1.
Suriname Air Force
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The Suriname Air Force or Surinam Air Force in Dutch called the Surinaamse Luchtmacht is the air component of the National Army of Suriname. Upon independence in 1975, the Military of Suriname was turned into the Surinaamse Krijgsmacht, on February 25,1980, a group of 16 junior SKM officers overthrew the Government. Subsequently, the SKM was rebranded as Nationaal Leger, National Army, in 1982 a small air arm was formed within the Suriname defense force called Surinaamse Luchtmacht in short also called LUMA. The first military aircraft of the air force was a Hughes 500 - Model 369D helicopter, simply registered SAF-100. Unfortunately the aircraft was written off in March 1982 killing all four occupants, registered with the numbers SAF-001, SAF-002, SAF-003 and SAF-004. Later on during the decade a Cessna 172 Skyhawk, a Cessna 206, the first official Surinam Air Force Commander from 1983 until 1989 was air force pilot lieutenant Eddie Alenso Savalie Djoe. He was one of the victims of the Surinam Airways Flight 764 accident in June 1989. In the same year also three Pilatus PC-7s were ordered in Switzerland for COIN missions, one of the Alouettes crashed and both delivered PC-7s were returned to Switzerland but one was later re-delivered. In 1987 a Bell 205 Iroquois was acquired from Venezuela and used as a gunship for five years prior to sale to the US as N6594S in 1991. It made a crash in July 1987 due to a mechanical failure killing the American pilot Billy Pearson, seriously injuring the American mechanic, the helicopter was later repaired and back in action. Two CASA 212-400s Aviocar transports Garret AiResearch TPE331-10HR turbo-prop engined aircraft were delivered in 1999 during the presidency of Jules Wijdenbosch, one of these two Spanish built CASA 212-400s was a Maritime Patrol Aircraft version which was modified for the maritime patrol role with a Bendix RDR-1500 surveillance radar. These two aircraft were bought for patrol & transport duties, fishery protection along the sea border, lack of spares and funding has however hampered maintenance and sometimes grounding much of the SAF fleet. Three single engined Indian HAL Chetak helicopters were ordered in 2009, in a deal worth US$13.4 million with Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, facilitated through a line of credit from India. The deal was rumoured to include the more modern twin engined HAL Dhruv helicopters. On 26 December 2012 ten technical personnel of the Suriname Air Force left to India to be trained to become certified helicopter mechanics, in 2014 eight helicopter pilots from the Suriname Air Force were trained on operating the HAL Chetak helicopters in Bangalore, India. In 2014 it was announced that Surinames order for helicopters from India was in fact for HAL Chetak, so rumours aside by the end of January 2015 the three Indian Chetak helicopters were assembled and delivered in Suriname as SAF-H001, SAF-H002 & SAF-H003. These registrations later changed to SAF-153, SAF-303 and SAF-811 when operational training started, the plan is to have one helicopter each based at the city of Paramaribo, Nickerie and Albina. On the same day and occasion the Minister announced that a de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter was about to strengthen the airfleet of the Suriname Air Force shortly with pilots already in training
2.
President of Suriname
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The President of the Republic of Suriname is, in accordance with the Constitution of 1987, the head of state and head of government of Suriname, and commander-in-chief of Suriname National Army. The current President is Dési Bouterse, a army officer. He is affiliated with the National Democratic Party, Bouterse was elected on 19 July 2010 and inaugurated on 12 August at the Anthony Nesty Sporthal. The office of President was created upon independence from the Netherlands in 1975, until 1987, the role was largely ceremonial. The first officeholder was Dr. Johan Ferrier, a schoolteacher and he resigned as president in August 1980, several months after a coup détat. From then until 1988, the titular Presidents were essentially army-installed puppets of Lt. Col. Bouterse, democracy was restored in 1988, the year after the adoption of the constitution, in which the duties and responsibilities of the president were included. On December 24,1990, two days after Bouterses resignation as commander, the army called president Ramsewak Shankar to inform him that he. Police Chief and Acting Commander of the army, Ivan Graanoogst was appointed Acting President, on December 27,1990, Johannes Kraag became the president. Since 1991, the president is elected democratically, the President and a Vice President are elected by the National Assembly to a five-year mandate and are accountable to the Assembly. During his time in office, the President must forfeit any additional posts in politics or business, a candidate must be a Surinamese national who is at least 30 years of age. A candidate must win at least two-thirds of the votes in the Assembly to be elected, if no candidate wins two-thirds after three rounds, the vote then goes to the United Peoples Congress, composed of the Assembly and local government officials. In this case, a majority is required. The President is vested with extensive functional powers, the President names and dismisses ministers, signs bills, and names and dismisses diplomatic staff. He declares war and states of emergency with the ratification of the National Assembly and he concludes foreign treaties and agreements, again with the assent of the Assembly. He also exercises ceremonial duties such as conferring awards, receiving foreign diplomats, and granting pardons
3.
Statute of the Kingdom of the Netherlands
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It is the leading legal document of the Kingdom. The Constitution of the Netherlands and the Basic Laws of the three countries are legally subordinate to the Charter. The first version of the Charter, which described the relationship between the Netherlands, Suriname, and the Netherlands Antilles, was signed by Queen Juliana on 15 December 1954, the four countries mentioned in the Charter are the Netherlands, Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten. Until 1954 the Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands was the document of the Kingdom. It remains, however, the document in which, according to Article 5 of the Charter and these institutions, as regulated in the Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands, govern the Netherlands proper. The Charter itself gives additional regulations for these institutions for the purposes of the Kingdom as a whole, the Netherlands is the only one of the four countries which conducts its business internally and externally as the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Any matter not explicitly mentioned to be an affair of the Kingdom that involves Aruba, Curaçao, Affairs of the Kingdom that do not involve Aruba, Curaçao and/or Sint Maarten are dealt with according to the provisions of the Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands. In practice by the Netherlands alone, in its capacity as the Kingdom of the Netherlands, responsibility for affairs of the Kingdom that involve Aruba, Curaçao and/or Sint Maarten rests with the Council of Ministers of the Kingdom. In addition, the Charter contains provisions on mutual assistance and co-operation between the four countries, all four countries are, per the Charter, obliged to promote the realisation of human rights and good governance. The Charter can only be amended with the approval of all four countries, the Netherlands Antilles were disbanded on October 10,2010. The idea of the Netherlands Antilles as a state never enjoyed the support of all of the islands. Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles in 1986, the desire for secession had also been strong in Sint Maarten. Aruba Koninkrijksdag Netherlands Antilles Sint Maarten Curaçao Website of the Dutch ministry of Internal Affairs Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands
4.
Royal Netherlands Army
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The Royal Netherlands Army is the land forces element of the military of the Netherlands. The Royal Netherlands Army was raised on 9 January 1814—however, its origins back to 1572. Therefore, the Netherlands has one of the oldest standing armies in the world, dating back to the 16th century. It fought during the Napoleonic Wars, World War II, the Indonesian War of Independence, Korean War,2 of 3 Dutch Army Brigades are now under German Command. In 2014 the 11th Airmobile Brigade, was integrated into the German Division of fast forces, also the Dutch 43rd Mechanized Brigade, will be integrated into the 1st Panzer Division of the German army. With the integration starting at the beginning of 2016, and the unit becoming operational at the end of 2019, the Dutch-German military cooperation are seen as an example for setting up a European defense union. The Royal Netherlands Army was raised on 9 January 1814, but its origins back to 1572. Therefore, the Netherlands operates one of the worlds oldest standing armies, the Staatse Leger was replaced by the army of the Batavian Republic in 1795, which in turn was replaced by the army of the Kingdom of Holland in 1806. It fought alongside the French in the Anglo-Russian Invasion of Holland in 1799 and several campaigns in Germany, Austria, the independent army was disbanded in 1810 when Napoleon decided to reunite Holland into France. The army units became part of the Grande Armée, the present day French 126th Infantry Regiment has Dutch origins. Dutch army elements participated in the French invasion of Russia in 1812, most notable were the actions of the Pontonniers company under Captain Benthien at the Berezina River. New research points out that, contrary to what is currently believed, an independent Dutch army was resurrected by the new Kingdom of the United Netherlands in 1814, following the Orangist uprising against Napoleonic rule in 1813. This new force, the Netherlands Mobile Army, formed a part of the allied army during the Hundred Days Campaign that culminated in the Battle of Waterloo. Units such as Baron Chassés were key in securing victory for the allied army, since 1814, the army have been involved in several military conflicts (Waterloo campaign 1815, several colonial wars 1825–1925, and the Belgian Revolution 1830–1832. At the beginning of the Second World War, the I Corps was the strategic reserve and was located in the Vesting Holland, around The Hague, Leiden, Haarlem. The Royal Netherlands Army was defeated in May 1940 and only began to rise again with the formation of the Princess Irene Brigade Group in exile, in the Far East, the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army was defeated by the Japanese in 1942, few elements managed to escape. The army then fought in the Indonesian War of Independence 1945–1949, in Korea in 1950-53, the Royal Netherlands Navy and an army battalion were sent to Korea between 1950 and 1954. In total,3,972 Soldiers were sent to fight the war in Korea,123 died in combat, the I Corps stood watch alongside its NATO allies in Germany during the Cold War
5.
