1.
Utopian socialism
–
Utopian socialism is a label used to define the first currents of modern socialist thought as exemplified by the work of Henri de Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier, Étienne Cabet, and Robert Owen. Later socialists and critics of utopian socialism viewed utopian socialism as not being grounded in actual material conditions of existing society and these visions of ideal societies competed with Marxist-inspired revolutionary social democratic movements. A similar school of thought emerged in the early 20th century is ethical socialism. Utopians believe that people of all classes can voluntarily adopt their plan for society if it is presented convincingly, the thinkers identified as utopian socialist did not use the term utopian to refer to their ideas. This distinction was made clear in Engels work Socialism, Utopian, Utopian socialists were seen as wanting to expand the principles of the French revolution in order to create a more rational society. Marx accused Proudhon of wanting to rise above the bourgeoisie, in the history of Marxs thought and Marxism, this work is pivotal in the distinction between the concepts of utopian socialism and what Marx and the Marxists claimed as scientific socialism. Although utopian socialists shared few political, social, or economic perspectives, Marx and they want to improve the condition of every member of society, even that of the most favored. Hence, they appeal to society at large, without distinction of class, nay, by preference. For how can people, when once they understand their system, Marx and Engels used the term scientific socialism to describe the type of socialism they saw themselves developing. Since the mid-19th century, Marxism and Marxism-Leninism overtook utopian socialism in terms of intellectual development, at one time, almost half of the worlds population was governed by self-proclaimed Marxists. It has been noted that they exerted a significant influence on the emergence of new movements such as Spiritualism and Occultism. Perhaps the first utopian socialist was Thomas More, who wrote about an imaginary socialist society in his book Utopia, the contemporary definition of the English word utopia derives from this work. Many aspects of Mores description of Utopia was influenced by life in monasteries, saint-Simonianism was a French political and social movement of the first half of the 19th century, inspired by the ideas of Claude Henri de Rouvroy, comte de Saint-Simon. His ideas influenced Auguste Comte, Karl Marx, John Stuart Mill, Robert Owen was a successful Welsh businessman who devoted much of his profits to improving the lives of his employees. He wrote about his ideas in his book A New View of Society, which was published in 1813 and he also set up an Owenite commune called New Harmony in Indiana, USA. This collapsed when one of his business partners ran off all the profits. Charles Fourier was by far the most utopian of socialists, rejecting the industrial revolution altogether and thus the problems that arose with it, he made various fanciful claims about the ideal world he envisioned. Despite some clearly non-socialist inclinations, he contributed significantly - if indirectly - to the socialist movement and his writings about turning work into play influenced the young Karl Marx and helped him devise his theory of alienation
Utopian socialism
–
Utopian socialist pamphlet of Swiss social medical doctor
Rudolf Sutermeister (1802-1868)
Utopian socialism
–
Robert Owen was one of the founders of Utopian socialism.
2.
Revolutions of 1848
–
It remains the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history. The revolutions were essentially democratic in nature, with the aim of removing the old feudal structures, the revolutionary wave began in France in February, and immediately spread to most of Europe. Over 50 countries were affected, but with no coordination or cooperation between their respective revolutionaries, the uprisings were led by shaky ad hoc coalitions of reformers, the middle classes and workers, which did not hold together for long. Tens of thousands of people were killed, and many forced into exile. Significant lasting reforms included the abolition of serfdom in Austria and Hungary, the end of monarchy in Denmark. The revolutions were most important in France, the Netherlands, the states that would make up the German Empire in the late 19th and early 20th century, Italy, and the Austrian Empire. The revolutions arose from such a variety of causes that it is difficult to view them as resulting from a coherent movement or set of social phenomena. Numerous changes had been taking place in European society throughout the first half of the 19th century, both liberal reformers and radical politicians were reshaping national governments. Technological change was revolutionizing the life of the working classes, a popular press extended political awareness, and new values and ideas such as popular liberalism, nationalism and socialism began to emerge. Some historians emphasize the serious crop failures, particularly those of 1846, that produced hardship among peasants, large swaths of the nobility were discontented with royal absolutism or near-absolutism. In 1846, there had been an uprising of Polish nobility in Austrian Galicia, additionally, an uprising by democratic forces against Prussia, planned but not actually carried out, occurred in Greater Poland. Next, the middle classes began to agitate, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, working in Brussels, had written Manifesto of the Communist Party at the request of the Communist League. Following the March insurrection in Berlin, they began agitating in Germany, the middle and working classes thus shared a desire for reform, and agreed on many of the specific aims. Their participations in the revolutions, however, differed, while much of the impetus came from the middle classes, much of the cannon fodder came from the lower. The revolts first erupted in the cities, the population in French rural areas had risen rapidly, causing many peasants to seek a living in the cities. Many in the feared and distanced themselves from the working poor. Many unskilled laborers toiled from 12 to 15 hours per day when they had work, living in squalid, traditional artisans felt the pressure of industrialization, having lost their guilds. Revolutionaries such as Karl Marx built up a following, the situation in the German states was similar
Revolutions of 1848
–
Barricade on the rue Soufflot, an 1848 painting by
Horace Vernet. The
Panthéon is shown in the background.
Revolutions of 1848
–
An 1848 painting titled
Germania, by
Philipp Veit.
Revolutions of 1848
–
Episode from the
Five Days of Milan. Painting by
Baldassare Verazzi.
Revolutions of 1848
–
Cheering revolutionaries after fighting in March 1848
3.
Anarcho-syndicalism
–
The basic principles of anarcho-syndicalism are solidarity, direct action and direct democracy, or workers self-management. The end goal of anarcho-syndicalism is to abolish the wage system, Anarcho-syndicalist theory therefore generally focuses on the labour movement. Reflecting the anarchist philosophy from which it draws its primary inspiration, hubert Lagardelle wrote that Pierre-Joseph Proudhon laid out fundamental ideas of anarcho-syndicalism, and repudiated both capitalism and the state in the process. He viewed free economic groups and struggle, not pacifism as dominant in humans, the CNT started small, counting 26,571 members represented through several trade unions and other confederations. In 1911, coinciding with its first congress, the CNT initiated a strike that provoked a Barcelona judge to declare the union illegal until 1914. That same year of 1911, the union officially received its name. From 1918 on the CNT grew stronger, the CNT had an outstanding role in the events of the La Canadiense general strike, which paralyzed 70% of industry in Catalonia in 1919, the year the CNT reached a membership of 700,000. Around that time, panic spread among employers, giving rise to the practice of pistolerismo and these pistoleros are credited with killing 21 union leaders in 48 hours. In 1922 the International Workers Association was founded in Berlin, the CNT joined immediately, however, the following year, with the rise of Miguel Primo de Riveras dictatorship, the labor union was outlawed, once again. The first secretaries of the International included the writer and activist Rudolph Rocker, along with Augustin Souchy. Following the first congress, other groups affiliated from France, Austria, Denmark, Belgium, Switzerland, Bulgaria, Poland and Romania. Later, a bloc of unions in the USA, Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, Guatemala, Cuba, Costa Rica and El Salvador also shared the IWAs statutes. The biggest syndicalist union in the USA, the IWW, considered joining but eventually ruled out affiliation in 1936, citing the IWAs policies on religious and political affiliation. The Industrial Workers of the World, although not anarcho-syndicalist, were informed by developments in the revolutionary syndicalist milieu at the turn of the 20th century. Although the terms anarcho-syndicalism and revolutionary syndicalism are often used interchangeably, the Biennio Rosso was a two-year period, between 1919 and 1920, of intense social conflict in Italy, following the first world war. The Biennio Rosso took place in a context of crisis at the end of the war, with high unemployment. It was characterized by strikes, worker manifestations as well as self-management experiments through land. In Turin and Milan, workers councils were formed and many factory occupations took place under the leadership of anarcho-syndicalists, the agitations also extended to the agricultural areas of the Padan plain and were accompanied by peasant strikes, rural unrests and guerilla conflicts between left-wing and right-wing militias
Anarcho-syndicalism
–
Émile Pouget
Anarcho-syndicalism
–
The 1910 Congress in which the Spanish CNT was established
Anarcho-syndicalism
–
Rudolph Rocker, 1922
International Workers Association Secretary
4.
Council communism
–
Council communism is a current of socialist thought that emerged in the 1920s. Strong in Germany and the Netherlands during the 1920s, council communism continues to exist today within the greater socialist and communist movement, Council Communism also stands in contrast to Social Democracy through its formal rejection of both the reformism and Parliamentarism. Council Communists maintain that the class should not rely on Leninist vanguard parties or hope for reforms of the capitalist system to bring socialism. Revolutionary political parties will only agitate for revolution and workers councils and these workers councils which form during periods of struggle are believed to be the natural organizations of the working class. Democratic workers councils will coordinate the functions of a society rather than a found in state socialist societies. As the Second International decayed at the beginning of World War I, socialists who opposed nationalism, in Germany, two major communist trends emerged. First, the Spartacus League was created by the radical socialist Rosa Luxemburg, the second trend emerged among German rank-and-file trade unionists who opposed their unions and organized increasingly radical strikes towards the end of 1917 and the beginning of 1918. This second trend created the German Left Communist movement that would become the KAPD after the abortive German Revolution of 1918–19, as the Communist International inspired by the Bolshevik revolution in Russia formed, a Left Communist tendency developed in the Cominterns German, Dutch and Bulgarian sections. Key figures in this milieu were Anton Pannekoek, Otto Rühle, in the United Kingdom, Sylvia Pankhursts group, the Communist Party, also identified with the Left Communist tendency. These various assorted groups were all criticized by Vladimir Lenin in his booklet Left-Wing Communism, despite a common general direction, and despite sharing the criticism of Lenin, there were few politics held in common between these movements. An example of divergence is that the Italians supported the Right of Nations to Self Determination, while the Dutch. However, all of the Left Communist tendencies opposed what they called Frontism, Frontism was a tactic endorsed by Lenin, where Communists sought tactical agreements with reformist parties in pursuit of a definite, usually defensive, goal. In addition to opposing Frontism, the Dutch-German tendency, the Bulgarians and British also refused to participate in bourgeois elections, in Germany, the Left Communists were expelled from the Communist Party of Germany, and they formed the Communist Workers Party. Similar parties were formed in the Netherlands, Bulgaria and Britain, the KAPD rapidly lost most of its members and it eventually dissolved. However, some of its militants had been instrumental in organising factory-based unions like the AAUD and AAUD-E and their leading figures were Anton Pannekoek, Herman Gorter and Otto Rühle. Rühle later left the KAPD, and was one of the founders of the AAUD-E, another leading theoretician of Council Communism was Paul Mattick, who later emigrated to the USA. The early councilists are followed later by the Group of Internationalist Communists, Henk Meijer, Cajo Brendel and Paul Mattick, alongside and sometimes connected to the councilists were the early Hegelian Marxists, György Lukács and Karl Korsch. During the Russian Revolution of 1917, councils akin to those advocated by Council Communists were a significant political and organizational force, after the success of the February Revolution, the Bolsheviks sought to capitalize on the influence of the soviets in order to boost their own popularity
Council communism
–
Precursors
5.
De Leonism
–
De Leonism, occasionally known as Marxism–De Leonism, is a form of syndicalist Marxism developed by the Venezuelan-American activist Daniel De Leon. De Leon was a leader of the first United States socialist political party. De Leon combined the rising theories of syndicalism in his time with orthodox Marxism, according to De Leonist theory, militant industrial unions are the vehicle of class struggle. Industrial Unions serving the interests of the proletariat will bring about the change needed to establish a socialist system, according to the De Leonist theory, workers would simultaneously form Socialist Industrial Unions in the workplaces, and a socialist political party which would organize in the political realm. Upon achieving sufficient support for a victory at the polls, the party would be voted into office. It is assumed that at point, the Socialist Industrial Unions will have attained sufficient strength in the workplaces for workers there to take control of the means of production. De Leonists distinguish this event from the strike to take control of the workplaces advocated by anarcho-syndicalists. Workers on the floor would elect local shop floor committees needed to continue production. Workers would also elect representatives to a congress, called an All-Industrial Congress. These representatives would be subject to a vote at any time. De Leonism would thus reorganize the government along industrial lines with representatives elected by industry. De Leonism lies outside the Leninist tradition of communism, De Leonisms stance against reformism means that it is referred to by the label impossibilist, along with the Socialist Party of Great Britain. De Leonist political parties have also criticized for being allegedly overly dogmatic. Despite their rejection of Leninism and vanguardism, De Leonism also lies outside the democratic socialist and social democratic tradition. org
De Leonism
–
Syndicalism
6.
