1.
Sailboat
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A sailboat or sailing boat is a boat propelled partly or entirely by sails smaller than a sailing ship. Distinctions in what constitutes a sailing boat and ship vary by region, although sailboat terminology has varied across history, many terms have specific meanings in the context of modern yachting. A great number of sailboat-types may be distinguished by size, hull configuration, keel type, purpose, number and configuration of masts, and sail plan. Once a common racing configuration, today it gives versatility to cruising boats, a catboat has a single mast mounted far forward and does not carry a jib. Most modern designs have only one sail, the mainsail, however, a dinghy is a type of small open sailboat commonly used for recreation, sail training, and tending a larger vessel. They are popular in youth sailing programs for their short LOA, simple operation and they have three sails, the mainsail, jib, and spinnaker. Ketches are similar to a sloop, but there is a shorter mast astern of the mainmast. The second mast is called the mizzen mast and the sail is called the mizzen sail, a ketch can also be Cutter-rigged with two head sails. A schooner has a mainmast taller than its foremast, distinguishing it from a ketch or a yawl, a schooner can have more than two masts, with the foremast always lower than the foremost main. Traditional topsail schooners have topmasts allowing triangular topsails sails to be flown above their gaff sails, the most common modern sailboat is the sloop, which features one mast and two sails, typically a Bermuda rigged main, and a headsail. This simple configuration is very efficient for sailing into the wind, a smaller headsail is easier for a short-handed crew to manage. A yawl is similar to a ketch, with a mizzen mast carried astern the rudderpost more for balancing the helm than propulsion. Traditional sailboats are monohulls, but multi-hull catamarans and trimarans are gaining popularity, monohull boats generally rely on ballast for stability and usually are displacement hulls. This stabilizing ballast can, in boats designed for racing, be as much as 50% of the weight of the boat and it creates two problems, one, it gives the monohull tremendous inertia, making it less maneuverable and reducing its acceleration. Secondly, unless it has built with buoyant foam or air tanks, if a monohull fills with water. Multihulls rely on the geometry and the stance of the multiple hulls for their stability. Indeed, multihulls are designed to be as light-weight as possible and this absence of ballast also results in some very real performance gains in terms of acceleration, top speed, and maneuverability. The lack of ballast makes it easier to get a multihull on plane, reducing its wetted surface area and thus its drag. The absence of drag improves wind precision
2.
River Thames
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The River Thames is a river that flows through southern England, most notably through London. At 215 miles, it is the longest river entirely in England and it also flows through Oxford, Reading, Henley-on-Thames and Windsor. The lower reaches of the river are called the Tideway, derived from its tidal reach up to Teddington Lock. It rises at Thames Head in Gloucestershire, and flows into the North Sea via the Thames Estuary, the Thames drains the whole of Greater London. Its tidal section, reaching up to Teddington Lock, includes most of its London stretch and has a rise, in Scotland, the Tay achieves more than double the average discharge from a drainage basin that is 60% smaller. Along its course are 45 navigation locks with accompanying weirs and its catchment area covers a large part of South Eastern and a small part of Western England and the river is fed by 38 named tributaries. The river contains over 80 islands, in 2010, the Thames won the largest environmental award in the world – the $350,000 International Riverprize. The Thames, from Middle English Temese, is derived from the Brittonic Celtic name for the river, Tamesas, recorded in Latin as Tamesis and yielding modern Welsh Tafwys Thames. It has also suggested that it is not of Celtic origin. A place by the river, rather than the river itself, indirect evidence for the antiquity of the name Thames is provided by a Roman potsherd found at Oxford, bearing the inscription Tamesubugus fecit. It is believed that Tamesubugus name was derived from that of the river, tamese was referred to as a place, not a river in the Ravenna Cosmography. The rivers name has always pronounced with a simple t /t/, the Middle English spelling was typically Temese. A similar spelling from 1210, Tamisiam, is found in the Magna Carta, the Thames through Oxford is sometimes called the Isis. Ordnance Survey maps still label the Thames as River Thames or Isis down to Dorchester, richard Coates suggests that while the river was as a whole called the Thames, part of it, where it was too wide to ford, was called *lowonida. An alternative, and simpler proposal, is that London may also be a Germanic word, for merchant seamen, the Thames has long been just the London River. Londoners often refer to it simply as the river in such as south of the river. Thames Valley Police is a body that takes its name from the river. The marks of human activity, in cases dating back to Pre-Roman Britain, are visible at various points along the river
3.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
4.
