1.
Serge Poliakoff
–
Serge Poliakoff was a Russian-born French modernist painter belonging to the New Ecole de Paris. Serge Poliakoff was born in Moscow in 1906, the thirteenth of fourteen children and his father, a Kyrgyz, supplied the army with horses that he bred himself and also owned a racing stable. His mother was involved with the church, and its religious icons fascinated him. He enrolled at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture and he arrived in Constantinople in 1920, living off the profits from his talent as a guitarist. He went on to pass through Sofia, Belgrade, Vienna, in 1929 he enrolled at the Académie de la Grande Chaumière. His paintings remained purely academic until he discovered, during his stay in London from 1935 to 1937 and it was a little afterwards that he met Wassily Kandinsky, Sonia and Robert Delaunay, and Otto Freundlich. With these influences, Poliakoff quickly came to be considered as one of the most powerful painters of his generation. In 1947, he was trained by Jean Deyrolle in Gordes in the Vaucluse region of France amongst peers such as Gérard Schneider, Giloli, Victor Vasarely, a contract enabled him to quickly gain better financial stability. In 1962 a room was given over to his paintings by the Venice Biennial and his works are now displayed in a large number of museums in Europe and New York. Poliakoff also worked with ceramics at the Manufacture nationale de Sèvres and he influenced the paintings of Arman. In 2013, The Musée d’Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris is devoting a large-scale retrospective to the painter which includes 150 works from the period 1946-1969. Since 1970 there has no significant exhibition of the work of Serge Poliakoff in what became his home city. Jean Cassou, Poliakoff, Bodensee-Verlag, Amriswil,1963, lydia Harambourg, Serge Poliakoff, dans LÉcole de Paris 1945-1965, Dictionnaire des peintres, Neuchâtel, Ides et Calendes,1993. Lorenzelli Arte Milano, Serge Poliakoff Biography - Serge Poliakoff, The Dream of Forms - Musée dArt Moderne de la Ville de Paris
2.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
3.
Abstract art
–
Abstract art uses a visual language of shape, form, color and line to create a composition which may exist with a degree of independence from visual references in the world. Western art had been, from the Renaissance up to the middle of the 19th century, underpinned by the logic of perspective, the arts of cultures other than the European had become accessible and showed alternative ways of describing visual experience to the artist. By the end of the 19th century many artists felt a need to create a new kind of art which would encompass the fundamental changes taking place in technology, science and philosophy. The sources from which individual artists drew their theoretical arguments were diverse, Abstract art, non-figurative art, non-objective art, and nonrepresentational art are loosely related terms. They are similar, but perhaps not of identical meaning, Abstraction indicates a departure from reality in depiction of imagery in art. This departure from accurate representation can be slight, partial, or complete, even art that aims for verisimilitude of the highest degree can be said to be abstract, at least theoretically, since perfect representation is likely to be exceedingly elusive. Artwork which takes liberties, altering for instance color and form in ways that are conspicuous, total abstraction bears no trace of any reference to anything recognizable. In geometric abstraction, for instance, one is unlikely to find references to naturalistic entities, Figurative art and total abstraction are almost mutually exclusive. But figurative and representational art often contains partial abstraction, both geometric abstraction and lyrical abstraction are often totally abstract. It is at level of visual meaning that abstract art communicates. One can enjoy the beauty of Chinese calligraphy or Islamic calligraphy without being able to read it, in Chinese painting, abstraction can be traced to the Tang dynasty painter Wang Mo, who is credited to have invented the splashed-ink painting style. While none of his paintings remain, this style is seen in some Song Dynasty Paintings. A late Song painter named Yu Jian, adept to Tiantai buddhism and his paintings show heavily misty mountains in which the shapes of the objects are barely visible and extremely simplified. This type of painting was continued by Sesshu Toyo in his later years, another instance of abstraction in Chinese painting is seen in Zhu Deruns Cosmic Circle. The painting is a reflection of the Daoist metaphysics in which chaos, in Tokugawa Japan some zen monk-painters created Enso, a circle who represents the absolute enlightenment. Usually made in one spontaneous brush stroke, it became the paradigm of the minimalist aesthetic that guided part of the zen painting, three art movements which contributed to the development of abstract art were Romanticism, Impressionism and Expressionism. Artistic independence for artists was advanced during the 19th century, patronage from the church diminished and private patronage from the public became more capable of providing a livelihood for artists. Expressionist painters explored the use of paint surface, drawing distortions and exaggerations
4.
Painting
–
Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, Painting is a mode of creative expression, and the forms are numerous. Drawing, gesture, composition, narration, or abstraction, among other aesthetic modes, may serve to manifest the expressive, Paintings can be naturalistic and representational, photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic, emotive, or political in nature. A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by motifs and ideas. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action, the term painting is also used outside of art as a common trade among craftsmen and builders. What enables painting is the perception and representation of intensity, every point in space has different intensity, which can be represented in painting by black and white and all the gray shades between. In practice, painters can articulate shapes by juxtaposing surfaces of different intensity, thus, the basic means of painting are distinct from ideological means, such as geometrical figures, various points of view and organization, and symbols. In technical drawing, thickness of line is ideal, demarcating ideal outlines of an object within a perceptual frame different from the one used by painters. Color and tone are the essence of painting as pitch and rhythm are the essence of music, color is highly subjective, but has observable psychological effects, although these can differ from one culture to the next. Black is associated with mourning in the West, but in the East, some painters, theoreticians, writers and scientists, including Goethe, Kandinsky, and Newton, have written their own color theory. Moreover, the use of language is only an abstraction for a color equivalent, the word red, for example, can cover a wide range of variations from the pure red of the visible spectrum of light. There is not a register of different colors in the way that there is agreement on different notes in music. For a painter, color is not simply divided into basic, painters deal practically with pigments, so blue for a painter can be any of the blues, phthalocyanine blue, Prussian blue, indigo, cobalt, ultramarine, and so on. Psychological and symbolical meanings of color are not, strictly speaking, colors only add to the potential, derived context of meanings, and because of this, the perception of a painting is highly subjective. The analogy with music is quite clear—sound in music is analogous to light in painting, shades to dynamics and these elements do not necessarily form a melody of themselves, rather, they can add different contexts to it. Modern artists have extended the practice of painting considerably to include, as one example, collage, some modern painters incorporate different materials such as sand, cement, straw or wood for their texture. Examples of this are the works of Jean Dubuffet and Anselm Kiefer, there is a growing community of artists who use computers to paint color onto a digital canvas using programs such as Adobe Photoshop, Corel Painter, and many others. These images can be printed onto traditional canvas if required, rhythm is important in painting as it is in music
5.
Abstract expressionism
–
Action painting, sometimes called gestural abstraction, is a style of painting in which paint is spontaneously dribbled, splashed or smeared onto the canvas, rather than being carefully applied. The resulting work often emphasizes the act of painting itself as an essential aspect of the finished work or concern of its artist. The style was widespread from the 1940s until the early 1960s, a comparison is often drawn between the American action painting and the French tachisme. According to Rosenberg the canvas was an arena in which to act, to Greenberg, it was the physicality of the paintings clotted and oil-caked surfaces that was the key to understanding them. – Clement Greenberg, Post Painterly Abstraction and it is essential for the understanding of action painting to place it in historical context. Action painting took this a further, using both Jung and Freud’s ideas of the subconscious as its underlying foundations. The paintings of the Action painters were not meant to portray objects per se or even specific emotions, instead they were meant to touch the observer deep in the subconscious mind, evoking a sense of the primeval and tapping the collective sense of an archetypal visual language. This was done by the artist painting unconsciously, and spontaneously, creating an arena of raw emotion and action. Action painting was influenced by the surrealist emphasis on automatism which influenced by psychoanalysis claimed a more direct access to the subconscious mind. Important exponents of this concept of art making were the painters Joan Miró, however the action painters took everything the surrealists had done a step further. Action Writing, Jack Kerouacs Wild Form, Carbondale, IL, auction record including a color image of a 1960 action painting by Elaine Hamilton. 9th Street Art Exhibition-abstract expressionist artists reminisce—YouTube video
6.