National syndicalism
–
National syndicalism is an adaptation of syndicalism to suit the social agenda of integral nationalism. National syndicalism developed in France, and then spread to Italy, Spain, French National syndicalism was an adaptation of Georges Sorels version of revolutionary syndicalism to the monarchist ideology of integral nationalism, as practised by Action Française. Action Française was a French nationalist-monarchist movement led by Charles Maurras, in 1900, Charles Maurras declared in Action Françaises newspaper that anti-democratic socialism is the pure and correct form of socialism. Such collaboration was formed in 1908 with a group of labor unions led by Émile Janvion. As a result of collaboration, Janvion founded the journal Terre libre. The collaboration between the integral nationalism of Action Française and the revolutionary syndicalism of Georges Sorel began in 1909, the connection was formed after Sorel read the second edition of Maurras’ book, Enquête sur la monarchie. Maurras favorably mentioned Sorel and revolutionary syndicalism in the book, Sorel read the book, and in April 1909 wrote a praising letter to Maurras. Three months later, on 10 July, Sorel published in Il Divenire sociale, Sorel based his support on his anti-democratic thought. For example, he claimed that Action Française was the force capable to fight against democracy. Action Française reprinted the essay in its newspaper on 22 August, in 1910 Sorel and Valois decided to create a national-socialist journal called La cité française. A prospectus for the new journal was published in July 1910, La cité française never got off the ground because of Georges Valois’s animosity toward Jean Variot. After the failure of La cité française, Sorel decided to found his own journal, Sorels biweekly review, called L’Indépendance, was published from March 1911 to July 1913. Its themes were the same as the journal of Action Française, such as nationalism, antisemitism, during the preparations for launching La Cité française, Sorel encouraged Berth and Valois to work together. In March 1911, Henri Lagrange suggested to Valois that they found an economic, Valois persuaded Lagrange to open the group to non-nationalists who were anti-democratic and syndicalists. The new political group, called Cercle Proudhon, was founded on 16 December 1911 and it included Berth, Valois, Lagrange, the syndicalist Albert Vincent and the royalists Gilbert Maire, René de Marans, André Pascalon, and Marius Riquier. As the name Cercle Proudhon suggests, the group was inspired by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and it was also inspired by Georges Sorel and Charles Maurras. In January 1912 the journal of Cercle Proudhon was first published, entitled Cahiers du cercle Proudhon, in the early 20th century, nationalists and syndicalists were increasingly influencing each other in Italy. Mussolini declared in 1909 that he had converted over to revolutionary syndicalism by 1904 during a general strike, enrico Corradini promoted a form of national syndicalism that utilized Maurassian nationalism alongside the syndicalism of Georges Sorel
National syndicalism
–
Syndicalism
7.
Sorelianism
–
Sorelianism is advocacy for or support of the ideology and thinking of French revolutionary syndicalist Georges Sorel. It typically refers to the anti-individualist, anti-liberal, anti-materialist, anti-positivist, anti-rationalist, spiritualist syndicalism that Sorel promoted, Sorelians oppose bourgeois democracy, the developments of the 18th century, the secular spirit, and the French Revolution, while supporting classical tradition. Sorel believed that the victory of the proletariat in class struggle could be achieved only through the power of myth, to Sorel, the aftermath of class conflict would involve rejuvenation of both the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Sorel became a supporter of Maurrassian integral nationalism beginning in 1909 that influenced his works, Sorelianism is considered to be a precursor to fascism. Sorel believed that war between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie would result from a general strike. Sorel believed that the victory of the proletariat would end democracy, individualism, liberalism, the ideal Sorelian syndicalist society would consist of workers syndicates that would serve as the only social authority, all other authorities would be destroyed. Sorelianism focused on the regeneration of society and the rescue of civilization rather than only the working-class. Sorelianism was more focused on support of socialism as a means for revolutionary transformation of society rather than a movement of the proletariat or a movement with a social structure. Sorel refused the idea of negotiation between the classes during the period of struggle between the proletariat against the bourgeoisie, hence, Sorel believed that both the end result of class conflict would in the end result in the rejuvenation of both the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Sorel focused on the dimension of Marxism, claiming its utility for historical analysis. However, Sorel criticized the deterministic, materialist, and mechanist components of Marxism, Sorel criticized vulgar interpretations of Marxism for being unfaithful to Marxs real intentions. Sorel claimed that Marx was not materialist at all, noting that Marx did not regard psychological developments of people as part of the economic process. Sorel noted that Marx described the necessary ideological superstructure of societies, law, the organization of the state, religion, art, as a result, Sorel claimed that no great philosophy can be established without being based on art and on religion. Sorel claimed that although Marx had initially denounced Pierre-Joseph Proudhon while supporting Blanquism, Sorel claimed that Marxism had undergone a crisis in the 1880s and the 1890s when major socialist parties were being founded in France. Sorel viewed non-Proudhonian socialism as being wrong-headed and corrupt, as being inherently oppressive, Sorel claimed that a decomposition of Marxism, as referring to the major goals and themes of the ideology, was being caused by Marxs Blanquist elements and Engels positivist elements. Interest in Sorelian thought arose in the French political right, particularly by French nationalist Charles Maurras of Action Française, while Maurras was a staunch opponent of Marxism, he was supportive of Sorelianism for its opposition to liberal democracy. Maurras famously stated a socialism liberated from the democratic and cosmopolitan element fits nationalism well as a well made glove fits a beautiful hand, in the summer of 1909, Sorel endorsed French integral nationalism and praised Maurras. Sorel was impressed by the significant numbers of ardent youth that enrolled in Action Française, sorels turn to nationalism resulted in his disregarding of Marx in favour of the views of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon
Sorelianism
–
Syndicalism
8.
Economics
–
Economics is a social science concerned chiefly with description and analysis of the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services according to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Economics focuses on the behaviour and interactions of economic agents and how economies work, consistent with this focus, textbooks often distinguish between microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics examines the behaviour of elements in the economy, including individual agents and markets, their interactions. Individual agents may include, for example, households, firms, buyers, macroeconomics analyzes the entire economy and issues affecting it, including unemployment of resources, inflation, economic growth, and the public policies that address these issues. Economic analysis can be applied throughout society, as in business, finance, health care, Economic analyses may also be applied to such diverse subjects as crime, education, the family, law, politics, religion, social institutions, war, science, and the environment. At the turn of the 21st century, the domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism. The ultimate goal of economics is to improve the conditions of people in their everyday life. There are a variety of definitions of economics. Some of the differences may reflect evolving views of the subject or different views among economists, to supply the state or commonwealth with a revenue for the publick services. Say, distinguishing the subject from its uses, defines it as the science of production, distribution. On the satirical side, Thomas Carlyle coined the dismal science as an epithet for classical economics, in this context and it enquires how he gets his income and how he uses it. Thus, it is on the one side, the study of wealth and on the other and more important side, a part of the study of man. He affirmed that previous economists have usually centred their studies on the analysis of wealth, how wealth is created, distributed, and consumed, but he said that economics can be used to study other things, such as war, that are outside its usual focus. This is because war has as the goal winning it, generates both cost and benefits, and, resources are used to attain the goal. If the war is not winnable or if the costs outweigh the benefits. Some subsequent comments criticized the definition as overly broad in failing to limit its subject matter to analysis of markets, there are other criticisms as well, such as in scarcity not accounting for the macroeconomics of high unemployment. The same source reviews a range of included in principles of economics textbooks. Among economists more generally, it argues that a particular definition presented may reflect the direction toward which the author believes economics is evolving, microeconomics examines how entities, forming a market structure, interact within a market to create a market system
Economics
–
Economists study trade, production and consumption decisions, such as those that occur in a traditional
marketplace.
Economics
–
World GDP (PPP) per capita by country (2014)
Economics
–
In
Virtual Markets, buyer and seller are not present and trade via intermediates and electronic information. Pictured:
São Paulo Stock Exchange, Brazil.
Economics
–
A map showing the main
trade routes for goods within
late medieval Europe.
9.
Co-operative economics
–
Co-operative economics is a field of economics that incorporates socialist economics, co-operative studies, and political economy toward the study and management of co-operatives. Notable theoreticians who have contributed to the field include Robert Owen, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Charles Gide, Beatrice and Sydney Webb, Mitchell, Peter Kropotkin, Paul Lambart, Race Mathews, David Griffiths, and G. D. H. Additional theorists include John Stuart Mill, Laurence Gronlund and modern work by Benjamin Ward, Jaroslav Vanek, David Ellerman. Additional modern thinkers include Joyce Rothschild, Jessica Gordon Nembhard, Corey Rosen et al, william Foote Whyte, Gar Alperovitz, Seymour Melman, Mario Bunge, Richard D. Wolff and David Schweickart. A major historical debate in economics has been between co-operative federalism and co-operative individualism. In an Owenite village of cooperation or a commune, the residents would be both the producers and consumers of its products and this in turn led to a debate between those who support Consumers Co-operatives and those who favor Producers Co-operatives. Co-operative Federalism is the school of thought favouring consumer co-operative societies, historically, its proponents have included JTW Mitchell and Charles Gide, as well as Paul Lambart and Beatrice Webb. The co-operative federalists argue that consumers should form co-operative wholesale societies, and they argue that profits from these co-operative wholesale societies should be paid as dividends to the member co-operators, rather than to their workers. Co-operative Individualism is the school of thought favouring workers co-operative societies, the most notable proponents of this latter being, in Britain, the Christian Socialists, and later writers like Joseph Reeves, putting this forth as a path to State Socialism. The Mondragón Co-operatives are an economic model cited by Co-operative Individualists. Please note that two schools of thought are not necessarily in opposition, and that hybrids between the two positions are possible. James Warbasses work, and more recently Johnston Birchalls, provide perspectives on the breadth of co-operative development nationally and internationally, Benjamin Ward provided a formal treatment to begin an evaluation of market syndicalism. Jaroslav Vanek wrote a work in an attempt to address cooperativism in economic terms. David Ellerman began by considering legal philosophic aspects of co-operatives, developing the theory of property. In 2007 he used the classical economic premise in formulating his argument deconstructing the myth of capital rights to ownership, anna Milford has constructed a detailed theoretical examination of co-operatives in controlled buyer markets, and the implications for Fair Trade strategies. In addition to customer vs. worker ownership, retailers cooperatives also utilize organizations of already constituted corporations as collective owners of the produce, all the members of a society are considered to be both producers and consumers. Although there is debate as Bakunin and the collectivists favored market distribution using currency, collectivizing production. Left libertarians collectivize neither but define their leftness as inalienable rights to the commons, not collective ownership of it, some participants in the kibbutz movement and other intentional communities fall into this category
Co-operative economics
–
Syndicalism
10.
Corporatism
–
It is theoretically based on the interpretation of a community as an organic body. The term corporatism is based on the Latin root word corpus meaning body, in 1881, Pope Leo XIII commissioned theologians and social thinkers to study corporatism and provide a definition for it. Corporatism is related to the concept of structural functionalism. Corporate social interaction is common within kinship groups such as families, clans, in addition to humans, certain animal species like penguins exhibit strong corporate social organization. Corporatist types of community and social interaction are common to many ideologies, Corporatism may also refer to economic tripartism involving negotiations between business, labour, and state interest groups to establish economic policy. This is sometimes referred to as neo-corporatism and is associated with social democracy. Kinship-based corporatism emphasizing clan, ethnic, and family identification has been a phenomenon in Africa, Asia. Confucian societies based upon families and clans in East Asia and Southeast Asia have been considered types of corporatism, China has strong elements of clan corporatism in its society involving legal norms concerning family relations. Islamic societies often feature strong clans which form the basis for a community-based corporatist society, in Italy, various function-based groups and institutions were created, including universities, guilds for artisans and craftspeople, and other professional associations. Some Catholic corporatist states include Austria under the leadership of Federal Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss, in response to the Roman Catholic corporatism of the 1890s, Protestant corporatism was developed, especially in Germany, the Netherlands, and Scandinavia. However, Protestant corporatism has been less successful in obtaining assistance from governments than its Roman Catholic counterpart. In social psychology and biology, researchers have found the presence of corporate social organization amongst animal species. Research has shown that penguins are known to reside in densely populated corporate breeding colonies, ancient Greece developed early concepts of corporatism. Aristotle in Politics also described society as being divided along natural classes and functional purposes that were priests, rulers, slaves, after the French Revolution, the existing absolutist corporatist system was abolished due to its endorsement of social hierarchy and special corporate privilege for the Roman Catholic Church. The new French government considered corporatisms emphasis on group rights as inconsistent with the promotion of individual rights. Subsequently corporatist systems and corporate privilege throughout Europe were abolished in response to the French Revolution, from 1789 to the 1850s, most supporters of corporatism were reactionaries. A number of reactionary corporatists favoured corporatism in order to end liberal capitalism, from the 1850s onward progressive corporatism developed in response to classical liberalism and Marxism. These corporatists supported providing group rights to members of the middle classes and this was in opposition to the Marxist conception of class conflict
Corporatism
–
Painting of
Paul of Tarsus.
Corporatism
–
Plato (left) and
Aristotle (right).
Corporatism
–
Émile Durkheim.
Corporatism
–
Portrait of
John Stuart Mill
11.
Labour economics
–
Labour economics seeks to understand the functioning and dynamics of the markets for wage labour. Labour markets or job markets function through the interaction of workers and employers, Labour economics looks at the suppliers of labour services and the demanders of labour services, and attempts to understand the resulting pattern of wages, employment, and income. In economics, labour is a measure of the work done by human beings and it is conventionally contrasted with such other factors of production as land and capital. There are theories which have developed a concept called human capital, there are two sides to labour economics. Labour economics can generally be seen as the application of microeconomic or macroeconomic techniques to the labour market, microeconomic techniques study the role of individuals and individual firms in the labour market. Macroeconomic techniques look at the interrelations between the market, the goods market, the money market, and the foreign trade market. It looks at how these interactions influence macro variables such as employment levels, participation rates, aggregate income, the labour force is defined as the number of people of working age, who are either employed or actively looking for work. The participation rate is the number of people in the force divided by the size of the adult civilian noninstitutional population. The unemployment level is defined as the labour force minus the number of people currently employed, the unemployment rate is defined as the level of unemployment divided by the labour force. The employment rate is defined as the number of people currently employed divided by the adult population, in these statistics, self-employed people are counted as employed. Variables like employment level, unemployment level, labour force, and they can be contrasted with flow variables which measure a quantity over a duration of time. Changes in the force are due to flow variables such as natural population growth, net immigration, new entrants. Technological advancement often reduces frictional unemployment, for example, internet search engines have reduced the cost, structural unemployment – This reflects a mismatch between the skills and other attributes of the labour force and those demanded by employers. The process of globalization has contributed to changes in labour markets. Natural rate of unemployment – This is the summation of frictional and structural unemployment and it is the lowest rate of unemployment that a stable economy can expect to achieve, given that some frictional and structural unemployment is inevitable. Economists do not agree on the level of the rate, with estimates ranging from 1% to 5%. The estimated rate varies from country to country and from time to time, demand deficient unemployment – In Keynesian economics, any level of unemployment beyond the natural rate is probably due to insufficient goods demand in the overall economy. During a recession, aggregate expenditure is deficient causing the underutilisation of inputs, neoclassical economists view the labour market as similar to other markets in that the forces of supply and demand jointly determine price and quantity
Labour economics
–
Job advertisement board in
Shenzhen.
