1.
Toledo, Spain
–
Toledo is a city and municipality located in central Spain, it is the capital of the province of Toledo and the autonomous community of Castile–La Mancha. It was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1986 for its cultural and monumental heritage and historical co-existence of Christian, Muslim. Toledo has a history in the production of bladed weapons, which are now popular souvenirs of the city, people who were born or have lived in Toledo include Brunhilda of Austrasia, Al-Zarqali, Garcilaso de la Vega, Eleanor of Toledo, Alfonso X and El Greco. It was also the place of important historic events such as the Visigothic Councils of Toledo, as of 2015, the city has a population of 83,226 and an area of 232.1 km2. The town was granted arms in the 16th century, which by special royal privilege was based on the royal of arms of Spain, Toledo is mentioned by the Roman historian Livy as urbs parva, sed loco munita. At that time, Toletum was a city of the Carpetani tribe and it was incorporated into the Roman Empire as a civitas stipendiaria, that is, a tributary city of non-citizens. It later achieved the status of municipium by Flavian times, with this status, city officials, even of Carpetani origin, obtained Roman citizenship for public service, and the forms of Roman law and politics were increasingly adopted. At approximately this time were constructed in Toletum a Roman circus, city walls, public baths, and a municipal water supply and storage system. The Roman circus in Toledo was one of the largest in Hispania, at 423 metres long and 100 metres wide, chariot races were held on special holidays and were also commissioned by private citizens to celebrate career achievements. A fragmentary stone inscription records circus games paid for by a citizen of unknown name to celebrate his achieving the sevirate, archaeologists have also identified portions of a special seat of the sort used by the city elites to attend circus games, called a sella curulis. The circus could hold up to 15000 spectators, during Roman times, Toledo was never a provincial capital nor a conventus iuridicus. It started to gain importance in late antiquity, there are indications that large private houses within the city walls were enlarged, while several large villas were built north of the city through the third and fourth centuries. Games were held in the circus into the fourth and early fifth centuries C. E. also an indication of active city life. A church council was held in Toledo in the year 400 to discuss the conflict with Priscillianism, a second council of Toledo was held in 527. The Visigothic king Theudis was in Toledo in 546, where he promulgated a law and this is strong though not certain evidence that Toledo was the chief residence for Theudis. King Athanagild died in Toledo, probably in 568 and this changed with Liuvigild, who brought the peninsula under his control. The Visigoths ruled from Toledo until the Moors conquered the Iberian peninsula in the years of 8th century. Today the historic center is pierced of basements, passages, wells, baths, a series of church councils was held in Toledo under the Visigoths
2.
Spain
–
By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
3.
Portugal
–
Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, is a country on the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. It is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, to the west and south it is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and to the east and north by Spain. The Portugal–Spain border is 1,214 kilometres long and considered the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union, the republic also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira, both autonomous regions with their own regional governments. The territory of modern Portugal has been settled, invaded. The Pre-Celts, Celts, Carthaginians and the Romans were followed by the invasions of the Visigothic, in 711 the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by the Moors, making Portugal part of Muslim Al Andalus. Portugal was born as result of the Christian Reconquista, and in 1139, Afonso Henriques was proclaimed King of Portugal, in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal established the first global empire, becoming one of the worlds major economic, political and military powers. Portugal monopolized the trade during this time, and the Portuguese Empire expanded with military campaigns led in Asia. After the 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy, the democratic but unstable Portuguese First Republic was established, democracy was restored after the Portuguese Colonial War and the Carnation Revolution in 1974. Shortly after, independence was granted to almost all its overseas territories, Portugal has left a profound cultural and architectural influence across the globe and a legacy of over 250 million Portuguese speakers today. Portugal is a country with a high-income advanced economy and a high living standard. It is the 5th most peaceful country in the world, maintaining a unitary semi-presidential republican form of government and it has the 18th highest Social Progress in the world, putting it ahead of other Western European countries like France, Spain and Italy. Portugal is a pioneer when it comes to drug decriminalization, as the nation decriminalized the possession of all drugs for use in 2001. The early history of Portugal is shared with the rest of the Iberian Peninsula located in South Western Europe, the name of Portugal derives from the joined Romano-Celtic name Portus Cale. Other influences include some 5th-century vestiges of Alan settlements, which were found in Alenquer, Coimbra, the region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals and then by Homo sapiens, who roamed the border-less region of the northern Iberian peninsula. These were subsistence societies that, although they did not establish prosperous settlements, neolithic Portugal experimented with domestication of herding animals, the raising of some cereal crops and fluvial or marine fishing. Chief among these tribes were the Calaicians or Gallaeci of Northern Portugal, the Lusitanians of central Portugal, the Celtici of Alentejo, a few small, semi-permanent, commercial coastal settlements were also founded in the Algarve region by Phoenicians-Carthaginians. Romans first invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 219 BC, during the last days of Julius Caesar, almost the entire peninsula had been annexed to the Roman Republic. The Carthaginians, Romes adversary in the Punic Wars, were expelled from their coastal colonies and it suffered a severe setback in 150 BC, when a rebellion began in the north
4.
Algodor River
–
The Algodor is a 102 km long river in Central Spain. It is a left tributary to the Tagus. Its source is at the Laguna del Navajo in the Montes de Toledo, within the Retuerta del Bullaque municipal limits, Castile-La Mancha. It flows roughly northwards across the Province of Toledo into the Tagus at Aceca, a place near Algodor, all the Algodors tributaries are small rivulets except for the Bracea River on its left margin. List of rivers of Spain Confederación Hidrográfica del Tajo
5.
