1.
Beer
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Beer is the worlds oldest and most widely consumed alcoholic drink, it is the third most popular drink overall, after water and tea. Most beer is flavoured with hops, which add bitterness and act as a natural preservative, the fermentation process causes a natural carbonation effect, although this is often removed during processing, and replaced with forced carbonation. Beer is sold in bottles and cans, it may also be available on draught, particularly in pubs, the brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries. The strength of beer is usually around 4% to 6% alcohol by volume, archaeologists speculate that beer was instrumental in the formation of civilisations. Approximately 5000 years ago, workers in the city of Uruk were paid by their employers in beer, the earliest known chemical evidence of barley beer dates to circa 3500–3100 BC from the site of Godin Tepe in the Zagros Mountains of western Iran. The Ebla tablets, discovered in 1974 in Ebla, Syria, a fermented beverage using rice and fruit was made in China around 7000 BC. Unlike sake, mould was not used to saccharify the rice, almost any substance containing sugar can naturally undergo alcoholic fermentation. It is likely that many cultures, on observing that a liquid could be obtained from a source of starch. Bread and beer increased prosperity to a level that allowed time for development of other technologies, Beer was spread through Europe by Germanic and Celtic tribes as far back as 3000 BC, and it was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. The product that the early Europeans drank might not be recognised as beer by most people today, alongside the basic starch source, the early European beers might contain fruits, honey, numerous types of plants, spices and other substances such as narcotic herbs. What they did not contain was hops, as that was an addition, first mentioned in Europe around 822 by a Carolingian Abbot. Beer produced before the Industrial Revolution continued to be made and sold on a scale, although by the 7th century AD, beer was also being produced. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture, the development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process and greater knowledge of the results. Today, the industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies. As of 2006, more than 133 billion litres, the equivalent of a cube 510 metres on a side, of beer are sold per year, the process of making beer is known as brewing. A dedicated building for the making of beer is called a brewery, a company that makes beer is called either a brewery or a brewing company. Beer made on a scale for non-commercial reasons is classified as homebrewing regardless of where it is made. Brewing beer is subject to legislation and taxation in developed countries, however, the UK government relaxed legislation in 1963, followed by Australia in 1972 and the US in 1978, allowing homebrewing to become a popular hobby
2.
Tea
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Tea is an aromatic beverage commonly prepared by pouring hot or boiling water over cured leaves of the Camellia sinensis, an evergreen shrub native to Asia. After water, it is the most widely consumed drink in the world, Tea originated in Southwest China, where it was used as a medicinal drink. It was popularized as a drink during the Chinese Tang dynasty. Portuguese priests and merchants introduced it to Europe during the 16th century, during the 17th century, drinking tea became fashionable among Britons, who started large-scale production and commercialization of the plant in India to bypass the Chinese monopoly. The term herbal tea usually refers to infusions of fruit or herbs made without the tea plant, such as steeps of rosehip, chamomile and these are sometimes called tisanes or herbal infusions to prevent confusion with tea made from the tea plant. The tea industry often uses the term fruit tea to refer to what are in fact fruit-flavored black teas. The Chinese character for tea is 茶, originally written with a stroke as 荼. The word is pronounced differently in the different varieties of Chinese, such as chá in Mandarin, zo and dzo in Wu Chinese, there were other ancient words for tea, though ming is the only other one still in common use. Most Chinese languages, such as Mandarin and Cantonese, pronounce it along the lines of cha and these two pronunciations have made their separate ways into other languages around the world. Starting in the seventeen century, the Dutch played a dominant role in the early European tea trade via the Dutch East India Company. The Dutch borrowed the word for tea from Min Chinese, either through trade directly from Fujian or Formosa where they had established a port, or from Malay traders in Bantam, Java. The Dutch then introduced to other European languages this Min pronunciation for tea, including English tea, French thé, Spanish té and this pronunciation is also the most common form worldwide. The Portuguese adopted the Cantonese pronunciation chá, and spread it to India, the Korean and Japanese pronunciations of cha were borrowed into Korean and Japanese during earlier periods of Chinese history. A third form, the increasingly widespread chai, came from Persian چای chay, both the châ and chây forms are found in Persian dictionaries. English has all three forms, cha or char, attested from the 16th century, tea, from the 17th, however, the form chai refers specifically to a black tea mixed with honey, spices and milk in contemporary English. Tea plants are native to East Asia, and probably originated around the points of the lands of north Burma. Tea drinking may have begun in the Yunnan region during the Shang Dynasty in China, Chinese legends attribute the invention of tea to Shennong in 2737 BC, although evidence suggests that tea drinking may have been introduced from the southwest of China. The earliest written records of tea come from China, in the Chronicles of Huayang, it was recorded that the Ba people in Sichuan presented tu to the Zhou king
3.