Labour economics
–
The neoclassical model analyzes the trade-off between leisure hours and working hours
Labour economics
–
Railroad work.
Labour economics
–
An advertisement for labour from Sabah and Sarawak, seen in
Jalan Petaling, Kuala Lumpur.
12.
General strike
–
A general strike is a strike action in which a substantial proportion of the total labour force in a city, region, or country participates. General strikes are characterised by the participation of workers in a multitude of workplaces, General strikes first occurred in the mid-19th century, and have characterised many historically important strikes. An early predecessor of the strike may have been the secessio plebis in ancient Rome. In the Outline Of History, H. G. Wells recorded the general strike of the plebeians, the plebeians seem to have invented the strike, which now makes its first appearance in history. Wells noted that he made a mean use of their political advantages to grow rich through the national conquests at the expense not only of the defeated enemy. The plebeians, who were expected to obey the laws, but were not allowed to know the laws, were successful, in 450 BC. in a concession resulting from the rebellion of the plebeians, the laws of Rome were written for all to peruse. The general strike action became a feature of the political landscape with the onset of the Industrial Revolution. For the first time in history, large numbers of people were members of the working class, they lived in cities. By the 1830s, when the Chartist movement was at its peak, the first theorist to formulate and popularise the idea of a general strike for the purpose of political reform was the radical pamphleteer William Benbow. On 28 January 1832 Benbow published a pamphlet entitled Grand National Holiday, Benbow began to advocate direct and even violent action for political reform, in particular he advanced his idea for a national holiday and national convention. The striking workers were to support themselves with savings and confiscated parish funds, benbows idea of a Grand National Holiday was adopted by the Chartist Congress of 1839, Benbow having spent time in Manchester during 1838-9 promoting his the cause and his pamphlet. In 1842 the demands for wages and conditions across many different industries finally exploded into the first modern general strike. Instead of being a spontaneous uprising of the masses, the strike was politically motivated and was driven by a hard-headed agenda to win concessions. Probably as much as half of the industrial work force were on strike at its peak - over 500,000 men. The local leadership marshaled a growing working class tradition to politically organise their followers to mount a challenge to the capitalist. The mass abandonment of plantations by black slaves and poor whites during the American Civil War has, controversially, in his classic history Black Reconstruction in America, W. E. B. The trickling streams of fugitives swelled to a flood, once begun, the general strike of black and white went madly and relentlessly on like some great saga. The next large scale strike took place over half a century later in Belgium
General strike
–
Vorwärts announcing a general strike in
Germany on 9 November 1918, at the beginning of the
November Revolution.
General strike
–
William Benbow pictured in
Punch in 1848.
General strike
–
Strike (1910) by Stanisław Lentz,
National Museum in
Warsaw.
General strike
–
Syndicalism
13.
Trade union
–
The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and negotiates labour contracts with employers. The most common purpose of these associations or unions is maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment and this may include the negotiation of wages, work rules, complaint procedures, rules governing hiring, firing and promotion of workers, benefits, workplace safety and policies. Unions may organize a section of skilled workers, a cross-section of workers from various trades. The agreements negotiated by a union are binding on the rank and file members, originating in Great Britain, trade unions became popular in many countries during the Industrial Revolution. Trade unions may be composed of workers, professionals, past workers, students. Trade union density, or the percentage of workers belonging to a union, is highest in the Nordic countries. The trade unions aim at nothing less than to prevent the reduction of wages below the level that is maintained in the various branches of industry. That is to say, they wish to prevent the price of labour-power from falling below its value, yet historian R. A. the other the aggressive-expansionist drive to unite all labouring men and women for a different order of things. The 18th century economist Adam Smith noted the imbalance in the rights of workers in regards to owners. In The Wealth of Nations, Book I, chapter 8, Smith wrote, We rarely hear, it has said, of the combination of masters. But whoever imagines, upon this account, that masters rarely combine, is as ignorant of the world as of the subject. Masters are always and everywhere in a sort of tacit, but constant and uniform combination, not to raise the wages of labor above their actual rate When workers combine, masters. As Smith noted, unions were illegal for many years in most countries, there were severe penalties for attempting to organize unions, up to and including execution. This pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labour spontaneously organized in fits and starts throughout its beginnings, Trade unions and collective bargaining were outlawed from no later than the middle of the 14th century when the Ordinance of Labourers was enacted in the Kingdom of England. In 1799, the Combination Act was passed, which banned trade unions, although the unions were subject to often severe repression until 1824, they were already widespread in cities such as London. Sympathy for the plight of the workers brought repeal of the acts in 1824, by the 1810s, the first labour organizations to bring together workers of divergent occupations were formed. Possibly the first such union was the General Union of Trades, also known as the Philanthropic Society, the latter name was to hide the organizations real purpose in a time when trade unions were still illegal. The Association quickly enrolled approximately 150 unions, consisting mostly of textile related unions, but also including mechanics, blacksmiths, and various others
Trade union
–
Syndicalism
Trade union
–
Early 19th century workplace militancy manifested in the
Luddite riots, when unemployed workers destroyed labour saving machines
Trade union
–
Poster issued by the London Trades Council, advertising a demonstration held on June 2, 1873
Trade union
–
Labour union demonstrators held at bay by soldiers during the 1912
Lawrence textile strike in
Lawrence, Massachusetts
14.
Mutual aid (organization theory)
–
Mutual aid is a term in organization theory used to signify a voluntary reciprocal exchange of resources and services for mutual benefit. Mutual aid is arguably as ancient as human culture, a part of the small. From the dawn of humanity, until far beyond the invention of agriculture, humans were foragers, exchanging labor and resources for the benefit of groups, typically, mutual-aid groups will be free to join and participate in, and all activities will be voluntary. They are often structured as non-hierarchical, non-bureaucratic, non-profit organizations, with members controlling all resources and they are egalitarian in nature, and designed to support participatory democracy, equality of member status and power shared leadership and cooperative decision-making. Members external societal status is considered irrelevant inside the group, status in the group is conferred by participation, based on Peter Kropotkins theories on mutual aid, those small groups are also discussed as a counter model to the historic concept of an autonomous individual. Those discussions emphasize an open model of cooperation in mutual-aid groups as opposed to induced cooperation. Therefore, they raise questions regarding the tension of the adaption and self-determination. In order to overcome this tension an insight in the perspective of others, a radical openness to all situations possible. Power line crews are known to state and even international borders to give aid to neighboring communities after storm damage to power transmission systems. This is particularly true in the North Eastern United States and Eastern Canada, Mutual battery jump starting or boosting in winter is not uncommon in Canada. Sometimes referred to as get a boost give a boost, eine politische Skizze zur Wahrnehmung heute, Würzburg, Königshausen & Neumann,2012 Mutual Aid Societies
Mutual aid (organization theory)
–
A Freebox in
Berlin,
Germany 2005, serving as a distribution center for free donated materials
15.
Solidaridad Obrera (historical union)
–
Solidaridad Obrera was a labor federation in Spain. These unions were weak at the time, due to the failure of a 1902 general strike which had sought the eight-hour day. The federation established a rule that they would only enroll organizations composed exclusively of workers and that same year the newspaper Solidaritat Obrera published a manifesto rejecting the proposed Anti-Terrorism Law of the government led by Antonio Maura. The following repression of workers movements brought Solidaridad Obreras activities to a virtual standstill, by a wide margin, they voted to constitute themselves as a workers confederation throughout Spain, the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo. The Spanish Anarchists, The Heroic Years, 1868-1936, anarchist Organisation, The History of the F. A. I
Solidaridad Obrera (historical union)
–
The 1910 congress.
16.
Industrial Workers of the World
–
The Industrial Workers of the World, members of which are commonly termed Wobblies, is an international labor union that was founded in 1905 in Chicago, Illinois in the United States of America. The union combines general unionism with industrial unionism, as it is a union whose members are further organized within the industry of their employment. The philosophy and tactics of the IWW are described as industrial unionism. At their peak in August 1917, IWW membership was more than 150,000, Membership declined dramatically in the 1920s due to several factors. Membership also declined due to government crackdowns on radical, anarchist and socialist groups during the First Red Scare after WWI. The most decisive factor in the decline in IWW membership and influence, however, was a 1924 schism in the organization, from which the IWW never fully recovered. The IWW promotes the concept of One Big Union, and contends that all workers should be united as a class to supplant capitalism. They are known for the Wobbly Shop model of democracy, in which workers elect their managers. IWW membership does not require that one work in a represented workplace, in 2012, the IWW moved its General Headquarters offices to 2036 West Montrose, Chicago. The origin of the nickname Wobblies is uncertain, the convention, which took place on June 24,1905, was referred to as the Industrial Congress or the Industrial Union Convention—it would later be known as the First Annual Convention of the IWW. In its time, it was considered one of the most important events in the history of industrial unionism. There can be no peace so long as hunger and want are found among millions of the people and the few. We find that the centering of the management of industries into fewer and fewer hands makes the trade unions unable to cope with the growing power of the employing class. The trade unions foster a state of affairs which allows one set of workers to be pitted against another set of workers in the same industry, thereby helping defeat one another in wage wars. Moreover, the trade unions aid the employing class to mislead the workers into the belief that the class have interests in common with their employers. Instead of the motto, A fair days wage for a fair days work, we must inscribe on our banner the revolutionary watchword. It is the mission of the working class to do away with capitalism. The army of production must be organized, not only for everyday struggle with capitalists, by organizing industrially we are forming the structure of the new society within the shell of the old
Industrial Workers of the World
–
Big Bill Haywood and office workers in the IWW General Office, Chicago, summer 1917.
Industrial Workers of the World
–
IWW
Industrial Workers of the World
–
The first IWW charter in Canada, Vancouver Industrial Mixed Union no.322, May 5, 1906.
Industrial Workers of the World
–
A Wobbly membership card, or "red card"
17.
Brazilian Workers Confederation
–
The Brazilian Workers Confederation is the first trade union of workers in Brazil founded in 1906. After intense union activity, its membership dropped dramatically in the 1930s with a split occurred with internal conflict and government repression. Inspired by the French CGT, the COB was created from the revolutionary unionist perspective, the COB is associated with the International Workers Association. The COB was founded in 1906 by the Congress of Workers of Brazil and he had a role in the general strike in São Paulo in July 1917. After this there remained a few libertarians, but only workers from the mid-1970s began to regain some its presence in the labor movement. At the congress of the formation of CUT, the proposals were rejected CLOS, in the confederation political parties unable to participate nor affiliated to them. Currently both the federations as the regional confederation are in the process of restructuring and activation, were based mostly anarchists at the time suggested that the general strike as a means of struggle. They hold the banner of the First International The emancipation of the workers will be the work of the workers themselves, are formed by sindivários and are currently undergoing restructuring and activation with Confederação Brasileira Operária are part of that. Added reference Website of the COB-AIT Brazilian Workers Confederation on Facebook
Brazilian Workers Confederation
–
Workers raise the
anarchist black flag during the São Paulo General Strike of 1917
18.
International Socialist League (South Africa)
–
The International Socialist League of South Africa was a syndicalist group, influenced by the Industrial Workers of the World and Daniel De Leon. Formed in September 1915, it would establish branches across much of South Africa, and form the first black African trade union in the country and it also formed a number of other unions amongst people of color. While its founders were drawn from the radical wing of the white working class. A notable feature of the International Socialist League was that it insisted on the need for a political organisation with clear and unified policies. The International Socialist League merged into the Communist Party of South Africa at the founding in June/July 1921. The Industrial Workers of Africa, meanwhile, merged into the Industrial and Commercial Workers Union or ICU, in 1920, the ICU would play a major role in rural South Africa, as well as spread into several neighbouring countries. Books Bradford, Helen, A Taste of Freedom, the ICU in rural South Africa, drew, Allison, Discordant Comrades, Identities and Loyalties on the South African Left. University of South Africa Press, Pretoria,2002, lucien van der Walt and Michael Schmidt, Black Flame, The Revolutionary Class Politics of Anarchism and Syndicalism, AK Press,2009
International Socialist League (South Africa)
–
Syndicalism
19.