Jarama
–
Jarama is a river in central Spain. It flows north to south, and passes east of Madrid where the El Atazar Dam is built on a tributary and it flows into the river Tagus in Aranjuez. The Manzanares is a tributary of the Jarama, during the Spanish Civil War at Paracuellos del Jarama,1000 civilian prisoners were killed by the Republican Militia guards during the Battle of Madrid. It is disputed whether Santiago Carrillo, the Communist leader in Madrid, ordered these executions or not and he denied his involvement in several interviews. The Jarama was also the scene of fighting in 1937. Nationalist forces crossed the river in an attempt to cut the road from Madrid to the Republican capital at Valencia. Nationalist forces led by Spanish Legionnaires and Moroccan soldiers of the Army of Africa were confronted by forces from the Republic including the 15th International Brigade, the 15th Brigade contained both the British Battalion of Volunteers and American volunteers in the Abraham Lincoln Brigade. Despite heavy casualties the Nationalists were stopped short of their objective, a period of trench warfare followed before the front stabilised. The battle cost both sides a combined total of up to 45,000 casualties, El Jarama is a 1955 novel by Rafael Sánchez Ferlosio about a group of working-class youngsters from Madrid meeting for a picnic by the river on a summer day. Its realistic dialog renovated Spanish novels, and it won the Premio Nadal in 1955, the Circuito Permanente Del Jarama is the main motor racetrack of Madrid. Before the construction of the safer Montmeló, Montjuïc and Jerez racetracks, it hosted nine Formula One Championship races, list of rivers of Spain Theres a Valley in Spain called Jarama
6.
Alberche
–
The Alberche is a river in the provinces of Ávila, Madrid and Toledo, central Spain. It begins its course at 1,800 m in Fuente Alberche, San Martín de la Vega del Alberche municipal term and it forms the natural division between the Sierra de Gredos and the Sierra de Guadarrama, in the Sistema Central. The Alberche flows roughly from NW to SE and bends sharply midway in its course to flow from NE to SW and it meets the Tagus at Talavera de la Reina. This river has the following dams along its course, Burguillo, Charco del Cura, Alberche Beach is a sandy beach stretch on the banks of the Alberche River, a favorite spot for vacationers from Madrid
7.
Montes Universales
–
Montes Universales is a 32 km long mountain range in the southeastern end of the Iberian System. Its highest point is the 1,935 m high summit known as Caimodorro, the 1,830 m high Muela de San Juan is another important peak. Administratively the Montes Universales belong to the Sierra de Albarracín comarca of Aragon, the range is aligned in a NW - SE direction and is not as high as neighboring mountain ranges. Among the Iberian rivers that originate in the Montes Universales the most important are Tagus on the slopes. These mountains are covered with not very dense clumps of pine, oak. Radiocarbon samples from Ojos del Tremedal show that birches, now almost absent from these mountains, were common in the Montes Universales during the ice age around 9,600 years ago. Signs of human interference with the vegetation have been detected beginning from about 3,500 years before, erebia zapateri is an endemic butterfly of these mountains. Frías de Albarracín Griegos Rama aragonesa del Sistema Ibérico Ruta amb bicicleta a Frías de Albarracín, Montes Universales Plantas de los Montes Universales Avifauna
8.
Province of Teruel
–
Teruel is a province of Aragon, in the northeast of Spain. It is bordered by the provinces of Tarragona, Castellón, Valencia, Cuenca, Guadalajara, the area of the province is 14,809 km². Its population is 138,686, of whom about a live in the capital. It contains 236 municipalities, of more than half are villages of under 200 people. The main language throughout the province is Spanish, although Catalan is spoken in the comarca of Matarranya and this province is located in the mountainous Sistema Ibérico area. Most of the Teruel Province has undergone massive depopulation since the middle of the 20th century and this situation is shared with other areas in Spain, particularly with those near the Iberian mountain range and with other areas in Aragón. The exodus from the mountain areas in Teruel rose after General Francos Plan de Estabilización in 1959. As a consequence there are many ghost towns in different parts of the province, a great number of surviving towns in Teruel province have only a residual population, reviving somewhat during the summer when a few city-dwellers spend their holidays there. The Teruel Exists movement began at the turn of the 21st century and it is a platform of provincial authorities, institutions and sympathizers seeking to reverse the long-standing neglect of this province. org Teruel Info. - Caciquismo & desarrollismo – N. B and this text-only website is in Japanese
9.
Aragon
–
Aragon is an autonomous community in Spain, coextensive with the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. Located in northeastern Spain, the Aragonese autonomous community comprises three provinces, Huesca, Zaragoza, and Teruel, the current Statute of Autonomy declares Aragon a nationality of Spain. Aragons northern province of Huesca borders France and is positioned in the middle of the Pyrenees, within Spain, the community is flanked by Catalonia to the east, Valencia and Castile–La Mancha to the south, and Castile and León, La Rioja, and Navarre to the west. Aragon is home to many rivers—most notably, the river Ebro, Spains largest river in volume and it is also home to the Aneto, the highest mountain in the Pyrenees. As of 2015, the population of Aragon was 1,317,847, with more than half of it living in Zaragoza. As of 2015, half of Aragons population,50. 45%, Huesca is the only other city in the region with a population greater than 50,000. The majority of Aragonese citizens,71. 8%, live in the province of Zaragoza,17. 1% in Huesca and 11. 1% in Teruel, the population density of the region is the second lowest in Spain, only 26, 8/km2, after Castilla La Mancha. Only four cities have more than 20,000 inhabitants, Zaragoza 700,000, Huesca 50,000, Teruel 35,000 and Calatayud 20,000. Spanish is the language in most of Aragon, and it is the only official language, understood. The strip-shaped Catalan-speaking area in Aragon is often called La Franja, with such a low population density large areas of Aragon remain wild and relatively untouched. It is a land of natural contrasts, both in climate and geologically, from the green valleys and snow-capped peaks of the Pyrenees to the dry plains. Aragons Pyrenees include splendid and varied mountain landscapes with soaring peaks, deep canyons, dense forests and its rugged peaks include the Aneto, the highest in the range, the misty Monte Perdido, Perdiguero, Cotiella and many others. The park is one of the last sanctuaries of birds of prey in the range. Many beautiful mountain butterflies and flowers can be seen in the summer, the principal valleys in the mountains include those of Hecho, Canfranc, Tena, Benasque and others. The green valleys hide pretty villages with nice Romanesque churches and typical Pyrenean houses with flowers on the balconies, the oldest Romanesque cathedral in Spain is located in the medieval town of Jaca in the very northern part of Huesca Province. In the Pyrenean foothills, or pre-Pyrenees, the Mallos de Riglos are a natural rock formation. Ancient castles nestle on lonely hills, the most famous being the magnificent Loarre Castle, further south, the Ebro valley, irrigated by the river Ebro, is a rich and fertile agricultural area covered with vast fields of wheat, barley and other fruit and vegetable crops. Many beautiful and little-known settlements, castles and Roman ruins dot the landscape here, some of the most notable towns here include Calatayud, Daroca, Sos del Rey Catolico, Caspe and others
10.