Flat-bottomed boat
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A flat-bottomed boat is a boat with a flat bottomed, two-chined hull, which allows it be used in shallow bodies of water, such as rivers, because it is less likely to ground. The flat hull makes the boat more stable in calm water. However this design less stable in choppy water. This is because it causes the boat to travel on the water, instead of through it, flat hulls are simple to construct, making them popular with boat-building hobbyists. The flat-bottoms are mentioned in the song Heart of Oak written by David Garrick during 1759, barge Bateau Dory Durham boat Flatboat Gondola Jon boat Keelboat Norfolk punt Pirogue Pram Punt Sandolo Scow Trow Horse-drawn boat Pedalo Pusher Towpath
5.
Thames Estuary
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The Thames Estuary is the estuary in which the River Thames meets the waters of the North Sea, in the south-east of Great Britain. It is not easy to define the limits of the estuary, the eastern boundary of the estuary suggested in a Hydrological Survey of 1882-9 is a line drawn from North Foreland, Margate, Kent via the Kentish Knock lighthouse to Harwich in Essex. It is to this line that the typical estuarine sandbanks extend, the estuary downstream of the Tideway has a tidal movement of 4 metres, moving at a speed of 8 miles per hour. The estuary is one of the largest of 170 such inlets on the coast of Great Britain, the traditional Thames sailing barge worked in this area, designed to be suitable for the shallow waters in the smaller ports. More recently one of the largest wind farms in the UK has been developed in the estuary, located 8.5 km north of Herne Bay, the farm contains 30 wind turbines generating a total of 82. 4MW of electricity. The much larger London Array of up to 1GW capacity is also planned and this area has had several proposed sites for the building of a new airport to supplement, or even to replace Heathrow/Gatwick. In the 1960s Maplin Sands was a contender, in 2002 it was to be at Cliffe, the Thames Estuary is the focal part of the 21st-century toponym, the Thames Gateway, designated as one of the principal development areas in Southern England. The appellation Greater Thames Estuary applies to the coast and the lands bordering the estuary itself. These are characterised by the presence of mudflats, low-lying open beaches and salt marshes, namely the North Kent Marshes and the Essex Marshes. There are many smaller estuaries in Essex, including the Rivers Colne, Blackwater and Crouch Small coastal villages depend on an economy of fishing, boat-building, a similar pattern of replacement can be observed with the aquatic plants and invertebrates living in the river. Joseph Conrad lived in Stanford-le-Hope close to the Essex marshes and his The Mirror of the Sea contains a memorable description of the area as seen from the Thames. Accent The form of speech of many of the people of the area, principally the accents of those from Kent, the term is a term for a milder variety of the London Accent. The term London Accent is generally avoided as it can have many meanings
6.
Mainsail
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A mainsail is a sail located behind the main mast of a sailing vessel. On a square rigged vessel, it is the lowest and largest sail on the main mast. On a fore-and-aft rigged vessel, it is the lowest and largest and often the only sail rigged aft of the main mast, a sail rigged in this position without a boom is generally called a trysail, and is used in extremely heavy weather. Traditional fore-and-aft rigs used a four-sided gaff rigged mainsail, sometimes setting a gaff topsail above it, the modern Bermuda rig uses a triangular mainsail as the only sail aft of the mast, closely coordinated with a jib for sailing upwind. A large overlapping jib or genoa is larger than the mainsail. In downwind conditions a spinnaker replaces the jib, some mainsails are full-batten mainsails, meaning the batten extends all the way from the mast to the leeach of a sail. A partial batten extends from the mast partway to the leech, battens enable the mainsail to project farther away from the mast. However, there is some cost associated with the battens themselves, batten pockets need to be sewn into the sail, and batten cars may be needed to allow the sail to be raised and lowered. A mainsail may be fixed to the boom via slugs, cars, or a bolt-rope, or may be loose-footed, meaning it is attached at the tack. Before Nathanael Greene Herreshoffs invention of tracks and slides in the 1880s. Traditional mainsails were held against the mast by hoops that went the way around the mast. This meant a traditional mainsail could be raised no higher than the first point a rope or wire was required to keep the mast upright
7.