Coffee
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Coffee is a brewed drink prepared from roasted coffee beans, which are the seeds of berries from the Coffea plant. The genus Coffea is native to tropical Africa, and Madagascar, the two most commonly grown are the highly regarded arabica, and the less sophisticated but stronger and more hardy robusta. Once ripe, coffee berries are picked, processed, and dried, dried coffee seeds are roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavor. Roasted beans are ground and brewed with boiling water to produce coffee as a beverage. Coffee is slightly acidic and can have an effect on humans because of its caffeine content. Coffee is one of the most popular drinks in the world and it can be prepared and presented in a variety of ways. It is usually served hot, although iced coffee is also served, the earliest credible evidence of coffee-drinking appears in the middle of the 15th century in the Sufi shrines of Yemen. It was here in Arabia that coffee seeds were first roasted and brewed in a way to how it is now prepared. Coffee seeds were first exported from East Africa to Yemen, as the coffea arabica plant is thought to have been indigenous to the former, yemeni traders took coffee back to their homeland and began to cultivate the seed. By the 16th century, it had reached Persia, Turkey, from there, it spread to Europe and the rest of the world. Coffee is an export commodity, it is the top agricultural export for numerous countries and is among the worlds largest legal agricultural exports. It is one of the most valuable commodities exported by developing countries, green coffee is one of the most traded agricultural commodities in the world. Consequently, the markets for fair trade coffee and organic coffee are expanding. The first reference to coffee in the English language is in the form chaona, dated to 1598 and understood to be a misprint of chaoua, equivalent, in the orthography of the time, to chaova. This term and coffee both derive from the Ottoman Turkish kahve, by way of the Italian caffè and it has also been proposed that the source may be the Proto-Central Semitic root q-h-h meaning dark. Alternatively, the word Khat, a plant widely used as stimulant in Yemen and Ethiopia before being supplanted by coffee has been suggested as a possible origin, the expression coffee break was first attested in 1952. The term coffee pot dates from 1705, other accounts attribute the discovery of coffee to Sheikh Omar. According to the ancient chronicle, Omar, who was known for his ability to cure the sick through prayer, was exiled from Mocha in Yemen to a desert cave near Ousab
4.
Drinking fountains in the United States
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This is a list of drinking fountains in the United States. A drinking fountain, also called a fountain or bubbler, is a fountain designed to provide drinking water. It consists of a basin with either continuously running water or a tap, the drinker bends down to the stream of water and swallows water directly from the stream. Creation of public drinking fountains was supported by the Temperance Movement, the Womans Christian Temperance Union, founded in 1874, sponsored Temperance fountains in towns and cities across the United States. Henry D. Cogswell, a dentist who made a fortune in San Francisco real estate, sponsored dozens of artistic fountains, a concurrent movement concerned with animal welfare resulted in the founding of the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in 1866. One of its concerns was the difficulty of finding water for work horses in urban areas. Combination drinking fountains that provided a bubbler for people and a trough for horses. Privately-sponsored drinking fountains were often commissioned as works of art, sculptors such as Karl Bitter, Gutzon Borglum and Daniel Chester French, and architects such as Frederick Law Olmsted and Henry Hobson Richardson collaborated on them. These were frequently created as memorials to individuals, serving an ongoing utilitarian purpose as well as an artistic one, the National Humane Alliance donated more than 120 National Humane Alliance Fountains to communities all across the United States between 1903 and 1913. The fountains were the gift of philanthropist Herman Lee Ensign, the fountains were placed at busy intersections in cities all across the United States. The fountains were quarried on Vinalhaven which is an island off the coast from Rockland, the three level fountains had a top piece that included spigots in the shape of lions heads for humans, a larger circular bowl for horses, and lower bowls for dogs and cats. Derby, CT has a dedicated to the fountains that includes an interactive map of the United States with locations
5.