Lisbon
–
Lisbon is the capital and the largest city of Portugal, with a population of 552,700 within its administrative limits in an area of 100.05 km². Its urban area extends beyond the administrative limits with a population of around 2.7 million people. About 2.8 million people live in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area and it is continental Europes westernmost capital city and the only one along the Atlantic coast. Lisbon lies in the western Iberian Peninsula on the Atlantic Ocean, the westernmost areas of its metro area is the westernmost point of Continental Europe. Lisbon is recognised as a city because of its importance in finance, commerce, media, entertainment, arts, international trade, education. It is one of the economic centres on the continent, with a growing financial sector. Humberto Delgado Airport serves over 20 million passengers annually, as of 2015, and the motorway network, the city is the 7th-most-visited city in Southern Europe, after Istanbul, Rome, Barcelona, Madrid, Athens and Milan, with 1,740,000 tourists in 2009. The Lisbon region contributes with a higher GDP PPP per capita than any region in Portugal. Its GDP amounts to 96.3 billion USD and thus $32,434 per capita, the city occupies 32nd place of highest gross earnings in the world. Most of the headquarters of multinationals in the country are located in the Lisbon area and it is also the political centre of the country, as its seat of Government and residence of the Head of State. Lisbon is one of the oldest cities in the world, julius Caesar made it a municipium called Felicitas Julia, adding to the name Olissipo. Ruled by a series of Germanic tribes from the 5th century, in 1147, the Crusaders under Afonso Henriques reconquered the city and since then it has been a major political, economic and cultural centre of Portugal. Unlike most capital cities, Lisbons status as the capital of Portugal has never been granted or confirmed officially – by statute or in written form. Its position as the capital has formed through constitutional convention, making its position as de facto capital a part of the Constitution of Portugal. It has one of the warmest winters of any metropolis in Europe, the typical summer season lasts about four months, from June to September, although also in April temperatures sometimes reach around 25 °C. Although modern archaeological excavations show a Phoenician presence at this location since 1200 BC, another conjecture based on ancient hydronymy suggests that the name of the settlement derived from the pre-Roman appellation for the Tagus, Lisso or Lucio. Lisbons name was written Ulyssippo in Latin by the geographer Pomponius Mela and it was later referred to as Olisippo by Pliny the Elder and by the Greeks as Olissipo or Olissipona. The Indo-European Celts invaded in the 1st millennium BC, mixing with the Pre-Indo-European population and this indigenous settlement maintained commercial relations with the Phoenicians, which would account for the recent findings of Phoenician pottery and other material objects
11.
Spanish language
–
Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania
12.
Portuguese language
–
Portuguese is a Romance language and the sole official language of Portugal, Brazil, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Angola, and São Tomé and Príncipe. It also has co-official language status in East Timor, Equatorial Guinea, Portuguese is part of the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia, and has kept some Celtic phonology. Portuguese is also termed the language of Camões, after Luís Vaz de Camões, one of the greatest literary figures in the Portuguese language and author of the Portuguese epic poem, the museum is the first of its kind in the world. In 2015 the museum was destroyed in a fire, but there are plans to reconstruct it, when the Romans arrived in the Iberian Peninsula in 216 BCE, they brought the Latin language with them, from which all Romance languages descend. Between 409 CE and 711 CE, as the Roman Empire collapsed in Western Europe, Portuguese evolved from the medieval language, known today by linguists as Galician-Portuguese, Old Portuguese or Old Galician, of the northwestern medieval Kingdom of Galicia. It is in Latin administrative documents of the 9th century that written Galician-Portuguese words and this phase is known as Proto-Portuguese, which lasted from the 9th century until the 12th-century independence of the County of Portugal from the Kingdom of León, by then reigning over Galicia. In the first part of the Galician-Portuguese period, the language was used for documents. For some time, it was the language of preference for poetry in Christian Hispania. Portugal became an independent kingdom in 1139, under King Afonso I of Portugal, in the second period of Old Portuguese, in the 15th and 16th centuries, with the Portuguese discoveries, the language was taken to many regions of Africa, Asia and the Americas. The language continued to be popular in parts of Asia until the 19th century, some Portuguese-speaking Christian communities in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Indonesia preserved their language even after they were isolated from Portugal. The end of the Old Portuguese period was marked by the publication of the Cancioneiro Geral by Garcia de Resende, Most literate Portuguese speakers were also literate in Latin, and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing—and eventually speech—in Portuguese. Portuguese is the language of the majority of people in Brazil and Portugal, perhaps 75% of the population of Angola speaks Portuguese natively, and 85% are fluent. Just over 40% of the population of Mozambique are native speakers of Portuguese, Portuguese is also spoken natively by 30% of the population in Guinea-Bissau, and a Portuguese-based creole is understood by all. No data is available for Cape Verde, but almost all the population is bilingual, there are also significant Portuguese speaking immigrant communities in many countries including Andorra, Bermuda, Canada, France, Japan, Jersey, Namibia, Paraguay, Macau, Switzerland, Venezuela. In some parts of former Portuguese India, namely Goa and Daman and Diu, in 2014, an estimated 1,500 students were learning Portuguese in Goa. Equatorial Guinea made an application for full membership to the CPLP in June 2010. In 2011, Portuguese became its official language and, in July 2014. Portuguese is a subject in The school curriculum in Uruguay
13.