Suriname
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Suriname, officially known as the Republic of Suriname, is a sovereign state on the northeastern Atlantic coast of South America. It is bordered by French Guiana to the east, Guyana to the west, at just under 165,000 square kilometers, it is the smallest country in South America. Suriname has a population of approximately 566,000, most of live on the countrys north coast, in and around the capital and largest city. Long inhabited by cultures of indigenous tribes, Suriname was explored and contested by European powers before coming under Dutch rule in the late 17th century. In 1954, the country one of the constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Its indigenous peoples have been active in claiming land rights and working to preserve their traditional lands. Suriname is considered to be a culturally Caribbean country, and is a member of the Caribbean Community, while Dutch is the official language of government, business, media, and education, Sranan, an English-based creole language, is a widely used lingua franca. Suriname is the territory outside Europe where Dutch is spoken by a majority of the population. The people of Suriname are among the most diverse in the world, spanning a multitude of ethnic, religious, and linguistic groups. This area was occupied by cultures of indigenous peoples long before European contact, remnants of which can be found in petroglyph sites at Werehpai. The name Suriname may derive from a Taino indigenous people called Surinen, British settlers, who founded the first European colony at Marshalls Creek along the Suriname River, spelled the name as Surinam. When the territory was taken over by the Dutch, it part of a group of colonies known as Dutch Guiana. The official spelling of the countrys English name was changed from Surinam to Suriname in January 1978, a notable example is Surinames national airline, Surinam Airways. The older English name is reflected in the English pronunciation, /ˈsʊrᵻnæm/ or /ˈsʊrᵻnɑːm/, in Dutch, the official language of Suriname, the pronunciation is, with the main stress on the third syllable and a schwa terminal vowel. Indigenous settlement of Suriname dates back to 3,000 BC, the largest tribes were the Arawak, a nomadic coastal tribe that lived from hunting and fishing. They were the first inhabitants in the area, the Carib also settled in the area and conquered the Arawak by using their superior sailing ships. They settled in Galibi at the mouth of the Marowijne River, while the larger Arawak and Carib tribes lived along the coast and savanna, smaller groups of indigenous peoples lived in the inland rainforest, such as the Akurio, Trió, Warrau, and Wayana. Beginning in the 16th century, French, Spanish, and English explorers visited the area, a century later, Dutch and English settlers established plantation colonies along the many rivers in the fertile Guiana plains
6.
Netherlands Antilles
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The Netherlands Antilles was a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The country consisted of several island territories located in the Caribbean Sea, the islands were also informally known as the Dutch Antilles. The country came into being in 1954 as the successor of the Dutch colony of Curaçao and Dependencies. All the island territories that belonged to the Netherlands Antilles remain part of the kingdom today, as a group they are still commonly called the Dutch Caribbean, regardless of their legal status. The islands of the Netherlands Antilles are all part of the Lesser Antilles island chain, within this group, the country was spread over two smaller island groups, a northern group and a western group. No part of the country was in the southern Windward Islands and this island sub-group was located in the eastern Caribbean Sea, to the east of Puerto Rico. There were three islands, collectively known as the SSS islands, Sint Maarten Saba Sint Eustatius and they lie approximately 800–900 kilometers north-east of the ABC Islands. This island sub-group was located in the southern Caribbean Sea off the north coast of Venezuela, the Leeward islands are subject to hurricanes in the summer months, while those islands located in the Leeward Antilles are warmer and drier. Spanish-sponsored explorers discovered both the leeward and windward island groups, however, the Spanish Crown only founded settlements in the leeward islands. In the 17th century the islands were conquered by the Dutch West India Company, from the last quarter of the 17th century, the group consisted of six undisputedly Dutch islands, Curaçao, Aruba, Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, Saba and Sint Maarten. In the past, Anguilla, the present-day British Virgin Islands, St. Croix, the various islands were united as a single country — the Netherlands Antilles — in 1954. The country was dissolved on 10 October 2010, in the second half of the 18th century Sint Eustatius became the commercial hub of the north-eastern Caribbean, earning the nickname the Golden Rock. From 1815 onwards Curaçao and Dependencies formed a colony of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, slavery was abolished in 1863, and in 1865 a government regulation for Curaçao was enacted that allowed for some very limited autonomy for the colony. Although this regulation was replaced by a constitution in 1936, the changes to the government structure remained superficial, the island of Curaçao was hit hard by the abolition of slavery in 1863. Its prosperity was restored in the early 20th century with the construction of oil refineries to service the newly discovered Venezuelan oil fields, colonial rule ended after the conclusion of the Second World War. In May 1948 a new constitution for the territory entered into force, among other things, universal suffrage was introduced. The territory was also renamed Netherlands Antilles, after the Dutch constitution was revised in 1948, a new interim Constitution of the Netherlands Antilles was enacted in February 1951. A consolidated version of this remained in force until the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles in 2010
7.
Royal Netherlands Navy
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The Royal Netherlands Navy is the navy of the Netherlands. Its origins date back to the Eighty Years War, the war of independence from the House of Habsburg who ruled over the Habsburg Netherlands. The navy of the later Batavian Republic and Kingdom of Holland played a role in the Napoleonic Wars. After World War II, the Royal Netherlands Navy has taken part in peacekeeping operations. The main naval base is located at Den Helder, North Holland, secondary naval bases are located at Amsterdam, Vlissingen, Texel, and Willemstad. Netherlands Marine Corps barracks are found in Rotterdam, Doorn, Suffisant on Curaçao, officers of the Netherlands Navy are trained at the Koninklijk Instituut voor de Marine, which is part of the Nederlandse Defensie Academie in Den Helder. Around 100–150 people start training every year, an international prefix for Dutch navy ships is HNLMS. HNMS is also used, although this can refer to Royal Norwegian Navy ships. The Dutch navy itself uses the prefixes Zr, ms. when a king is on the throne, and Hr. Ms. when there is a queen, the modern Netherlands Navy dates its founding to a statute of admiralty issued by Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I on January 8,1488. During the 17th century the Dutch navy was one of the most powerful navies in the world, as an organization, the navy of the Dutch Republic consisted of five separate admiralties, each with its own ships, personnel, shipyards, command structures and revenues. Around the world Dutch naval units were responsible for transporting troops, for example during Operation Dynamo at Dunkirk and on D-Day, they escorted convoys, one Dutch light cruiser that was under construction was captured in its shipyard by Nazi Germany. Both British and American forces believed that the Dutch admiral in charge of the force was being far too aggressive. Later in the war, a few Dutch submarines scored some remarkable hits, after the war, the relations between the Netherlands and its colonies changed dramatically. The establishment of the Republic of Indonesia, just two days after the Japanese surrender, thwarted the Dutch plans for restoring colonial authority and it took four years of war before the Netherlands acknowledged the independence of Indonesia. Part of the Dutch Navy was next stationed in Netherlands New Guinea until that and this followed a campaign of infiltrations by the Indonesian National Armed Forces, supported by modern equipment from the Soviet Union, that was nevertheless successfully repulsed by the Dutch navy. These infiltrations took place after the order of President Sukarno to integrate the territory as an Indonesian province. With the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, the focus was on the army and air force
8.
Non-commissioned officer
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A non-commissioned officer or noncommissioned officer is a military officer who has not earned a commission. Such is also called sub-officer in some countries, Non-commissioned officers, in the English-speaking world, usually obtain their position of authority by promotion through the enlisted ranks. In contrast, commissioned officers hold higher ranks than NCOs, have more legal responsibilities, are paid more, commissioned officers usually earn their commissions without having risen through the enlisted ranks. Mustang is a term in the United States Armed Forces used to refer to a commissioned officer who began his or her career as an enlisted service member. The NCO corps usually includes all grades of corporal and sergeant, in some countries, the naval equivalent includes some or all grades of petty officer, although not all navies class their petty officers as NCOs. There are different classes of non-commissioned officer, including junior non-commissioned officers, the non-commissioned officer corps is often referred to as the backbone of the armed services, as they are the primary and most visible leaders for most military personnel. Additionally, they are the leaders responsible for executing a military organizations mission. NCO training and education typically includes leadership and management as well as service-specific, senior NCOs are considered the primary link between enlisted personnel and the commissioned officers in a military organization. Their advice and guidance is important for junior officers, who begin their careers in a position of authority. In the Australian Army, Lance corporals and corporals are classified as junior NCOs, while sergeants, in the New South Wales Police Force, NCOs perform supervisory and coordination roles. The ranks of probationary constable through to leading senior constable are referred to as constables, all NCOs within the NSW Police are given a warrant of appointment under the Commissioners hand and seal. All officers within the Australian Defence Force Cadets are non-commissioned, ADFC officers are appointed by the Director-General of their respective branch. In the Canadian Forces, the Queens Regulations and Orders formally defined a non-commissioned officer as A Canadian Forces member holding the rank of Sergeant or Corporal. In the 1990s, the term non-commissioned member was introduced to all ranks in the Canadian Forces from recruit to chief warrant officer. In the Royal Canadian Navy, however, the definition of NCO reflects the international use of the term. Junior Non-commissioned officers mess and billet with privates and seamen, their mess is usually referred to as the junior ranks mess, as a group, NCOs rank above privates and below warrant officers. The term non-commissioned members includes these ranks, in the Finnish Defence Force, NCOs includes all ranks from corporal to sergeant major. Ranks of lance corporal and leading seaman are considered not to be NCO ranks and this ruling applies to all branches of service and also to the troops of the Border Guard
9.
Sergeant major
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Sergeant major is a senior non-commissioned rank or appointment in many militaries around the world. In Commonwealth countries, the degrees of sergeant major are appointments held by warrant officers. In the United States, there are various grades of sergeant major. In 16th century Spain, the mayor was a general officer. He commanded an infantry, and ranked about third in the armys command structure. In the 17th century, sergeant majors appeared in individual regiments and these were field officers, third in command of their regiments, with a role similar to the older, army-level sergeant majors. The older position became known as sergeant major general to distinguish it, over time, the term sergeant was dropped from both titles, giving rise to the modern ranks of major and major general. It is about time that the U. S. and British histories of the title diverge. A sergeant major is an appointment, not a rank and it is normally held by the senior warrant officer of an army or marine unit. These appointments are made at several levels, for example, the warrant officer of a company, battery or squadron. The title normally consists of the title followed by sergeant major. A sergeant major of a regiment or battalion is known as a sergeant major. In the Australian Defence Force, in addition to CSMs and RSMs, Sergeant majors are normally addressed as sir or maam by subordinates, and by Mr or Ms by superiors, with the term RSM/CSM/etc reserved for the sergeant majors commanding officer. In the British Armed Forces, the plural is sergeant majors, the appointment of sergeant major is given to the senior non-commissioned member within sub-units, units and some formations of the Canadian Army. The regimental sergeant-major is the sergeant major in a battalion-sized unit, including infantry battalions and artillery, armoured, engineer. This appointment is held by a chief warrant officer. The same position can also be held by a warrant officer in anticipation of promotion. In artillery batteries, this appointment is known as battery sergeant-major, while in units with a cavalry heritage, company sergeant-majors and their equivalents are normally addressed as Sergeant-Major or by rank
10.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
11.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
12.