Freie Arbeiterinnen- und Arbeiter-Union
–
The Free Workers Union is a small anarcho-syndicalist union in Germany. The FAU was then founded in 1977 and has grown consistently all through the 1990s, now, the FAU consists of just under 40 groups, organized locally and by branch of trade. Because it rejects hierarchical organizations and political representation and believes in the concept of federalism, the federalist organization exists in order to coordinate strikes, campaigns and actions and for communication purposes. There are 800-1000 members organized in the local unions. The FAU publishes the bimonthly anarcho-syndicalist newspaper Direkte Aktion as well as pamphlets on current, because it supports the classical concept of the abolition of the wage system, the FAU was observed until 2011 by the Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz. After Lone Star Funds announced it would close a bicycle factory in Nordhausen, Thuringia, it had acquired, from October 22 through 26, the workers continued the bicycle production. With the help of the FAU, over 1,800 of these red bicycles were sold under the label Strike Bike, the occupation of the factory ended after the companys liquidator forced the workers out. On December 11,2009, the Berlin District Court issued an injunction on the Free Workers Union Berlin banning it from calling itself a union or grassroots union, the court decision was confirmed on January 5,2010. The FAU views this as the culmination of a series of attempts by the Neue Babylon Berlin GmbH to legally hogtie the strongest and most active form of representation in the company. This attack on the right of freedom of association is a de facto ban of the union in Berlin. On June 10,2010, the Kammergericht overturned the injunction
Freie Arbeiterinnen- und Arbeiter-Union
–
FAU
20.
Solidarity Federation
–
The Solidarity Federation, also known by the abbreviation SolFed, is a federation of class struggle anarchists active in Britain. The organisation advocates a strategy of anarcho-syndicalism as a method of abolishing capitalism and the state, in 1994 it adopted its current name, having previously been the Direct Action Movement since 1979, and before that the Syndicalist Workers Federation since 1950. SolFeds publication Fighting for Ourselves was launched in Edinburgh in 2013, the Syndicalist Workers Federation was a syndicalist group in active in post-war Britain, and one of the Solidarity Federations earliest predecessors. It was formed in 1950 by members of the dissolved Anarchist Federation of Britain. The SWF initially had success, but when Tom Brown. The SWF then dissolved itself into the group founded as the Direct Action Movement and its archives are held by the International Institute of Social History, and a selection of the SWFs publication have been digitally published on libcom. org. The Direct Action Movement was formed in 1979, when the one remaining SWF branch, along with other smaller anarchist groups, from 1988 in Scotland, then England and Wales, the DAM was active in opposing the Poll Tax. In the early 1990s, DAM members set up the Despatch Industry Workers Union, the DAM was also involved in Anti-Fascist Action, and was committed to physically combatting British fascist and far-right groups. It often had encounters with such as the National Front. Anti-fascist activities in such as Liverpool, Yorkshire, Bristol. Similarly anarchists, in particular the DAM, were the first to question the motives, in March 1994, DAM changed its name to the Solidarity Federation. Presently, the Solidarity Federation publishes the quarterly magazine Direct Action, several locals and networks also publish their own newsletters. Along with the Anarchist Federation it is one of the two anarchist federations active in the UK at the present time, the Solidarity Federation organises according to the principles of anarchist federalism. The base unit of the federation is the Local, groups of members based within a geographical area. These local groups are autonomous, within the bounds laid out in the Solidarity Federations constitution and these local groups come together as a confederation to form the national organisation. This most importantly manifests at the conference, where each local presents a delegate to represent them. These local delegates do not act independently, but instead are guided by the mandate their fellow members have given them, in this way, the Solidarity Federation is an attempt at a working grassroots democracy. This confederated national conference is the highest decision making body in the Solidarity Federation, internationally, the Solidarity Federation forms the British section of International Workers Association, an international federation of anarcho-syndicalist unions and groups
Solidarity Federation
–
Syndicalism
21.
Rudolf Rocker
–
Johann Rudolf Rocker was an anarcho-syndicalist writer and activist. / in Mainz, Hesse, Germany, on March 25,1873. This Catholic, yet not particularly devout, family had a democratic and anti-Prussian tradition dating back to Rockers grandfather, however, Georg Philipp died just four years after Rockers birth. After that, the managed to evade poverty, only through the massive support by his mothers family. Rocker was disgusted by his schoolteachers authoritarian methods, calling the man a heartless despot and he was, therefore, a poor student. In October 1884, the Rocker household was joined by his mothers new husband Ludwig Baumgartner and this marriage presented Rudolf with a half brother, Ernest Ludwig Heinrich Baumgartner, with whom Rocker did not maintain close contact. Rocker was shocked once again as his mother died in February 1887, after his stepfather remarried soon thereafter, Rocker was put into an orphanage. Disgusted by the unconditional obedience demanded by the Catholic orphanage and drawn by the prospect of adventure, the first time he just wandered around in the woods around Mainz with occasional visits to the city to forage for food and was retrieved after three nights. He enjoyed leaving his hometown and traveling to places like Rotterdam, after he returned, he started an apprenticeship to become a typographer like his uncle Carl. Carl also had a library consisting of socialist literature of all colors. Rocker became a socialist and regularly discussed his ideas with others and his employer became the first person he converted to socialism. Under the influence of his uncle, he joined the SPD, in 1890, there was a major debate in the SPD about the tactics it would choose after the lifting of the Anti-Socialist Laws. A radical oppositional wing known as Die Jungen developed, while the party leaders viewed the parliament as a means of social change, Die Jungen thought it could at best be used to spread the socialist message. They were unwilling to wait for the collapse of capitalist society, as predicted by Marxism, although this wing was strongest in Berlin, Magdeburg, and Dresden, it also had a few adherents in Mainz, among them Rudolf Rocker. In May 1890, he started a reading circle, named Freiheit, after Rocker criticized Jöst and refused to retract his statements, he was expelled from the party. The same would happen to the rest of Die Jungen in October 1891, nonetheless, he remained active and even gained influence in the socialist labor movement in Mainz. He was heavily disappointed by the discussions at the congress, as it, especially the German delegates and he was rather impressed by the Dutch socialist and later anarchist Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis, who attacked Liebknecht for his lack of militancy. Rocker got to know Karl Höfer, a German active in smuggling anarchist literature from Belgium to Germany, Höfer gave him Bakunins God and the State and Kropotkins Anarchist Morality, two of the most influential anarchist works, as well as the newspaper Autonomie. Rocker became convinced that the source of political institutions is a belief in a higher authority, as Bakunin claimed in God
Rudolf Rocker
–
Rudolf Rocker
Rudolf Rocker
–
1899 advertisement in
Arbayter Fraynd for a lecture by
Emma Goldman.
Rudolf Rocker
–
Peter Kropotkin.
Rudolf Rocker
–
December 1906 edition of Germinal.
22.
Georges Sorel
–
Georges Eugène Sorel was a French philosopher and theorist of revolutionary syndicalism. His notion of the power of myth in peoples lives inspired anarchists, Marxists and it is, together with his defense of violence, the contribution for which he is most often remembered. Born in Cherbourg as the son of a wine merchant, he moved to Paris in 1864 to attend the Collège Rollin. He became chief engineer with the Department of Public Works, stationed briefly in Corsica, in 1891, he was awarded the Légion dhonneur. He retired in 1892 and moved to Boulogne-sur-Seine, near Paris, beginning in the second half of the 1880s, he published articles in various fields displaying the influence of Aristotle, as well as Hippolyte Taine and Ernest Renan. In 1893, he affirmed his position as a Marxist. His social and political philosophy owed much to his reading of Proudhon, Karl Marx, Giambattista Vico, Henri Bergson, Sorels engagement in the political world was accompanied by a correspondence with Benedetto Croce, and later with Vilfredo Pareto. Sorel worked on the first French Marxist journals, L’Ère nouvelle and Le Devenir social and he took the side of Eduard Bernstein against Karl Kautsky. Sorel supported acquittal during the Dreyfus affair, although, like his friend Charles Péguy, through his contributions to Enrico Leones Il Divenire sociale and Hubert Lagardelles Mouvement socialiste, he contributed around 1905 to the theoretical elaboration of revolutionary syndicalism. In 1906, his most famous text, Reflections on Violence and it was published in book form in 1908, and was followed the same year by Illusions du Progrès. Disappointed by the CGT, Sorel associated himself for a period in 1909-1910 with Charles Maurras’ Action française and this collaboration inspired the founders of the Cercle Proudhon, which brought together revolutionary syndicalists and monarchists. Sorel himself, with Jean Variot, founded a journal in 1911 called LIndépendance, although disagreements, in part over nationalism, soon ended the project. Ferociously opposed to the 1914 Union sacrée, Sorel denounced the war and in 1917 praised the Russian Revolution and he wrote numerous small pieces for Italian newspapers defending the Bolsheviks. After the war, Sorel published a collection of his writings entitled Matériaux d’une Théorie du Prolétariat, at the time of his death, in Boulogne sur Seine, he had an ambivalent attitude towards both Fascism and Bolshevism. His ideas, most notably the concept of a general strike, have contributed significantly to anarcho-syndicalism. Sorel began his writing as a marginal Marxist, a critical analyst of Marxs economics and philosophy, when the Bolsheviks came to power, he completed his cycle of illusions by saluting Vladimir Lenin as the leader who had realized his syndicalist myth. The syndicalist or militant trade union movement, which burst into prominence in France around 1900, the turmoil engendered by strikes was universally condemned even by parliamentary socialists, who favored negotiation and conciliation. To justify the militancy and to give syndicalism an ideology, Sorel published the series of articles that became, as one of his biographers calls it, indeed, it was Sorels only successful book of about a dozen published
Georges Sorel
–
Georges Sorel
Georges Sorel
–
Syndicalism
23.
Fernand Pelloutier
–
Fernand-Léonce-Émile Pelloutier was a French anarchist. He was the leader of the Bourses du Travail, a major French trade union, in 1902, the Bourses du Travail merged with the Confédération Générale du Travail. Jacques Julliard, Fernand Pelloutier et les origines du syndicalisme daction directe, a New Interpretation of the French Anarchosyndicalists, New York 1987. Anarchism in France Bourse du travail
Fernand Pelloutier
–
Fernand Pelloutier.
24.
James Thompson Bain
–
James Thomson JT Bain was a socialist and syndicalist in colonial South Africa. Bain was born into poverty in Dundee, Scotland on 6 March 1860 to Andrew Bain, at the age of 16, he enlisted in the British Army and in 1878 he was sent to Pretoria, the capital of the Transvaal, annexed by Britain the previous year. He fought for the British against the Zulus in Natal in 1879, from 1880 to 1882 he was stationed in India. After leaving the Army he returned to Scotland where he trained as a fitter, as a skilled artisan, he became active in the labour movement and became familiar with the thought of Thomas Carlyle, a Scottish socialist. He became active in socialist circles, joined the Scottish Land & Labour League and met William Morris, in 1890 he moved to South Africa, initially settling in Cape Town. He immediately became known as a proponent of socialism. Bain moved north to Kimberley and soon after to the Transvaal and he settled in Johannesburg, which had become a major mining settlement after the discovery of gold in 1886, and became active in the Labour Union, launched in August 1892. During the 1890s Bain was politically active in a range of ways and he became editor of the Johannesburg Witness in 1899 and became a leading figure in Johannesburg Trades Council. With Tom Mathews and Johannesburg Trades Councils secretary Robert Noonan he founded the International Independent Labour Party, when the Second Boer War broke out between the ZAR and Britain in October 1899, Bain joined the Transvaal forces and fought for his adopted country. He was held in Ceylon, and after his release in 1903 returned to Johannesburg, from then to 1905 Bain maintained a low profile in the labour movement. But in 1906 the Transvaal Independent Labour Party was formed and, after its merger with another grouping, Bain went to work on a mine outside Pretoria in 1908 and remained active in politics and trade unions. In 1913 he became an organiser with the Trade Union Federation. In June Bain led efforts to initiate sympathy strikes at various neighbouring mines and he was released on bail and on 29 June a general strike was called. Botha and Smuts managed to persuade the owners, and the settlement was concluded. However, Smuts was to have his revenge for the defeat of 1913, a railway strike declared in January 1914 led Smuts to mobilise his newly organised citizens forces and seize key railway institutions. A general strike was proposed, but on 10 January a warrant for Bains arrest was issued, Bain and fellow labour leaders barricaded themselves into their headquarters and on 13 January the Federation announced that affiliated unions had balloted in favour of the strike. However, on 15 January the Trades Union building was surrounded by police and soldiers, including artillery, in February he was deported to Britain. By November 1914 he and other deportees were back on the Rand, in October 1919 he was admitted to Johannesburg General Hospital
James Thompson Bain
–
Syndicalism
25.
Criticism of capitalism
–
Criticism of capitalism ranges from expressing disagreement with the principles of capitalism in its entirety, to expressing disagreement with particular outcomes of capitalism. Some critics believe there are merits in capitalism, and wish to balance it with some form of social control and it is now well known that capitalist development leads to the concentration of capital, employment and power. It is somewhat less known that it leads to the almost complete destruction of economic freedom, activists argue that capitalism leads to a significant loss of political, democratic, and economic power for the vast majority of the global human population. As part of the left, activists against corporate power and influence support a decreased income gap. David Schweickart wrote that, in capitalist societies, ordinary people are deemed competent enough to select their political leaders-but not their bosses, thomas Jefferson, one of the founders of the United States, said I hope we shall crush. In its birth the aristocracy of our moneyed corporations, which dare already to challenge our government to a trial of strength and bid defiance to the laws of our country. Franklin D. That, in its essence, is fascism — ownership of government by an individual, by a group, critics of capitalism view the system as inherently exploitative. In an economic sense, exploitation is often related to the expropriation of labor for profit, in Das Kapital, Karl Marx identified the commodity as the basic unit of capitalist organization. Marx described a common denominator between commodities, in particular that commodities are the product of labor and are related to other by an exchange value. However, due to the forces of industrial organization, laborers are seen as creating more exchange value during the course of the working day than the cost of their survival. Marxists argue that capitalists are able to pay for this cost of survival. Marxists further argue that due to inequality, the purchase of labor cannot occur under free conditions. Since capitalists control the means of production and workers control only their labor, critics argue that exploitation occurs even if the exploited consents, since the definition of exploitation is independent of consent. In essence, workers must allow their labor to be exploited or face starvation, since some degree of unemployment is typical in modern economies, Marxists argue that wages are naturally driven down in free market systems. Hence, even if a worker contests their wages, capitalists are able to find someone from the army of labor who is more desperate. Unions are the method for workers to have more bargaining power in the marketplace. The act of striking has historically been an action to withhold labor from capitalists. Some critics of capitalism, while acknowledging the necessity of trade unionism, believe that trade unions simply reform an already exploitative system, lysander Spooner argued that almost all fortunes are made out of the capital and labour of other men than those who realize them
Criticism of capitalism
–
Syndicalism
Criticism of capitalism
–
Of Usury, from
Brant's Stultifera Navis (
the Ship of Fools);
woodcut attributed to
Albrecht Dürer
Criticism of capitalism
–
A man at the protest event
Occupy Wall Street
26.