Iberian Peninsula
–
The Iberian Peninsula /aɪˈbɪəriən pəˈnɪnsjᵿlə/, also known as Iberia /aɪˈbɪəriə/, is located in the southwest corner of Europe. The peninsula is divided between Portugal and Spain, comprising most of their territory. With an area of approximately 582,000 km2, it is the second largest European peninsula, at that time, the name did not describe a single political entity or a distinct population of people. Strabos Iberia was delineated from Keltikē by the Pyrenees and included the land mass southwest of there. The ancient Greeks reached the Iberian Peninsula, of which they had heard from the Phoenicians, hecataeus of Miletus was the first known to use the term Iberia, which he wrote about circa 500 BC. Herodotus of Halicarnassus says of the Phocaeans that it was they who made the Greeks acquainted with. According to Strabo, prior historians used Iberia to mean the country side of the Ἶβηρος as far north as the river Rhône in France. Polybius respects that limit, but identifies Iberia as the Mediterranean side as far south as Gibraltar, elsewhere he says that Saguntum is on the seaward foot of the range of hills connecting Iberia and Celtiberia. Strabo refers to the Carretanians as people of the Iberian stock living in the Pyrenees, according to Charles Ebel, the ancient sources in both Latin and Greek use Hispania and Hiberia as synonyms. The confusion of the words was because of an overlapping in political, the Latin word Hiberia, similar to the Greek Iberia, literally translates to land of the Hiberians. This word was derived from the river Ebro, which the Romans called Hiberus, hiber was thus used as a term for peoples living near the river Ebro. The first mention in Roman literature was by the annalist poet Ennius in 200 BC. Virgil refers to the Ipacatos Hiberos in his Georgics, the Roman geographers and other prose writers from the time of the late Roman Republic called the entire peninsula Hispania. As they became interested in the former Carthaginian territories, the Romans began to use the names Hispania Citerior. At the time Hispania was made up of three Roman provinces, Hispania Baetica, Hispania Tarraconensis, and Lusitania, Strabo says that the Romans use Hispania and Iberia synonymously, distinguishing between the near northern and the far southern provinces. Whatever language may generally have been spoken on the peninsula soon gave way to Latin, except for that of the Vascones, the Iberian Peninsula has always been associated with the Ebro, Ibēros in ancient Greek and Ibērus or Hibērus in Latin. The association was so known it was hardly necessary to state, for example. Pliny goes so far as to assert that the Greeks had called the whole of Spain Hiberia because of the Hiberus River, the river appears in the Ebro Treaty of 226 BC between Rome and Carthage, setting the limit of Carthaginian interest at the Ebro. The fullest description of the treaty, stated in Appian, uses Ibērus, with reference to this border, Polybius states that the native name is Ibēr, apparently the original word, stripped of its Greek or Latin -os or -us termination
14.
Douro
–
The Douro is one of the major rivers of the Iberian Peninsula, flowing from its source near Duruelo de la Sierra in Soria Province across northern-central Spain and Portugal to its outlet at Porto. The Latinized name Durius, likely came from the Celtic tribes that inhabited the area before Roman times, in modern Welsh, dŵr is water, as well as dour in modern Breton with cognate dobhar in Irish. In Roman times, the river was personified as a god, the Douro vinhateiro, an area of the Douro Valley in Portugal long devoted to vineyards, has been designated by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. Traditionally, the wine was taken down river in boats called rabelos, to be stored in barrels in cellars in Vila Nova de Gaia. In the 1950s and 1960s, dams were built along the river, now Port wine is transported in tanker trucks. In 1998, Portugal and Spain signed the Albufeira Convention, an agreement on the sharing of trans-boundary rivers to include the Douro, Tagus, the convention superseded an original agreement on the Douro, signed in 1927, that was expanded in 1964 and 1968 to include tributaries. It is the third-longest river in the Iberian Peninsula after the Tagus and its total length is 897 kilometres, of which only sections of the Portuguese extension below the fall line are navigable, by light rivercraft. In this region, there are few tributaries of the Douro, the most important are the Pisuerga, passing through Valladolid, and the Esla, which passes through Zamora. This region is generally semi-arid plains, with wheat and in places, especially near Aranda de Duero, with vineyards. Sheep rearing is still important. For 112 kilometres, the forms part of the national border line between Spain and Portugal, in a region of narrow canyons. It formed a barrier to invasions, creating a cultural/linguistic divide. In these isolated areas, in which the Aldeadávila Dam impounds the river, there are protected areas, the International Douro Natural Park and the Arribes del Duero Natural Park. The Douro fully enters Portuguese territory just after the confluence with the Águeda River, once the Douro enters Portugal, except for Porto and Vila Nova de Gaia at the river mouth, the only population centres of any note are Foz do Tua, Pinhão and Peso da Régua. Tributaries here are small, merging into the Douro along the canyons, the most important are Côa, Tua, Sabor, Corgo, Tavora, Paiva, Tâmega, none of these small, fast-flowing rivers is navigable. The most populous cities along the Douro River are Valladolid and Zamora in Spain, the latter two are located at the mouth of the Douro at the Atlantic Ocean. In Portugal, the Douro flows through the districts of Bragança, Guarda, Viseu, Vila Real, Aveiro, Porto is the main hub city in northern Portugal. Its historic centre has designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site because of its significant architecture
15.
Castle of Almourol
–
The castle was part of the defensive line controlled by the Knights Templar, and a stronghold used during the Portuguese Reconquista. It is believed that the castle was constructed on the site of a primitive Lusitanian castro that was conquered by the Romans during the 1st century B. C. E. It was later remodelled by successive invading forces, including the Alans, Visigoths and Moors, the castle of Almourol is one of the more emblematic and cenographic medieval military monuments of the Reconquista, and best representation of the influence of the Knights Templar in Portugal. The structure was reconstructed, starting in 1171 and restored during the subsequent reigns, losing its strategic place, it was abandoned resulting in its fall into ruins. In the 19th century, it was reinvented by idealistic romantics, which led to interventions in the 1940s and 1950s. During this period, restorations had proceeded, transforming the appearance of the structure. Around 1940-1950, the spaces were adapted for its use as a residence of the Portuguese Republic. At the end of short term, the buildings furniture was acquired by the Commission for Furniture Acquisition in 1955. But, this roadway was improved with the reconstruction of a road that skirted the islet from the quay to the end of the castle. By 1996, the walls were repaired, sections of the keep were preserved, owing to water infiltration, the castle began to show some signs of degradation by 2004, including a few of the exterior walls. Although access to the Portuguese National Monument and fluvial islet is free, the keep is three-stories tall and includes the original pads that supported the main truss. The remaining sentry towers are irregular, owing to the irregular terrain, the keep is actually an innovation at this castle, appearing in the 12th century after the Castle of Tomar, the principal defensive redoubt of the Templars in Portugal. Similarly, the watchtowers were innovations brought into western part of the Iberian peninsula by the Order, the interior is bisected by several masonry doorways that link the different parts of the castle. Two inscription stones mark the history and its re-edification by Gualdim Pais. Relatório da Actividade do Ministério no ano de 1955, Lisbon, Portugal, Ministério das Obras Públicas DGEMN, carcez, O Castelo de Almourol, Serões List of castles in Portugal Castles in Portugal Monuments of Portugal History of Portugal Order of Christ
16.