Informalism
–
Several distinguishing trends are identified within the movement such as lyrical abstraction, matter painting, New Paris School, tachisme and art brut. The French art critic Michel Tapié coined the term art autre in the book in 1952 in relation to non-geometric abstract art. This movement has given way to New Informalism in the year 2000 in Chevry ll, in Gif sur Yvettes, it’s an open work that a spectator can read freely. The pictorial adventure is completely new, instead of going from the meaning to constructing the corresponding signs, in the works of Laurent Jiménez-Balaguer, the language of signs is further deconstructed, allowing for a universal interpretation of a private language. The contribution of music produced the art of musical informalism, lengerke, Ch. von, «La pintura contemporánea
7.
Action painting
–
Action painting, sometimes called gestural abstraction, is a style of painting in which paint is spontaneously dribbled, splashed or smeared onto the canvas, rather than being carefully applied. The resulting work often emphasizes the act of painting itself as an essential aspect of the finished work or concern of its artist. The style was widespread from the 1940s until the early 1960s, a comparison is often drawn between the American action painting and the French tachisme. According to Rosenberg the canvas was an arena in which to act, to Greenberg, it was the physicality of the paintings clotted and oil-caked surfaces that was the key to understanding them. – Clement Greenberg, Post Painterly Abstraction and it is essential for the understanding of action painting to place it in historical context. Action painting took this a further, using both Jung and Freud’s ideas of the subconscious as its underlying foundations. The paintings of the Action painters were not meant to portray objects per se or even specific emotions, instead they were meant to touch the observer deep in the subconscious mind, evoking a sense of the primeval and tapping the collective sense of an archetypal visual language. This was done by the artist painting unconsciously, and spontaneously, creating an arena of raw emotion and action. Action painting was influenced by the surrealist emphasis on automatism which influenced by psychoanalysis claimed a more direct access to the subconscious mind. Important exponents of this concept of art making were the painters Joan Miró, however the action painters took everything the surrealists had done a step further. Action Writing, Jack Kerouacs Wild Form, Carbondale, IL, auction record including a color image of a 1960 action painting by Elaine Hamilton. 9th Street Art Exhibition-abstract expressionist artists reminisce—YouTube video
8.
Lyrical abstraction
–
It is a descriptive term characterizing a type of abstract painting related to Abstract Expressionism, in use since the 1940s. Many well known abstract expressionist painters like Arshile Gorky seen in context have been characterized as doing a type of painting described as lyrical abstraction, whose works related to characteristics of contemporary American abstract expressionism. The art movement Abstraction lyrique was born in Paris after the war, at that time, the artistic life in Paris, which had been devastated by the Occupation and Collaboration, resumed with numerous artists exhibited again as soon as the Liberation of Paris in mid-1944. According to the new forms that characterised some artists, the movement was named by the art critic, Jean José Marchand. Some art critics also looked at this movement as an attempt to restore the image of artistic Paris, Lyrical abstraction was opposed not only to the Cubist and Surrealist movements that preceded it, but also to geometric abstraction. Lyrical abstraction was, in ways, the first to apply the lessons of Kandinsky. For the artists, lyrical abstraction represented an opening to personal expression. S. A, Lyrical Abstraction was opposed not only to l’Ecole de Paris remains of pre-war style but to Cubist and Surrealist movements that had preceded it, and also to geometric abstraction. Lyrical Abstraction was in ways the first to apply the lessons of Kandinsky. For the artists in France, Lyrical Abstraction represented an opening to personal expression, in Belgium, Louis Van Lint figured a remarkable example of an artist who, after a short period of geometric abstraction, has moved to a lyrical abstraction in which he excelled. At the Drouin gallery one could see Jean Le Moal, Gustave Singier, Alfred Manessier, Roger Bissière, Wols and others. In March 1951 was held the larger exhibition Véhémences confrontées in the gallery Nina Dausset where for the first time were presented side to side French and it was organised by the critic Michel Tapié, whose role in the defense of this movement was of the highest importance. With these events, he déclared that « the lyrical abstraction is born » and it was, however, a fairly short reign, which was quickly supplanted by the New realism of Pierre Restany and Yves Klein. Starting around 1970, this movement has been revived by a new generation of artists born during or immediately after the Second World War, some of its key promoters include Paul Kallos, Georges Romathier, Michelle Desterac, and Thibaut de Reimpré. American Lyrical Abstraction is an art movement that emerged in New York City, Los Angeles, Washington, DC, characterized by intuitive and loose paint handling, spontaneous expression, illusionist space, acrylic staining, process, occasional imagery, and other painterly and newer technological techniques. Lyrical Abstraction led the way away from minimalism in painting and toward a new freer expressionism, many of them had been Minimalists, working with various monochromatic, geometric styles, and whose paintings publicly evolved into new abstract painterly motifs. American Lyrical Abstraction is related in spirit to Abstract Expressionism, Color Field painting, Tachisme refers to the French style of abstract painting current in the 1945–1960 period. Very close to Art Informel, it presents the European equivalent to Abstract Expressionism, the Sheldon Museum of Art held an exhibition from 1 June until 29 August 1993 entitled Lyrical Abstraction, Color and Mood. Many artists began moving away from geometric, hard-edge, and minimal styles, toward more lyrical, sensuous and these lyrical abstractionists sought to expand the boundaries of abstract painting, and to revive and reinvigorate a painterly tradition in American art
9.
Gutai group
–
The Gutai group is the first radical, post-war artistic group in Japan. It was founded in 1954 by the painter Jiro Yoshihara in Osaka, Japan and this influential group was involved in large-scale multimedia environments, performances, and theatrical events and emphasizes the relationship between body and matter in pursuit of originality. The movement rejected traditional art styles in favor of performative immediacy, shozo Shimamoto and Jiro Yoshihara founded Gutai together in 1954, and it was Shimamoto who suggested the name Gutai. The kanji used to write gu meaning tool, measures, or a way of doing something, Yoshihara considers it to mean embodiment and concreteness. The group was known as Gutai Bijutsu Kyokai. Coming about during postwar Japanese reconstruction, Gutai stressed freedom of expression with innovative materials, Gutai challenged imaginations to invent new notions of what art is with attention on the relationships between body, matter, time, and space. After the war, attitudes regarding cultural exchanging changed amongst nations as the art environment involved great optimism for global collaboration, since artists were pursuing advances in contemporary art transnationally, the art environment of the time fostered thriving conditions for the Gutai group. For example, with the Treaty of San Francisco in 1951, Gutai artwork began being shown in exhibitions in both American and European cities. In the early 1950s, works by Yoshihara were featured in the shows of Nihon Kokusai Bijutsu-ten. In Osaka 1951, Yoshihara and others established the Gendai Bijutsu Kondan Kai and this group served as a workshop and forum for creating new art forms merging Eastern and Western culture as well as the modern and traditional. With post-occupation Japans emphasis on freedom, the United States goal was as well to promote art in order to promote democracy. This helped spread Gutai art since it sponsored its creation, Yoshihara Jiro was a businessman, self-taught painter who founded Gutai art in 1954 by gathering a group of artistic protégés in Ashiya, Hyōgo. The group shared a space in Osaka. He directed the artists to attempt to do what has never been done before and these early works focused on marks made from bodily movements. Yoshiharas vision for Gutai was one of internationality, which was very plausible considering the climate of the time. The worldwide distribution of hundreds of bulletins titled Gutai is perhaps the first proactive international effort done by Yoshihara and this notion is something that Gutai did indeed want to express. The avant-garde abstract art of the created a universal language. Gutai engaged in this language yet used its cultural and physical distance to preserve originality, Gutai art challenges the particularity of performance and painting and can be simplified as an intricate combination of the two
10.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
11.