Criticism of copyright
–
Adherents advocate for complete or partial change or remission of current legislation. Normally copyright is enforced within a framework of the Berne Convention, instituted by Victor Hugo, numerous international copyright treaties have since been passed, but copyright law is different in all countries. The classic argument for copyright is that granting creators temporary monopolies over works—giving them an income will encourage producing future works as well, in the context of the Internet and new technological advances, opponents argue that copyright law needs to be adapted to modern information technology. Pirate Cinema and groups like The League of Noble Peers advance more radical arguments, one well-publicised instance of electronic civil disobedience in the form of large scale intentional copyright infringement occurred on February 24,2004, in an event called Grey Tuesday. French group Association des audionautes is not anti-copyright per se, but proposes a system for copyright enforcement. Aziz Ridouan, co-founder of the group, proposes for France to legalise peer-to-peer file sharing, reportedly, major music companies have equated Ridouans proposal with legitimising piracy. Its the only solution, unless we want a more extensive control of what citizens do on the Internet. Universal Music Corp and Canadas Copyright Modernization Act, groups that argue for using existing copyright legal framework with special licences to achieve their goals, include the copyleft movement and Creative Commons. Creative Commons is not anti-copyright per se, but argues for use of more flexible, Creative Commons takes the position that there is an unmet demand for flexibility that allows the copyright owner to release work with only some rights reserved or even no rights reserved. According to Creative Commons many people do not regard default copyright as helping them in gaining the exposure, Creative Commons argue that their licences allow entrepreneurs and artists to employ innovative business models rather than all-out copyright to secure a return on their creative investment. Scholars and commentators in this field include Lawrence Liang, Jorge Cortell, Rasmus Fleischer, Stephan Kinsella, traditional anarchists, such as Leo Tolstoy, expressed their refusal to accept copyright. There is an argument that copyright is invalid because, unlike physical property and that is, infringing on copyright, unlike theft, does not deprive the victim of the original item, and so enforcement of copyright law constitutes aggression on the part of the state. It is entirely unclear that copyright laws are useful, even for the majority of authors. One of the founders of Piratbyrån, Rasmus Fleischer, argues that copyright law simply seems unable to cope with the Internet and he argues that the Internet, and particularly Web 2.0 have brought about the uncertain status of the very idea of stealing itself. He argues that in an attempt to rein in Web 2, Fleischer points out that Google, while still largely uncontested, operates in a gray zone of copyright. In contrast, others have pointed out that Google Books blocks-out large sections of those books, which motivates purchases. Groups such as Hipatia advance anti-copyright arguments in the name of freedom of knowledge and they argue that current copyright law hinders the realisation of these rights in todays knowledge societies relying on new technological means of communication. Such groups see copyright law as preventing or slowing human progress and they argue that the current copyright system needs to be brought into line with reality and the needs of society
Criticism of copyright
–
Syndicalism
Criticism of copyright
–
The symbol of
Kopimi, an anti-copyright initiative developed by the
Piratbyrån, a Swedish organisation actively opposing modern copyright law and practices, and the previous operators of
BitTorrent tracker The Pirate Bay, before it was spun off as an independent organisation.
Criticism of copyright
–
Demonstration in
Sweden in support of
file sharing, 2006.
Criticism of copyright
–
"
Free Beer " demonstrator supporting the "freedom of knowledge" idea: "Copyright is preventing access to knowledge" (2007).
27.
Libertarian socialism
–
It criticizes wage labour relationships within the workplace. Instead, it emphasizes workers self-management of the workplace and decentralized structures of political organization, as such libertarian socialism, within the larger socialist movement, seeks to distinguish itself both from Leninism/Bolshevism and from social democracy. Libertarian socialism is a Western philosophy with diverse interpretations, though some general commonalities can be found in its many incarnations and they propose that this economic system be executed in a manner that attempts to maximize the liberty of individuals and minimize concentration of power or authority. Libertarian socialists are critical of coercive institutions, which often leads them to reject the legitimacy of the state in favor of anarchism. Adherents propose achieving this through decentralization of political and economic power, usually involving the socialization of most large-scale private property, the next recorded use of the term was in Europe, when libertarian communism was used at a French regional anarchist Congress at Le Havre. January the following year saw a French manifesto issued on Libertarian or Anarchist Communism, finally,1895 saw leading anarchists Sébastien Faure and Louise Michel publish La Libertaire in France. The word stems from the French word libertaire, and was used to evade the French ban on anarchist publications, in the context of the European socialist movement, libertarian has conventionally been used to describe those who opposed state socialism, such as Mikhail Bakunin. Early in the century, libertarian socialism was as powerful a force as social democracy. Libertarian socialists played a role in the Russian revolutions of 1905 and 1917. Libertarian socialists played a dominant role in the Mexican Revolution of 1911, twenty years after World War I was over, libertarian socialists were still strong enough to spearhead the social revolution that swept across Republican Spain in 1936 and 1937. The history of socialist thought includes a long associational and anti-statist tradition prior to the victory of the Bolshevism in the east. Libertarian socialists are anti-capitalist, and can thus be distinguished from right-wing libertarians, whereas capitalist principles concentrate economic power in the hands of those who own the most capital, libertarian socialism aims to distribute power more widely amongst members of society. This is sometimes characterized as a desire to maximize free creativity in a society in preference to free enterprise and it is a negatively connoted term used to draw an analogy between slavery and wage labor by focusing on similarities between owning and renting a person. Libertarian socialists believe that freedom, society works towards a system in which individuals have the power to decide economic issues along with political issues. Many libertarian socialists believe that large-scale voluntary associations should manage industrial production and they see a distinction between concepts of private property and personal possession. Private property grants an exclusive control over a thing whether it is in use or not. Also the separation of work and life is questioned, and alternatives suggested that are underpinned by notions of dignity, self-realization, Libertarian socialists generally regard concentrations of power as sources of oppression that must be continually challenged and justified. Libertarian socialists typically oppose rigid and stratified structures of authority, be political, economic
Libertarian socialism
–
American anarchist
Emma Goldman, prominent
anarcha-feminist,
free love and
freethought activist
Libertarian socialism
–
August 17, 1860 edition of libertarian Communist publication Le Libertaire edited by
Joseph Déjacque.
Libertarian socialism
–
William Godwin
Libertarian socialism
–
Charles Fourier
28.
Labour power
–
Labour power is a crucial concept used by Karl Marx in his critique of capitalist political economy. Marx distinguished between the capacity to do work, labour power, from the act of working. Labour power exists in any kind of society, but on what terms it is traded or combined with means of production to produce goods, under capitalism, according to Marx, the productive powers of labour appear as the creative power of capital. Indeed, labour power at work becomes a component of capital, Work becomes just work, workers become an abstract labour force, and the control over work becomes mainly a management prerogative. He adds further on that, Labour-power, however, becomes a reality only by its exercise, but thereby a definite quantity of human muscle, nerve. Brain, &c. is wasted, and these require to be restored, a much shorter, to-the-point explanation of labour-power can be found in the introduction and second chapter of Marxs Wage Labour and Capital. According to Marx, there is a distinction between labour and labour-power. Labour refers to the activity or effort of producing goods or services. Neoclassical economists sometimes refer to this as labour services, on the other hand, labour-power refers to a persons ability to work, his or her muscle-power, dexterity and brain-power. Marx took over this distinction from Hegels Elements of the Philosophy of Right, in some ways, this concept is similar to that of human capital. However most likely Marx himself would have considered the concept of capital a reification. The evidence for interpretation is the following quote from Capital Vol. Under capitalism, according to Marx, labour-power becomes a commodity – it is sold, a worker tries to sell his or her labour-power to an employer, in exchange for a wage or salary. If successful, this exchange involves submitting to the authority of the capitalist for a period of time. During that time, the worker does actual labour, producing goods, the capitalist can then sell these and obtain surplus value, since the wages paid to the workers are lower than the value of the goods or services they produce for the capitalist. Labour power can also be sold by the worker on own account, in case he is self-employed, or it can be sold by an intermediary. In principle a group of workers can sell their labour-power as an independent contracting party. Some labour contracts are very complex, involving a number of different intermediaries, normally, the worker is legally the owner of his labour power, and can sell it freely according to his own wishes
Labour power
–
An advertisement for labour from Sabah and Sarawak, seen in Jalan Petaling, Kuala Lumpur.
29.
Revisionism (Marxism)
–
Within the Marxist movement, the word revisionism is used to refer to various ideas, principles and theories that are based on a significant revision of fundamental Marxist premises. The term is most often used by those Marxists who believe that such revisions are unwarranted, as such, revisionism often carries pejorative connotations and the term has been used by many different factions. It is typically applied to others and rarely as a self-description, in contrast, people who view themselves as fighting against revisionism have often self-identified as anti-revisionists. The term revisionism has been used in a number of contexts to refer to different revisions of Marxist theory, the views of Bernstein and Jaurès gave rise to reformist theory, which asserts that socialism can be achieved through gradual peaceful reforms from within a capitalist system. Most of those who left in the 1960s started aligning themselves with Mao Zedong as opposed to the Soviet Union, an example was E. P. Thompsons New Reasoner. The Chinese routinely described the Soviets as modern revisionists through the 1960s and this usage was copied by the various Maoist groups that split off from communist parties around the world. In 1978, the Sino-Albanian Split occurred, which caused Enver Hoxha and this caused a split in the Maoist movement, with some following the Albanian Party of Labours line, most notably the Communist Party of New Zealand and the Communist Party of Canada
Revisionism (Marxism)
–
Eduard Bernstein, early revisionist.
30.
Copyleft
–
Copyleft software licenses are considered protective or reciprocal, as contrasted with permissive free software licenses. Copyleft is a form of licensing, and can be used to maintain copyright conditions for works ranging from software, to documents. In general, copyright law is used by an author to prohibit recipients from reproducing, adapting, Copyleft licenses for software require that information necessary for reproducing and modifying the work must be made available to recipients of the binaries. The source code files will usually contain a copy of the license terms, Copyleft type licenses are a novel use of existing copyright law to ensure a work remains freely available. The GNU General Public License, originally written by Richard Stallman, was the first software license to see extensive use. Creative Commons, an organization founded by Lawrence Lessig, provides a similar license provision condition called share-alike. Copyleft is a licensing scheme in which an author surrenders some. Under copyleft, derived works may be produced provided they are released under the compatible copyleft scheme, the underlying principle is that one benefits freely from the work of others, but any modifications one makes public must be released under similar terms. For this reason some copyleft licenses are also known as reciprocal licenses, under fair use, however, the copyleft license may be superseded, just like regular copyrights. Therefore, any person utilizing a copyleft-licensed source for their own work is free to any other license provided they meet the fair use standard. According to Free Software Foundation compliance engineer David Turner, the term viral license creates a misunderstanding and a fear of using copylefted free software. If the firm actually copied code from a GPLd program, such a suit would be a perfectly ordinary assertion of copyright, which most private firms would defend if the shoe were on the other foot. Richard Stallman has described this view with an analogy, saying, The GPLs domain does not spread by proximity or contact and it spreads like a spider plant, not like a virus. In particular, permissive free licenses such as BSD allow re-distributors to remove some or all these rights. Reuses of open source software which subvert the freedom of the software by adding extra restrictions are called open source hijacking, other forms of open source licensing are susceptible to hijacking, so creators who desire that their work remain free may choose to use copyleft. The Open Directory Project, which is created and maintained entirely by volunteer editors, since all of the top search engines use DMOZ, it is an extremely important public commodity which is entirely built by volunteer contributions. Despite this, the DMOZ has remained a product for its entire existence. The economic incentives to work on copyleft content can vary, traditional copyright law is designed to promote progress by providing economic benefits to creators
Copyleft
–
Copyleft symbol
31.