Aranjuez
–
Aranjuez, also called the Royal Estate of Aranjuez, is a city and municipality, capital of the Las Vegas district, in the southern part of the Community of Madrid, Spain. It is located at the confluence of the Tagus and Jarama rivers,42 kilometres south of Madrid, as of 2009, it had a population of 54,055. It is the 17th-largest city in the Community of Madrid and the communitys largest and most populous urban center outside Greater Madrid Area. It has been one of the Royal Estates of the Crown of Spain since the times of Philip II in 1560, until 1752, only the royalty and nobility were allowed to dwell in the town. The Cultural Landscape of Aranjuez was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2001, there are several theories about the origin of the name. The most widely accepted one states that it comes from the Basque language, however the pre-Roman derivation is generally preferred. In 1178, the area was acquired by the Order of Santiago, Ferdinand and Isabella, the Catholic monarchs, converted Aranjuez into a royal site. It was the Spring residence of the kings of Spain from the late 19th century. During the reign of Philip II of Spain, in the half of the 16th century, the royal palace was constructed. The site was designed by Juan Bautista de Toledo and completed by Juan de Herrera. Since the mill was visible from the palace, it was architecturally attractive, in the 20th century it was renovated to generate power, and was finally dismantled after a fire about 1950. As of 2014 only the mill races remained,1758, Queen Barbara de Braganza, wife of Ferdinand VI, died in Aranjuez 1761, King Carlos III builds the so-called Long Bridge over the river Jarama. This stone construction remains largely intact and now supports the M-305 service road about 5 km north of the town,1765, Carlos III, a keen physiocrat orders the construction of Real Cortijo de San Isidro, a model farm which was abandoned by his successor and later commercialized. During the time of Francoist Spain it served as a womens prison, an uprising on 17 March 1808, when the royal family and the government were staying at Aranjuez while on their way south, anticipating a French invasion from the north. Soldiers, peasants and members of the general public assaulted Godoys quarters, the mutineers made King Charles dismiss Godoy, and two days later the court forced the King himself to abdicate in favor of his son and rival, who became Ferdinand VII. 1833 Queen Isabella II of Spain acceded to the throne and finally Aranjuez was reached by a line to Madrid in 1851. This was the railway line in Spain, after that of Barcelona-Mataró. In 1939, Joaquín Rodrigo composed the Concierto de Aranjuez, which would make Aranjuez famous all over the world, the city was declared Conjunto Histórico-Artístico in 1983
17.
Talavera de la Reina
–
Talavera de la Reina is a city and municipality in the western part of the province of Toledo, which in turn is part of the autonomous community of Castile–La Mancha, Spain. It is the second-largest population center in Castile–La Mancha and its population of 83,793 makes it larger than the city of Toledo, although the latter remains the provincial capital. The city is settled along the river Tagus at a broad bank, there are two islands in the center of the city called Isla Grande and Chamelo Island. The city is surrounded by two ranges of mountains, in the north the Sierra de San Vicente, and in the south Montes de Toledo, the city is divided in two by the river Tagus. The northern part is the larger and more populated, both parts are connected by three bridges, one of them built in the Middle Ages, overall the climate is slightly warmer than Madrid. The area is fertile with Mediterranean forests, elms, olive trees. The city is known for its ceramics, which Philip II of Spain used as tiled revetments in many of his works. The nickname of Talavera de la Reina is The City of Pottery, mexicos famous Talavera pottery was named after the city. There are remnants of prehistoric cultures in the area, the village was founded by the Celts as a ford of the Tagus. The first mention of the city occurs in Livys description of a battle between the Romans and the Carpetanoi, a Celtiberian tribe and its modern name is derived from Talabayra, the Muslim rendering of this Visigothic name. The city was conquered by Muslim forces in 713 and conquered by Christian forces under Alfonso VI of Castile in 1083, Talavera de la Reina was founded at the confluence of the rivers Alberche and Tagus. This area of great wealth was the settlement of Celtic people who built the most ancient ruins of the area. During the time of the Roman Empire the name of the city was Caesarobriga, the leader Viriato, in his war against the Romans, lived in this territory between 145 and 139 BCE. In this period Talavera de la Reina was a city with cattle markets. Christianity came early to the city, and with the fall of the Western Roman Empire the Visigoths established in the city, Talavera was known then as or. In honour of the goddess Ceres, Talaverian Romans celebrated the festival called Mondas. The Muslims conquered Talavera in 712 and they built new walls and a castle in Talavera. They also brought the use of fountains, water mills and new products brought from Africa, the fertile soil produced quality vegetables, fruits and grass for animal feed
18.