Spritsail
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The spritsail is a form of three or four-sided, fore-aft sail and its rig. Unlike the gaff where the head hangs from a spar along its edge, this rig supports the leech of the sail by means of a diagonal spar or spars named a sprit. The forward end of the spar is attached to the mast but bisects the face of the sail. It is said to be the ancestor from which the common gaff rig evolved in 16th-century Holland, historically, spritsails were the first fore-and-aft rigs, appearing in Greco-Roman navigation in the 2nd century BC. The spritsail was best known from its use in the Thames sailing barge, the sprit is free to move laterally, nearly as far to each side as the shrouds. This enables the vessel to reach and run, the instability caused by allowing such a weighty spar to extend too far away from the vessels centreline, however, had to be borne in mind when designing hull and rigging. The peak of the sail is attached to the head of the sprit. The spritsail rig was used without a boom. Such loose-footed sails can also be found on the Norfolk wherry, in this last example, the ability to furl the foot of the sail cleared the deck of the sheet while the sail could still be controlled by the vangs. This made gunnery much more readily possible, from the deck, the sail can very readily be set or reduced by very small increments so as to control the power obtained from it. Meanwhile, the boom does not project outboard so that the vessel can reach through a gap between moored vessels. Also, the head of the sail or a similarly controlled topsail can readily be set so as to use of the air above the wind-shadow of moored ships, warehouses. This fine control of the sail without need for the crew to leave the deck, is achieved by brailing up, rather than lowering the mainsail, it is gathered up against its own luff and head by means of lines called brails. This technique is a way of stowing the mainsail but more importantly. However, it means that the sail is stowed aloft and unreachable from the deck and it also means that the sail cannot easily be covered when it is stowed, and thus protected from the elements. But in any case, the crews of working vessels did not trouble with such dainty ways, in keeping with the general philosophy of working boats, all sails would therefore be traditionally treated with red oxide and other substances. A good crew could sail under a low bridge without losing steerage way. In the photograph, the windlass can be seen below the tack of the foresail and the tackle at the foot of the forestay, in striking the gear, the foresail tack tackle had to be cast off
8.
Brail
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Brails, in a sailing ship, are small lines used to haul in or up the edges or corners of sails, before furling. On a ship rig, these brails are most often found on the mizzen sail, the command is, hale up the brails, or, brail up the sails. The word brail comes from Middle English brayle, from Anglo-French braiel belt, strap, brail, alteration of Old French braiuel belt, probably ultimately from Latin braca pant
9.
Glossary of nautical terms
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This is a partial glossary of nautical terms, some remain current, while many date from the 17th to 19th centuries. See also Wiktionarys nautical terms, Category, Nautical terms, See the Further reading section for additional words and references. A & AS Alterations and additions to the structure, rigging, abaft Toward the stern, relative to some object. Abaft the beam Further aft than the beam, a bearing of greater than 90 degrees from the bow. That would describe an object lying 22.5 degrees toward the rear of the ship, as measured clockwise from a line from the right side, center, of the ship. An imperative to leave the vessel immediately, usually in the face of some imminent overwhelming danger and it is an order issued by the Master or a delegated person in command. Abeam On the beam, a bearing at right angles to the ships keel. A merchant seaman qualified to perform all duties, or a junior rank in some navies. Aboard On or in a vessel, about To go about is to change the course of a ship by tacking. Ready about, or boutship, is the order to prepare for tacking, above board On or above the deck, in plain view, not hiding anything. Pirates would secret their crews below decks, thereby creating the impression that an encounter with another ship was a casual matter of chance. Above-water hull The hull section of a vessel above the waterline, absentee pennant Special pennant flown to indicate absence of commanding officer, admiral, his chief of staff, or officer whose flag is flying. Absolute bearing The bearing of an object in relation to north, either true bearing, using the geographical or true north, or magnetic bearing, using magnetic north. See also bearing and relative bearing, accommodation ladder A portable flight of steps down a ships side. Accommodation ship A ship or hulk used as housing, generally there is a lack of quarters available ashore. An operational ship can be used, but more commonly a hulk modified for accommodation is used, Act of Pardon or Act of Grace A letter from a state or power authorising action by a privateer. Admiral Senior naval officer of Flag rank, in ascending order of seniority, Rear Admiral, Vice Admiral, Admiral and Admiral of the Fleet. A high naval authority in charge of a states Navy or a territorial component
10.