School of Paris
–
School of Paris refers to a group of French and émigré artists who worked in Paris between the first years of the 20th century and the 1950s. The School of Paris was not an art movement or institution. Between 1900 and 1940 the city was a magnet for artists all over the world. School of Paris was used to describe this broad affiliation, particularly of non-French artists, before World War I, a group of expatriates in Paris created in the styles of Post-Impressionism, Cubism and Fauvism. It included artists like Pablo Picasso, Marc Chagall, Amedeo Modigliani, associated French artists included Pierre Bonnard, Henri Matisse, Jean Metzinger and Albert Gleizes. Picasso and Matisse have been described as the leaders of the school. The term School of Paris was coined in 1925 by André Warnod to celebrate the contribution of the many artists who had recently migrated to Paris. After World War II, however, these nationalistic and anti-Semitic attitudes were discredited, a significant group of Jewish artists came to be known as the Jewish School of Paris. This group included Emmanuel Mané-Katz, Chaïm Soutine, Adolphe Féder, Chagall, Moïse Kisling, Shimshon Holzman, the Musée dArt et dHistoire du Judaisme has works from artists such as Pascin, Michel Kikoine, Soutine, and Jacques Lipschitz. They included Alexandre Tansman, Alexander Tcherepnin, Bohuslav Martinů and Tibor Harsányi, unlike Les Six, another group of Montparnasse musicians at this time, the musical school of Paris was a loosely-knit group that did not adhere to any particular stylistic orientation. After the Second World War the term School of Paris often referred to tachisme, and lyrical abstraction and these artists are also related to CoBRa. Important proponents were Jean Dubuffet, Zoran Mušič, Pierre Soulages, Nicolas de Staël, Hans Hartung, Serge Poliakoff, Bram van Velde, Georges Mathieu, Jean Messagier, among others. Many of their exhibitions took place at the Galerie de France in Paris, and then at the Salon de Mai
12.
Europe
–
Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
13.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
14.
Jean-Paul Riopelle
–
Jean-Paul Riopelle, CC GOQ was a painter and sculptor from Quebec, Canada. He became the first Canadian painter to attain widespread international recognition, born in Montreal, Riopelle began drawing lessons in 1933 and continued through 1938. He studied engineering, architecture and photography at the école polytechnique in 1941, in 1942 he enrolled at the École des beaux-arts de Montréal but shifted his studies to the less academic école du Meuble, graduating in 1945. He studied under Paul-Émile Borduas in the 1940s and was a member of Les Automatistes movement, breaking with traditional conventions in 1945 after reading André Bretons Le Surréalisme et la Peinture, he began experimenting with non-objective painting. He was one of the signers of the Refus global manifesto, in 1947 Riopelle moved to Paris and continued his career as an artist, where, after a brief association with the surrealists he capitalized on his image as a wild Canadian. His first solo exhibition took place in 1949 at the Surrealist meeting place, in 1959 he began a relationship with the American painter Joan Mitchell. Living together throughout the 1960s, they kept separate homes and studios near Giverny and they influenced one another greatly, as much intellectually as artistically, but their relationship was a stormy one, fueled by alcohol. His 1992 painting Hommage à Rosa Luxemburg is Riopelles tribute to Mitchell, who died that year, the presence of long filaments of paint in his painting from 1948 through the early 1950s has often been seen as resulting from a dripping technique like that of Jackson Pollock. Rather, the creation of such came from the act of throwing, with a palette knife or brush. Riopelles voluminous impasto became just as important as color and his oil painting technique allowed him to paint thick layers, producing peaks and troughs as copious amounts of paint were applied to the surface of the canvas. But it never works, so I add more, without realizing it, I have never wanted to paint thickly, paint tubes are much too expensive. But one way or another, the painting has to be done, when I learn how to paint better, I will paint less thickly. It has to right away. A third element, range of gloss, in addition to color and volume, paints are juxtaposed so that light is reflected off the surface not just in different directions but with varying intensity, depending on the naturally occurring gloss finish. These three elements, color, volume, and range of gloss, would form the basis of his oil painting technique throughout his long, Riopelle received an Honorable Mention at the 1952 São Paulo Art Biennial. In 1953 he showed at the Younger European Painters exhibition at the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York City, the following year Riopelle began exhibiting at the Pierre Matisse Gallery in New York. In 1954, works by Riopelle, along with those of B. C, binning and Paul-Émile Borduas represented Canada at the Venice Biennale. He was the sole artist representing Canada at the 1962 Venice Biennale in an exhibit curated by Charles Comfort and he was made a member of the Royal Canadian Academy of Arts
15.
Wols
–
Wols was the pseudonym of Alfred Otto Wolfgang Schulze, a German painter and photographer predominantly active in France. Though broadly unrecognized in his lifetime, he is considered a pioneer of Lyrical Abstraction and he is the author of a book on art theory entitled Aphorismes de Wols. In 1919, the moved to Dresden, where consequently he found his love for art in 1927. In 1924, Schulze was given a camera, an event that, along with the death of his father in 1929. In 1930 he began to pursue an apprenticeship with his camera at the Reiman-Schule and he was a multifaceted man who was capable of teaching German, painting, and capturing photographs of portrait landscape. After abandoning school, Schulze pursued several interests, including ethnography before moving to Paris in 1932 on the advice of László Moholy-Nagy. After visiting Germany in 1933, he decided not to return, instead traveling to Barcelona, Majorca, and Ibiza, where he worked odd jobs, including a stint as a taxicab driver and a German tutor. In 1936, he received permission to live in Paris with the help of Fernand Léger, as an army deserter. Beginning in 1937, he worked on his photographs, which were shown in many of Pariss most prestigious galleries. He befriended luminaries of the period, including Max Ernst and Jacques Prévert. As a German national, Schulze was interned at the start of World War II, but he managed to escape and hide in Cassis near Marseilles, in 1942 he fled from the Germans to the safety of Montelimar. He spent most of the war trying to emigrate to the United States and these included Jean Paulhan, Francis Ponge, Georges Limbour and André Malraux. The small works were displayed in light boxes, a second exhibition in the same gallery two years later saw greater recognition. His paintings represented a rejection of figuration and abstraction, and a projection into a metaphysical plane, in the years following the war, Schulze concentrated on painting and etching. His health declined severely towards the end of the 1940s, in 1951 he died of poisoning at the Hotel Montalembert in Paris. After his death his works were shown at the Kassel documenta, documenta II, Wols painting style, as early as 1946-47, was informal, gestural, with the paint applied in layers by means of dripping and with scratching into the surface. This new development in art proved influential, earning him the praise of such as Georges Mathieu and critics such as Michel Tapié. Wols was noted for his etchings and for his use of stains of color dabbed onto the canvas and his painted work contains figurative elements as well as free improvisations and abstract elements
16.
Jean Dubuffet
–
Jean Philippe Arthur Dubuffet was a French painter and sculptor. He is perhaps best known for founding the art movement Art Brut, Dubuffet enjoyed a prolific art career, both in France and in America, and was featured in many exhibitions throughout his lifetime. Dubuffet was born in Le Havre to a family of wine merchants who were part of the wealthy bourgeoisie. He moved to Paris in 1918 to study painting at the Académie Julian, becoming friends with the artists Juan Gris, André Masson. Six months later, upon finding academic training to be distasteful, during this time, Dubuffet developed many other interests, including music, poetry, and the study of ancient and modern languages. Dubuffet also traveled to Italy and Brazil, and upon returning to Le Havre in 1925, he married for the first time and he took up painting again in 1934 when he made a large series of portraits in which he emphasized the vogues in art history. But again he stopped, developing his business at Bercy during the German Occupation of France. Years later, in a text, he boasted about having made substantial profits by supplying wine to the Wehrmacht. In 1942, Dubuffet decided to devote himself again to art and he often chose subjects for his works from everyday life, such as people sitting in the Paris Métro or walking in the country. Dubuffet painted with strong, unbroken colors, recalling the palette of Fauvism, as well as the Brucke painters, with their juxtaposing, many of his works featured an individual or individuals placed in a very cramped space, which had a distinct psychological impact on viewers. His first solo show came in October 1944, at the Galerie Rene Drouin in Paris and this marked Dubuffets third attempt to become an established artist. In 1945, Dubuffet attended and was impressed by a show in Paris of Jean Fautriers paintings in which he recognized meaningful art which expressed directly and purely the depth of a person. Emulating Fautrier, Dubuffet started to use oil paint mixed with materials such as mud, sand, coal dust, pebbles, pieces of glass, string, straw, plaster, gravel, cement. His use of materials and the irony that he infused into many of his works incited a significant amount of backlash from critics. Greenberg went on to say that Dubuffet is perhaps the one new painter of importance to have appeared on the scene in Paris in the last decade. Indeed, Dubuffet was very prolific in the United States in the following his first exhibition in New York. After 1946, Dubuffet started a series of portraits, with his own friends Henri Michaux, Francis Ponge, Jean Paulhan and he painted these portraits in the same thick materials, and in a manner deliberately anti-psychological and anti-personal, as Dubuffet expressed himself. A few years later he approached the surrealist group in 1948, in 1944 he started an important relationship with the resistance-fighter and French writer, publisher, Jean Paulhan who was also strongly fighting against intellectual terrorism, as he called it
17.