Abrantes
–
Abrantes is a municipality in the central Médio Tejo subregion of Portugal. The population as of 2011 was 39,325, in an area of 714.69 square kilometres, the municipality includes several parishes divided by the Tagus River, which runs through the middle of the municipality. The urbanized part, the parish of Abrantes e Alferrarede, located on the bank of the Tagus, has about 17,000 residents. The Celts are believed to have established the first settlement in Abrantes around 300 BC, the name is derived from Latin Aurantes, perhaps referring to deposits of alluvial gold along the Tagus. Similarly, Roman mosaics, coins, the remains of ancient aqueducts, the village of Abrantes and the Abrantes Castle were conquered from the Moors by Afonso I of Portugal in 1148. After 1172, Abrantes was a military outpost, under the dominion of the Order of Saint James of Compostela, later, it became a distinct order, when Pope Nicholas IV released the Order from the jurisdiction of the Castilian grand master in Uclés. It received its foral in 1179, in compensation for its resistance against the Moroccan Abem Jacob. On 24 April 1281, King Dinis of Portugal, conceded the ownership of Abrantes to Queen Elizabeth of Portugal, Afonso IV of Portugal transferred the title of the religious parish to the Knights Hospitaller, in 1327, and granted Abrantes to Leonor Teles. Partners of the Master of Avis, the Abrantinos were one of the first to support the Lisboete movement of 1383, among them Fernando Álvares de Almeida, protector of the Casa de Abrantes. King Manuel stayed in Abrantes for a period, by 1510 he conceded a new foral to the town, and his children. In 1581, in his move to Tomar, Philip I of Portugal stopped in Abrantes for several days and it was the seat of Portuguese marquesses, one of which was an early patron of the Brazilian-born versatile scientist, naturalist and pioneering inventor-aeronaut Bartholomeu Lourenço de Gusmão. During 1640, Abrantes was one of the first lands to declare their support for John IV of Portugal, from the 17th and 18th centuries onwards, its ancient military importance was confirmed, as it was used by Portuguese and foreign armies to garrison or concentrate their forces. In the Convention of Cintra the town was returned to the Portuguese, during the reign of Joseph I the village became the center of the silk industry, which prospered until 1800, designated the Academia Tubuciana. In November 1862, the Santerém-Abrantes lines was opened, and by March 1868, Abrantes lies in a central enclave within the Portuguese territory and a transition zone between the Ribatejo, Beira Baixa and Alto Alentejo. The municipality is also center of two major resources, the Tagus River, which cross the territory for 30 kilometers. Notes Sources Campos, Eduardo Manuel Tavares, notas Históricas sobre a Fundação de Abrantes. Abrantes, Portugal, Câmara Municipal de Abrantes, diagnóstico Sócio-Cultural do Distrito de Santarém, Estudo 1. Santarém, Portugal, Câmara Municipal of Abrantes, 92–93 and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles, ed. article name needed
19.
Almada
–
Almada is a city and a municipality in Portugal, located on the southern margin of the Tagus River, on the opposite side of the river from Lisbon. The two cities are connected by the 25 de Abril Bridge, the population in 2011 was 174,030, in an area of 70.21 km². The urbanized center had a population of 101,500 in 2001, lying across the river from Lisbon, the area of Almada was a crossroads for a succession of various peoples who traded along the Tagus, including Phoenicians, Romans and Moors. As one of the principal Arab military bases along the margin of the Tagus. Alongside these Christians there lived many free Moors and Jews, under the royal protection guaranteed them by Afonso I in the charter of 1170. He boldly attacked in the north, conquering Alcácer do Sal and Silves, while forcing the residents of Almada, Palmela and it would be some time after the death of Sancho before this region would be restored to Portuguese control. When this event occurred with the success of the Reconquista in driving the Muslims out, the Order of Santiago, in this role, it facilitated the repopulation of acquired territories and was the beneficiary of the various local economies. Although small in area, Almada has a population density. It is bounded to the southeast by Seixal, to the south by Sesimbra, to the west by the Atlantic Ocean and to the north, Almada is considered a transportation hub and a fast-growing suburb, its coast has several sandy beaches and panoramic vistas. Abridgement of the History of Portugal, portal de Almada - Eventos, Classificados, Notícias, Empresas Photos from Almada Almada Atlético Clube
20.
Henares
–
The Henares is a river in Spain, tributary of the Jarama. It has its source in the Sierra Ministra, in the village of Horna, near Sigüenza, Henares in Spanish is also the plural of henar, which means hayfield, because formerly there were hay fields on its banks. Its tributaries are the Torote, the Sorbe, the Cañamares, the Salado, the Dulce, the Aliendre and the Bornova
21.
Aqueduct (water supply)
–
An aqueduct is a watercourse constructed to convey water. In modern engineering, the aqueduct is used for any system of pipes, ditches, canals, tunnels. The term aqueduct also often refers specifically to a bridge on an artificial watercourse, the word is derived from the Latin aqua and ducere. Aqueducts were used in ancient Greece, ancient Egypt, and ancient Rome, in modern times, the largest aqueducts of all have been built in the United States to supply the countrys biggest cities. The simplest aqueducts are small ditches cut into the earth, much larger channels may be used in modern aqueducts. Aqueducts sometimes run for some or all of their path through tunnels constructed underground, modern aqueducts may also use pipelines. Historically, agricultural societies have constructed aqueducts to irrigate crops and supply large cities with drinking water, the Indian subcontinent is believed to have some of the earliest aqueducts. Evidence can be found at the sites of present-day Hampi, Karnataka, the massive aqueducts near river Tungabhadra supplying irrigation water were once 15 miles long. The waterways supplied water to royal bath tubs, in Persia from early times a system of underground aqueducts called qanāts were constructed, a series of well-like vertical shafts, connected by gently sloping tunnels. This technique, taps into subterranean water in a manner that water to the surface without need for pumping. The water drains relying on gravity, with the lower than the source. Allows water to be transported long distances in hot dry climates without losing a large proportion of the water to seepage. Throughout Petra, Jordan, the Nabataean engineers took advantage of natural spring. They constructed aqueducts and piping systems that allowed water to flow across mountains, through gorges and into the temples, homes, and gardens of Petras citizens. Walking through the Siq, one can spot the remains of channels that directed water to the city center. On the island of Samos, the Tunnel of Eupalinos was built during the reign of Polycrates and it is considered an underground aqueduct and brought fresh water to Pythagoreion for roughly a thousand years. Roman aqueducts were built in all parts of the Roman Empire, from Germany to Africa, and especially in the city of Rome, where they totaled over 415 kilometres. The aqueducts supplied water to public baths and for drinking water, in large cities across the empire
22.