Foresail
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A foresail is one of a few different types of sail set on the foremost mast of a sailing vessel, A fore and aft sail set on the foremast of a schooner or similar vessel. The lowest square-sail on the foremast of a full rigged ship or other vessel which is square-rigged, sails set forward of the mainmast, such as jibs and staysails, are sometimes referred to as foresails, although headsails is a more common term. A two-masted merchant vessel with a sizable foresail rigged on a slightly inclined foremast is depicted in an Etruscan tomb painting from 475–450 BC, the foresail became fairly common on Roman war galleys, where it seems to be used rather for steering than as a driver. Its size was reduced and the now strongly raked foremast made it appear like a bowsprit sail. While most of the evidence is iconographic, the existence of foresails can also archaeologically be deduced from slots in foremast-feets located too close to the prow for a mainsail. Artemon, along with mainsail and topsail, developed into the rig of seagoing vessels in imperial times. Throughout antiquity, both foresail and mizzen remained secondary in terms of size, but still large enough to require full running rigging. In late antiquity, the foremast lost most of its tilt, the dromon, the lateen-rigged and oared bireme of the Byzantine navy, almost certainly had two sails, a larger foresail and one midships. The length of its foremast has been estimated at about 12 m, multiple-masted sailing ships were reintroduced into the Mediterranean by the Late Middle Ages. Large vessels were coming more and more use and the need for additional sails to control these ships adequately grew with the increase in tonnage. Unlike in antiquity, the foresail was adopted on medieval two-masters after the mizzen, to balance out the sail plan the next obvious step was to add a mast fore of the main-mast, which first appears on an Catalonian vessel from 1409. Sail plan In-Arch. net, The Development of the Square-Rigged Ship from the Carrack to the Full-Rigger
11.
Topsail
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A topsail is a sail set above another sail, on square-rigged vessels further sails may be set above topsails. On a square rigged vessel, a topsail is a sail rigged above the course sail. A full rigged ship has either single or double topsails on all masts, the single or lower topsail being the second sail above the deck, the bottom edge of the topsail, like that of other square sails, is slightly concave. Although topsails of a kind were used at least as early as Roman times, they first came into use in Europe some time in the 15th century. It was quite common for a ship to sail with topsails and jibs alone, the larger topsails were difficult and dangerous to handle in strong winds. Sometime in the 1680s, reef-bands were introduced to tie up part of the sail, with topsails eventually getting four of these, and reefing the sails became a regular occupation of sailors. In the mid 19th century, topsails of merchant vessels were split into upper and lower topsails that could be managed separately. Competing versions of the double topsail were invented by Robert Bennet Forbes, although Forbes strove to defend his rig, the Howe rig dominated. In the Forbes rig, both topsail yards are fixed vertically, in the Howe rig, the upper topsail yard slides on the topmast so it can be lowered in a few seconds to close reef the upper topsail. Howe had the foot of the upper topsail closely attached to the lower topsail yard, in 1865 the British clipper Ariel introduced a gap there. Forbes first tried his rig in the topsail schooner Midas in 1844. The clipper Climax built in 1853 under the supervision of Howes was the first ship with Howe rig, gaff topsails, like gaff rigs in general, may still be seen at Tall Ships gatherings. The gaff rig has been superseded by the Bermuda rig. On a gaff-rigged sailing boat, topsails may take a few different forms, a gaff-rigged vessel might have a gaff topsail above any or all of its gaff sails. A yard topsail is similar, but set on a yard, early 19th-century topsail yards were set almost horizontally, but gradually increased in angle until they became almost vertical extension of the topmast. A jack-yard topsail instead has its lower edge extended out beyond the end of the gaff with a short yard, a jack-yard topsail may also have the aforementioned vertical yard, although this makes for a very large topsail. A cornish topsail is a triangular sail having its luff extended well above the masthead by being laced to a yard hoisted by a halyard rove through a sheave fitted diagonally in the mast. The heel of the yard fits immediately about the gaff and is kept in place by a called a timminoggy. A square topsail is a sail, carried above the foresail only
12.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
13.
