articles of this first treaty were initially adopted on 22 August 1864 by twelve nations, on 20 October 1868 the first, unsuccessful, attempt to expand the 1864 treaty was undertaken. With the Additional Articles relating to the Condition of the Wounded in War an attempt was undertaken to clarify some rules of the 1864 convention, the Articles were signed but never ratified by all parties. Only the Netherlands and the United States ratified the Articles, the Netherlands later withdrew their ratification. The protection of the victims of warfare would later be realized by the third Hague Convention of 1899. In 1906 thirty-five states attended a conference convened by the Swiss government and it remained into force until 1970 when Costa Rica acceded to the 1949 Geneva Conventions. The 1929 conference yielded two conventions that were signed on July 27th 1929, one, the Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armies in the Field, was the third version to replace the original convention of 1864. The other was adopted after experiences in World War I had shown the deficiencies in the protection of prisoners of war under the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907. The Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War was not to replace these earlier conventions signed at The Hague, the Second Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea replaced the Hague Convention of 1907. It was the first Geneva Convention on the protection of the victims of warfare and mimicked the structure. The Third Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War replaced the 1929 Geneva Convention that dealt with prisoners of war. In addition to these three conventions, the conference added a new elaborate Fourth Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War. It was the first Geneva Convention not to deal with combatants, the 1899 and 1907 Hague Conventions had already contained some provisions on the protection of civilians and occupied territory. Article 154 specifically provides that the Fourth Geneva Convention is supplementary to these provisions in the Hague Conventions, despite the length of these documents, they were found over time to be incomplete. In light of developments, two Protocols were adopted in 1977 that extended the terms of the 1949 Conventions with additional protections
30.
United States Armed Forces
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
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Navy Supply Corps (United States)
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The United States Navy Supply Corps is the United States Navy staff corps concerned with supply, logistics, combat support, readiness, contracting, and fiscal matters. The ships Purser was primarily responsible for the handling of money, the Supply Corps considers as its birthday February 23,1795, when the nations first Purveyor of Public Supplies, Tench Francis, Jr. was appointed by President George Washington. Hambleton was severely wounded by a cannonball that fell onto him from the rigging of the ship, unlike their line counterparts, pursers originally did not hold rank. An 1854 Act of Congress legalized the relative rank conferred upon pursers by General Order of 27 May 1847, Pursers with more than twelve years service ranked with commanders and those with less than twelve years ranked with lieutenants. In 1860, the name of the position of Purser was changed to Paymaster, ashore naval logistics, which had been the purview of civilians, were transferred to Paymasters throughout the 1860s. By Act of 11 July 1919 the designation of the Pay Corps was changed to Supply Corps, recent developments have mirrored those in the private sector logistics, with an increasing scientific and quantitative emphasis and reliance on networked computing power. Uniform regulations issued 1 May 1830 specified that a Purser should have, in addition to the oak leaf. In 1841 the distinguishing mark on the Pursers collar was changed to a 4 row of gold embroidered oak leaves and acorns. A modification of the regulations, dated 27 May 1847. In September 1852 the letters P. D. were abolished, as late as 1862 uniform regulations did not distinguish among the different staff corps. In January 1864 the various corps were assigned distinguishing marks, with the Pay Corps insignia being a silver oak sprig worn on the shoulder straps. In regulations of 1905, while the insignia of the Pay Corps remained a silver oak sprig, the last significant change to the Supply Corps insignia came in 1919, the leaf retained its shape, but was to be embroidered in gold instead of silver. The official motto of the Supply Corps is Ready for Sea - reflecting the Supply Corps longstanding role in sustaining warfighting, Supply Corps officers are often called Pork Chop within the wardroom, a reference to the Supply Corps oak leaf insignias superficial resemblance to the bone-on meat product. Supply Corps officers assigned to duty are known simply as Chop for the same reason. Supply Corps officers are colloquially called Suppo, although this term is technically reserved for the Department Head. New Supply Corps junior officers attend the Navy Supply Corps School in Newport, current Navy policy dictates that Supply Officers complete two operational tours and obtain a warfare pin for consideration for Lieutenant Commander boards. Supply Corps officers are eligible for command of supply units, in addition to shipboard billets, Supply Corps officers also serve in forward deployed land-based units. Three stars is the highest rank a Supply Corps officer can attain
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David Satcher