Pierre Soulages
–
Pierre Soulages is a French painter, engraver, and sculptor. In 2014 François Hollande described him as the worlds greatest living artist, born in Rodez, Aveyron, in 1919, Soulages is also known as the painter of black, owing to his interest in the colour both as a colour and a non-colour. When light is reflected on black, it transforms and transmutes it and it opens a mental field all its own. He also worked as a designer of stage sets, in 1979, Pierre Soulages was made a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters. From 1987 to 1994, he produced 104 stained glass windows for the Romanesque Abbey church Sainte-Foy in Conques, Soulages is the first living artist invited to exhibit at the state Hermitage Museum of St. Petersburg and later with the Tretyakov Gallery of Moscow. A composition he created in 1959 sold for 1.200.000 euros at Sothebys in 2006, in 2007, the Musée Fabre of Montpellier devoted an entire room to Soulages, presenting his donation to the city. This donation includes twenty paintings dating from 1951 to 2006, among which are works from the 1960s. A retrospective of his art was held at the Centre National dArt et de Culture Georges Pompidou from October 2009 to March 2010, in 2010, the Museo de la Ciudad de Mexico presented a retrospective of Soulages paintings that also included an interview-video with the painter. In 2014, Musée Soulages, opened in Rodez, France, a museum dedicated to permanently displaying his works, plus temporary contemporary exhibitions, Soulages donated 500 works. Made in two separate donations, the paintings represent all stages of his work, from oil paintings to his phase of work called Outrenoir. Together they have formed his most complete display of work from the first 30 years of his career. Also in 2014 was Soulages first American exhibition in 10 years, Soulages has said, My instrument is not black but the light reflected from the black. Naming his own practice Outrenoir, the paintings he produces are known for their endless black depth, knowing that he needed a new term to define the way that he was working, Soulages invented Outrenoir to define his practice. Not having a translation into English, the closest meaning is beyond black, in an interview in 2014 he explains the definition of the term, Outrenoir doesnt exist in English, the closest is beyond black. In French, you say outre-Manche, beyond the Channel, to mean England or outre-Rhin, beyond the Rhine, in other words, beyond black is a different country from black. The infatuation Soulages has with black began long before his investigations with Outrenoir at the age of 60. ”I made these because I found that the light reflected by the black surface elicits certain emotions in me. The fact that light can come from the colour which is supposedly the absence of light is already quite moving, the texture that is then produced either absorbs or rejects light, breaking up the surface of the painting by disrupting the uniformity of the black. He often uses bold cuts in vertical and horizontal lines, the crevasses and forms created by using angles and contours
18.
Georges Mathieu
–
Georges Mathieu was a French abstract painter, art theorist and member of the Académie des Beaux-Arts in Paris. He is considered one of the fathers of European lyrical abstraction, Mathieu was born in 1921 in Boulogne-sur-Mer. His father Adolphe Georges Mathieu, bank manager at Barclays, and his mother Madeleine Durpé, in 1933 Mathieus parents divorced and he was placed in the care of his aunt in Versailles. From 1927 to 1933, he followed his scholarship in various schools of Boulogne-sur-Mer and later in Lycée Hoche in Versailles, thereafter, he studied English and Law at the University of Lille. Mathieu obtained a position as an English teacher in 1942 at the lycée of Douai in the north of France, in 1942, he executed figurative paintings of England from postcards as a hobby. Later during year 1944, he began his reflection on aesthetics held by the following concept and this revelation originates from the readings of Edward Crankshaw and his interpretation of the work of Joseph Conrad as an abstract literature. Consequently, he executed his first non-figurative painting, Inception, in 1947, he settled in Paris, employed the American Express, and rented a chambre de bonne near the Luxembourg Palace. This position was an opportunity for Mathieu to reach a prestigious clientele and he meets Salvador Dalí for the first time on his occasion. From 1953 to 1963, he was proposed to be the editor-in-chief of the United States Lines Paris Revue. With a print run of 15000 copies, this journal is distributed for free until 1963, it gave Mathieu the opportunity to interview celebrities of the time. In 1946, his first abstract paintings were featured at the Salon des moins de 30 ans exhibition in Paris. He founded the first artistic group L’Imaginaire with Wols, Jean-Michel Atlan, Hartung, Bryen, Riopelle, the exhibition was called Towards Lyrical Abstraction, but the title was later changed because of the presence of works of Pablo Picasso and Jean Arp. The same year, he exposes at the Salon des Réalités Nouvelles, the group is later expanded, with Michel Tapié, Picabia and François Stahly to form H. W. P. S. M. T. B. He promoted an art free from the constraints of figurative paintings and he painted his first large canvases as soon as 1952. From 1957 he traveled and painted in Japan, USA and in 1959 in Brazil, Argentina, restropectives of his work started as early as 1959. Mathieu and Simon Hantaï held a series of conferences called the Cérémonies commémoratives de la seconde condamnation de Siger de Brabant in 1957, many scholars like essayist T. S. Eliot, philosopher Stéphane Lupasco and scientists took a stand at these conferences. The event was named after the philosopher Siger de Brabant, who played a key role in the 13th-century, in 1965, Mathieu exposed a hundred paintings at the Galerie Charpentier. He executed for this event Paris, Capitale des Arts, a giant canvas featuring primary colors on a blue background, today, Galerie Charpentiers walls house the headquarters of Sothebys France, rue Faubourg Saint-Honoré in Paris
19.
Jean Messagier
–
Jean Messagier was a French painter, sculptor, printmaker and poet. Jean Messagier had his first solo exhibition in Paris at Galerie Arc-en-Ciel in 1947, from 1945 to 1949 the artist worked under the influence of Pablo Picasso, André Masson, Paul Klee and François Desnoyer, his professor at École nationale supérieure des arts décoratifs in Paris. Messagier again was revealed to the public at an exhibition organized by Charles Estienne at the Galerie de Babylone in 1952, entitled La Nouvelle École de Paris. approached abstractly. From 1962 until the year of his death Jean Messagier exhibited in France and abroad, Jean Messagier spent his childhood during the 1920s and 1930s between Paris and Franche-Comté, where he realized his first representational watercolors and drawings, portraits and landscapes. Messagier would soon be represented at group exhibitions in Germany, Zurich, Florence, Brussels, London and he would also participate in the Salon des Réalités Nouvelles, Salon Comparaisons, Peinture informelle and the Salon d’Octobre of which he was one of the founding members. Following his schooling at Large-Chênois in Montbeliard, Messagier moved to Paris, at lEcole Nationale des Arts Décoratifs in Paris, his professors included Roland Oudot, Maurice Brianchon, Raymond Legueult and François Desnoyer. In parallel he studied with the poet Paul Valéry at the Collège de France, in 1943, at the age of 23, Jean Messagier held his first solo exhibition at the Château de Montbéliard. In 1944 Jean Messagier married the ceramicist Marcelle Baumann, in 1947 Messagier realized his first sculptures, exhibited at the Salon dAutomne in Paris and held a solo exhibit at the Galerie Arc-en-Ciel in Paris. After brief stays in Italy and Algeria the two had their first child, Matthew in 1949, etienne recognized Messagier as a Robinson Crusoe of the Post-War movement. Messagier co-founded the Salon dOctobre in Paris and exhibited there in 1952 and 1953, in 1954 Marcelle gave birth to their second son, Thomas. At this time the family resided in the heart of Paris,8 Rue Pierre et Marie Curie, in 1958 their third son, Simon, was born. The gesture of painting became the creative act. Painting was no longer an activity oriented towards an aesthetic production, painting for Messagier became the medium through which the universe spoke. Natural forms were observed and replaced by paintings within which the forces of nature could be experienced, between 1953 and 1956 Messagier refined his pictorial vocabulary to include a kind of symmetry, closer in spirit to W. Blake than to the constructivists. Defying the laws of gravity and seemingly outside of spacetime, his paintings of this period evoke a state of suspended animation, a dream-world as conceived by Mallarmé. Allusive and dissolved forms that he painted so far gave way to vast indeterminate stretches of monochrome color, expressing Messagiers unswerving commitment to nature, air, over the years his gesture became further loosened, reaching its apogee during the 1960s with wide and elegant gyrations. These works resemble a network of loops or clouds wrapping and mingling together tirelessly, for Messagier, an artist had to be a social actor. In 1962, to inaugurate his new studio—located in an old mill next to les Trois cantons at the foot of the Charrot bridge that spans the Doubs river—Messagier organized his first massive party
20.