Brick
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A brick is building material used to make walls, pavements and other elements in masonry construction. Traditionally, the term referred to a unit composed of clay. A brick can be composed of clay-bearing soil, sand, and lime, Bricks are produced in numerous classes, types, materials, and sizes which vary with region and time period, and are produced in bulk quantities. Two basic categories of bricks are fired and non-fired bricks, block is a similar term referring to a rectangular building unit composed of similar materials, but is usually larger than a brick. Lightweight bricks are made from expanded clay aggregate, fired bricks are one of the longest-lasting and strongest building materials, sometimes referred to as artificial stone, and have been used since circa 5000 BC. Air-dried bricks, also known as mudbricks, have an older than fired bricks. Bricks are laid in courses and numerous patterns known as bonds, collectively known as brickwork, the earliest bricks were dried brick, meaning that they were formed from clay-bearing earth or mud and dried until they were strong enough for use. The oldest discovered bricks, originally made from shaped mud and dating before 7500 BC, were found at Tell Aswad, in the upper Tigris region, ceramic, or fired brick was used as early as 3000 BC in early Indus Valley cities. In pre-modern China, bricks were being used from the 2nd millennium BCE at a site near Xian, the carpenters manual Yingzao Fashi, published in 1103 at the time of the Song dynasty described the brick making process and glazing techniques then in use. He also had to know when to quench the kiln with water so as to produce the surface glaze, Early civilisations around the Mediterranean adopted the use of fired bricks, including the Ancient Greeks and Romans. The Roman legions operated mobile kilns, and built large brick structures throughout the Roman Empire, during the Early Middle Ages the use of bricks in construction became popular in Northern Europe, after being introduced there from Northern-Western Italy. An independent style of architecture, known as brick Gothic flourished in places that lacked indigenous sources of rocks. Examples of this style can be found in modern-day Denmark, Germany, Poland. A clear distinction between the two styles developed at the transition to Baroque architecture. In Lübeck, for example, Brick Renaissance is clearly recognisable in buildings equipped with terracotta reliefs by the artist Statius von Düren, production of bricks increased massively with the onset of the Industrial Revolution and the rise in factory building in England. For reasons of speed and economy, bricks were increasingly preferred as building material to stone and it was at this time in London, that bright red brick was chosen for construction to make the buildings more visible in the heavy fog and to help prevent traffic accidents. The transition from the method of production known as hand-moulding to a mechanised form of mass-production slowly took place during the first half of the nineteenth century. His mechanical apparatus soon achieved widespread attention after it was adopted for use by the South Eastern Railway Company for brick-making at their factory near Folkestone, the Bradley & Craven Ltd ‘Stiff-Plastic Brickmaking Machine’ was patented in 1853, apparently predating Clayton
14.