China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
13.
Brazil
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Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the worlds fifth-largest country by area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to wildlife, a variety of ecological systems. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, in 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a state governed under a constitutional monarchy. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, the country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup détat. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, Brazils current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, Brazils economy is the worlds ninth-largest by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by GDP as of 2015. A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 had one of the worlds fastest growing economies, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition. Brazils national development bank plays an important role for the economic growth. Brazil is a member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP. Brazil is a power in Latin America and a middle power in international affairs. One of the worlds major breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years and it is likely that the word Brazil comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an ember, formed from Latin brasa and the suffix -il. As brazilwood produces a red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name, early sailors sometimes also called it the Land of Parrots. In the Guarani language, a language of Paraguay, Brazil is called Pindorama
14.
Light infantry
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Light infantry are soldiers whose job was to provide a skirmishing screen ahead of the main body of infantry, harassing and delaying the enemy advance. Light infantry was distinct from medium, heavy or line infantry, heavy infantry were dedicated primarily to fighting in tight formations that were the core of large battles. Heavy infantry originally had heavier arms and more armour than light infantry, as with so called light infantry of later periods, the term more adequately describes the role of such infantry rather than the actual weight of their equipment. Peltast equipment, for example, grew steadily heavier at the time as hoplite equipment grew lighter. It was the fact that peltasts fought in order as skirmishers that made them light infantry. Early regular armies of the era frequently relied on irregulars to perform the duties of light infantry skirmishers. In the 18th and 19th centuries most infantry regiments or battalions had a company as an integral part of its composition. Its members were often smaller, more men with high shooting ability and capability of using initiative. They did not usually fight in disciplined ranks as did the infantry but often in widely dispersed groups. They were expected to avoid melee engagements unless necessary, and would fight ahead of the line to harass the enemy before falling back to the main position. Light infantry sometimes carried lighter muskets than ordinary infantrymen while others carried rifles and these became designated as rifle regiments in Britain and Jäger regiments in German speaking Europe. In France, during the Napoleonic Wars, light infantry were called voltigeurs and chasseurs, the Austrian army had Grenzer regiments from the middle of the 18th century, who originally served as irregular militia skirmishers recruited from mountainous frontier areas. Light infantry officers sometimes carried muskets or rifles, rather than pistols, orders were sent by bugle or whistle instead of drum. Some armies, including the British and French, recruited whole regiments of light infantry, by the late 19th century the concept of fighting in formation was on the wane due to advancements in weaponry and the distinctions between light and heavy infantry began to disappear. Essentially, all infantry became light infantry in operational practice, some regiments retained the name and customs, but there was in effect little difference between them and other infantry regiments. On the eve of World War I the British Army included seven light infantry regiments, today the term light denotes, in the United States table of organization and equipment, units lacking heavy weapons and armor or with a reduced vehicle footprint. At its height, this included the 6th Infantry Division, 7th Infantry Division, 10th Mountain Division, 25th Infantry Division, operation Just Cause is often cited as proof of concept. Almost 30,000 U. S. Forces, mostly light, during the 1990s, the concept of purely light forces in the US military came under scrutiny due to their decreased lethality and survivability
15.
Battalion
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A battalion is a military unit. The use of the term varies by nationality and branch of service. Typically a battalion consists of 300 to 800 soldiers and is divided into a number of companies, a battalion is typically commanded by a lieutenant colonel. In some countries the word battalion is associated with the infantry, the term was first used in Italian as battaglione no later than the 16th century. It derived from the Italian word for battle, battaglia, the first use of battalion in English was in the 1580s, and the first use to mean part of a regiment is from 1708. The battalion must, of course, have a source of re-supply to enable it to sustain operations for more than a few days, the battalion is usually part of a regiment, brigade, or group, depending on the organizational model used by that service. The bulk of a battalions companies are often homogeneous with respect to type, a battalion includes a headquarters company and some sort of combat service support, typically organized within a combat support company. The term battalion is used in the British Army Infantry and some including the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers. It was formerly used in the Royal Engineers, and was used in the now defunct Royal Army Ordnance Corps. Other corps usually use the term regiment instead, an infantry battalion is numbered ordinarily within its regiment. It normally has a company, support company, and three rifle companies. Each company is commanded by a major, the officer commanding, the HQ company contains signals, quartermaster, catering, intelligence, administration, pay, training, operations and medical elements. The support company usually contains anti-tank, machine gun, mortar, pioneer, mechanised units usually have an attached light aid detachment of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers to perform field repairs on vehicles and equipment. A British battalion in theatre during World War II had around 845 men in it, and, as of 2012, with successive rounds of cutbacks after the war, many infantry regiments were reduced to a single battalion. A battalion group or battlegroup consists of a battalion or armoured regiment with sub-units detached from other military units acting under the command of the battalion commander. In the Canadian Forces, most battalions are reserve units of between 100–200 soldiers that include an operationally ready, field-deployable component of approximately a half-company apiece, the nine regular force infantry battalions each contain three or four rifle companies and one or two support companies. Canadian battalions are generally commanded by lieutenant-colonels, though smaller reserve battalions may be commanded by majors, with the Dutch artillery units, the equivalent of a battalion is called an afdeling. Combat companies consist of infantry, combat engineers, or tanks, in the latter case, the unit is called an eskadron, which translates roughly to squadron
16.
Special forces
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Special forces and special operations forces are military or police units trained to conduct special operations. The term special forces in the United States refers to the U. S. Armys forces, in Russian-speaking countries special forces are typically called spetsnaz, an acronym for special purpose. Likewise, Russian speakers refer to special forces of nations as spetsnaz, for example. Special Forces would be referred to as amerikanski spetsnaz in Russian, other significant roles lay in reconnaissance, providing essential intelligence from near or among the enemy and increasingly in combating irregular forces, their infrastructure and activities. Hamilcar Barca in Sicily had specialized troops trained to launch several offensives per day, in the late Roman or early Byzantine period, Roman fleets used small, fast, camouflaged ships crewed by selected men for scouting and commando missions. In Japan, ninjas were used for reconnaissance, espionage and as assassins, bodyguards or fortress guards, during the Napoleonic wars, rifle and sapper units were formed that held specialised roles in reconnaissance and skirmishing and were not committed to the formal battle lines. The British Indian Army deployed two special forces during their wars, the Corps of Guides formed in 1846 and the Gurkha Scouts. During the Second Boer War the British Army felt the need for specialised units became most apparent. This unit was formed in 1900 by Lord Lovat and early on reported to an American, Major Frederick Russell Burnham, after the war, Lovats Scouts went on to formally become the British Armys first sniper unit. Additionally, the Bushveldt Carbineers, formed in 1901, can be seen as an unconventional warfare unit. Modern special forces emerged during the Second World War, in 1940, the British Commandos were formed following Winston Churchills call for specially trained troops of the hunter class, who can develop a reign of terror down the enemy coast. A staff officer, Lieutenant Colonel Dudley Clarke, had already submitted such a proposal to General Sir John Dill, Dill, aware of Churchills intentions, approved Clarkes proposal and on 23 June 1940, the first Commando raid took place. The Special Service Brigade was quickly expanded to 12 units which became known as Commandos, each Commando had a lieutenant colonel as the commanding officer and numbered around 450 men. In December 1940 a Middle East Commando depot was formed with the responsibility of training and supplying reinforcements for the Commando units in that theatre, in February 1942 the Commando training depot at Achnacarry in the Scottish Highlands was established by Brigadier Charles Haydon. Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Charles Vaughan, the Commando depot was responsible for training complete units, the training regime was for the time innovative and physically demanding, and far in advance of normal British Army training. The depot staff were all hand picked, with the ability to any of the volunteers. Training and assessment started immediately on arrival, with the volunteers having to complete an 8-mile march with all their equipment from the Spean Bridge railway station to the commando depot, exercises were conducted using live ammunition and explosives to make training as realistic as possible. Physical fitness was a prerequisite, with cross country runs and boxing matches to improve fitness, speed and endurance marches were conducted up and down the nearby mountain ranges and over assault courses that included a zip-line over Loch Arkaig, all while carrying arms and full equipment
17.
Military police
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Military police are law enforcement agencies connected with, or part of, the military of a state. In the Second World War, the police of the German Army still used a metal gorget as an emblem. Naval police members are sometimes called masters-at-arms and shore patrol, Military police in Brazil has two meanings. There are provost corps for each of the Brazilian Armed Forces, Army Police for the Army, Navy Police for the Navy, the second type are the civilian preventative police, with military organization comparable to gendarmerie, called the Military Police. Each State has their own Military Police, there is also a joint National Public Security Force, created in 1999. This force is composed of the most qualified State Military Police personnel from all the states and they have the power to arrest anyone who is subject to the Code of Service Discipline, regardless of position or rank under the National Defence Act. If in fact a crime is committed on or in relation to DND property or assets, MP have the power to arrest and charge the offender, military or civilian, under the Criminal Code. It is important to note though that the purpose of the CFMP is not to replace the job of a police officer. MP also have the power to enforce the Provincial Highway Traffic Acts on all military bases in Canada pursuant to the Government Property Traffic Regulations, in Colombia, MPs are very common. They can be seen guarding closed roads, museums, embassies, government buildings, in the National Army of Colombia they are assigned to the 37 Military Police Battalions, wearing green uniforms with the military police helmet. A Naval Police battalion is in service in the Colombian Marine Corps, Each branch of the military of the United States maintains its own police force. The U. S. CGIS primarily investigates and charges those in its own population with serious crimes, such as rape, assault or forgery, Navy, designated as Naval Security Force, primarily responsible for law enforcement and force protection. NSF personnel are led by Naval commissioned officers from the Limited Duty Officer and Chief Warrant Officer communities, additionally, a host installations Security Force are augmented by Sailors on Temporary Assignment of Duty from their parent units, as part of the Auxiliary Security Force. Prior to the 1970s, Master-at-Arms and Shore Patrol were used synonymously to refer to Sailors assigned to law enforcement. Air Force Security Forces —United States Air Force Each service also maintains uniformed civilian police departments and they are referred to as Department of Defense Police. These police fall under each directorate they work for within the United States Department of Defense, for example, the Department of the Air Force Police operate under the Air Provost Marshal. The police officers duties are similar to those of civilian police officers. They enforce the Uniform Code of Military Justice, federal and state laws, the United States Constabulary was a gendarmerie force used to secure and patrol the American Zone of West Germany immediately after World War II
18.