Woman's Christian Temperance Union
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It was influential in the temperance movement, and supported the 18th Amendment. The WCTU was originally organized on December 23,1873, in Hillsboro, Ohio and it operated at an international level and in the context of religion and reform, including missionary work and womans suffrage. Two years after its founding, the American WCTU sponsored a conference at which the International Womens Christian Temperance Union was formed. The Worlds Womans Christian Temperance Union was founded in 1883 and became the arm of the organization. At its founding in 1874, the purpose of the WCTU was to create a sober and pure world by abstinence, purity. Annie Wittenmyer was its first president, the constitution of the WCTU called for the entire prohibition of the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors as a beverage. Frances Willard, a noted feminist, was elected the WCTUs second president in 1879 and she remained president until her death in 1898. Its members were inspired by the Greek writer Xenophon, who defined temperance as moderation in all things healthful, the WCTU perceived alcohol as a cause and consequence of larger social problems rather than as a personal weakness or failing. The WCTU also agitated against tobacco, the American WCTU formed a Department for the Overthrow of the Tobacco Habit as early as 1885 and frequently published anti-tobacco articles in the 1880s. Agitation against tobacco continued through to the 1950s, as a consequence of its stated purposes, the WCTU was very interested in a number of social reform issues, including labor, prostitution, public health, sanitation, and international peace. As the movement grew in numbers and strength, members of the WCTU also focused on suffrage, the WCTU was instrumental in organizing womans suffrage leaders and in helping more women become involved in American politics. Local chapters, known as “unions”, were autonomous, though linked to state. Willard pushed for the Home Protection ballot, arguing that women, being the superior sex, needed the vote in order to act as citizen-mothers and protect their homes. At a time when suffragists were viewed as radicals and alienated most American women, as the WCTU grew internationally, it developed various approaches that helped with the inclusion of women of religions other than Christianity. But, it was primarily, and still is, a Christian womens organization. The WCTUs work extended across a range of efforts to bring about personal and social moral reform, in the 1880s it worked on creating legislation to protect working girls from the exploitation of men, including raising Age of Consent laws. It also focused on keeping Sundays as Sabbath days and restrict frivolous activities, in 1901 the WCTU said that golf should not be allowed on Sundays. The WCTU also wanted to aid immigrants coming into the United States through Americanization activities, between 1900 and 1920, much of their budget was given to their center on Ellis Island, which helped to start the Americanization process
6.
Hebe (mythology)
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Hebe in ancient Greek religion, is the goddess of youth. She is the daughter of Zeus and Hera, Hebe was the cupbearer for the gods and goddesses of Mount Olympus, serving their nectar and ambrosia, until she was married to Heracles, her successor was the divine hero Ganymede. Another title of hers, for reason, is Ganymeda. She also drew baths for her brother Ares and helped Hera enter her chariot, Hebe was supposed to have the power to give eternal youth, and in art is typically seen with her father in the guise of an eagle, often offering a cup to him. This depiction is seen in classical engraved gems as well as later art, Hebe is the daughter of Zeus and Hera. In an alternative version, her mother became pregnant merely by eating a lettuce plant when dining with Apollo, in Euripides play Heracleidae, Hebe granted Iolaus wish to become young again in order to fight Eurystheus. Hebe had two children with Heracles, Alexiares and Anicetus, the name Hebe comes from Greek word meaning youth or prime of life. Juventus likewise means youth, as can be seen in such derivatives as juvenile, in art, Hebe is usually depicted wearing a sleeveless dress. The Phliasians, who lived near Sicyon, honored Hebe by pardoning supplicants, Hebe was also worshipped as a goddess of pardons or forgiveness, freed prisoners would hang their chains in the sacred grove of her sanctuary at Phlius. Most artists added an eagle, and a setting amid the clouds, in French there was a special term en Hébé for the costume. The personification appears in rococo, Grand Manner and Neoclassical styles, even some very aristocratic models allowed a degree of nudity, such as exposing a single breast, though this was often much greater in non-portrait depictions. François-Hubert Drouais painted Marie-Antoinette, when Dauphine, en Hébé in 1773, the bird was furious at being brought indoors to her studio and badly frightened her, though it looks relatively harmless in the painting. An entirely nude depiction by Ignaz Unterberger was a success in Vienna in 1795, and bought by Emperor Francis II for a large amount. In sculpture Hebe began to flourish as a slightly later. Antonio Canova sculpted four different versions of his statue of Hebe and this had no accompanying eagle, but including the bird was a challenge accepted by several later sculptors. An elaborate marble group with a naked Hebe and the eagle with wings outspread was started in 1852 by the elderly François Rude but unfinished by his death in 1855. Finished by his widow and another it is now in the Musée des Beaux-Arts de Dijon and was popular in bronze versions. Albert-Ernest Carrier-Belleuse produced another group, with the eagle perched above a sleeping Hebe
7.