Cement
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A cement is a binder, a substance used in construction that sets, hardens and adheres to other materials, binding them together. Cement is seldom used solely, but is used to bind sand, Cement is used with fine aggregate to produce mortar for masonry, or with sand and gravel aggregates to produce concrete. Non-hydraulic cement will not set in wet conditions or underwater, rather, it sets as it dries and it is resistant to attack by chemicals after setting. Hydraulic cements set and become adhesive due to a reaction between the dry ingredients and water. The chemical reaction results in mineral hydrates that are not very water-soluble and so are quite durable in water and this allows setting in wet condition or underwater and further protects the hardened material from chemical attack. The chemical process for hydraulic cement found by ancient Romans used volcanic ash with added lime, the word cement can be traced back to the Roman term opus caementicium, used to describe masonry resembling modern concrete that was made from crushed rock with burnt lime as binder. The volcanic ash and pulverized brick supplements that were added to the burnt lime, to obtain a hydraulic binder, were referred to as cementum, cimentum, cäment. In modern times, organic polymers are used as cements in concrete. Non-hydraulic cement, such as slaked lime, hardens by carbonation in the presence of carbon dioxide which is present in the air. The carbonation reaction requires the dry cement to be exposed to air and this whole process is called the lime cycle. Conversely, hydraulic cement hardens by hydration when water is added, Hydraulic cements are made of a mixture of silicates and oxides, the four main components being, Belite, Alite, Tricalcium aluminate, Brownmillerite. The chemistry of the above listed reactions is not completely clear and is still the object of research, Cement, chemically speaking, is a product that includes lime as the primary curing ingredient, but is far from the first material used for cementation. The Babylonians and Assyrians used bitumen to bind together burnt brick or alabaster slabs, in Egypt stone blocks were cemented together with a mortar made of sand and roughly burnt gypsum, which often contained calcium carbonate. Lime was used on Crete and by the ancient Greeks, there is evidence that the Minoans of Crete used crushed potshards as an artificial pozzolan for hydraulic cement. A kind of powder which from natural causes produces astonishing results and it is found in the neighborhood of Baiae and in the country belonging to the towns round about Mt. Vesuvius. This substance when mixed with lime and rubble not only lends strength to buildings of other kinds, the Greeks used volcanic tuff from the island of Thera as their pozzolan and the Romans used crushed volcanic ash with lime. This mixture was able to set under water increasing its resistance, the material was called pozzolana from the town of Pozzuoli, west of Naples where volcanic ash was extracted. In the absence of ash, the Romans used powdered brick or pottery as a substitute
15.
Hay
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Hay is grass, legumes, or other herbaceous plants that have been cut, dried, and stored for use as animal fodder, particularly for grazing animals such as cattle, horses, goats, and sheep. Hay is also fed to animals such as rabbits and guinea pigs. Pigs may be fed hay, but they do not digest it as efficiently as more fully herbivorous animals and it is also fed during times when an animal is unable to access pasture, such as when animals are kept in a stable or barn. Commonly used plants for hay include mixtures of such as ryegrass, timothy, brome, fescue, Bermuda grass, orchard grass. Hay may also include legumes, such as alfalfa and clovers, legumes in hay are ideally cut pre-bloom. Other pasture forbs are also sometimes a part of the mix, straw is used mainly for animal bedding. Although straw is used as fodder, particularly as a source of dietary fiber. It is the leaf and seed material in the hay that determines its quality, farmers try to harvest hay at the point when the seed heads are not quite ripe and the leaf is at its maximum when the grass is mowed in the field. Hay is very sensitive to conditions, particularly when it is harvested. In drought conditions, both seed and leaf production are stunted, making hay that has a ratio of dry coarse stems that have very low nutritional values. If the weather is too wet, the cut hay may spoil in the field before it can be baled, the hay may also develop rot and mold after being baled, creating the potential for toxins to form in the feed, which could make the animals sick. It also has to be stored in a manner to prevent it from getting wet, mold and spoilage reduce nutritional value and may cause illness in animals. A symbiotic fungus in fescue may cause illness in horses and cattle, the successful harvest of maximum yields of high-quality hay is entirely dependent on the coincident occurrence of optimum crop, field, and weather conditions. When this occurs, there may be a period of activity on the hay farm while harvest proceeds until weather conditions become unfavourable. Hay or grass is the foundation of the diet for all grazing animals, Hay is usually fed to an animal in place of allowing the animal to graze on grasses in a pasture, particularly in the winter or during times when drought or other conditions make pasture unavailable. Animals that can eat hay vary in the types of grasses suitable for consumption, the ways they consume hay, most animals are fed hay in two daily feedings, morning and evening. However, this schedule is more for the convenience of humans, some animals, especially those being raised for meat, may be given enough hay that they simply are able to eat all day. The proper amount of hay and the type of hay required varies somewhat between different species, some animals are also fed concentrated feeds such as grain or vitamin supplements in addition to hay
16.