MD Helicopters MD 500
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The MD Helicopters MD500 series is an American family of light utility civilian and military helicopters. The MD500 was developed from the Hughes 500, a version of the US Armys OH-6A Cayuse/Loach. The series currently includes the MD 500E, MD 520N, the successful Hughes 500/MD500 series began life in response to a U. S. Army requirement for a light observation helicopter. Hughes Model 369 won the contest against competition from Bell and Hiller, the OH-6 Cayuse first flew in February 1963. The engine exhaust port is located at the end of the cabin pod underneath the tailboom and it has a short-diameter main rotor system and a short tail, giving it agile control response and is less susceptible to weather-cocking. Hughes won the U. S. Armys LOH contest with its OH-6 helicopter by submitting a very low and aggressive price per airframe. Due to rising prices, the U. S. Army later re-opened the contest, where Hughes offered the machine at a realistic price. OH-6 helicopters were ordered by the U. S. Army. Prior to the OH-6s first flight, Hughes announced it was developing a version, to be marketed as the Hughes 500, available in basic five-. A utility version with a powerful engine was offered as the 500U. The improved Hughes 500D became the model in 1976, with a more powerful engine, a T-tail, and a new five-blade main rotor. The 500D was replaced by the 500E from 1982 with a nose and various interior improvements, such as greater head-. The 530F was a powerful version of the 500E optimized for hot. McDonnell Douglas acquired Hughes Helicopters in January 1984, and from August 1985 the 500E and 530F were built as the MD 500E, in 2014 an MD530F performed airshow acrobatics, piloted by eighty-two-year-old Dennis Kenyon. Following the 1997 Boeing-McDonnell Douglas merger, Boeing sold the former MD civil helicopter lines to MD Helicopters in early 1999, Military variants are marketed under the MD500 Defender name. The MD 520N introduced a revolutionary advance in design, dispensing with a conventional anti-torque tail rotor in favor of the Hughes/McDonnell-Douglas-developed NOTAR system. Because the fan is enclosed in the tailboom, tail rotor noise—the major source of noise from most conventional helicopters—was significantly reduced. It also eliminated the vulnerable exposed tail rotor blades, eliminating the possibility of persons being injured or killed on the ground, the MD 530N was the first to fly, on December 29,1989, and the MD 520N first flew on May 1,1990
19.
Britten Norman
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Britten-Norman is a British aircraft manufacturer and aviation services provider beneficially owned by a consortium which includes two members of the Zawawi family from the Sultanate of Oman. The company is the independent commercial aircraft producer in the UK. Britten-Norman has sold more than 1,250 aircraft to customers in more than 120 countries, in addition to aircraft manufacturing, the company also performs maintenance, overhaul and repair work as well as performing sub-contract engineering and design work. The companys historic home is located at Bembridge on the Isle of Wight although airframes have been assembled under sub contract in Romania for more than 40 years, Romanian aircraft used to pass through Avions Fairey in Belgium to the UK for certification. Nowadays aircraft are manufactured in the UK at the companys Lee-on-the-Solent manufacturing facility at Daedalus Airfield, spare parts production continues at the Bembridge site with sub assemblies also being supplied from the Romanian facility. The company manufactures such aircraft as the Islander and the militarised Defender both of which are capable of short take-off and landing operations, the three-engined Trislander is still operating but is not currently being manufactured. The aircraft are used for inter-island schedules. Many modern Islanders/Defenders have been fitted with turbine rather than piston engines, some are employed on police or fishery patrol tasks, providing an efficient and roomy alternative to a twin-engined helicopter. Hampshire Constabulary that oversees matters on the Isle of Wight and across Hampshire was one of two police forces using Defender aircraft. In the UK the Greater Manchester Police and Police Service of Northern Ireland use the Defender 4000, and the aircraft is used by the police in the Republic of Ireland. The British Army utilises both the version of the Islander as well as the Defender within its fixed-wing aircraft fleet. John Britten and Desmond Norman started developing crop-spraying equipment in the middle 1950s, after that, Britten and Norman turned their hand to aircraft design. Their first design was the Britten-Norman BN-1 Finibee, a light parasol wing aircraft. They pitched the design to several companies but found no one willing to produce the design. This brief developed into the BN-2 Islander, and the Britten-Norman company was formed to produce the aircraft, during the 1960s, Britten-Norman were involved in the development of hovercraft via their subsidiary Cushioncraft Ltd, their first craft, the CC1, was the worlds second hovercraft. Desmond Norman then designed a touring aircraft to compete with established types such as the Cessna 172. A single prototype of the BN-3 Nymph was built and flown in 1969, Norman set up his own company to build the plane, renamed the Freelance and produced components and fuselage sections for six aircraft. However, orders were not forthcoming and, following failure to win a military order for the Firecracker design
20.
Cessna 172
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The Cessna 172 Skyhawk is a four-seat, single-engine, high wing, fixed-wing aircraft made by the Cessna Aircraft Company. First flown in 1955, more 172s have been built any other aircraft. Measured by its longevity and popularity, the Cessna 172 is the most successful aircraft in history, Cessna delivered the first production model in 1956 and as of 2015, the company and its partners had built more than 43,000. The aircraft remains in production today, the Skyhawks main competitors have been the Beechcraft Musketeer and Grumman AA-5 series, the Piper Cherokee, and, more recently, the Diamond DA40 and Cirrus SR22. The Cessna 172 started life as a landing gear variant of the taildragger Cessna 170. In January 1955, Cessna flew an improved variant of the Cessna 170, a Continental O-300-A-powered Cessna 170C with larger elevators and a more angular tailfin. Although the variant was tested and certified, Cessna decided to modify it with a landing gear. To reduce the time and cost of certification, the type was added to the Cessna 170 type certificate as the Model 172, later, the 172 was given its own type certificate, 3A12. The 172 became a sales success, and over 1,400 were built in 1956. Early 172s were similar in appearance to the 170s, with the same straight aft fuselage and tall landing gear legs, although the 172 had a straight tailfin while the 170 had a rounded fin and rudder. In 1960, the 172A incorporated revised landing gear and the swept-back tailfin, the final aesthetic development, found in the 1963 172D and all later 172 models, was a lowered rear deck allowing an aft window. Cessna advertised this added rear visibility as Omni-Vision, production halted in the mid-1980s, but resumed in 1996 with the 160 hp Cessna 172R Skyhawk. Cessna supplemented this in 1998 with the 180 hp Cessna 172S Skyhawk SP, the Cessna 172 may be modified via a wide array of supplemental type certificates, including increased engine power and higher gross weights. Available STC engine modifications increase power from 180 to 210 hp, add constant-speed propellers, a Cessna 172 was used in 1958 to set the world record for flight endurance, the record still stands. On December 4,1958, Robert Timm and John Cook took off from McCarran Airfield in Las Vegas, Nevada, in a used Cessna 172, registration number N9172B. They landed back at McCarran Airfield on February 4,1959 after 64 days,22 hours,19 minutes and 5 seconds in flight, the flight was part of a fund-raising effort for the Damon Runyon Cancer Fund. Food and water were transferred by matching speeds with a car on a straight stretch of road in the desert. The drivers steered while a second person matched speeds with the aircraft with his foot on the accelerator pedal
21.
Cessna 206
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The family was originally developed from the popular retractable-gear Cessna 210 and is produced by Cessna. The lines combination of an engine, rugged construction and a large cabin has made these aircraft popular bush planes. Cessna describes the 206 as the sport-utility vehicle of the air and these airplanes are also used for aerial photography, skydiving and other utility purposes. They can also be equipped with floats, amphibious floats and skis, alternatively, they can be fitted with luxury appointments for use as a personal air transport. From 1962 to 2006 Cessna produced 8,509 aircraft in the 205,206 and 207 variants, the Cessna 205 was introduced late in 1962 as a 1963 model year. The six-seat aircraft was essentially a Cessna 210 with fixed landing gear and with changes to the crew and passenger door arrangement, the 205 retained the early 210’s engine cowling bulge, originally where the 210 stowed its nosewheel on retraction. This distinctive cowling was more streamlined on the later Cessna 206. The 205 is powered by a Continental IO-470-S engine producing 260 hp, the 205 was produced in only two model years -1963 and 1964 before being replaced in production by the Cessna 206. A total of 576 Cessna 205s were produced, the six-seat Model 206 was introduced as a 1964 model and was built until 1986, when Cessna halted production of its single-engined product line. It was then re-introduced in 1998 and remains in production in 2013, there were many sub-variants, including the U206, P206 all certified to CAR3 standards and later 206H certified to FAR Part 23. The total Model 206 production between 1964 and 2004 was 6,581 aircraft, the original 1964 model was the U206, powered by a 285 hp Continental IO-520-A. The “U” designation indicated “utility” and this model was equipped with a side door. There was a TU206 turbocharged version powered by the Continental TSIO-520-C engine producing 285 hp, after 1967 the turbo TU206 was powered by a TSIO-520-F of 300 hp. The extra 15 hp was obtained by turning the engine at a higher rpm, due to the large propeller diameter, the additional engine speed meant that the propeller tips were pushed to transonic speeds, which required much more power. From 1964 to 1969 the U206 was known as the “Super Skywagon”, from 1970 it was named the “Stationair”, a contraction of “Station Wagon of the Air”, which is a good description of the aircrafts intended role. Sub-variants were designated U206 to U206G, in 1977 the U206 had its engine upgraded to a Continental IO-520-F of 300 hp and the TU206 powerplant was changed to the TSIO-520-M producing 310 hp. Production of all versions of the U206 was halted in 1986 when Cessna stopped manufacturing all piston-engined aircraft, a total of 5,208 U206s had been produced. The P206 was added to the line in 1965, in this case the “P” stood for “people”, as the P206 had passenger doors similar to the Cessna 210 from which it was derived, on both sides
22.