Cubism
–
Cubism is an early-20th-century avant-garde art movement that revolutionized European painting and sculpture, and inspired related movements in music, literature and architecture. Cubism has been considered the most influential art movement of the 20th century, the term is broadly used in association with a wide variety of art produced in Paris during the 1910s and extending through the 1920s. The movement was pioneered by Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso, joined by Andre Lhote, Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Robert Delaunay, Henri Le Fauconnier, Fernand Léger and Juan Gris. A primary influence that led to Cubism was the representation of form in the late works of Paul Cézanne. The impact of Cubism was far-reaching and wide-ranging, Cubism spread rapidly across the globe and in doing so evolved to a greater or lesser extent. In essence, Cubism was the origin of a process that produced diversity. In France, offshoots of Cubism developed, including Orphism, Abstract art, in other countries Futurism, Suprematism, Dada, Constructivism, De Stijl and Art Deco developed in response to Cubism. Other common threads between these movements include the faceting or simplification of geometric forms, and the association of mechanization. Cubism began between 1907 and 1911, Pablo Picassos 1907 painting Les Demoiselles dAvignon has often been considered a proto-Cubist work. Georges Braques 1908 Houses at L’Estaque prompted the critic Louis Vauxcelles to refer to bizarreries cubiques, Gertrude Stein referred to landscapes made by Picasso in 1909, such as Reservoir at Horta de Ebro, as the first Cubist paintings. A second phase, Synthetic Cubism, remained vital until around 1919, english art historian Douglas Cooper proposed another scheme, describing three phases of Cubism in his book, The Cubist Epoch. Douglas Coopers restrictive use of terms to distinguish the work of Braque, Picasso, Gris. Alternative interpretations of Cubism have therefore developed, wider views of Cubism include artists who were later associated with the Salle 41 artists, e. g. John Berger identifies the essence of Cubism with the mechanical diagram. The metaphorical model of Cubism is the diagram, The diagram being a symbolic representation of invisible processes, forces, structures. A diagram need not eschew certain aspects of appearance but these too will be treated as not as imitations or recreations. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Europeans were discovering African, Polynesian, Micronesian, artists such as Paul Gauguin, Henri Matisse, and Pablo Picasso were intrigued and inspired by the stark power and simplicity of styles of those foreign cultures. Around 1906, Picasso met Matisse through Gertrude Stein, at a time when artists had recently acquired an interest in primitivism, Iberian sculpture, African art and African tribal masks. Picassos paintings of 1907 have been characterized as Protocubism, as seen in Les Demoiselles dAvignon
21.
Calligraphy
–
Calligraphy is a visual art related to writing. It is the design and execution of lettering with a broad tip instrument, brush, a contemporary calligraphic practice can be defined as, the art of giving form to signs in an expressive, harmonious, and skillful manner. Modern calligraphy ranges from functional inscriptions and designs to fine-art pieces where the letters may or may not be readable, classical calligraphy differs from typography and non-classical hand-lettering, though a calligrapher may practice both. It is also used for props and moving images for film and television, testimonials, birth and death certificates, maps, the principal tools for a calligrapher are the pen and the brush. Calligraphy pens write with nibs that may be flat, round, for some decorative purposes, multi-nibbed pens—steel brushes—can be used. However, works have also created with felt-tip and ballpoint pens. There are some styles of calligraphy, like Gothic script, which require a stub nib pen, Writing ink is usually water-based and is much less viscous than the oil-based inks used in printing. Normally, light boxes and templates are used to achieve straight lines without pencil markings detracting from the work, ruled paper, either for a light box or direct use, is most often ruled every quarter or half inch, although inch spaces are occasionally used. This is the case with litterea unciales, and college-ruled paper often acts as a guideline well, common calligraphy pens and brushes are, Quill Dip pen Ink brush Qalam Fountain pen Western calligraphy is recognizable by the use of the Latin script. The Latin alphabet appeared about 600 BC, in Rome, and by the first century developed into Roman imperial capitals carved on stones, Rustic capitals painted on walls, in the second and third centuries the uncial lettering style developed. As writing withdrew to monasteries, uncial script was more suitable for copying the Bible. It was the monasteries which preserved calligraphic traditions during the fourth and fifth centuries, at the height of the Empire, its power reached as far as Great Britain, when the empire fell, its literary influence remained. The Semi-uncial generated the Irish Semi-uncial, the small Anglo-Saxon, each region developed its own standards following the main monastery of the region, which are mostly cursive and hardly readable. Christian churches promoted the development of writing through the copying of the Bible, particularly the New Testament. Two distinct styles of writing known as uncial and half-uncial developed from a variety of Roman bookhands, the 7th-9th centuries in northern Europe were the heyday of Celtic illuminated manuscripts, such as the Book of Durrow, Lindisfarne Gospels and the Book of Kells. Charlemagnes devotion to improved scholarship resulted in the recruiting of a crowd of scribes, according to Alcuin, Alcuin developed the style known as the Caroline or Carolingian minuscule. The first manuscript in hand was the Godescalc Evangelistary — a Gospel book written by the scribe Godescalc. Carolingian remains the one hand from which modern booktype descends
22.
Pierre Alechinsky
–
Pierre Alechinsky is a Belgian artist. He has lived and worked in France since 1951 and his work is related to tachisme, abstract expressionism, and lyrical abstraction. In 1944 he attended the lEcole nationale supérieure dArchitecture et des Arts décoratifs de La Cambre, Brussels where he studied illustration techniques, printing, in 1945 he discovered the work of Henri Michaux, Jean Dubuffet and developed a friendship with the art critic Jacques Putman. In 1949 he joined Christian Dotremont, Karel Appel, Constant, Jan Nieuwenhuys and he participated both with the Cobra exhibitions and went to Paris to study engraving at Atelier 17 under the guidance of Stanley William Hayter in 1951. In 1954 he had his first exhibition in Paris and started to become interested in oriental calligraphy, in the early 1950s he was the Paris correspondent for the Japanese journal Bokubi. In 1955, encouraged by Henri Storck and Luc de Heusch and he exhibited Night,1952 and made a film, Japanese Calligraphy – Christian Dotremont would write the commentary with music by André Souris. By 1960 he had exhibited in London, Bern and at the Venice Biennial and he worked with Walasse Ting and continued to be close to Christian Dotremont. He also developed links with André Breton and his international career continued throughout the seventies and by 1983 he became Professor of painting at the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts, Paris. In 1994 he was awarded a doctorate by the Free University of Brussels. The main-belt asteroid 14832 Alechinsky was named in his honour in October 2000, Pierre Alechinsky collection at the Israel Museum. Galerie Lelong, Paris Pierre Alechinsky at the Museum of Modern Art
23.