Segura
–
Segura is a medium-sized river in southeastern Spain. It has its source in the Sierra de Segura, the river begins at Santiago Pontones, passes Calasparra, Cieza, Murcia, Beniaján, Orihuela, Rojales and ends in the Mediterranean Sea near Guardamar del Segura in the province of Alicante. Some of its tributaries are the Mundo, the Alhárabe, the Mula, the alluvial plain is called the Vega del Segura and is a very productive agricultural region growing a wide variety of fruit, vegetables and flowers. The Vegas are divided into three areas, Alta, Media and Baja, public outcry peaked in 2001, with a demonstration gathering 40,000 people. Between 2001 and 2010,100 water treatment plants and 350 kilometres of wastewater collection systems were built, in addition, a wastewater reclamation levy was established to finance the operation, maintenance and monitoring of these systems, applying the principle “the polluter pays”. By 2003 the quality of the Segura’s water started improving, since 2010, pollution has been unnoticeable, leading to the recovery of fauna and flora including increased otter population in parts of the river they had once abandoned. Birds now rest at two recovered wetland areas recognised by the Ramsar Convention, during their migration between Europe and Africa, in addition, around 110 million m3 of reclaimed water is reused annually for agriculture in the region. As of 2015 the Segura River Project is a finalist for the 2016 European Riverprize Awards, organized by the International River Foundation. This recognizes the fact that the Segura went from being one of the most polluted rivers in Europe to being the Spanish river with the lowest average pollution in the span of just one decade. Guadalentín river, a tributary of Segura, is the wildest European river, in the twentieth century significant flooding occurred in 1946,1948,1973,1982,1987 and 1989. Since 1990 the lower reaches of the river have been canalized, removing meanders, the new canal was put to the test in September 1997, in October 2000 and in December 2016 when heavy rainfall resulted in significant runoff
23.
Tagus-Segura Water Transfer
–
The Tagus-Segura Water Transfer is one of the largest works of hydraulic engineering ever produced in Spain. Water from the Tagus River is channeled through this system from the reservoirs of Entrepeñas. A year later, he presented the Plan Nacional de Obras Hidráulicas, which included the Tagus-Segura Water Transfer, however, for various reasons, the construction of the Tagus-Segura Water Transfer formed an integral part of this proposal. In 1979, the Segura Basin received the first waters originating from the Tagus River, the Tagus-Segura Water Transfer links the Bolarque Reservoir on the Tagus River with the Talave Reservoir on the Segura. It is 292 kilometers in length and has a rate of 33 cubic meters per second. The transfers structure comprises four sections, Section I includes the ascent at Altomira and it permits water from the Bolarque Reservoir at 636 meters to be pumped through two metallic pipes up to the Bujeda Reservoir in the Sierra de Altomira, a 245 m rise in elevation. The Bolarque-Bujeda system was designed to pump an anticipated 1,000,000,000 m3 per year, Section III joins the Alarcón Reservoir to the Talave Tunnel. Section IV is for the most part formed by the Talave Tunnels length of 32 km, the course then emerges into the Talave Canal, which leads at last to the Talave Reservoir on the Mundo River, a tributary of the Segura. Law 21/2013 introduced major changes to the Tagus-Segura Water Transfers regulation policy, Water is dispensed into the transfer system on a monthly basis, depending on the total water supply available in the reservoirs of Entrepeñas and Buendía at the beginning of every month. Four levels are used to specify the volume for each transfer. When the total supply in Entrepeñas and Buendía is less than 400,000,000 m3. In order for the supply to reach this new minimum figure from the one previously fixed at 240,000,000 m3. Resources authorized for transfer may be used throughout the water year, authorized transfers will be divided between water supply and irrigation, in a 25% to 75% proportion respectively, always assuring at least 7,500,000 m3 per month for urban water supply. The Talave Reservoir marks the beginning of the post-transfer system and this is a complex of structures enabling the regulation, transport, and final distribution of water to the various recipient zones. The average yearly water volume transferred into the Segura Basin from 1979-2014 was 328,000,000 m3 per year. Volumes transferred for use have not varied greatly over time, unlike irrigation transfers, whose average yearly sum was 204,000,000 m3. It still receives much criticism today, mainly for territorial and environmental reasons, for this reason, it is widely known as the vegetable garden of Europe. Aqueduct Hydroelectricity Water supply and sanitation in Spain List of tunnels in Spain Confederación Hidrográfica del Segura
24.
Entroncamento
–
Entroncamento is a Portuguese municipality in district of Santarém in the Médio Tejo Subregion of the Centro Region. The population in 2011 was 20,206, in an area of 13.73 km², the majority of the early rail workers/settlers were foreign, coming from different countries throughout Europe, but eventually workers from Beira Baixa and Alentejo moved to the region. Its toponimc name Entroncamento literally mean junction, owing to being the junction of the two lines that developed in 1864, the Linha do Norte and the Linha do Leste. Hinged between its links with the east and Beira Baixa, the station at Entroncamento, for decades, was the obligatory stop that moved goods and people to the north. For a long time, the two settlements were divided between two neighbouring municipalities, because the rail-line itself determined its boundary. To the west of the lines were the parishes of Santiago, on 25 August 1926, the settlement was elevated to the status of civil parish, in 1932, the urban designation of vila and on 24 November 1945 it was elevated to the status of municipality. From the small nucleus of families started to populate the territory, reaching the 1930s with approximately 3000 inhabitants. In March 2005, it was estimated that the population included 18,780 residents. The growth in the population and expansion resulted in the creation of two new parishes, Nossa Senhora de Fátima, to the west of the line. In the 1950s, Entroncamento was, after Barreiro, the second largest rail centre and it was estimated that between the 1920s and 1930s, the population associated with the name rail operator, CP Caminhos de Ferro Portugueses /Comboios de Portugal exceeded 50% of the population. After the 1970s, in contrast, this changed, with the substitution of coal-powered steam locomotives to diesel. The introduction of new technologies, assisted the unemployment of workers, even so, INE statistics for 2004, indicated that Entroncamento continued to be the region with the largest purchasing power in the district of Santarém. The growth rate, between 1981 and 1991, was 18. 1%, considered the most elevated in the Médio Tejo, the estimated population, does not include resident listed in other localities, nor the fluctuating values due to temporary workers. Effectively, Entroncamento maintains a population of over 20,000 inhabitants, - Fibra no Entroncamento Official Railwaymuseum Web site Photos from Entroncamento
25.