Cessna T303 Crusader
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The Cessna T303 Crusader is an American six-place light twin-engined aircraft built by Cessna Aircraft Company. After market demand for four-place light twins declined, only one 303 Clipper was built before Cessna redesigned the aircraft as a six-seat twin. They also renamed the aircraft out of concern, since Pan Am Airlines held the trademark on the name Clipper in reference to their fleet aircraft. The new model, designated the T303 Crusader first flew on October 17,1979 with the first deliveries being made in October,1981, the T303 is an all-metal low-wing six-seat twin-engined aircraft with a retractable tricycle undercarriage. At the time, it was the first all-new production twin built by Cessna in over a decade, with a declining market, only 315 were built. Examples were exported to Europe with several still operating in the United Kingdom in 2012 and 2 flying in Goondiwindi, Queensland, Australia. Many are still flying in Colombia in air taxi and private operations.2 sq ft Airfoil, NACA23017, janes All The Worlds Aircraft 1982-83. Media related to Cessna 303 at Wikimedia Commons
23.
Air force
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An air force, also known in some countries as an air army, is in the broadest sense, the national military organization that primarily conducts aerial warfare. More specifically, it is the branch of a nations armed services that is responsible for aerial warfare as distinct from an army, navy, or a marine corps. Typically, air forces are responsible for gaining control of the air, carrying out strategic and tactical bombing missions, Air forces typically consist of a combination of fighters, bombers, helicopters, transport planes and other aircraft. Many air forces are responsible for operations of the military space, intercontinental ballistic missiles. Some air forces may command and control other air defence assets such as artillery, surface-to-air missiles, or anti-ballistic missile warning networks. In addition to pilots, air forces have ground support staff who support the aircrew, however, some supporting personnel such as airfield defence troops, weapons engineers and air intelligence staff do not have equivalent roles in civilian organizations. Balloon or flying corps are not generally regarded as examples of an air force, however, with the invention of heavier-than-air craft in the early 20th century, armies and navies began to take interest in this new form of aviation as a means to wage war. The first aviation force in the world was the Aviation Militaire of the French Army formed in 1910, in 1911, during the Italo-Turkish War, Italy employed aircraft for the first time ever in the world for reconnaissance and bombing missions against Turkish positions on Libyan Territory. The Italian–Turkish war of 1911–1912 was the first in history that featured air attacks by airplanes, during World War I France, Germany, Italy, the British Empire and the Ottoman Empire all possessed significant forces of bombers and fighters. World War I also saw the appearance of senior commanders who directed aerial warfare, the British Royal Air Force was the first independent air force in the world. The RAF was founded on 1 April 1918 by amalgamation the British Armys Royal Flying Corps, on establishment the RAF comprised over 20,000 aircraft, was commanded by a Chief of the Air Staff who held the rank of major-general and was governed by its own government ministry. Over the following decades most countries with any military capability established their own independent air forces. The Canadian Air Force was formed at the end of World War I and it became the permanent Royal Canadian Air Force when it received the Royal title by royal proclamation on 1 April 1924. It did not however become independent of the Canadian Army until 1938 when its head was designated as Chief of the Air Staff. Similarly, the Royal New Zealand Air Force was established in 1923 as the New Zealand Permanent Air Force, other British-influenced countries also established their own independent air forces. For example, the Royal Egyptian Air Force was created in 1937 when Egyptian military aviation was separated from Army command, outside of the British Empire, the Finnish Air Force was established as a separate service on 4 May 1928 and the Brazilian Air Force was created in 1941. Both the United States Air Force and the Philippine Air Force were formed as a separate branches of their armed forces in 1947. The Israeli Air Force came into being with the State of Israel on 18 May 1948, the Japan Air Self-Defense Force was not established until 1954, in World War II Japanese military aviation had been carried out by the Army and Navy
24.
Aircraft pilot
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A pilot or aviator is a person who controls the flight of an aircraft by operating its directional flight controls. Other aircrew members such as attendants, mechanics and ground crew, are not classified as aviators. In recognition of the qualifications and responsibilities, most militaries and many airlines worldwide award aviator badges to their pilots. The first recorded use of the aviator was in 1887, as a variation of aviation, from the Latin avis. The term aviatrix, now archaic, was used for a female aviator. These terms were used more in the days of aviation, when airplanes were extremely rare. For example, a 1905 reference work described the Wright brothers first airplane, The weight, the Aéro-Club de France delivered the first certificate to Louis Blériot in 1908—followed by Glenn Curtiss, Léon Delagrange, and Robert Esnault-Pelterie. The absolute authority given to the pilot in command derives from that of a ships captain, when flying for an airline, pilots are usually referred to as airline pilots, with the pilot in command often referred to as the captain. While the flight decks of U. S. and European airliners do have ex-military pilots, military training and flying, while rigorous, is fundamentally different in many ways from civilian piloting. Pilots licensing in Canada is similar to the United States, the Aeronautics Act of 1985 and Canadian Aviation Regulations provide rules for pilots in Canada. Retirement age is provided by each airline with some set to age 60, in 1930, the Air Commerce Act established pilot licensing requirements for American civil aviation. Commercial airline pilots in the United States have a retirement age of 65. Military pilots fly with the forces of a government or nation-state. Their tasks involve combat and non-combat operations, including direct hostile engagements, military pilots undergo specialized training, often with weapons. Examples of military pilots include fighter pilots, bomber pilots, transport pilots, military pilots also serve as flight crews on aircraft for government personnel, such as Air Force One and Air Force Two in the United States. Military pilots are trained with a different syllabus than civilian pilots and this is due to the different aircraft, flight goals, flight situations and chains of responsibility. Many military pilots do transfer to civilian-pilot qualification after they leave the military, the person controlling a remotely piloted UAV may be referred to as its pilot or operator. Most jurisdictions have restrictions on the use of UAVs which have limited their use in controlled airspace, UAVs have mostly been limited to military
25.
Lieutenant
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A lieutenant is a junior commissioned officer in many nations armed forces, fire service or police. The meaning of lieutenant differs in different military formations, but is often subdivided into senior and junior ranks, in navies it is often equivalent to the army rank of captain, it may also indicate a particular post rather than a rank. The rank is used in fire services, emergency medical services, security services. Lieutenant may also appear as part of a used in various other organisations with a codified command structure. It often designates someone who is second-in-command, and as such, for example, a lieutenant master is likely to be second-in-command to the master in an organisation using both ranks. Political uses include lieutenant governor in various governments, and Quebec lieutenant in Canadian politics, in the United Kingdom, a lord lieutenant is the sovereigns representative in a county or lieutenancy area, while a deputy lieutenant is one of the lord lieutenants deputies. However, their efforts failed, and the French word is used, along with its many variations. The early history of the pronunciation is unclear, Middle English spellings suggest that the /luː-/ and /lɛf-/ pronunciations may have existed even then. The rare Old French variant spelling luef for Modern French lieu supports the suggestion that a final of the Old French word was in certain environments perceived as an, in Royal Naval tradition—and other English-speaking navies outside the United States—a reduced pronunciation /ləˈtɛnənt/ is used. This is not recognised as current by recent editions of the OED, conventionally, armies and other services or branches which use army-style rank titles have two grades of lieutenant, but a few also use a third, more junior, rank. Where more junior officers were employed as deputies to the lieutenant, they went by names, including second lieutenant, sub-lieutenant, ensign. The senior grade of lieutenant is known as first lieutenant in the United States, and as lieutenant in the United Kingdom, in countries which do not speak English, the rank title usually translates as lieutenant, but may also translate as first lieutenant or senior lieutenant. The Israel Defense Forces rank segen literally translates as deputy, which is equivalent to a lieutenant, there is great variation in the insignia used worldwide. In most English-speaking and Arabic-speaking countries, as well as a number of European and South American nations, an example of an exception is the United States, whose armed forces distinguish their lieutenant ranks with one silver bar for first lieutenant and one gold bar for second lieutenant. Second lieutenant is usually the most junior grade of commissioned officer, in non-English-speaking countries, the equivalent rank title may translate as second lieutenant, lieutenant, sub-lieutenant or junior lieutenant. Non-English terms include alferes, alférez, fänrik, ensign, Leutnant, letnan, poručík, a few non-English-speaking militaries maintain a lower rank, frequently translated as third lieutenant OF1c. The rank title may translate as second lieutenant, junior lieutenant, sub-lieutenant or ensign. Warsaw Pact countries standardised their ranking systems on the Soviet system, some of the former Soviet and Warsaw Pact nations have now discarded the third rank while many retain it like Bulgaria
26.
Surinam Airways Flight 764
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On Wednesday 7 June 1989 the flight crashed during approach to Paramaribo-Zanderij, killing 176 of the 187 on board. It is the deadliest aviation disaster in Surinames history, investigation revealed significant deficiencies in the crews training and judgement. They knowingly attempted to land using a navigation signal and ignored alarms warning them of an impending crash. The safety issues stemming from the incident were of concern that the United States National Transportation Safety Board issued safety recommendations to the Federal Aviation Administration. The aircraft was a four-engined McDonnell Douglas DC-8-62 passenger jet which had first flown in 1969 as part of the air fleet of Braniff International Airways. An NTSB brief shows that while the aircraft was owned by Braniff it was involved in a accident in 1979 in which there were no fatalities. The aircraft was sold to Surinam Airways shortly afterwards, the official report into the crash of Flight 764 made no indication that this previous incident contributed in any way to the subsequent fatal crash. The flight departed Amsterdam Airport Schiphol as scheduled at 23,25 on 6 June, the next ten hours of the flight passed uneventfully. The crew received a weather report and clearance for a VOR/DME approach to runway 10. During the approach, the planes No.2 engine struck a tree at a height of approximately 25 meters above ground level, the right wing then struck another tree, causing the aircraft to roll and impact the ground inverted. Of the 9 crew and 178 passengers, none of the crew and only 11 passengers survived, a group of Surinamese football players playing professionally in the Netherlands and organized as an exhibition team known as the Colourful 11 were among the dead. The team was an initiative of Dutch Surinamese social worker Sonny Hasnoe who worked with underprivileged children in disadvantaged neighbourhoods in Amsterdam, many people of Surinamese origin lived in the citys Bijlmer district and were isolated from mainstream Dutch society. Hasnoe often found that he could engage the youngsters socially if they saw positive role models that had the background as they did. In 1986, Sonny Hasnoe organised the first match between a selection of Surinamese Dutch professionals and SV Robinhood, champions of the domestic Surinamese competition. The match was a success and further contests were arranged. The Colourful 11 were to play a match in Suriname in June 1989, among the players who stayed back as a result were Ruud Gullit, Frank Rijkaard, Aron Winter, Bryan Roy, Stanley Menzo, Dean Gorre and Regi Blinker. A group of eighteen second stringers travelled to Suriname instead, in 2005, Dutch journalist Iwan Tol released his book about this lost generation of Surinamese players called, Eindbestemming Zanderij. Het vergeten verhaal van het kleurrijk elftal, a commission was set up by the Surinamese government to investigate the accident
27.