Karel Appel
–
Christiaan Karel Appel was a Dutch painter, sculptor, and poet. He started painting at the age of fourteen and studied at the Rijksakademie in Amsterdam in the 1940s and he was one of the founders of the avant-garde movement Cobra in 1948. Christiaan Karel Appel was born on 25 April 1921 in his parents house at Dapperstraat 7 in Amsterdam, as a child he was often called Kik. On the ground floor his father, Jan Appel, had a barbershop and his mother, born Johanna Chevalier, was a descendant of French Huguenots. At fourteen, Appel produced his first real painting on canvas, for his fifteenth birthday, his wealthy uncle Karel Chevalier gave him a paint set and an easel. An avid amateur painter himself, Chevalier gave his namesake some lessons in painting, Appel had his first show in Groningen in 1946. In 1949 he participated with the other CoBrA artists in the Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam and he was influenced by Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, and the French brute-art artist Jean Dubuffet. In 1947 he started sculpting with all kinds of used materials and painted them in bright colors, white, red, yellow, blue and he joined the Experimentele Groep in Holland together with the young Dutch painters Anton Rooskens, Theo Wolvecamp, and Jan Nieuwenhuys. Later the Belgian writer Hugo Claus joined the group, in 1948 Appel joined CoBrA together with the Dutch artists Corneille, Constant, and Jan Nieuwenhuys, and with the Belgian poet Christian Dotremont. The new art of the CoBrA group was not popular in the Netherlands, by 1939, Danish artists had already started to make spontaneous art and one of their sources of inspiration was Danish and Nordic mythology. Appel used this very intensively, his 1949 fresco Questioning Children in Amsterdam City Hall caused controversy and was covered up for ten years and he also lived in New York City and Florence. He is particularly noted for his mural work, after 1990 he became much more popular in the Netherlands, he had several big shows in Amsterdam and Bruxelles, organized by director Rudy Fuchs. Also, the CoBrA-museum in Amstelveen organized several shows featuring his work and he became the most famous Dutch CoBrA artist. Appels work has exhibited in a number of galleries, including the Anita Shapolsky Gallery in New York City, Galerie Lelong in Paris, Galerie Ulysses in Vienna. Appel died on 3 May 2006 in his home in Zürich and he suffered from a heart ailment. He was buried on 16 May 2006 at the Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, in 2002 a number of Appels works went missing on the way to his foundation, an event that was not to be resolved before his death. However, in 2012 the works were found in a disused UK warehouse, in the wake of his death, the Foundation functions as his official estate in addition to its primary service as an image archive. The U. S. copyright representative for the Karel Appel Foundation is the Artists Rights Society, bern – Berlin, Verlag Gachnang & Springer,1999
24.
Ferruccio Bortoluzzi
–
Ferruccio Bortoluzzi was an Italian modern painter, he was one of the founders of the Centro di Unità della Cultura LArco together with venetian artists and writers. Born in Venice in 1920, Ferruccio Bortoluzzi received his diploma from the Art Institute there in 1947 and he has taught for the same Institute, the Artistic High School as well as for the Senior Course of Industrial Design. Immediately following the war, he was one of the founders of LArco Cultural Center in Venice, from 1943-2003 he had several one-man shows both in Italy and abroad, for example the Museum of Modern Art of Cà Pesaro and Fondazione Querini Stampalia. Bortoluzzis works can be seen in public and private collections in Italy, a contemporary documentation of his artistic activities can be found at the Historical Archive of Contemporary Art in Venice. The artist died in Venice in 2007. I remember in the 60s when I first showed my mixed-medium works and they provoked bewilderment, and were even mocked by those collectors who preferred the palette of popular artists to the roughness and asperity of my wood pieces. I feel profoundly Venetian, son of this extraordinary city and my works are dedicated to Venice. In them you can read the affirmation of its decline, the exaltation of the dull colors typical of damp, foggy and you can smell the brackish odor of the marshes. For this I would have liked something more, and yet, at times the critics were not very kind to me
25.
Norman Bluhm
–
Norman Bluhm, was an American painter classified as an abstract expressionist, and as an action painter. He was born on March 28,1921 in Chicago, Illinois and he studied under Mies van der Rohe at the then Armour Institute of Technology. After service in World War II with the USAAF he decided not to resume his architectural studies, rather he studied art at the Academia de Belle Arte, Florence, Italy and at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris. From 1948 until 1956 he lived in Paris and he had numerous friends in art, literature, and other creative fields. Among his close acquaintances were Joan Mitchell, Sam Francis, Jean-Paul Riopelle, Zao Wou-ki and he was married to Claude Souvrain until 1956. He returned to the United States in 1956 and he married Carolyn Ogle in 1961. They lived in New York City until 1969 with their two children, David and Nina, from 1970 to 1980 they lived in Millbrook, New York. From 1980 to 1987 they lived in East Hampton, New York, thereafter, they lived in East Wallingford, Vermont until Bluhms death on February 3,1999. Bluhms work has been praised and his works are in the collections of many major museums. His work changed throughout his career while retaining elements that to the discerning viewer are obvious. Among his more noted work are a series of paintings done with his good friend the poet Frank OHara. Shortly before Bluhm died, in 1999, Art in America editor Raphael Rubinstein predicted that this body of work would be as important to the 21st century as Cézanne’s later output was to the 20th. Bluhms work while recognized and praised has never received the measure of attention that some of his contemporaries, such as Joan Mitchell, in part, this is due to Bluhms unwillingness to cater sufficiently to those in the commercial art world. Also changing art tastes in the 60s with the advent of Pop Art placed Bluhm in a critical netherworld, in 2007, the Station Museum of Contemporary Art in Houston, Texas, organised a major exhibition under the title The Late Paintings of Norman Bluhm
26.
Alexander Bogen
–
Alexander Bogen was a Polish-Israeli artist, painter, sculptor, stage designer, book illustrator and a commander partisan during World War II. Alexander Bogen was born in Tartu, Estonia and brought up in Wilno, as a young boy he adhered to the values of the Yiddish culture of Yung Vilne, as well as to the modern Polish culture. After completing his studies at the gymnasium, he was accepted to the Stefan Batory art academy affiliated with the Wilno University and his father came from a secular family and his mother was the daughter of Rabbi Tuvia Lobitzki, the rabbi of Wołkowysk, Poland. His studies were interrupted by World War II, Bogen joined the partisans and became a commander of the partisan unit in the Narocz Forests. He buried many of the drawings he made at this time near Lake Narocz and he returned to the ghetto in September 1943 and helped to facilitate the rescue of members of the United Partisan Organization, a Jewish underground movement active in the ghetto. After the war Bogen returned to his studies, finished his degree and was mastered as an artist of monumental painting at the USB Academy of Art in Vilna. In 1947, he taught as a professor at The Academy of Fine Arts In Łódź and became a well-known artist, set designer, in 1951, Bogen and his wife immigrated to Israel and settled in Tel Aviv. During his time in Israel, Bogen continued his cultural and educational activities in the arts, in 1957 he initiated the art program in Ironi Yud-Dalet highschool in Tel Aviv and lead it for 22 years. Bogen completed his studies of art at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris and was an art lecturer in the Hebrew University in Jerusalem. Bogen continued painting, drawing and sculpting until his death at the age of 94 in Tel Aviv on October 20,2010, Bogen continued to draw during the war, documenting what he saw, We saw abandoned children. We saw people being led to the slaughter, I did not lay down my pencil for a moment. An artist condemned to death portraying people condemned to extermination. I sketched the forest, my brothers-in-arms, I burnt dry branches and prepared charcoal for my sketches. I asked myself why I was drawing, when I was fighting day, every man, every people, is interested in continuing his people, his family, in bringing children into the world for the future – in leaving this one thing. Another motivation was to get information to the so-called free world……and to be creative in the situation of the Holocaust, the artist reacts through his medium. This is his weapon…This is what shows that the Germans could not break his spirit, placide Gallery, Paris 1963 Rider Gallery, Los Angeles, Merkup Gallery, Mexico 1975 Glezer Gallery, N. Y. His drawings, especially those that survived from his days, offer a gallery of characters. Among the drawings on show were illustrations for poems by two Yiddish poets, Gebirtig and Abraham Sutzkever
27.
Alberto Burri
–
Alberto Burri was an Italian painter and sculptor. Alberto Burri was born in Città di Castello, in Umbria in 1915 to a wine merchant and he earned a medical degree from the University of Perugia specializing in tropical medicine. On 12 October 1940, two days after Italy entered World War II, Burri was called up as a medic, on 8 May 1943 after the Axis forces were defeated at El Alamein, his unit was captured in Tunisia. He was interned at a war camp in Hereford, Texas, World War II had wreaked havoc on Italy. The countrys resources had bled dry, defeat had made it old and bitter, a sort of modern Renaissance however swept through the country with the end of the Second World War. Artists began to use their work as a way to reexamine the past, Painters, poets and intellectuals formed new groups, cultural associations and drafted specialized periodicals and invited new theories, paving the way for a brand new platform for art. The 1950s were also a time when cultural exchange was encouraged between Italy and the United States. Many American artists like Kooning, Matta, Rauschenberg, Rothko, Rome also emerged as a favorite venue for meetings amongst critics like Herbert Read, Willem Sandberg, James Johnson Sweeney, second director of the Guggenheim Museum, and Michel Tapié. It was during this time that the works of Afro Basaldella, Burri, while Burri experimented with the material wounds inflicted by war through his symbolic pieces of art, Afro entered a neo-cubist phase and Fontana experimented with the traditional idea of space. Burri, a doctor in the Italian army, was transformed by the dramatic. Even though his views changed dramatically after the war, he remained mute on the subject. Instead, he embarked on a creative journey. He used the materials available to him at the camp, converting them into pieces of art marked by his experience of turmoil. The POW camps offered an easier life to Italian prisoners compared to their German. They were allowed to mix with the local Italian-American community, were offered recreational activities such as building religious altars, playing soccer or tending to vegetable gardens. As an officer, Burri was exempt from labor, but he was not permitted to practice medicine, like many of his fellow officers. He became a part of a group of Italian detainee-artists assigned to repaint a local church, in many ways Burris increasing involvement in art, allowed him to resign completely from medicine upon his return to Italy. Burris first paintings were views of the desert he could see from the camp and still life with paints
28.