Fascism
–
Fascism /ˈfæʃɪzəm/ is a form of radical authoritarian nationalism that came to prominence in early 20th-century Europe. The first fascist movements emerged in Italy during World War I, opposed to liberalism, Marxism, and anarchism, fascism is usually placed on the far-right within the traditional left–right spectrum. Fascists saw World War I as a revolution that brought changes to the nature of war, society, the state. The advent of war and the total mass mobilization of society had broken down the distinction between civilians and combatants. A military citizenship arose in which all citizens were involved with the military in some manner during the war, Fascism rejects assertions that violence is automatically negative in nature, and views political violence, war, and imperialism as means that can achieve national rejuvenation. Fascists advocate a mixed economy, with the goal of achieving autarky through protectionist and interventionist economic policies. Since the end of World War II in 1945, few parties have openly described themselves as fascist, the descriptions neo-fascist or post-fascist are sometimes applied more formally to describe parties of the far right with ideologies similar to, or rooted in, 20th century fascist movements. The Italian term fascismo is derived from fascio meaning a bundle of rods and this was the name given to political organizations in Italy known as fasci, groups similar to guilds or syndicates. According to Mussolinis own account, the Fascist Revolutionary Party was founded in Italy in 1915, in 1919, Mussolini founded the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento in Milan, which became the Partito Nazionale Fascista two years later. The symbolism of the fasces suggested strength through unity, a rod is easily broken. Similar symbols were developed by different fascist movements, for example, historians, political scientists, and other scholars have long debated the exact nature of fascism. Each interpretation of fascism is distinct, leaving many definitions too wide or narrow, according to many scholars, fascism—especially once in power—has historically attacked communism, conservatism and parliamentary liberalism, attracting support primarily from the far right. Roger Griffin describes fascism as a genus of political ideology whose mythic core in its various permutations is a form of populist ultranationalism. Griffin describes the ideology as having three components, the rebirth myth, populist ultra-nationalism and the myth of decadence. Fascism is a revolutionary, trans-class form of anti-liberal, and in the last analysis. Fascist Philosophies vary by application, but remain distinct by one theoretic commonality, all traditionally fall into the far-right sector of any political spectrum, catalyzed by afflicted class identities over conventional social inequities. John Lukacs, Hungarian-American historian and Holocaust survivor, argues there is no such thing as generic fascism. He claims that National Socialism and Communism are essentially manifestations of populism, Fascism was influenced by both left and right, conservative and anti-conservative, national and supranational, rational and anti-rational
Fascism
–
Georges Sorel
Fascism
–
Enrico Corradini
Fascism
–
Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Italian modernist author of the
Futurist Manifesto (1909) and later the co-author of the
Fascist Manifesto (1919)
Fascism
–
Benito Mussolini in 1917, as a soldier in
World War I. In 1914, Mussolini founded the
Fasci d'Azione Rivoluzionaria that he led. Mussolini promoted the Italian intervention in the war as a revolutionary nationalist action to liberate Italian-claimed lands from Austria-Hungary.
32.
Socialism
–
Social ownership may refer to forms of public, collective, or cooperative ownership, to citizen ownership of equity, or to any combination of these. Although there are varieties of socialism and there is no single definition encapsulating all of them. Socialist economic systems can be divided into both non-market and market forms, non-market socialism aims to circumvent the inefficiencies and crises traditionally associated with capital accumulation and the profit system. Profits generated by these firms would be controlled directly by the workforce of each firm or accrue to society at large in the form of a social dividend, the feasibility and exact methods of resource allocation and calculation for a socialist system are the subjects of the socialist calculation debate. Core dichotomies associated with these concerns include reformism versus revolutionary socialism, the term is frequently used to draw contrast to the political system of the Soviet Union, which critics argue operated in an authoritarian fashion. By the 1920s, social democracy and communism became the two dominant political tendencies within the international socialist movement, by this time, Socialism emerged as the most influential secular movement of the twentieth century, worldwide. Socialist parties and ideas remain a force with varying degrees of power and influence in all continents. Today, some socialists have also adopted the causes of social movements. The origin of the term socialism may be traced back and attributed to a number of originators, in addition to significant historical shifts in the usage, for Andrew Vincent, The word ‘socialism’ finds its root in the Latin sociare, which means to combine or to share. The related, more technical term in Roman and then medieval law was societas and this latter word could mean companionship and fellowship as well as the more legalistic idea of a consensual contract between freemen. The term socialism was created by Henri de Saint-Simon, one of the founders of what would later be labelled utopian socialism. Simon coined socialism as a contrast to the doctrine of individualism. They presented socialism as an alternative to liberal individualism based on the ownership of resources. The term socialism is attributed to Pierre Leroux, and to Marie Roch Louis Reybaud in France, the term communism also fell out of use during this period, despite earlier distinctions between socialism and communism from the 1840s. An early distinction between socialism and communism was that the former aimed to only socialise production while the latter aimed to socialise both production and consumption. However, by 1888 Marxists employed the term socialism in place of communism, linguistically, the contemporary connotation of the words socialism and communism accorded with the adherents and opponents cultural attitude towards religion. In Christian Europe, of the two, communism was believed to be the atheist way of life, in Protestant England, the word communism was too culturally and aurally close to the Roman Catholic communion rite, hence English atheists denoted themselves socialists. Friedrich Engels argued that in 1848, at the time when the Communist Manifesto was published, socialism was respectable on the continent and this latter branch of socialism produced the communist work of Étienne Cabet in France and Wilhelm Weitling in Germany
Socialism
–
Charles Fourier, influential early French socialist thinker
Socialism
–
The celebration of the election of the Commune, 28 March 1871. The
Paris Commune was a major early implementation of socialist ideas
Socialism
–
G. D. H. Cole, English socialist theorist who was a member of the
Fabian Society as well as the main theorist of
guild socialism
Socialism
–
Leon Trotsky,
Vladimir Lenin, and
Lev Kamenev at the Second Communist Party Congress, 1919.
33.
Communism
–
Communism includes a variety of schools of thought, which broadly include Marxism, anarchism, and the political ideologies grouped around both. The primary element which will enable this transformation, according to analysis, is the social ownership of the means of production. Likewise, some communists defend both theory and practice, while others argue that historical practice diverged from communist principles to a greater or lesser degree, according to Richard Pipes, the idea of a classless, egalitarian society first emerged in Ancient Greece. At one time or another, various small communist communities existed, in the medieval Christian church, for example, some monastic communities and religious orders shared their land and their other property. Communist thought has also traced back to the works of the 16th-century English writer Thomas More. In his treatise Utopia, More portrayed a society based on ownership of property. In the 17th century, communist thought surfaced again in England, criticism of the idea of private property continued into the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, through such thinkers as Jean Jacques Rousseau in France. Later, following the upheaval of the French Revolution, communism emerged as a political doctrine, in the early 19th century, Various social reformers founded communities based on common ownership. But unlike many previous communist communities, they replaced the emphasis with a rational. Notable among them were Robert Owen, who founded New Harmony in Indiana, in its modern form, communism grew out of the socialist movement in 19th-century Europe. As the Industrial Revolution advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for the misery of the new class of urban factory workers who labored under often-hazardous conditions. Foremost among these critics were Marx and his associate Friedrich Engels, in 1848, Marx and Engels offered a new definition of communism and popularized the term in their famous pamphlet The Communist Manifesto. The 1917 October Revolution in Russia set the conditions for the rise to power of Lenins Bolsheviks. The revolution transferred power to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, in which the Bolsheviks had a majority, the event generated a great deal of practical and theoretical debate within the Marxist movement. Marx predicted that socialism and communism would be built upon foundations laid by the most advanced capitalist development, Russia, however, was one of the poorest countries in Europe with an enormous, largely illiterate peasantry and a minority of industrial workers. Marx had explicitly stated that Russia might be able to skip the stage of bourgeois rule, the moderate Mensheviks opposed Lenins Bolshevik plan for socialist revolution before capitalism was more fully developed. The Great Purge of 1937–1938 was Stalins attempt to destroy any possible opposition within the Communist Party and its leading role in the Second World War saw the emergence of the Soviet Union as a superpower, with strong influence over Eastern Europe and parts of Asia. The European and Japanese empires were shattered and Communist parties played a role in many independence movements
Communism
–
Vladimir Lenin after his return to
Petrograd
Communism
Communism
–
USSR postage stamp depicting the states ruled by self-proclaimed communist parties, launching the first artificial satellite,
Sputnik 1
Communism
–
A demonstration of the
Communist Party of the Russian Federation, Moscow, December 2011
34.
Economic system
–
An economic system is a system of production, resource allocation, and distribution of goods and services within a society or a given geographic area. It includes the combination of the institutions, agencies, entities, decision-making processes. As such, a system is a type of social system. The mode of production is a related concept, all economic systems have three basic questions to ask, what to produce, how to produce and in what quantities, and who receives the output of production. The study of systems includes how these various agencies and institutions are linked to one another. The analysis of economic systems traditionally focused on the dichotomies and comparisons between market economies and planned economies, and on the distinctions between capitalism and socialism, subsequently, the categorization of economic systems expanded to include other topics and models that do not conform to the traditional dichotomy. Today the dominant form of organization at the world level is based on market-oriented mixed economies. Economic systems is the category in the Journal of Economic Literature classification codes that includes the study of such systems, there are multiple components to economic systems. Decision-making structures of an economy determine the use of inputs, distribution of output, the level of centralization in decision-making. Decisions might be carried out by industrial councils, by a government agency, in one view, every economic system represents an attempt to solve three fundamental and interdependent problems, What goods and services shall be produced, and in what quantities. How shall goods and services be produced and that is, by whom and with what resources and technologies. For whom shall goods and services be produced and that is, who is to enjoy the benefits of the goods and services and how is the total product to be distributed among individuals and groups in the society. Thus every economy is a system that allocates resources for exchange, the system is stabilized through a combination of threat and trust, which are the outcome of institutional arrangements. The means of production may be owned privately, by the state, a decision-making system, this determines who is eligible to make decisions over economic activities. Economic agents with decision-making powers can enter into binding contracts with one another, a coordination mechanism, this determines how information is obtained and used in decision-making. An incentive system, this induces and motivates economic agents to engage in productive activities and it can be based on either material reward or moral suasion. The incentive system may encourage specialization and the division of labour, organizational form, there are two basic forms of organization, actors and regulators. Economic actors include households, work gangs and production teams, firms, joint-ventures, economically regulative organizations are represented by the state and market authorities, the latter may be private or public entities
Economic system
–
Circulation
model of
economic flows for a
closed market economy.
35.
Capitalism
–
Capitalism is an economic system based on private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. Characteristics central to capitalism include private property, capital accumulation, wage labor, voluntary exchange, a price system, economists, political economists, and historians have adopted different perspectives in their analyses of capitalism and have recognized various forms of it in practice. These include laissez-faire or free market capitalism, welfare capitalism, different forms of capitalism feature varying degrees of free markets, public ownership, obstacles to free competition, and state-sanctioned social policies. Most existing capitalist economies are mixed economies, which elements of free markets with state intervention. Capitalism has existed under many forms of government, in different times, places. Following the decline of mercantilism, mixed capitalist systems became dominant in the Western world, Capitalism has been criticized for prioritizing profit over social good, natural resources, and the environment, and that is a cause of inequality and economic instabilities. Supporters believe that it provides better products through competition, and creates strong economic growth, the term capitalist, meaning an owner of capital, appears earlier than the term capitalism. It dates back to the mid-17th century, capitalist is derived from capital, which evolved from capitale, a late Latin word based on caput, meaning head – also the origin of chattel and cattle in the sense of movable property. Capitale emerged in the 12th to 13th centuries in the sense of referring to funds, stock of merchandise, sum of money, by 1283 it was used in the sense of the capital assets of a trading firm. It was frequently interchanged with a number of other words – wealth, money, funds, goods, assets, property, the Hollandische Mercurius uses capitalists in 1633 and 1654 to refer to owners of capital. In French, Étienne Clavier referred to capitalistes in 1788, six years before its first recorded English usage by Arthur Young in his work Travels in France, David Ricardo, in his Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, referred to the capitalist many times. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, an English poet, used capitalist in his work Table Talk, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon used the term capitalist in his first work, What is Property. To refer to the owners of capital, benjamin Disraeli used the term capitalist in his 1845 work Sybil. The initial usage of the term capitalism in its modern sense has been attributed to Louis Blanc in 1850, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels referred to the capitalistic system. And to the capitalist mode of production in Das Kapital, the use of the word capitalism in reference to an economic system appears twice in Volume I of Das Kapital, p.124, and in Theories of Surplus Value, tome II, p.493. Marx did not extensively use the form capitalism but instead those of capitalist, and capitalist mode of production, also according to the OED, Carl Adolph Douai, a German-American socialist and abolitionist, used the phrase private capitalism in 1863. Capital has existed incipiently on a scale for centuries, in the form of merchant, renting and lending activities. Simple commodity exchange, and consequently simple commodity production, which are the basis for the growth of capital from trade, have a very long history
Capitalism
–
Many analysts assert that
autocratic China is one of the main examples of
state capitalism in the 21st century.
Capitalism
–
A painting of a French seaport from 1638 at the height of
mercantilism.
Capitalism
–
Robert Clive after the
Battle of Plassey. The battle began
East India Company rule in India.
Capitalism
–
A
Watt steam engine. The
steam engine fuelled primarily by
coal propelled the
Industrial Revolution in
Great Britain.
36.