Major
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Major is a military rank of commissioned officer status, with corresponding ranks existing in many military forces throughout the world. When used unhyphenated, in conjunction with no other indicators, major is one rank senior to that of an army captain and it is considered the most junior of the field officer ranks. Majors are typically assigned as specialised executive or operations officers for battalion-sized units of 300 to 1,200 soldiers, in some militaries, notably France and Ireland, the rank of major is referred to as commandant, while in others it is known as captain-major. The rank of major is used in some police forces and other paramilitary rank structures, such as the Pennsylvania State Police, New York State Police, New Jersey State Police. As a police rank, major roughly corresponds to the UK rank of superintendent, the term major can also be used with a hyphen to denote the leader of a military band such as in pipe-major or drum-major. Historically, the rank designation develops in English in the 1640s, taken from French majeur, in turn a shortening of sergent-majeur, which at the time designated a higher rank than at present
28.
Zorg en Hoop Airport
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Zorg en Hoop Airport is an airport located in the city of Paramaribo, Suriname. Zorg en Hoop Airport is located between the city quarters of Zorg en Hoop and Flora, the airport is suitable for charters and regular services with smaller aircraft, and for helicopter flights. From the airport, the connection is maintained with several airports in the interior of Suriname. The only regular service from the airport is to Georgetown, Guyana with flights operated by Trans Guyana Airways. In October 1952, the airport was put into use when Ronald Kappel, the first flight was made with a Stinson V-77 Reliant airplane with registration PZ-TAA of the company Kappel-van Eyck. In November 1952 this company built the first hangar at Zorg en Hoop airfield, in the summer of 1953 Zorg en Hoop Airport was used to develop many airstrips in the interior. The first mail delivery and passenger flights in Suriname were made from Zorg en Hoop to Moengo on 22 August 1953, later also to Nickerie and Albina with the new Piper Cub of Kappel-van Eyck named Colibri. List of airports in Suriname Transport in Suriname
29.
Johan Adolf Pengel International Airport
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It is the larger of Surinames two international airports, and is operated by Airport Management, Ltd. / NV Luchthavenbeheer. Prior to World War II, Zandery Airport was a Pan American World Airways stop, in 1928 Pan American World Airways started mail flights from Miami to Paramaribo, the capital of the then Dutch colony Suriname. Pan American World Airways used Sikorsky S-38 amphibians, rich and famous Americans, mostly aviators, visited Suriname. On 24 March 1934 female pilot Guggenheim and male pilot Russel Thaw had to make a landing near the Nieuwe Haven. The Lockheed airplane was so damaged that it was shipped back to the USA. On 16 April 1934 female aviator Laura Ingalls landed in a single engine airplane, the KLM tri-motor Fokker F-XVIII, named the SNIP, made a trans-atlantic crossing from Amsterdam via Paramaribo to Curaçao, carrying mail. The trip of 12,200 km landed 8 days after take-off from Schiphol, hongdong, co-pilot/navigator J. J. van Balkom, engineer L. D. The route was from Amsterdam via Marseille, Alicante, Casablanca, Cabo Verde, Paramaribo, the SNIP landed at Zanderij Field on 20 December 1934 after a first trans-atlantic crossing of 3600 km, dubbed the Christmas Mail-flight, directly from Porto Praia. However, the Snip flight did not inaugurate a regular KLM trans-Atlantic service, in January 1937 William Henry Vanderbilt III landed in a baby Clipper Sikorsky S-38 at Zanderij with wife and friends The Flying Hutchinsons. On 3 June 1937 aviation pioneer Amelia Earhart landed at Zanderij with a Lockheed Model 10 Electra at local time 2.38 P. M, the navigator was a retired PAA aviator Fred Noonan. This was on their attempt of a World Flight en route from Miami to Natal and then transatlantic to Dakar. They stayed overnight at the Palace Hotel in Paramaribo and left Zanderij again on Friday 4 June 1937 for Fortaleza, One month later they disappeared over the central Pacific Ocean near Howland Island. On 16 March 1938 two pilots Whitney and Harmon made a landing with their Beechcraft on an airstrip near the Eerste Rijweg. They could not find Zanderij Airfield, in 1938 the KLM started a weekly service between Paramaribo and Willemstad with a twin engined Lockheed L-14 Super Electra able to carry 12 passengers and named MEEUW. Mail arrived much faster at Curaçao than with PAA, but the service was no commercial success, after the fall of the Netherlands to German forces in 1940, the United States obtained military basing rights to the airport from the Netherlands government-in-exile in London. Suriname was then the principal source of bauxite and needed protection. The runways were constructed by the US Corps of Engineers and they also built the road from Onverwacht to Zanderij which was completed in 1942. In addition, antisubmarine patrols were flown from the airfield over the southern Caribbean, however, to the disappointment of the crews, the squadron had to leave its B-17 behind
30.
Portuguese Air Force
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The Portuguese Air Force is the aerial warfare force of Portugal. Locally, it is referred to by the acronym FAP, and it is the youngest of the three branches of the Portuguese Armed Forces. The Portuguese Air Force was formed on July 1,1952, the CEMFA is the only officer in the Air Force with the rank of general. Presently, the FAP is a professional force made of career personnel. As 2015, the FAP employed a total of 5957 military personnel, the Air Force further included 842 civilian employees. Besides its warfare role, the FAP has also public service roles, namely assuring the Portuguese Air Search, until 2014, the FAP also integrated the National Aeronautical Authority. The AAN is now a body, but continues to be headed by the Chief of Staff of the Air Force, with the Air Force assuring most of its activities. Its aerobatic display teams are the Asas de Portugal jet aircraft display team, the remote origins of the Portuguese Air Force lay in the origins of the Portuguese military aeronautics. Portugal was directly linked with the history of the aeronautics since its early beginnings, in 1709, the Portuguese priest Bartolomeu de Gusmão requested a patent for a device to move through the air, which consisted in a kind of hot air balloon. The patent was granted on the 19 April 1709 and small models of this device were tested with success in several occasions. Accordingly, with some opinions, a real device would have performed a crewed flight over Lisbon, taking off from the São Jorge Castle. This may have been the first manned flight in history, the AeCP becomes one of the major boosters of the development of the aviation in Portugal in the early 20th century, including of its military use. Despite the previous use of balloons by the Portuguese Army, its first air unit was created in 1911. This unit was the Aerostation Company, which was part of the Army Telegraphic Service and was intended to operate observation aerostats and this unit would later receive a handful of airplanes. In 1912, the Portuguese Government receives its first airplane, a Deperdussin B, the Government further receives a Maurice Farman MF4 offered by the O Comércio do Porto newspaper and an Avro 500 offered by the Portuguese Republican Party. These aircraft would be integrated in the Aerostation Company, but remained years without use because of the inexistence of pilots, still in 1912, midshipman Miguel Freitas Homem of the naval purser branch applied for admission to any course that would qualify him as an aviator. He was so the first so the first member of the Portuguese Military to formally request to be an aircraft pilot. In the same year, by request of the AeCP, the legislator António José de Almeida presents a bill to the Portuguese Parliament for the creation of a Military Aviation Institute
31.
Pilatus PC-7
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The Pilatus PC-7 Turbo Trainer is a low-wing tandem-seat training aircraft, manufactured by Pilatus Aircraft of Switzerland. The aircraft is capable of all basic training functions including aerobatics, instrument, tactical and it has been selected by more than 20 air forces as their ab initio trainer. Since the aircrafts introduction in 1978, close to 500 have been sold, over one million hours have been flown by PC-7s worldwide. The PC-7 is based on the earlier piston-powered Pilatus P-3, in 1973, the programme was restarted and another P-3 was obtained from the Swiss Air Force. After modification, this flew on 12 May 1975. Further extensive modifications followed later in the programme, including a new wing with integral fuel tanks, an altered tailfin. The first production aircraft flew on 12 August 1978, Swiss civil certification followed on 5 December of the same year, with deliveries, to Burma and Bolivia starting immediately thereafter. The aircraft is used by private customers and is both FAA and FOCA civil certified to comply to the general aviation regulations in Europe and the USA. The PC-7 Mk II is a development of the PC-9s airframe and avionics, fitted with the PC-7s smaller turbine to lower operating and it is used by the South African Air Force, with sixty examples having been manufactured. The aircraft were assembled in South Africa from kits supplied by Pilatus, the value of the contract was estimated to be 175 million USD in 1993. Due to political considerations, the aircraft were not fitted with the armament hardpoints, four PC-7 Mk II aircraft are used by the air force of Brunei. PC-7s were used by the Iraqi Air Force for close air support in the Iran-Iraq war and they were also used to deliver chemical weapons against Iranian troops. The Chadian Air Force has used its fleet of PC-7s to bomb rebel positions both in their own territory and in neighbouring Sudan. PC-7s were employed by the Guatemalan Air Force in air strikes and for air support during the Guatemalan civil war. The PC-7s deployed from the airfield in La Aurora armed with gunpods, in 1994, Mexican Air Force armed PC-7s were used to attack Zapatista Army of National Liberation during the Chiapas conflict in Mexico. This action was considered illegal by the Swiss government because the airplanes were sold for training purposes only, and as result, Switzerland issued a ban to sell more units to Mexico. In the mid to late 1990s, Executive Outcomes, a military contractor led by Eben Barlow. In June 2011, the Indian Air Force selected the Pilatus PC-7 MkII trainer as its basic trainer and this order could be progressively increased to 181 trainers after technology transfer to India
32.