Union Square, Manhattan
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The park is under the aegis of the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation. Adjacent neighborhoods are the Flatiron District to the north, Chelsea to the west, Greenwich Village to the southwest, East Village to the southeast, many buildings of The New School are near the square, as are several dormitories of New York University. It features a wall sculpture and digital clock expelling bursts of steam. Among the heterogeneous assortment of buildings along the west side is the Decker Building, Union Square is noted for its impressive equestrian statue of U. S. A statue of Mahatma Gandhi in the southwest corner of the park was added in 1986, the 14th Street – Union Square New York City Subway station, served by the 456 <6> L N Q R W trains, is located under Union Square. In 1815, by act of the legislature, this former potters field became a public commons for the city. Ruggles obtained a lease on most of the surrounding lots from 15th to 19th Streets. In 1834 he convinced the Board of Aldermen to enclose and grade the square, then sold most of his leases, a fountain was built in the center of Union Square to receive water from the Croton Aqueduct, completed in 1842. The Everett House on the corner of 17th Street and Fourth Avenue was for one of the citys most fashionable hotels. In the early years of the park a fence surrounded the central oval planted with radiating walks lined with trees. In 1872, Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux were called in to replant the park, the last of the neighborhoods free-standing private mansions, Peter Goelets at the northeast corner of 19th Street, made way for a commercial building in 1897. The Rialto, New York Citys first commercial district, was located in. It was called the Rialto after the district in Venice. The theater district gradually re-located northward, into less expensive and undeveloped uptown neighborhoods, thus, suppliers of props, costumes, wigs, scenery, and other theatrical necessities grew up around the new theatres. The park has historically been the start or the end point for political demonstrations. In the summer of 1864 the north side of the square was the site of a Sanitary Fair, Union Square has been a frequent gathering point for radicals of all stripes to make speeches or demonstrate. On September 5,1882, in the first Labor Day celebration, on March 28,1908, an anarchist set off a bomb in Union Square which only killed himself and another man. On August 21,1893, Emma Goldman took the stage at Union Square to make her Free Bread speech to a crowd of overworked garment workers
8.
Adolf von Donndorf
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Adolf von Donndorf was a German sculptor. Adolf Donndorf was born in Weimar, the son of a cabinet-maker, starting in 1853 he was a student of Ernst Rietschel in Dresden. After Rietschels death in 1861 he and Gustav Adolph Kietz completed the Luther monument in Worms, Donndorf contributed several statues including standing figures of Reuchlin and Frederick the Wise, seated figures of Savonarola, Peter Waldo and the allegorical city of Magdeburg as well as reliefs. Adolf von Donndorf was a citizen of Weimar and Stuttgart and was ennobled in 1910 allowing him to add von to his name. A museum created in his honor in 1907 by the city of Weimar was destroyed at the end of World War II and his son Karl August Donndorf was also a sculptor and one of his fathers students. Adolf von Donndorf died in Stuttgart, equestrian statue of Charles Augustus, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach in Weimar, 1867–1875 Luther Monument on the Nikolaiplatz in Eisenach, 1889-1895. Figural group of mother and two children, Union Square Drinking Fountain also called the James Fountain, Union Square, New York City,1881. A standing draped female figure combining common iconic representations of Charity and of Temperance holds an infant and empties a ewer with her left hand, lion-mask spouts on the block base spit water into basins. New York, Dodd, Mead and Company
9.