Labour unions
–
The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and negotiates labour contracts with employers. The most common purpose of these associations or unions is maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment and this may include the negotiation of wages, work rules, complaint procedures, rules governing hiring, firing and promotion of workers, benefits, workplace safety and policies. Unions may organize a section of skilled workers, a cross-section of workers from various trades. The agreements negotiated by a union are binding on the rank and file members, originating in Great Britain, trade unions became popular in many countries during the Industrial Revolution. Trade unions may be composed of workers, professionals, past workers, students. Trade union density, or the percentage of workers belonging to a union, is highest in the Nordic countries. The trade unions aim at nothing less than to prevent the reduction of wages below the level that is maintained in the various branches of industry. That is to say, they wish to prevent the price of labour-power from falling below its value, yet historian R. A. the other the aggressive-expansionist drive to unite all labouring men and women for a different order of things. The 18th century economist Adam Smith noted the imbalance in the rights of workers in regards to owners. In The Wealth of Nations, Book I, chapter 8, Smith wrote, We rarely hear, it has said, of the combination of masters. But whoever imagines, upon this account, that masters rarely combine, is as ignorant of the world as of the subject. Masters are always and everywhere in a sort of tacit, but constant and uniform combination, not to raise the wages of labor above their actual rate When workers combine, masters. As Smith noted, unions were illegal for many years in most countries, there were severe penalties for attempting to organize unions, up to and including execution. This pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labour spontaneously organized in fits and starts throughout its beginnings, Trade unions and collective bargaining were outlawed from no later than the middle of the 14th century when the Ordinance of Labourers was enacted in the Kingdom of England. In 1799, the Combination Act was passed, which banned trade unions, although the unions were subject to often severe repression until 1824, they were already widespread in cities such as London. Sympathy for the plight of the workers brought repeal of the acts in 1824, by the 1810s, the first labour organizations to bring together workers of divergent occupations were formed. Possibly the first such union was the General Union of Trades, also known as the Philanthropic Society, the latter name was to hide the organizations real purpose in a time when trade unions were still illegal. The Association quickly enrolled approximately 150 unions, consisting mostly of textile related unions, but also including mechanics, blacksmiths, and various others
Labour unions
–
Syndicalism
Labour unions
–
Early 19th century workplace militancy manifested in the
Luddite riots, when unemployed workers destroyed labour saving machines
Labour unions
–
Poster issued by the London Trades Council, advertising a demonstration held on June 2, 1873
Labour unions
–
Labour union demonstrators held at bay by soldiers during the 1912
Lawrence textile strike in
Lawrence, Massachusetts
37.
Aristocracy
–
Aristocracy is a form of government that places power in the hands of a small, privileged ruling class. The term derives from the Greek aristokratia, meaning rule of the best, at the time of the words origins in Ancient Greece, the Greeks conceived it as rule by the best qualified citizens—and often contrasted it favourably with monarchy, rule by an individual. In later times, aristocracy was usually seen as rule by a group, the aristocratic class. The Greeks did not like the concept of monarchy, and as their democratic system fell, in Ancient Rome, the Republic consisted of an aristocracy—as well as consuls, a senate, and a tribal assembly. In the Middle Ages and early modern era, aristocracies primarily consisted of an aristocratic class, privileged by birth. Since the French Revolution, aristocracy has generally been contrasted with democracy, however, this distinction is often oversimplified. In exchange feudal aid is received from tenants or vassals, oaths of military allegiance, however an oligarchy, nobility or royalty had the right to set taxes, assemble or raise armies and command loyalty by virtue of traditional authority. In the 1651 book Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes describes an aristocracy as a commonwealth in which the representative of the citizens is an assembly by part and it is a system in which only a small part of the population represents the government. Modern depictions of aristocracy tend to regard it not as the ancient Greek concept of rule by the best, history, John Cannon, Oxford University Press,1997, ISBN 978-0-19-866176-4 Aristocracy in the Modern World, Ellis Wasson, Palgrave Macmillan,2006
Aristocracy
–
Throughout the centuries
kings of Poland were elected by the
nobility in the fields outside
Warsaw
38.
Society
–
In the social sciences, a larger society often evinces stratification or dominance patterns in subgroups. A society can also consist of like-minded people governed by their own norms and values within a dominant and this is sometimes referred to as a subculture, a term used extensively within criminology. The term society came from the Latin word societas, which in turn was derived from the noun used to describe a bond or interaction between parties that are friendly, or at least civil. Without an article, the term can refer to the entirety of humanity, Society, in general, addresses the fact that an individual has rather limited means as an autonomous unit. Cultural relativism as an approach or ethic has largely replaced notions of primitive, better/worse. Societies may also be structured politically, in order of increasing size and complexity, there are bands, tribes, chiefdoms, and state societies. These structures may have varying degrees of power, depending on the cultural, geographical. Thus, an isolated society with the same level of technology. A society that is unable to offer a response to other societies it competes with will usually be subsumed into the culture of the competing society. Sociologist Peter L. Berger defines society as. a human product, and nothing but a human product, according to him, society was created by humans but this creation turns back and creates or molds humans every day. This is similar to the earlier developed by anthropologists Morton H. This system of classification contains four categories, Hunter-gatherer bands, tribal societies in which there are some limited instances of social rank and prestige. Civilizations, with complex social hierarchies and organized, institutional governments, in addition to this there are, Humanity, mankind, upon which rest all the elements of society, including societys beliefs. Virtual society, a society based on identity, which is evolving in the information age. Over time, some cultures have progressed toward more complex forms of organization and this cultural evolution has a profound effect on patterns of community. Hunter-gatherer tribes settled around seasonal food stocks to become agrarian villages, villages grew to become towns and cities. Cities turned into city-states and nation-states, many societies distribute largess at the behest of some individual or some larger group of people. This type of generosity can be seen in all cultures, typically
Society
–
A half-section of the 12th-century South Tang Dynasty version of Night Revels of Han Xizai, original by
Gu Hongzhong. The painting portrays servants, musicians, monks, children, guests, and hosts all in a single social environment. It serves as an in-depth look into the Chinese social structure of the time.
Society
Society
–
The social group enables its members to benefit in ways that would not otherwise be possible on an individual basis. Both individual and social (common) goals can thus be distinguished and considered. Ant (formicidae)
social ethology.
Society
–
Canis lupus
social ethology
39.
Mutual aid (politics)
–
Mutual aid is a term in organization theory used to signify a voluntary reciprocal exchange of resources and services for mutual benefit. Mutual aid is arguably as ancient as human culture, a part of the small. From the dawn of humanity, until far beyond the invention of agriculture, humans were foragers, exchanging labor and resources for the benefit of groups, typically, mutual-aid groups will be free to join and participate in, and all activities will be voluntary. They are often structured as non-hierarchical, non-bureaucratic, non-profit organizations, with members controlling all resources and they are egalitarian in nature, and designed to support participatory democracy, equality of member status and power shared leadership and cooperative decision-making. Members external societal status is considered irrelevant inside the group, status in the group is conferred by participation, based on Peter Kropotkins theories on mutual aid, those small groups are also discussed as a counter model to the historic concept of an autonomous individual. Those discussions emphasize an open model of cooperation in mutual-aid groups as opposed to induced cooperation. Therefore, they raise questions regarding the tension of the adaption and self-determination. In order to overcome this tension an insight in the perspective of others, a radical openness to all situations possible. Power line crews are known to state and even international borders to give aid to neighboring communities after storm damage to power transmission systems. This is particularly true in the North Eastern United States and Eastern Canada, Mutual battery jump starting or boosting in winter is not uncommon in Canada. Sometimes referred to as get a boost give a boost, eine politische Skizze zur Wahrnehmung heute, Würzburg, Königshausen & Neumann,2012 Mutual Aid Societies
Mutual aid (politics)
–
A Freebox in
Berlin,
Germany 2005, serving as a distribution center for free donated materials
40.
Bourse du Travail
–
Early Third Republic France was a time of dramatic social and economic change. Skilled and unskilled trades alike had gradually developed systems to match those seeking work with employers, employers, too, were creating private labour placement offices. The Republican government of Gambetta relied upon the support of working class voters, socialists and radicals, elected to city offices in some areas, made the funding of Bourses du Travail a priority. As the system expanded, radicals in local government extended aid, the loi du 14 mars 1904 mandated that every city of over ten thousand inhabitants had to create a bureau de placement, establishing job offices and undercutting employer run placement agencies. These government offices were placed in the local Bourses du Travail. With government support came government regulation, while there was no legal obligation for the state or the municipality to put in place these buildings, their construction helped both the workers movement and surveillance of its activities. Business interests and the saw the formalisation of Bourses du Travail as a way to channel the labour movement away from revolutionary change or to keep an eye on those who promoted it. Pelloutier and other revolutionary syndicalists argued that the Bourses—small scale, local, supporters of the Bourse movement believed this structure last should become the most important form of workers association. The other major change of this period was the Republican promulgation of Laic laws, taking out of the hands of the Catholic church. Bourses du Travail, like marriage or lay funerals, filled a communal role once played by local parishes. Bourses du Travail were centres of working class culture, almost every one contained lending libraries, classrooms, meeting halls, and theatres. Family and community celebrations took place here, as did classes and political discussions, formal meetings, the Bourses du Travail buildings are still often the locations of theatres and concert venues. The idea of French labour exchanges far predates the institution, in 1790, at the height of the French Revolution, an abortive Bourse du Travail was established in Paris. The loi Le Chapelier of 1791 outlawed this and any other labour organisation, labour organisations had existed underground or by other names, but their new status led to an explosion of radical activity. The French Revolutionary tradition was evolving into the sphere of union organising. The first Bourse du Travail, in Paris, was begun in 1887, a building on rue JJ Rousseau was donated by the Socialist municipal council, and a second on rue du Château d’eau was created in 1892. By this time there were 14 Bourses du Travail established around France, by 190283 and it was first led by Bernard Resset, then Rieu Cordier, then Fernand Pelloutier and from 1901 to 1918 by Georges Yvetot. It was the FBT that, as much as any organization, at their Nice congress in 1901 the fédération des Bourses du Travail formally proposed the creation of and fusion with the CGT which took place in 1902
Bourse du Travail
–
The Paris Bourse du Travail, May 1st 1906.
Bourse du Travail
–
Poster announcing the 1893 Nantes Bourse du Travail founding.
Bourse du Travail
–
A women's convention at the Troyes Bourse, c. 1900
Bourse du Travail
–
Sign in sheet at the Aubusson Bourse, c. 1920.
41.
Commodity
–
In economics, a commodity is a marketable item produced to satisfy wants or needs. Economic commodities comprise goods and services, the word commodity came into use in English in the 15th century, from the French commodité, amenity, convenience. Going further back, the French word derives from the Latin commoditas, meaning suitability, convenience, the Latin word commodus meant variously appropriate, proper measure, time, or condition, and advantage, benefit. The term commodity is specifically used for a good or service when the demand for it has no qualitative differentiation across a market. In other words, a commodity good or service has full or partial but substantial fungibility, that is, the market treats its instances as equivalent or nearly so with no regard to who produced them. As the saying goes, From the taste of wheat, it is not possible to tell who produced it, a Russian serf, petroleum and copper are other examples of such commodities, their supply and demand being a part of one universal market. Items such as systems, on the other hand, have many aspects of product differentiation, such as the brand, the user interface. The demand for one type of stereo may be larger than demand for another. In contrast, one of the characteristics of a commodity good is that its price is determined as a function of its market as a whole, well-established physical commodities have actively traded spot and derivative markets. Generally, these are basic resources and agricultural products such as ore, sugar. Soft commodities are goods that are grown, while hard commodities are ones that are extracted through mining, there is another important class of energy commodities which includes electricity, gas, coal and oil. Electricity has the characteristic that it is usually uneconomical to store, hence. Commoditization occurs as a goods or services market loses differentiation across its supply base, as such, goods that formerly carried premium margins for market participants have become commodities, such as generic pharmaceuticals and DRAM chips. Following this trend, nanomaterials are emerging from carrying premium profit margins for market participants to a status of commodification, there is a spectrum of commoditization, rather than a binary distinction of commodity versus differentiable product. Many products degree of commoditization depends on the mentality and means. For example, milk, eggs, and notebook paper are not differentiated by many customers, for them, other customers take into consideration other factors besides price, such as environmental sustainability and animal welfare. This is a list of companies trading globally in commodities, descending by size as of October 28,2011, on a commodity exchange, it is the underlying standard stated in the contract that defines the commodity, not any quality inherent in a specific producers product. Commodities exchanges include, Bourse Africa Bursa Malaysia Derivatives Chicago Board of Trade Chicago Mercantile Exchange Dalian Commodity Exchange Euronext and these markets will quickly respond to changes in supply and demand to find an equilibrium price and quantity
Commodity
–
Yerba mate (left),
coffee bean (middle) and
tea (right), all used for
caffeinated infusions, are commodity
cash crops.
Commodity
Commodity
42.
Trade unions
–
The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and negotiates labour contracts with employers. The most common purpose of these associations or unions is maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment and this may include the negotiation of wages, work rules, complaint procedures, rules governing hiring, firing and promotion of workers, benefits, workplace safety and policies. Unions may organize a section of skilled workers, a cross-section of workers from various trades. The agreements negotiated by a union are binding on the rank and file members, originating in Great Britain, trade unions became popular in many countries during the Industrial Revolution. Trade unions may be composed of workers, professionals, past workers, students. Trade union density, or the percentage of workers belonging to a union, is highest in the Nordic countries. The trade unions aim at nothing less than to prevent the reduction of wages below the level that is maintained in the various branches of industry. That is to say, they wish to prevent the price of labour-power from falling below its value, yet historian R. A. the other the aggressive-expansionist drive to unite all labouring men and women for a different order of things. The 18th century economist Adam Smith noted the imbalance in the rights of workers in regards to owners. In The Wealth of Nations, Book I, chapter 8, Smith wrote, We rarely hear, it has said, of the combination of masters. But whoever imagines, upon this account, that masters rarely combine, is as ignorant of the world as of the subject. Masters are always and everywhere in a sort of tacit, but constant and uniform combination, not to raise the wages of labor above their actual rate When workers combine, masters. As Smith noted, unions were illegal for many years in most countries, there were severe penalties for attempting to organize unions, up to and including execution. This pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labour spontaneously organized in fits and starts throughout its beginnings, Trade unions and collective bargaining were outlawed from no later than the middle of the 14th century when the Ordinance of Labourers was enacted in the Kingdom of England. In 1799, the Combination Act was passed, which banned trade unions, although the unions were subject to often severe repression until 1824, they were already widespread in cities such as London. Sympathy for the plight of the workers brought repeal of the acts in 1824, by the 1810s, the first labour organizations to bring together workers of divergent occupations were formed. Possibly the first such union was the General Union of Trades, also known as the Philanthropic Society, the latter name was to hide the organizations real purpose in a time when trade unions were still illegal. The Association quickly enrolled approximately 150 unions, consisting mostly of textile related unions, but also including mechanics, blacksmiths, and various others
Trade unions
–
Syndicalism
Trade unions
–
Early 19th century workplace militancy manifested in the
Luddite riots, when unemployed workers destroyed labour saving machines
Trade unions
–
Poster issued by the London Trades Council, advertising a demonstration held on June 2, 1873
Trade unions
–
Labour union demonstrators held at bay by soldiers during the 1912
Lawrence textile strike in
Lawrence, Massachusetts
43.