Bell 205
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The Bell 204 and 205 are the civilian versions of the UH-1 Iroquois single-engine military helicopter of the Huey family of helicopters. They are type-certificated in the category and are used in a wide variety of applications, including crop dusting, cargo lifting. Bell designed its Model 204 in response to a 1955 United States Army requirement for a utility helicopter, the 204 was a giant step forward in helicopter design, being one of the first to be powered by a turboshaft. The turboshaft engine radically improved the practicality of the due to its light weight and high power-to-weight ratio, lower fuel consumption. The civil 204B was first delivered in 1961, the subsequent Model 205A-1 is equivalent to the UH-1H, which, compared to the 204, is longer, larger, and has better performance and a more powerful engine. Over 60 civil Model 204B helicopters had been delivered by 1967,12,000 Model 205s were built by Bell and Agusta-Bell up to the early 1980s. Numerous ex-military 204s and 205s were converted for commercial use, Bell Helicopters company designation of the UH-1B. Bell 204B – Civil or military utility helicopter, derived from the UH-1B. Powered by a T53-09A, max weight was 8,500 lbs, max passengers, Agusta-Bell AB204 – Civil or military utility transport helicopter. Built under licence in Italy by Agusta, fuji-Bell 204B-2 – Civil or military utility transport helicopter. Built under licence in Japan by Fuji Heavy Industries, used by the Japan Ground Self Defense Force under the name Hiyodori. Bell Helicopters company designation of the UH-1H, Bell 205A – Civil or military utility transport helicopter. Powered by one T53-11A, max weight 8,500 pounds, built under licence in Italy by Agusta. Bell 205A-1 – Civil or military utility transport version, initial version based on the UH-1H. Powered by one T53-13A, max weight 9,500 pounds, fuji-Bell 205A-1 – Civil or military utility transport helicopter. Built under licence in Japan by Fuji, Bell 205B – Bells early version of the 210 built in the late 1970s, only five were built and sold. Had 212 nose, uprated T53-17 engine, K-Flex driveshaft,212 main rotor blades, max weight,10,500 pounds, max passengers,14. Bell 210 – Bell Helicopters designation for a UH-1H, remanufactured, powered by one T53-17B, same weight capacities as the 205B
33.
CASA 212
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The CASA C-212 Aviocar is a turboprop-powered STOL medium transport aircraft designed and built by CASA in Spain for civil and military use. C-212s are also produced under licence in Indonesia by Indonesian Aerospace, the design was initially marketed under the name of Aviocar, but EADS-CASA no longer uses that name in referring to the C-212. A total of 478 C-212s of all variants had been delivered through the end of 2008 by EADS-CASA, EADS-CASA predicts that an additional 85 aircraft will be delivered in the 2007–2016 time period. EADS-CASA currently builds only the C-212-400, which received Spanish certification in 1998, the C-212-200 is currently built in Indonesia, and IAe is also reportedly preparing to begin assembly of −400 models. During the late 1960s, the Spanish Air Force was still operating a number of outdated piston-engined transports, including the three-engined Junkers Ju 52, the first prototype flew on 26 March 1971. In 1974, the Spanish Air Force decided to acquire the Aviocar to update its fleet, airlines took note of the types success with the military, so CASA developed a commercial version, the first examples of which were delivered in July 1975. In August 2006 a total of 30 CASA C-212 aircraft remain in service around the world. The C-212 has a wing, a boxy fuselage. It has space for 21–28 passengers depending on configuration, since the C-212 does not have a pressurized fuselage, it is limited to relatively low-flight-level airline usage. It is thus ideal for short legs and regional airline service, also known as C-212-5, C-212-5 series 100M, and by the Spanish Air Force as the T-12B and D-3A,129 built. C-212B Six pre-production C-212As converted for photo-reconnaissance missions, TR-12A, c-212C Original civil version C-212D Two pre-production C-212As converted for use as navigational trainers, TE-12B. NC-212-100 Manufactured under licence in Indonesia since 1976, IPTN producing 28 NC-212-100s before switching to NC-212-200, stretched version with updated engines, introduced in 1979. The CASA C-212-200 is also a popular skydiving aircraft, known for its capacity, fast climb. C-212 series 200M Military version known as T-12D in Spanish service, specialised ASW and maritime patrol aircraft have been built from this version. NC-212-200 C-212-200 built under licence by IPTN, NC-212-200 MPA C-212-200 built under licence by IPTN, Designed as Maritime Patrol Aircraft Standard production version from 1987 on. Engines were Honeywell TPE331-10R-513C, also rated at 900 shp continuous, the propellers were changed from four-bladed Hartzell composite blade propellers to four-bladed Dowty-Rotol all-metal propellers. Winglets and a vertical stabilizer area provide improved performance. Various systems have been upgraded, including the addition of an integrated autopilot system
34.
Garrett TPE331
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The TPE331 family includes 18 models and 106 configurations, the engines range from 575 to 1650 shaft horsepower. The military version is designated the T76, the TPE331 originated in 1961 as a gas turbine to power helicopters. It first went into production in 1963, more than 700 had been shipped by the end of 1973. As of July 2016, more than 13,500 TPE331 engines have been delivered, the 715 shp TPE331-6 used in the Beech King Air B100 have a 400-hr. Hot section inspection interval and a 5, 400-hr, time between overhaul, approval is possible for 3, 000-hr. Overhauls and engine reserves are cheaper than for the PT6A with $130,000 HSI checks, type, Single-shaft turboprop with integral gearbox Length,46 in,42.55 Specific fuel consumption,0.534 lb/hp per hour Power-to-weight ratio,1.71 hp/lb,2
35.
Helicopter
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A helicopter is a type of rotorcraft in which lift and thrust are supplied by rotors. This allows the helicopter to take off and land vertically, to hover, and to fly forward, backward and these attributes allow helicopters to be used in congested or isolated areas where fixed-wing aircraft and many forms of VTOL aircraft cannot perform. English language nicknames for helicopter include chopper, copter, helo, heli, Helicopters were developed and built during the first half-century of flight, with the Focke-Wulf Fw 61 being the first operational helicopter in 1936. Some helicopters reached limited production, but it was not until 1942 that a helicopter designed by Igor Sikorsky reached full-scale production, with 131 aircraft built. Though most earlier designs used more than one rotor, it is the single main rotor with anti-torque tail rotor configuration that has become the most common helicopter configuration. Tandem rotor helicopters are also in use due to their greater payload capacity. Coaxial helicopters, tiltrotor aircraft, and compound helicopters are all flying today, quadcopter helicopters pioneered as early as 1907 in France, and other types of multicopter have been developed for specialized applications such as unmanned drones. The earliest references for vertical flight came from China, since around 400 BC, Chinese children have played with bamboo flying toys. This bamboo-copter is spun by rolling a stick attached to a rotor, the spinning creates lift, and the toy flies when released. The 4th-century AD Daoist book Baopuzi by Ge Hong reportedly describes some of the ideas inherent to rotary wing aircraft, designs similar to the Chinese helicopter toy appeared in Renaissance paintings and other works. In the 18th and early 19th centuries Western scientists developed flying machines based on the Chinese toy. It was not until the early 1480s, when Leonardo da Vinci created a design for a machine that could be described as an aerial screw, that any recorded advancement was made towards vertical flight. His notes suggested that he built flying models, but there were no indications for any provision to stop the rotor from making the craft rotate. As scientific knowledge increased and became accepted, people continued to pursue the idea of vertical flight. In July 1754, Russian Mikhail Lomonosov had developed a small coaxial modeled after the Chinese top but powered by a spring device. It was powered by a spring, and was suggested as a method to lift meteorological instruments. Sir George Cayley, influenced by a fascination with the Chinese flying top, developed a model of feathers, similar to that of Launoy and Bienvenu. By the end of the century, he had progressed to using sheets of tin for rotor blades and his writings on his experiments and models would become influential on future aviation pioneers
36.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
37.
Search and rescue
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Search and rescue is the search for and provision of aid to people who are in distress or imminent danger. The general field of search and rescue includes many specialty sub-fields, International Search and Rescue Advisory Group is a UN organization that promotes the exchange of information between national urban search and rescue organizations. The duty to render assistance is covered by Article 98 of the UNCLOS, there are many different definitions of search and rescue, depending on the agency involved. Canadian Forces, Search and Rescue comprises the search for, and provision of aid to, persons, ships or other craft which are, or are feared to be, in distress or imminent danger. United States Coast Guard, The use of resources to assist persons or property in potential or actual distress. One of the worlds earliest well-documented SAR efforts ensued following the 1656 wreck of the Dutch merchant ship Vergulde Draeck off the west coast of Australia, survivors sought help, and in response three separate SAR missions were conducted, without success. All 5 crew members of an oil barge, which had run aground on Penfield Reef, were saved before the barge sank, in 1983, Korean Air Lines Flight 007 with 269 occupants was shot down by a Soviet aircraft near Sakhalin. The Soviets sent SAR helicopters and boats to Soviet waters, while a search, South Korean, and Japanese ships and aircraft in international waters, but no survivors were found. In July 2009, Air France Flight 447 was lost in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, an international SAR effort was launched, to no avail. A third effort nearly two years later discovered the site and recovered the black boxes. In early 2014, Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 crashed under mysterious circumstances, many nations contributed to the initial SAR effort, which was fruitless. 3mn to date on fuel and food in its own effort. The search for Flight 370 has become the largest SAR so far with the largest budget, mountain rescue relates to search and rescue operations specifically in rugged and mountainous terrain. Ground search and rescue is the search for persons who are lost or in distress on land or inland waterways, some ground search teams also employ search and rescue dogs. Urban search and rescue, also referred to as Heavy Urban Search and Rescue, is the location and rescue of persons from collapsed buildings or other urban and industrial entrapments. Due to the nature of the work, most teams are multi-disciplinary and include personnel from police, fire. While earthquakes have traditionally been the cause of US&R operations, terrorist attacks, combat search and rescue is search and rescue operations that are carried out during war that are within or near combat zones. Air-sea rescue refers to the use of aircraft and surface vessels, to search for. This treaty contains the definition of high seas, at Article 1, International Search and Rescue Advisory Group is a UN organization that promotes the exchange of information between national urban search and rescue organizations
38.