Beauford Delaney
–
Beauford Delaney was an American modernist painter. He is remembered for his work with the Harlem Renaissance in the 1930s and 1940s, Beaufords younger brother, Joseph, was also a noted painter. Beauford Delaney was born December 30,1901 in Knoxville, Tennessee, Delaneys parents were prominent and respected members of Knoxvilles black community. His father Samuel was both a barber and a Methodist minister and his mother Delia was also prominent in the church, and earned a living taking in laundry and cleaning the houses of prosperous local whites. Beauford was the eighth of ten children, only four of whom survived into adulthood, some of their earliest drawings were copies of Sunday school cards and pictures from the family bible. Those early years which Beauford and I enjoyed together I am sure shaped the direction of our lives as artists and we were constantly doing something with our hands – modelling with the very red Tennessee clay, also copying pictures. One distinct difference in Beauford and myself was his multi-talents, Beauford could always strum on a ukulele and sing like mad and could mimic with the best. Beauford and I were complete opposites, me an introvert and Beauford the extrovert, the Delaneys attended Knoxvilles Austin High School, and among Beaufords early works was a portrait of Austin High principal Charles Cansler. When he was a teenager, he got a job as a helper at the Post Sign Company, however, he and his younger brother Joseph were drawing signs of their own. Then some of his work was noticed by Lloyd Branson, an elderly American Impressionist, by the early 1920s, Delaney became the apprentice of Branson. With Bransons encouragement, the 23-year-old Delaney migrated north to Boston to study art, with perseverance, he achieved the artists education he desired, including informal studies at the Massachusetts Normal School, the South Boston School of Art and the Copley Society. He learned what he called the essentials of classical technique and it was also while in Boston that Delaney had his first intimate experience with a young man in the Public Garden. By 1929, the essentials of his artistic education complete, Beauford decided to leave Boston and his arrival in New York City at the time of the Harlem Renaissance was exciting. Harlem was then the center of cultural life in the United States. But it was also the time of the Great Depression, Delaney felt an immediate affinity with this multitude of people of all races – spending every night of their lives in parks and cafes surviving on next to nothing. Members of this community became the subjects of many of Delaneys greatest New York period paintings. Abandoning the precise realism of his academic training, Delaney developed a lyrically expressive style that drew upon his love of musical rhythms. Works such as Can Fire in the Park hover between representation and abstraction as that style evolved during the 1940s, Delaney would eventually obtain work as a bellhop, and later as a telephone operator, doorman, caretaker, and janitor
29.
Agenore Fabbri
–
Agenore Fabbri was an Italian sculptor and painter. He moved between a rigorous expressionism and experimental informalism, at the end of the year he moved to Albisola, where he worked in the La Fiamma ceramic workshop and created his first terracotta sculptures, mainly biblical figures. In 1933 he made friends with Tullio Mazzotti, who owns the Giuseppe Mazzotti ceramic factory in Albissola Marina. It is here that the most significant artists of the generation of Futurism worked under the patronage of Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Fillia, Antonio SantElia, Nicolaj Diulgheroff. Later he established a studio and came into contact with Arturo Martini. In 1946 took up residence in Milan and during the summer worked in Albisola, in the Mazzotti ceramic factory. Later artists such as Giuseppe Capogrossi, Roberto Crippa, Gianni Dova, Emilio Scanavino, in 1947 he had his first meeting with Picasso in Vallauris and created terracotta and ceramic works such as Donna del popolo, Uomo colpito and La madre. In 1956, invited by the Chinese Government, he travelled to China for three months with Antonietta Raphael Mafai, Giulio Turcato, Aligi Sassu and others and his work was greatly influenced by this journey over the next few years. In the 80s his work was exhibited mainly in Germany with major retrospectives at the Lehmbruck Museum, Duisburg, the Ludwig Museum, Cologne, the Sprengel Museum, Hannover, in 1998 he was elected President of the Accademia Nazionale di San Luca. On August 4, Fabbri was abruptly hospitalized with a brain haemorrhage, in the same period he also executed many artworks using the iron, tin and zinc, and steel. Caccia al cinghiale by Agenore Fabbri, sculpture Drawings, published by Lehmbruck Museum, Duisburg,1984. ASIN B005SAHLX6 Steingraber Erich, Salzmann Siegfried, Gassiot-Talabot Gerald, Gillo Dorfles, plastik und Malerei, Hirmer Verlag, Munchen,1988. ISBN9783777447902 Bartsch Ingo, Feierabend V. F. Brockhaus Christoph, Ronte Dieter, die informelle Phase, Gabriele Mazzotta Editore, Milan,2002. Senso dellesistenza, Studio dArte Campaiola, Rome,2005 Agenore Fabbri, catalogue Raisonné Sculpture/Painting, Silvana Editoriale, Milan,2011. ISBN 978-8836620586/ISBN 978-8836620593 Raccolta d’Arte Ccpl, Agenore Fabbri, Ada Masero, Il Febbrile Fabbri, ilgiornaledell’arte. harvardartmuseums. org/art/227530 Official website
30.
Lucio Fontana
–
Lucio Fontana was an Italio-Argentine painter, sculptor and theorist of Argentine birth. He was mostly known as the founder of Spatialism and his ties to Arte Povera, born in Rosario, province of Santa Fe, Argentina to Italian immigrant parents, he was the son of the sculptor Luigi Fontana. Fontana spent the first years of his life in Italy and came back to Argentina in 1905, where he stayed until 1922, working as a sculptor along with his father, and then on his own. Already in 1926, he participated in the first exhibition of Nexus, in 1927 Fontana returned to Italy and studied under the sculptor Adolfo Wildt, at Accademia di Brera from 1928 to 1930. It was there where he presented his first exhibition in 1930, during the following decade he journeyed Italy and France, working with abstract and expressionist painters. In 1935 he joined the association Abstraction-Création in Paris and from 1936 to 1949 made expressionnist sculptures in ceramic, in 1939, he joined the Corrente, a Milan group of expressionist artists. In 1940 he returned to Argentina, upon his return from Argentina in 1947, he supported, along with writers and philosophers, the first manifesto of spatialism **. Fontana had found his studio and works completely destroyed in the Allied bombings of Milan, in Milan, he collaborated with noted Milanese architects to decorate several new buildings that were part of the effort to reconstruct the city after the war. From 1949 on he started the so-called Spatial Concept or slash series, consisting in holes or slashes on the surface of monochrome paintings and he devised the generic title Concetto spaziale for these works and used it for almost all his later paintings. These can be divided into categories, the Buchi, beginning in 1949, and the Tagli. Fontana often lined the reverse of his canvases with black gauze so that the darkness would shimmer behind the open cuts and create a sense of illusion. He then created an elaborate neon ceiling called Luce spaziale in 1951 for the Triennale in Milan, in his important series of Concetto spaziale, La Fine di Dio, Fontana uses the egg shape. With his Pietre series, begun in 1952, Fontana fused the sculptural with painting by encrusting the surfaces of his canvases with heavy impasto and colored glass. In his Buchi cycle, begun in 1949-50, he punctured the surface of his canvases, from 1958 he purified his paintings by creating matte, monochrome surfaces, thus focusing the viewer’s attention on the slices that rend the skin of the canvas. He manipulated the paint with his fingers and various instruments to make furrows, Fontana was subsequently invited by Michel Tapié to exhibit the works at the Martha Jackson Gallery in New York. As a consequence of his first visit to New York in 1961, he created a series of metal works and these concerns were prominent at the 1966 Venice Biennale, for which he designed the environment for his work. At Documenta IV in Kassel in 1968, he positioned a large, plaster slash as the centre of a totally white labyrinth, including ceiling, shortly before his death he was present at the Destruction Art, Destroy to Create demonstration at the Finch College Museum of New York. Then he left his home in Milano and went to Comabbio, his familys mother town, Fontana created a prolific amount of graphic work with abstract motifs as well as figures, little-known in the art world, at the same time as he was producing his abstract perforated works
31.