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FAAFP, FACPM, FACP is an American physician, and public health administrator. He was an admiral in the United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps and served as the 10th Assistant Secretary for Health. Satcher was born in Anniston, Alabama, at the age of two, he contracted whooping cough. Satcher said that he grew up hearing that story, and that him to be a doctor. Satcher graduated from Morehouse College in Atlanta in 1963 and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa and he received his M. D. and Ph. D. in Cell Biology from Case Western Reserve University in 1970 with election to Alpha Omega Alpha Honor Society. He completed residency/fellowship training at the Strong Memorial Hospital, University of Rochester, UCLA School of Medicine, and Martin Luther King Jr. -Harbor Hospital. He is a fellow of the American Academy of Family Physicians, the American College of Preventive Medicine, and the American College of Physicians, Satcher pledged Omega Psi Phi fraternity and is an initiate at the Psi Chapter of Morehouse College. Satcher has served as professor and Chairman of the Department of Community Medicine and he also directed the King-Drew Sickle Cell Research Center for six years. Satcher served as President of Meharry Medical College in Nashville, Tennessee and he also held the posts of Director of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Administrator of the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry from 1993 to 1998. Satcher served simultaneously in the positions of Surgeon General and Assistant Secretary for Health from February 1998 through January 2001 at the US Department of Health and Human Services. As such, he is the first Surgeon General to be appointed as an admiral in the PHSCC. In his first year as Surgeon General, Satcher released the 1998 Surgeon Generals report, in it he reported that tobacco use was on the rise among youth in each of the countrys major racial and ethnic groups threatening their long-term health prospects. Satcher was appointed by Bill Clinton, and remained Surgeon General until 2002, eve Slater would later replace him as Assistant Secretary for Health in 2001. Because he no longer held his office, Satcher was reverted and downgraded to the grade of vice admiral in the regular corps for the remainder of his term as Surgeon General. In 2001, his office released the report, The Call to Action to Promote Sexual Health, in school, not only at the doctors office. However, conservative political groups denounced the report as being too permissive towards homosexuality, when Satcher left office, he retired with the rank of vice admiral. Upon his departure from the post, Satcher became a fellow at the Kaiser Family Foundation, in the fall of 2002, he assumed the post of Director of the National Center for Primary Care at the Morehouse School of Medicine. In 2013, he co-founded the advocacy group African American Network Against Alzheimer’s and he now sits on the board of Johnson & Johnson and MetLife
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Ulysses S. Grant
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Ulysses S. Grant was the 18th President of the United States. As Commanding General, Grant worked closely with President Abraham Lincoln to lead the Union Army to victory over the Confederacy in the American Civil War and he implemented Congressional Reconstruction, often at odds with President Andrew Johnson. His presidency has often criticized for tolerating corruption and for the severe economic depression in his second term. Grant graduated in 1843 from the United States Military Academy at West Point, after the war he married Julia Boggs Dent in 1848, their marriage producing four children. Grant initially retired from the Army in 1854 and he struggled financially in civilian life. When the Civil War began in 1861, he rejoined the U. S. Army, in 1862, Grant took control of Kentucky and most of Tennessee, and led Union forces to victory in the Battle of Shiloh, earning a reputation as an aggressive commander. He incorporated displaced African American slaves into the Union war effort, in July 1863, after a series of coordinated battles, Grant defeated Confederate armies and seized Vicksburg, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River and dividing the Confederacy in two. After his victories in the Chattanooga Campaign, Lincoln promoted him to lieutenant general, Grant confronted Robert E. Lee in a series of bloody battles, trapping Lees army in their defense of Richmond. Grant coordinated a series of devastating campaigns in other theaters, as well, in April 1865, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox, effectively ending the war. Historians have hailed Grants military genius, and his strategies are featured in history textbooks. After the Civil War, Grant led the armys supervision of Reconstruction in the former Confederate states and he also used the army to build the Republican Party in the South. After the disenfranchisement of some former Confederates, Republicans gained majorities, in his second term, the Republican coalitions in the South splintered and were defeated one by one as redeemers regained control using coercion and violence. In May 1875, Grant authorized his Secretary of Treasury Benjamin Bristow to shut down and his peace policy with the Indians initially reduced frontier violence, but is best known for the Great Sioux War of 1876. Grant responded to charges of corruption in executive offices more than any other 19th Century president and he appointed the first Civil Service Commission and signed legislation ending the corrupt moiety system. In foreign policy, Grant sought to trade and influence while remaining at peace with the world. His administration successfully resolved the Alabama claims by the Treaty of Washington with Great Britain, Grant avoided war with Spain over the Virginius Affair, but Congress rejected his attempted annexation of the Dominican Republic. His administration implemented a standard and sought to strengthen the dollar. Grant left office in 1877 and embarked on a two-year diplomatic world tour that captured the nations attention, in 1880, Grant was unsuccessful in obtaining the Republican presidential nomination for a third term
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Rear admiral (United States)