M2 Browning
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The M2 Machine Gun or Browning.50 Caliber Machine Gun is a heavy machine gun designed toward the end of World War I by John Browning. Its design is similar to Brownings earlier M1919 Browning machine gun, the M2 uses the much larger and much more powerful.50 BMG cartridge, which was developed alongside and takes its name from the gun itself. It has been referred to as Ma Deuce, in reference to its M2 nomenclature, the design has had many specific designations, the official designation for the current infantry type is Browning Machine Gun, Cal.50, M2, HB, Flexible. It is effective against infantry, unarmored or lightly armored vehicles and boats, light fortifications, the M2 has been produced longer than any other machine gun. The Browning.50 caliber machine gun has been used extensively as a vehicle weapon and it was heavily used during World War II, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the Falklands War, the Iraq War and the War in Afghanistan in the 2000s and 2010s. It is the heavy machine gun of NATO countries, and has been used by many other countries as well. The M2 has been in use longer than any firearm in U. S. inventory except the.45 ACP M1911 pistol. The current M2HB is manufactured in the U. S. by General Dynamics, Ordnance for use by the U. S. government, and for allies via Foreign Military Sales, as well as foreign manufacturers such as FN Herstal. Machine guns were used in World War I, and weapons of larger than rifle caliber were appearing. Both the British and French had large caliber machine guns, the larger rounds were needed to defeat the armor that was being introduced to the battlefield. Armor was also appearing in the skies, during World War I, the Germans introduced a heavily armored airplane, the Junkers J. I. The armor made aircraft machine guns using conventional rifle ammunition ineffective, consequently, the American Expeditionary Forces commander General John J. Pershing asked for a larger caliber machine gun. Pershing asked the Army Ordnance Department to develop a gun with a caliber of at least 0.50 inches. U. S. Col. John Henry Parker, commanding a machine gun school in France, the Army Ordnance Department ordered eight experimental Colt machine guns rechambered for the French 11 mm cartridge. The French had developed a machine gun for an even larger caliber. The French 11 mm round was found to be unsuitable because its velocity was too low, Pershing wanted a bullet of at least 670 gr and a muzzle velocity of 2,700 ft/s. Development with the French round was dropped, around July 1917, John M. Browning started redesigning his.30 caliber machine gun for a larger caliber. Winchester worked on the cartridge, which was a version of the. 30-06
39.
Britten-Norman BN-2 Islander
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The Britten-Norman BN-2 Islander is a 1960s British light utility aircraft, regional airliner and cargo aircraft designed and originally manufactured by Britten-Norman of the United Kingdom. Still in production, the Islander is one of the commercial aircraft types produced in Europe. Although designed in the 1960s, over 750 are still in service with commercial operators around the world, the aircraft is also used by the British Army and police forces in the United Kingdom and is a light transport with over 30 military aviation operators around the world. Initial aircraft were manufactured at Britten-Normans factory in the Bembridge, Isle of Wight, the Islander has been in production for more than 50 years. In 1953, Britten-Norman was formed for the purpose of converting and operating agricultural aircraft, in 1963, the firm initiated development work upon what would become the Islander, having sensed a demand for a single and inexpensive twin-piston engine aircraft. The type was intended to use a fabric-and-steel design before adopting a light alloy monocoque approach instead. The structure is designed for low stress levels with an infinite fatigue life without testing, the IO-360B engines were later replaced by more powerful Lycoming O-540-E engines, which were located further outboard on the wings, for superior single-engine climb performance. On 20 August 1966, a second BN-2 prototype performed its first flight and these prototype aircraft, while resembling subsequent production models for the most part, were outfitted with different, less powerful engines. On 24 April 1967, the first production Islander performed its first flight, UK type certification was received in August 1967, US authorities also certified the type in December 1967. To expand production, a contract was placed with Intreprinderea de Reparatii Material Aeronautic of Romania, initially to assemble kit-form aircraft, in August 1969, the first Romanian-assembled Islander performed its first flight. IRMA proved successful at producing the aircraft, producing roughly 30-40 aircraft per year at times. In 1977, IRMA received a contract for the production of a further 100 Islanders, from that point on, more than 500 of the type were manufactured in Romania. In 1970, a version of the Islander, marketed as the Defender. Modifications included the addition of underwing hardpoints for armaments/equipment, and the cabin area being fitted out for light troop transport and support aircraft duties. The Defender capitalising on the aircrafts rugged structure, making it suitable for operations in developing countries. Purchases from police and military customers has typically centered on use in surveillance, the Maritime Defender is another military version of the Islander, intended for search and rescue, coastal patrol and fishery protection. Despite the relative success of the Islander, Britten-Norman experienced wider financial difficulties during the late 1960s, completed aircraft were flown to Bembridge for final customer preparation prior to delivery. Fairey Aviation set about the development of a powerful model
40.
Wanica District
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Wanica is a district of Suriname, in the northeast. Wanica has a population of 118,222 and an area of 443 km², with a high population density, Wanica is one of Surinames most populated and most urbanised districts. Papayas and wheat are the crops grown in Wanica. It is also home to a spring that has therapeutic properties, recently, copper has been discovered in the Wanica district. Wanica is divided into 7 resorts, De Nieuwe Grond Domburg Houttuin Koewarasan Kwatta Lelydorp Saramacca Polder
41.
Coast guard
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A coast guard or coastguard is a maritime security organization of a particular country. However, a typical coast guards functions are distinct from typical functions of both the navy and a transportation police, at the time, due to high UK taxation on liquors such as brandy, and on tobacco, etc. The Coastguard was, however, also responsible for giving assistance to shipwrecks, each Waterguard station was issued with a Manby mortar, which had been invented by Captain George William Manby in 1808. The mortar fired a shot with a line attached from the shore to the ship and was used for many years. This began the process through which the Coastguard assumed a life saving role, in 1821 a committee of inquiry recommended that responsibility for the Preventative Waterguard be transferred to the Board of Customs. In 1845 the Coastguard was subordinated to the Admiralty, in 1829 the first UK Coastguard instructions were published and dealt with discipline and directions for carrying out preventative duties. They also stipulated that, when a wreck took place, the Coastguard was responsible for taking all possible action to save lives, to charge of the vessel. In the United States, the United States Coast Guard was created in 1915 by the merger of two federal agencies. The first, the United States Revenue Cutter Service, was a maritime customs enforcement agency that also assumed a role to the United States Navy in wartime. The second, the United States Life-Saving Service, was formed in 1848, the Coast Guard later absorbed the United States Lighthouse Service and the Bureau of Navigation and Steamboat Inspection. Among the responsibilities that may be entrusted to a coast guard service are, search and rescue, enforcement of law, safety of vessels, maintenance of seamarks. The Coast Guard may, varying by jurisdiction, be part of a countrys military, most coast guards operate ships and aircraft including helicopters and seaplanes that are either owned or leased by the agency in order to fulfil their respective roles. Some coast guards, such as the Irish Coast Guard, have only a limited law enforcement role, usually in enforcing maritime safety law. It therefore fulfills the functions of other countries coast guards, and furthermore acts as a gendarmerie force policing navigable rivers and they belonged to the Ministry of Defence until the 1980s, and the corps´ highest official was a Navy rear-admiral. They have since transferred to the Ministry of Interior and, more recently. However, in case of armed conflict, they can be put under Navy´s command, while having 19,650 kilometres of coastline, the Commonwealth of Australia does not have a force purely to defend its coast. The duty of patrolling its coastline falls to the Royal Australian Navy, the Australian Border Force, in addition, there are several private volunteer coast guard organizations, the two largest organizations being the Royal Volunteer Coastal Patrol and the Australian Volunteer Coast Guard. These volunteer organizations have no law enforcement powers, and are essentially auxiliary Search, in NSW these two organisations have joined to become Marine Rescue in 2009
42.
Patrol boat
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A patrol boat is a relatively small naval vessel generally designed for coastal defence duties. There have been designs for patrol boats. They may be operated by a navy, coast guard, police force or customs. They are commonly engaged in various border protection roles, including anti-smuggling, anti-piracy, fisheries patrols. They are also called upon to participate in rescue operations. Vessels of this include the original yacht, a light, fast-sailing vessel used by the Dutch navy to pursue pirates and other transgressors around. They may be classified as inshore patrol vessels and offshore patrol vessels. They are warships typically smaller in size than a corvette and can include fast attack craft, torpedo boats and missile boats, the offshore patrol vessels are usually the smallest ship in a navys fleet that are large and seaworthy enough to patrol off-shore in the open ocean. In larger militaries, such as in the United States military, offshore patrol vessels usually serve in the coast guard, some modern patrol vessels are still based on fishing and leisure boats. Depending on role, vessels in this class may also have more sophisticated sensors and fire control systems that would enable them to carry torpedoes, anti-ship, most modern designs are powered by gas turbine arrangements such as CODAG, and speeds are generally in the 25–30 knots range. They are primarily used for patrol in a countrys Exclusive Economic Zone, common tasks are fisheries inspection, anti-smuggling duties, illegal immigration patrols, anti-piracy patrols and search and rescue. The largest OPVs might also have a deck and helicopter embarked. In times of crisis or war, these vessels are expected to support the vessels in the navy. Their small size and relatively low cost make them one of the most common type of warship in the world, almost all navies operate at least a few offshore patrol vessels, especially those with only green water capabilities. They are useful in smaller seas such as the North Sea as well as in open oceans, similar vessels for exclusively military duties include torpedo boats and missile boats. The United States Navy operated the Pegasus class of armed hydrofoils for years, the River Patrol Boat is a U. S. design of small patrol boat type designed to patrol waters of large rivers. 4 units built under license by ASMAR, OPV-81 Piloto Pardo OPV-82 Comandante Toro OPV-83 Marinero Fuentealba and this unit has reinforced hull for Antarctic operations. OPV-84 Cabo Odger with characteristics similar to the previous ship 06 MICALVI Class Patrol vessels built in ASMAR,18 Protector Class Patrol crafts built under license by ASMAR
India
Suriname