Waste
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Waste and wastes are unwanted or unusable materials. Waste is any substance which is discarded after use, or it is worthless, defective. Examples include municipal solid waste, hazardous waste, wastewater, radioactive waste, according to the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal of 1989, Art. 2, Wastes are substance or objects, which are disposed of or are intended to be disposed of or are required to be disposed of by the provisions of national law. Wastes may be generated during the extraction of raw materials, the processing of raw materials into intermediate and final products, the consumption of final products, residuals recycled or reused at the place of generation are excluded. Under the Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC, Art,3, the European Union defines waste as an object the holder discards, intends to discard or is required to discard. For a more structural description of the Waste Directive, see the European Commissions summary and it is most commonly measured by size or weight, and there is a stark difference between the two. For example, organic waste is much heavier when it is wet, on a global scale it is difficult to report waste because countries have different definitions of waste and what falls into waste categories, as well as different ways of reporting. Based on incomplete reports from its parties, the Basel Convention estimated 338 million tonnes of waste was generated in 2001, for the same year, OECD estimated 4 billion tonnes from its member countries. Toxic waste materials can contaminate surface water, groundwater, soil, and air which causes problems for humans, other species. Waste treatment and disposal produces significant green house gas emissions, notably methane, Waste management is a significant environmental justice issue. Many of the environmental burdens cited above are often borne by marginalized groups, such as racial minorities, women. NIMBY is the opposition of residents to a proposal for a new development because it is close to them, however, the need for expansion and siting of waste treatment and disposal facilities is increasing worldwide. Environmental policies such as pay as you throw can reduce the cost of management, Waste recovery can curb economic costs because it avoids extracting raw materials and often cuts transportation costs. Economic assessment of municipal waste management systems – case studies using a combination of life-cycle assessment, the location of waste treatment and disposal facilities often reduces property values due to noise, dust, pollution, unsightliness, and negative stigma. The informal waste sector consists mostly of waste pickers who scavenge for metals, glass, plastic, textiles, and other materials and then trade them for a profit. This sector can significantly alter or reduce waste in a system, but other negative economic effects come with the disease, poverty, exploitation. Resource recovery is the retrieval of recyclable waste, which was intended for disposal and it is the processing of recyclables to extract or recover materials and resources, or convert to energy
17.
Sand
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Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles. It is defined by size, being finer than gravel and coarser than silt, Sand can also refer to a textural class of soil or soil type, i. e. a soil containing more than 85% sand-sized particles by mass. The second most common type of sand is calcium carbonate, for example aragonite, for example, it is the primary form of sand apparent in areas where reefs have dominated the ecosystem for millions of years like the Caribbean. Sand is a non renewable resource over human timescales, and sand suitable for making concrete is in high demand, in terms of particle size as used by geologists, sand particles range in diameter from 0.0625 mm to 2 mm. An individual particle in this size is termed a sand grain. Sand grains are between gravel and silt, a 1953 engineering standard published by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials set the minimum sand size at 0.074 mm. A1938 specification of the United States Department of Agriculture was 0.05 mm. Sand feels gritty when rubbed between the fingers. ISO14688 grades sands as fine, medium and coarse with ranges 0.063 mm to 0.2 mm to 0.63 mm to 2.0 mm. In the United States, sand is commonly divided into five sub-categories based on size, very fine sand, fine sand, medium sand, coarse sand, and very coarse sand. These sizes are based on the Krumbein phi scale, where size in Φ = -log2D, on this scale, for sand the value of Φ varies from −1 to +4, with the divisions between sub-categories at whole numbers. The composition of sand is highly variable, depending on the local rock sources. The gypsum sand dunes of the White Sands National Monument in New Mexico are famous for their bright, arkose is a sand or sandstone with considerable feldspar content, derived from weathering and erosion of a granitic rock outcrop. Some sands contain magnetite, chlorite, glauconite or gypsum, Sands rich in magnetite are dark to black in color, as are sands derived from volcanic basalts and obsidian. Chlorite-glauconite bearing sands are typically green in color, as are sands derived from basaltic with a high olivine content, many sands, especially those found extensively in Southern Europe, have iron impurities within the quartz crystals of the sand, giving a deep yellow color. Sand deposits in some areas contain garnets and other resistant minerals, the study of individual grains can reveal much historical information as to the origin and kind of transport of the grain. Quartz sand that is weathered from granite or gneiss quartz crystals will be angular. It is called grus in geology or sharp sand in the trade where it is preferred for concrete. Sand that is transported long distances by water or wind will be rounded, people who collect sand as a hobby are known as arenophiles
18.