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Rear admiral in the United States refers to two different ranks of commissioned officers — one-star flag officers and two-star flag officers. By contrast, in most nations, the rear admiral refers to an officer of two-star rank. The abbreviation for personnel from the USN, USCG, and NOAA is RDML, whereas for the USPHS, Rear admiral ranks above captain and below rear admiral. Rear admiral is equivalent to the rank of general in the other uniformed services. In the United States uniformed services, rear admiral replaced the rank of commodore in 1985, Rear admiral ranks above rear admiral and below vice admiral. Rear admiral is equivalent to the rank of general in the other uniformed services. It is the highest permanent rank during peacetime in the uniformed services, all higher ranks are temporary ranks and linked to their specific commands or office and expire with the expiration of their term of command or office. Before the American Civil War, the American Navy had resisted creating the rank of admiral, instead, they preferred the term flag officer, in order to distinguish the rank from the traditions of the European navies. During the American Civil War, The US Congress honored David Glasgow Farraguts successful assault on the city of New Orleans by creating the rank of admiral on July 16,1862. During World War II, the U. S. Navy, by the end of the war, all incumbents had been advanced to the rank of two-star rear admiral and the commodore rank was eliminated in both services. Lower-half rear admirals were promoted to full rear admirals, or upper half status. However, both categories of rear admiral wore two-star insignia, an issue that was a source of consternation to the other services. Although not flag officers, these officers were entitled to a blue and white command pennant containing the initials. 97–86 expanded commodore from a title to a permanent grade by creating the one-star rank of commodore admiral. After only 11 months, the rank was reverted to just commodore, however, this caused issues with the Navy due to the difficulty in discriminating those commodores who were flag officers from commodores who were senior captains in certain command positions. 99–145 renamed commodore to the current grade of rear admiral effective on November 8,1985, up until 1981, all rear admirals wore two stars on their shoulder bars and rank insignia. Since then, rear admirals wear one star while rear admirals wear two, verbal address remains rear admiral for both ranks, on correspondence, where the rear admirals rank is spelled out, the acronym and follows the rear admirals rank title to distinguish between one and two stars. The flags of restricted line officers and staff officers have blue stars on a white field
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John B. Hamilton
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John B. Hamilton was an American physician and soldier. He was appointed the second Surgeon General of the United States from 1879 to 1891, Hamilton was born on at Otter Creek Township, Jersey County, Illinois, near the present town of Otterville. He was educated at the Hamilton School, operated by his family, the following year, Hamilton enlisted in G Company, 61st Illinois Regiment. After the close of the Civil War, he attended Rush Medical College in Chicago, in 1876, the 24-year-old Hamilton sat for the first examination for entrance into MHS, passed with flying colors, and was commissioned as an Assistant Surgeon on Oct 21,1876. His talent in public health practice revealed itself early, during an 1877 assignment to the Boston Marine Hospital at Chelsea, changing land use in the area had blocked hospital sewage from draining properly, causing unexpected outbreaks of infectious disease among patients. Hamilton resolved the crisis successfully by directing a renovation of the drainage and sewage systems. On April 3,1879 Hamilton was appointed Supervising Surgeon General, succeeding fellow Army veteran and Chicagoan Dr. John Woodworth, the first Supervising Surgeon. That MHS outlived the National Board of Health and emerged in the 1890s reinvigorated is a testament to Hamiltons skills as a negotiator as well as a bureaucrat. Sanitary cordons, or quarantine, were the response to yellow fever, to block the progress of disease believed to be conveyed not only on boats and foot traffic. Advocates of a National Board of Health, including Army Surgeon John Shaw Billings, were spurred to action by the insufficient funding allotted to the Quarantine Act of 1878. Congress recognized Hamiltons leadership and in 1882 and 1883 awarded MHS a $100,000 fund for investigating epidemics, Joseph J. Kinyoun and his staff were applying the new science of bacteriology to examine cholera. In the end, the National Board of Health lost both funding and support from Congress, which gave the Boards enlarged authorities, and its quarantine stations, issues surrounding the practice of quarantine drove Hamiltons work in public health. It was no coincidence that the Hygienic Laboratory began in an attic at Staten Islands Marine Hospital, near Ellis Island, earlier on, Hamilton had established a Marine Hospital on Bedloes Island, future site of the Statue of Liberty. Although MHS would not receive authority to issue domestic quarantines until 1893, Hamilton. On the request of his successor, Surgeon General Walter Wyman, Hamilton also returned to New York during the 1892 cholera pandemic, Hamilton made limited progress with the Congress realizing Woodworths reform plans to set MHS on sound fiscal and professional moorings. Hamilton was recommissioned as a Surgeon and assigned to Chicagos Marine Hospital, Hamilton led a full professional life, serving as a Professor of Surgery at his alma mater, Rush Medical College, and as editor of the new Journal of the American Medical Association. He would end his days at the hospital, dying there on December 24,1898, office of Public Health and Science. Office of the Surgeon General, John B. Hamilton, U. S. Department of Health and Human Services
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