Vila Franca de Xira
–
Vila Franca de Xira is a municipality in the Lisbon District in Portugal. The population in 2011 was 136,886, in an area of 318.19 km², the town is mostly famous for its bull-running festivals in July and October. Bulls are raised in the salty marshlands of the Ribatejo, which is also a breeding ground for the magnificent Lusitano horse, esteemed for its quick reflexes. A number of brightly coloured Portuguese bullfighting costumes are on display in the museum in the towns bullring. Nearby, the towns Misericórdia church features striking 18th-century azulejos, the town also has a Museum of Neo-Realism. Three km south of Vila Franca de Xira lies the Lezíria Grande Equestrian Centre, the centre also stages typical bullfighting spectacles in its outdoor bullring. Visitors can ride Lusitano horses and take lessons at the Quinta de São Sebastião. The current Mayor is Alberto Mesquita, elected in 2013 as a member of the Socialist Party
26.
Vasco da Gama Bridge
–
The Vasco da Gama Bridge is a cable-stayed bridge flanked by viaducts and rangeviews that spans the Tagus River in Parque das Nações in Lisbon, the capital of Portugal. It is the longest bridge in Europe, with a length of 12.3 kilometres. The Bridge is served by 4.8 kilometres of dedicated access roads, the bridge carries six road lanes, with a speed limit of 120 km/h, the same as that on motorways, except on one section which is limited to 100 km/h. On windy, rainy, and foggy days, the limit is reduced to 90 km/h. There were up to 3,300 workers simultaneously on the project, the financing is via a build-operate-transfer system by Lusoponte, a private consortium which receive the first 40 years of tolls of both Lisbon bridges. Lusopontes capital is 50. 4% from Portuguese companies,24. 8% French and 24. 8% British. The bridge has a life expectancy of 120 years, having designed to withstand wind speeds of 250 km/h. The deepest foundation piles, up to 2.2 m in diameter, were driven down to 95 m under sea level. Northbound traffic is charged a toll, while traveling southbound is free, tolls are collected through a toll plaza located in the south bank of Tagus, near Montijo. As of 2016, taxes range from €2.70 to €11.70
27.
Ribatejo Province
–
The Ribatejo is the most central of the traditional provinces of Portugal, with no coastline or border with Spain. The region is crossed by the Tagus River, the region contains some of the nations richest agricultural land, and it produces most of the animals used in the Portuguese style of bullfighting. Ribatejo Province was formally created in 1936, the largest towns were Santarém and Tomar. In 1976 the Ribatejo Province was dissolved, most of the area belongs to the Santarém District
28.
Fault (geology)
–
In geology, a fault is a planar fracture or discontinuity in a volume of rock, across which there has been significant displacement as a result of rock-mass movement. Large faults within the Earths crust result from the action of tectonic forces. Energy release associated with movement on active faults is the cause of most earthquakes. A fault plane is the plane that represents the surface of a fault. A fault trace or fault line is the intersection of a plane with the ground surface. A fault trace is also the line commonly plotted on maps to represent a fault. Since faults do not usually consist of a single, clean fracture, the two sides of a non-vertical fault are known as the hanging wall and footwall. By definition, the wall occurs above the fault plane. This terminology comes from mining, when working a tabular ore body, because of friction and the rigidity of rocks, they cannot glide or flow past each other easily, and occasionally all movement stops. A fault in ductile rocks can also release instantaneously when the rate is too great. The energy released by instantaneous strain-release causes earthquakes, a common phenomenon along transform boundaries, slip is defined as the relative movement of geological features present on either side of a fault plane, and is a displacement vector. A faults sense of slip is defined as the motion of the rock on each side of the fault with respect to the other side. In practice, it is only possible to find the slip direction of faults. Based on direction of slip, faults can be categorized as, strike-slip. Dip-slip, offset is predominantly vertical and/or perpendicular to the fault trace, oblique-slip, combining significant strike and dip slip. The fault surface is usually vertical and the footwall moves either left or right or laterally with very little vertical motion. Strike-slip faults with left-lateral motion are known as sinistral faults. Those with right-lateral motion are known as dextral faults
29.
Earthquake
–
An earthquake is the shaking of the surface of the Earth, resulting from the sudden release of energy in the Earths lithosphere that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes can range in size from those that are so weak that they cannot be felt to those violent enough to people around. The seismicity or seismic activity of an area refers to the frequency, type, Earthquakes are measured using measurements from seismometers. The moment magnitude is the most common scale on which earthquakes larger than approximately 5 are reported for the entire globe and these two scales are numerically similar over their range of validity. Magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes are mostly imperceptible or weak and magnitude 7 and over potentially cause damage over larger areas. The largest earthquakes in historic times have been of magnitude slightly over 9, intensity of shaking is measured on the modified Mercalli scale. The shallower an earthquake, the damage to structures it causes. At the Earths surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and sometimes displacement of the ground, when the epicenter of a large earthquake is located offshore, the seabed may be displaced sufficiently to cause a tsunami. Earthquakes can also trigger landslides, and occasionally volcanic activity, in its most general sense, the word earthquake is used to describe any seismic event — whether natural or caused by humans — that generates seismic waves. Earthquakes are caused mostly by rupture of faults, but also by other events such as volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts. An earthquakes point of rupture is called its focus or hypocenter. The epicenter is the point at ground level directly above the hypocenter, tectonic earthquakes occur anywhere in the earth where there is sufficient stored elastic strain energy to drive fracture propagation along a fault plane. The sides of a fault move past each other smoothly and aseismically only if there are no irregularities or asperities along the surface that increase the frictional resistance. Most fault surfaces do have such asperities and this leads to a form of stick-slip behavior, once the fault has locked, continued relative motion between the plates leads to increasing stress and therefore, stored strain energy in the volume around the fault surface. This continues until the stress has risen sufficiently to break through the asperity, suddenly allowing sliding over the portion of the fault. This energy is released as a combination of radiated elastic strain seismic waves, frictional heating of the fault surface and this process of gradual build-up of strain and stress punctuated by occasional sudden earthquake failure is referred to as the elastic-rebound theory. It is estimated that only 10 percent or less of a total energy is radiated as seismic energy. Most of the energy is used to power the earthquake fracture growth or is converted into heat generated by friction