Sam Francis
–
Samuel Lewis Francis was an American painter and printmaker. Sam Francis was born in San Mateo, California, the son of Katherine Lewis Francis and Samuel Augustus Francis, Sr. The 1935 death of his mother, who had encouraged his interest in music affected him deeply, Francis served in the United States Air Force during World War II before being injured during test flight maneuvers. He was in the hospital for years, and it was while there, after being visited by artist David Park in 1945. Once out of the hospital he returned to Berkeley, this time to study art and he received both his BA degree and MA degree from University of California, Berkeley, where he studied botany, medicine and psychology. Francis was initially influenced by the work of abstract expressionists such as Mark Rothko, Arshile Gorky and he spent the 1950s in Paris, having his first exhibition there at the Galerie Nina Dausset in 1952. While in Paris he became associated with Tachisme, and had his work championed by art critics Michel Tapié, between 1950 and 1958 Francis spent time and painted in Paris, the south of France, Tokyo, Mexico City, Bern and New York. His artistic development was affected by his exposure to French modern painting, Asian culture, after his 1953 painting Big Red was included in the 1956 exhibition Twelve Artists at the Museum of Modern Art, New York, Francis began a rapid rise to international prominence. Francis painted large murals for the Kunsthalle, Basel in 1956-8 and for the Chase Manhattan Bank, between 1960 and 1963 he created several series of works, including the Blue Balls series. Consisting of biomorphic predominantly blue forms and drips, these works referenced the pain that resulted from the tuberculosis that he suffered in 1961. Francis returned to California during the 1960s and continued painting, mainly in Los Angeles, in 1965 Francis started a series of paintings that featured large areas of open canvas, minimal color and strong line. His work evolved further after he began intensive Jungian analysis with Dr. James Kirsch in 1971 and began paying attention to his dreams. Francis works of the early 1970s have been referred to as Fresh Air pictures, created by adding pools, drips and splatters of color to wet bands of paint applied with a roller, these works re-asserted the artists interest in color. By 1973–4 many of Francis paintings featured a grid or matrix made up of crossing tracks of color. Many of these works were large in scale, measuring up to twenty feet long. After 1980 the formal structure of the grid gradually disappeared from Francis work and he was extremely active as a printmaker, creating numerous etchings, lithographs and monotypes, many of which were executed in Santa Monica at the Litho Shop, which Francis owned. In 1984 Francis founded The Lapis Press with the goal of producing unusual and he died in Santa Monica and was buried in Olema, in Marin County, California. Sam Francis was married five times, and was the father of four children and he was married from 1947 through 1952 to Vera Miller, a high school girlfriend, then to California painter Muriel Goodwin then to Japanese painter Teruko Yokoi with whom he had a daughter, Kayo
32.
Elaine Hamilton-O'Neal
–
Elaine Hamilton-ONeal, professionally known as Elaine Hamilton, was an internationally known American abstract painter and muralist born near Catonsville, Maryland. She showed twice in the Venice Biennale and won first prize at the 1968 Biennale de Menton in France and she is known for the work of her final stylistic phase, known as action painting. Hamilton is also a mountain climber with over 30 years experience climbing the Himalayas. She had climbed K2, which is part of the Karakoram Range and known as the Savage Mountain due to the difficulty of ascent, for every four people who have reached the summit, one has died trying. Over the years, Hamilton made nine different trips to different mountains of the Himalayas and she also visited the former kingdom of Sikkim as a guest of Tashi Namgyal, the ruling Chogyal of Sikkim and the royal family. For three decades, Hamilton traveled throughout India, Pakistan, the kingdom of Sikkim and Japan. In Pakistan in 1959, she was asked to work for an exhibition that was administered by the foreign minister of Pakistan. The ministries of Pakistan also gave her permission to make her first K2 expedition and this expedition resulted in the welcome realization of her individual artistic vision and the creation of her first completely abstract work, Burst Beyond the Image. Elaine Hamilton was born on October 13,1920, to a family in Paradise, near Catonsville. She was the daughter of Robert Bruce and Lee Hamilton, Paradise was home to her maternal grandparents, William and Caroline Wood. Hamilton was raised at Emerald Hill, the estate in Daniels, along the Patapsco River. Hamilton spent a portion of her growing up near Orange Grove in the Patapsco Valley State Park. Orange Grove is a town that supported the flour mill on the Baltimore County side of the river. It is known as one of the most scenic areas of Patapsco, during the 1920s, for four or five months during the summer, the Hamilton family would set up camp in the area, which was a fashionable vacation spot for wealthy families at the time. The state park service encouraged middle class and working families to camp there for extended periods and her experience at the park was a blend of rugged outdoor living complemented with the trappings of the modern middle-class lifestyle. They also walked over a once a week to nearby Orange Grove to buy their weekly groceries and supplies. By carving out a place to live in the wilderness, Hamilton asserted that she was able to develop self-confidence and a sense of adventure, at the park, Hamilton discovered how to paint and swim, and she developed an acute hearing ability and a strong sense of smell. She learned to identify animal and bird sounds and how to avoid copperhead snakes, with only a few other children around, Hamilton developed a stronger relationship with her older brothers, Robert Jr. and Doug
33.
Asger Jorn
–
Asger Oluf Jorn was a Danish painter, sculptor, ceramic artist, and author. He was a member of the avant-garde movement COBRA and the Situationist International. He was born in Vejrum, in the northwest corner of Jutland, Denmark, the largest collection of Asger Jorns works—including his major work Stalingrad—can be seen in the Museum Jorn, Silkeborg, Denmark. He was the second oldest of six children, a brother to Jørgen Nash. Both of his parents were teachers and his father, Lars Peter Jørgensen, was a fundamentalist Christian who died in a car crash when Asger was 12 years old. His mother, Maren, née Nielsen, was more liberal and this early heavy Christian influence had a negative effect on Asger who began progressively to inwardly rebel against it, and more generally against other forms of authority. In 1929, aged 15, he was diagnosed with tuberculosis although he made a recovery from it after spending three months on the west coast of Jutland, by the age of 16 he was influenced by N. F. S. Also at about this time Jorn became the subject of a number of oil paintings by the painter Martin Kaalund-Jørgensen, in 1936 he traveled to Paris to become a student of Kandinsky. In 1937 he joined Le Corbusier in working on the Pavillon des Temps Nouveaux at the 1937 Paris Exhibition and he returned again to Denmark in the summer of 1937. He again traveled to Paris in the summer of 1938, before returning to Denmark, traveling to Løkken, Silkeborg, Asger Jorn was a good friend of the Danish art dealer Børge Birch, owner of Galerie Birch, who sold his art as early as the 1930s. Later on Jorn held many exhibitions and solo exhibitions in different galleries. From 1937 to 1942, he studied at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts in Copenhagen, the occupation of Denmark by Nazi Germany was a time of deep crisis for Jorn, who had been deeply inculcated with pacifism, initially sinking him into deep depression. He subsequently became active in the communist resistance movement, during the war he also co-founded with the architect Robert Dahlmann Olsen the underground art group, Helhesten or hell-horse, and was a contributor to its journal. He was also the first person to translate Franz Kafka into Danish and he traveled again to France where he, together with Christian Dotremont and Constant, founded COBRA, and edited monographs of the Bibliothèque Cobra. He returned, impoverished and seriously ill with tuberculosis, to Silkeborg in 1951, the following year he traveled to Albissola Marina in Italy where he became involved with an offshoot of COBRA, the International Movement for an Imaginist Bauhaus. In 1954 he met Guy Debord, who was to become a close friend, the two men collaborated on two artists books, Fin de Copenhagen and Mémoires, along with prints, and forewords to each others work. Here he applied his scientific and mathematical knowledge drawn from Henri Poincaré, Jorn never believed in a conception of the Situationist ideas as exclusively artistic and separated from political involvement. He was at the root and at the core of the Situationist International project, such general principles were applied by Jorn to painting