Temperance Fountain (Washington, D.C.)
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This fountain was one of a series of temperance fountains he designed and commissioned in a belief that easy access to cool drinking water would keep people from consuming alcoholic beverages. The fountain has four columns supporting a canopy on whose sides the words Faith, Hope, Charity. Atop this canopy is a heron, and the centerpiece is a pair of entwined heraldic scaly dolphins. The inscription reads, PRESENTED BY DR, the message was to drink water, not whiskey, as there were so many saloons along the Avenue to tempt passersby. This was near the point between the Capitol and White House. For many years after National Prohibition, it sat in front of the Apex Liquor Store. In 1987, it was relocated about 100 feet north during the renewal by the Pennsylvania Avenue Development Corporation, the PADC created Indiana Plaza, and the Temperance Fountain swapped locations with the monument to the Grand Army of the Republic, which was considered historically more significant. The Temperance Fountain has been called the citys ugliest statue, in April 1945, Sen. Sheridan Downey of California introduced a Senate resolution to remove the fountain, but, preoccupied with World War II, Congress ignored the resolution and it died in committee. The fountain is also the source of the name for the Cogswell Society, in 1984, it was placed on the Downtown Historic District National Register #84003901. Cogswells fountains can be found in Washington, D. C, tompkins Square Park New York City, Washington Square, San Francisco and Rockville, Connecticut. Other examples were erected and then torn down at, Buffalo, Rochester, Boston Common, Fall River, Massachusetts, Pacific Grove, California, and San Francisco. List of public art in Washington, D. C. Ward 6 National Register of Historic Places listings in central Washington, including the Temperance Fountain Kitsock, Greg. Alls well that ends with a drink to Cogswell
10.
Henry D. Cogswell
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Dr. Henry Daniel Cogswell was an American dentist and a crusader in the temperance movement. Cogswell and his wife Caroline also founded Cogswell College in San Jose, another campus in Everett, Washington was later dedicated in his honor. Born in Tolland, Connecticut, as a youth, he worked in the New England cotton mills and he became a dentist in Providence, Rhode Island at age 26. When the California Gold Rush started, the Cogswell family decided to go west, however, they did not do any mining themselves. Instead, he offered dentistry services to miners and invested in estate and mining stocks. A pioneer in his field, Cogswell designed the vacuum method of securing dental plates and was the first in California to perform an operation using chloroform. Cogswell believed that if people had access to drinking water they wouldnt consume alcoholic beverages. It was his dream to construct one temperance fountain for every 100 saloons across the United States and these drinking fountains were elaborate structures built of granite that Cogswell designed himself. Cogswells fountains can be found in Washington, D. C, tompkins Square Park New York City, Washington Square, San Francisco Pawtucket, Rhode Island, and Rockville, Connecticut. Other examples were erected and then torn down at, Buffalo, Rochester, Boston Common, Fall River, Massachusetts, Pacific Grove, California, San Jose, California, the concept of providing drinking fountains as alternatives to saloons was later implemented by the Womens Christian Temperance Union. These grandiose statues were not well received by the communities where they were placed, Washington, DCs Temperance Fountain has been called the citys ugliest statue and spurred city councils across the country to set up fine arts commissions to screen such gifts. In Dubuque, Iowa, a statue of Cogswell that sat in Washington Park was pulled down by a group of vandals in 1900, the next day the sidewalk was poured and the object was entombed. However, when new sidewalks were laid in the early 2000s, Cogswell also designed the statue for his own tomb, a 400-ton granite tower, complete with fountains and statues of Hope, Faith, Charity and Temperance. He is buried in Mountain View Cemetery in Oakland, California, the diaries of Cogswell and his wife Caroline cover 37 years and are an unusually long and consistent record of busy personal and financial life in the western United States. They are kept at the Bancroft Library at the University of California, moffatt, The Intemperate Patronage of Henry D. Cogswell, Winterthur Portfolio, Vol.27, No. 2/3, pp. 123–143 Carol A. Grissom