Reformist
–
In contrast, reformism posits that a capitalist economy can be gradually transformed into a qualitatively different socialist system through political and economic reform. There are two types of reformism, one has no intention of bringing about socialism or fundamental economic change to society and is used to oppose such structural changes. The debate on the ability for social democratic reformism to lead to a socialist transformation of society is over a century old, according to Rosa Luxemburg, under reformism, is not overthrown, but is on the contrary strengthened by the development of social reforms. The French social theorist Andre Gorz criticized reformism by advocating an alternative to reformism. One of the delegates to the SPD congress, Eduard Bernstein, expanded on the concept, Bernstein was a leading social democrat in Germany. Reformism was quickly targeted by revolutionary socialists, with Rosa Luxemburg condemning Bernsteins Evolutionary Socialism in her 1900 essay Reform or Revolution. In 1959, the Godesberg Program marked the shift of the Social Democratic Party of Germany from a Marxist program espousing an end to capitalism to a reformist one focused on social reform. After Joseph Stalin consolidated power in the Soviet Union, the Comintern launched a campaign against the Reformist movement by denouncing them as social fascists, in modern times, reformists are seen as centre-left. Some social democratic parties, such as the Canadian NDP and the Social Democratic Party of Germany, are considered to be reformist. The term was applied to elements within the British Labour Party in the 1950s and subsequently, anthony Crosland wrote The Future of Socialism as a personal manifesto arguing for a reformulation of the term. Left reformism, the state and the problem of socialist politics today
Reformist
–
Precursors
44.
Rudolph Rocker
–
Johann Rudolf Rocker was an anarcho-syndicalist writer and activist. / in Mainz, Hesse, Germany, on March 25,1873. This Catholic, yet not particularly devout, family had a democratic and anti-Prussian tradition dating back to Rockers grandfather, however, Georg Philipp died just four years after Rockers birth. After that, the managed to evade poverty, only through the massive support by his mothers family. Rocker was disgusted by his schoolteachers authoritarian methods, calling the man a heartless despot and he was, therefore, a poor student. In October 1884, the Rocker household was joined by his mothers new husband Ludwig Baumgartner and this marriage presented Rudolf with a half brother, Ernest Ludwig Heinrich Baumgartner, with whom Rocker did not maintain close contact. Rocker was shocked once again as his mother died in February 1887, after his stepfather remarried soon thereafter, Rocker was put into an orphanage. Disgusted by the unconditional obedience demanded by the Catholic orphanage and drawn by the prospect of adventure, the first time he just wandered around in the woods around Mainz with occasional visits to the city to forage for food and was retrieved after three nights. He enjoyed leaving his hometown and traveling to places like Rotterdam, after he returned, he started an apprenticeship to become a typographer like his uncle Carl. Carl also had a library consisting of socialist literature of all colors. Rocker became a socialist and regularly discussed his ideas with others and his employer became the first person he converted to socialism. Under the influence of his uncle, he joined the SPD, in 1890, there was a major debate in the SPD about the tactics it would choose after the lifting of the Anti-Socialist Laws. A radical oppositional wing known as Die Jungen developed, while the party leaders viewed the parliament as a means of social change, Die Jungen thought it could at best be used to spread the socialist message. They were unwilling to wait for the collapse of capitalist society, as predicted by Marxism, although this wing was strongest in Berlin, Magdeburg, and Dresden, it also had a few adherents in Mainz, among them Rudolf Rocker. In May 1890, he started a reading circle, named Freiheit, after Rocker criticized Jöst and refused to retract his statements, he was expelled from the party. The same would happen to the rest of Die Jungen in October 1891, nonetheless, he remained active and even gained influence in the socialist labor movement in Mainz. He was heavily disappointed by the discussions at the congress, as it, especially the German delegates and he was rather impressed by the Dutch socialist and later anarchist Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis, who attacked Liebknecht for his lack of militancy. Rocker got to know Karl Höfer, a German active in smuggling anarchist literature from Belgium to Germany, Höfer gave him Bakunins God and the State and Kropotkins Anarchist Morality, two of the most influential anarchist works, as well as the newspaper Autonomie. Rocker became convinced that the source of political institutions is a belief in a higher authority, as Bakunin claimed in God
Rudolph Rocker
–
Rudolf Rocker
Rudolph Rocker
–
1899 advertisement in
Arbayter Fraynd for a lecture by
Emma Goldman.
Rudolph Rocker
–
Peter Kropotkin.
Rudolph Rocker
–
December 1906 edition of Germinal.
45.
Anarchism
–
Anarchism is a political philosophy that advocates self-governed societies based on voluntary institutions. These are often described as stateless societies, although several authors have defined them more specifically as institutions based on non-hierarchical free associations, Anarchism holds the state to be undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful. While anti-statism is central, anarchism entails opposing authority or hierarchical organisation in the conduct of all relations, including, but not limited to. Anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a particular world view. Many types and traditions of anarchism exist, not all of which are mutually exclusive, Anarchist schools of thought can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism. Strains of anarchism have often divided into the categories of social. The term anarchism is a word composed from the word anarchy and the suffix -ism, themselves derived respectively from the Greek ἀναρχία, i. e. anarchy. The first known use of this word was in 1539, various factions within the French Revolution labelled opponents as anarchists although few shared many views of later anarchists. The first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, on the other hand, some use libertarianism to refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only, referring to free-market anarchism as libertarian anarchism. The earliest anarchist themes can be found in the 6th century BC, among the works of Taoist philosopher Laozi, zhuangzis philosophy has been described by various sources as anarchist. Zhuangzi wrote, A petty thief is put in jail, a great brigand becomes a ruler of a Nation. Diogenes of Sinope and the Cynics, their contemporary Zeno of Citium, Jesus is sometimes considered the first anarchist in the Christian anarchist tradition. Georges Lechartier wrote that The true founder of anarchy was Jesus Christ, the first anarchist society was that of the apostles. This is exemplified when the glorification of the state is viewed as a form of sinful idolatry, the French renaissance political philosopher Étienne de La Boétie wrote in his most famous work the Discourse on Voluntary Servitude what some historians consider an important anarchist precedent. The radical Protestant Christian Gerrard Winstanley and his group the Diggers are cited by authors as proposing anarchist social measures in the 17th century in England. The term anarchist first entered the English language in 1642, during the English Civil War, as a term of abuse, used by Royalists against their Roundhead opponents. By the time of the French Revolution some, such as the Enragés, began to use the term positively, in opposition to Jacobin centralisation of power, by the turn of the 19th century, the English word anarchism had lost its initial negative connotation. Modern anarchism emerged from the secular or religious thought of the Enlightenment, as part of the political turmoil of the 1790s in the wake of the French Revolution, William Godwin developed the first expression of modern anarchist thought
Anarchism
–
William Godwin, "the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work".
Anarchism
–
A sympathetic engraving by
Walter Crane of the executed "Anarchists of Chicago" after the
Haymarket affair. The Haymarket affair is generally considered the most significant event for the origin of international May Day observances.
Anarchism
–
Italian-American anarchist
Luigi Galleani. His followers, known as Galleanists, carried out a series of bombings and assassination attempts from 1914 to 1932 in what they saw as attacks on 'tyrants' and 'enemies of the people'
46.
Marxism
–
It originates from the mid-to-late 19th century works of German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. As the contradiction becomes apparent to the proletariat through the alienation of labor, Marxism has since developed into different branches and schools of thought, and there is now no single definitive Marxist theory. Marxism has been adopted by a number of academics and theorists working in various disciplines. Critics have taken issue with particular Marxist claims or accused Marxism as a whole of being inconsistent, refuted based on new information. The Marxian analysis begins with an analysis of the material conditions, the economic system and these social relations form a base and superstructure. As forces of production, most notably technology, improve, existing forms of social organization become inefficient, from forms of development of the productive forces these relations turn into their fetters. Then begins an era of social revolution and these inefficiencies manifest themselves as social contradictions in society in the form of class struggle. Under the capitalist mode of production, this struggle materializes between the minority who own the means of production, and the vast majority of the population who produce goods, the socialist system would succeed capitalism as humanitys mode of production through workers revolution. According to Marxism, especially arising from crisis theory, socialism is a historical necessity, in a socialist society private property, in the form of the means of production, would be replaced by co-operative ownership. A socialist economy would not base production on the creation of private profits, Society does not consist of individuals, but expresses the sum of interrelations, the relations within which these individuals stand. The historical materialist theory of history analyses the causes of societal development. All constituent features of a society are assumed to stem from economic activity, the base and superstructure metaphor portrays the totality of social relations by which humans produce and re-produce their social existence. According to Marx, The sum total of the forces of production accessible to men determines the condition of society and this relationship is reflexive, at first the base gives rise to the superstructure and remains the foundation of a form of social organization. As Friedrich Engels clarified, The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles, accordingly, Marx designated human history as encompassing four stages of development in relations of production. Primitive Communism, as in tribal societies. Slave Society, a development of tribal to city-state, aristocracy is born, feudalism, aristocrats are the ruling class, merchants evolve into capitalists. Capitalism, capitalists are the class, who create and employ the proletariat. According to the Marxist theoretician and revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, the content of Marxism was Marxs economic doctrine
Marxism
–
Karl Marx
Marxism
–
One of the 20th century's most prominent Marxist academics; the Australian archaeologist
V. Gordon Childe
47.
Leninism
–
Functionally, the Leninist vanguard party was to provide the working class with the political consciousness and revolutionary leadership necessary to depose capitalism in Imperial Russia. As a political-science term, Leninism entered common usage in 1922, two years later, in July 1924, at the fifth congress of the Communist International, Grigory Zinoviev popularized the term Leninism to denote vanguard-party revolution. In the pamphlet What is to be Done, in the pamphlet Freedom to Criticise and Unity of Action, Lenin said, Full, inner-party democratic debate was Bolshevik Party practice under Lenin, even after the banning of party factions in 1921. Although a guiding influence in policy, Lenin did not exercise absolute power, under Stalin, the inner-party practice of democratic free debate did not continue after the death of Lenin in 1924. Democracy for the exploiters will be, in one or another form, is a question of the specific national features of this or that capitalism. In the soviet political system, the party would be one of many political parties competing for elected power. Nevertheless, the circumstances of the Red vs, to feed the populaces of town and country, Lenin instituted War Communism as a necessary condition—adequate supplies of food and weapons—for fighting the Russian Civil War. Lenin regarded the appearance of new socialist states in the countries as necessary to the strengthening Russias economy. In that, he was encouraged by the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Italian insurrection and general strikes of 1920, and industrial unrest in Britain, France, and the U. S. Lenin vs. To that end followed proposals reducing the powers of Party posts. Lenin advised Trotsky to emphasize Stalins recent bureaucratic alignment in such matters, despite advice to refuse any rotten compromise, Trotsky did not heed Lenins advice, and General Secretary Stalin retained power over the Communist Party and the bureaucracy of the soviet government. In the course of instituting government policy, Stalin promoted the doctrine of Socialism in One Country, hence, revolutionary workers should politically ally with peasant political organisations, but not with capitalist political parties. The Oppositionists Until exiled from Russia in 1929, Leon Trotsky helped develop and led the Left Opposition with members of the Workers Opposition, the Decembrists, the Stalinist economic policy vacillated between appeasing capitalist kulak interests in the countryside, and destroying them. Initially, the Stalinists also rejected the national industrialisation of Russia, in both cases, the Left Opposition denounced the regressive nature of the policy towards the kulak social class of wealthy peasants, and the brutality of forced industrialisation. Trotsky described the vacillating Stalinist policy as a symptom of the nature of a ruling bureaucracy. The anti–Trotsky campaign culminated in the executions of the Moscow Trials, in political practice, Leninism, despite its origin as Communist revolutionary praxis, was adopted throughout the political spectrum. In Singapore, the Peoples Action Party was organised Leninist political party featuring internal democracy, the PAP initiated single-party dominance in the government and popular politics of Singapore. In Marxist philosophy, the term Left communism identifies a range of the Communist political perspectives that are the left-wing among Communists, Left communism criticizes the political ideas that the Bolshevik Party practiced at certain periods of their history as a revolutionary vanguard party
Leninism
–
The Russian revolutionary and later Soviet premier Lenin (Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov) in 1920.
Leninism
–
Leninism codified: the intellectual
György Lukács, the
philosopher of Leninism, c. 1952.
Leninism
–
Leon Trotsky (ca. 1929)
48.
French language
–
French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
French language
–
The
"arrêt" signs (French for "stop") are used in
Canada while the international stop, which is also a valid French word, is used in France as well as other French-speaking countries and regions.
French language
–
Regions where French is the main language
French language
–
Town sign in
Standard Arabic and French at the entrance of
Rechmaya in
Lebanon.
French language
–
An obsolete 100
Lebanese pound note with the French language inscriptions "Banque du Liban" and "Cent livres".