Coal
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Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. Coal is composed primarily of carbon, along with quantities of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen. A fossil fuel, coal forms when plant matter is converted into peat, which in turn is converted into lignite, then sub-bituminous coal, after that bituminous coal. This involves biological and geological processes that take place over time, throughout history, coal has been used as an energy resource, primarily burned for the production of electricity and heat, and is also used for industrial purposes, such as refining metals. Coal is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide, the extraction of coal, its use in energy production and its byproducts are all associated with environmental and health effects including climate change. Coal is extracted from the ground by coal mining, since 1983, the worlds top coal producer has been China. In 2015 China produced 3,747 million tonnes of coal –47. 7% of 7,861 million tonnes world coal production, in 2015 other large producers were United States, India, European Union and Australia. The word originally took the col in Old English, from Proto-Germanic *kula. In Old Turkic languages, kül is ash, cinders, öčür is quench, the compound charcoal in Turkic is öčür kül, literally quenched ashes, cinders, coals with elided anlaut ö- and inflection affixes -ülmüş. At various times in the geologic past, the Earth had dense forests in low-lying wetland areas, due to natural processes such as flooding, these forests were buried underneath soil. As more and more soil deposited over them, they were compressed, the temperature also rose as they sank deeper and deeper. As the process continued the plant matter was protected from biodegradation and oxidation and this trapped the carbon in immense peat bogs that were eventually covered and deeply buried by sediments. Under high pressure and high temperature, dead vegetation was slowly converted to coal, as coal contains mainly carbon, the conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called carbonization. The wide, shallow seas of the Carboniferous Period provided ideal conditions for coal formation, the exception is the coal gap in the Permian–Triassic extinction event, where coal is rare. Coal is known from Precambrian strata, which predate land plants — this coal is presumed to have originated from residues of algae, in its dehydrated form, peat is a highly effective absorbent for fuel and oil spills on land and water. It is also used as a conditioner for soil to make it able to retain. Lignite, or brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal, jet, a compact form of lignite, is sometimes polished and has been used as an ornamental stone since the Upper Palaeolithic
19.
Cereal
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A cereal is any grass cultivated for the edible components of its grain, composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran. Cereal grains are grown in quantities and provide more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop and are therefore staple crops. Edible grains from plant families, such as buckwheat, quinoa. In their natural form, cereals are a source of vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, oils. When refined by the removal of the bran and germ, the endosperm is mostly carbohydrate. In some developing nations, grain in the form of rice, wheat, millet, in developed nations, cereal consumption is moderate and varied but still substantial. The word cereal is derived from Ceres, the Roman goddess of harvest, agriculture allowed for the support of an increased population, leading to larger societies and eventually the development of cities. It also created the need for organization of political power, as decisions had to be made regarding labor and harvest allocation and access rights to water. Agriculture bred immobility, as populations settled down for long periods of time, early Neolithic villages show evidence of the development of processing grain. The Levant is the ancient home of the ancestors of wheat, barley and peas, there is evidence of the cultivation of figs in the Jordan Valley as long as 11,300 years ago, and cereal production in Syria approximately 9,000 years ago. During the same period, farmers in China began to farm rice and millet, using man-made floods, fiber crops were domesticated as early as food crops, with China domesticating hemp, cotton being developed independently in Africa and South America, and Western Asia domesticating flax. The first cereal grains were domesticated by early primitive humans, about 8,000 years ago, they were domesticated by ancient farming communities in the Fertile Crescent region. Emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, and barley were three of the so-called Neolithic founder crops in the development of agriculture, around the same time, millets and rices were starting to become domesticated in East Asia. Sorghum and millets were also being domesticated in sub-Saharan West Africa, while each individual species has its own peculiarities, the cultivation of all cereal crops is similar. Most are annual plants, consequently one planting yields one harvest, wheat, rye, triticale, oats, barley, and spelt are the cool-season cereals. These are hardy plants grow well in moderate weather and cease to grow in hot weather. The warm-season cereals are tender and prefer hot weather, barley and rye are the hardiest cereals, able to overwinter in the subarctic and Siberia. Many cool-season cereals are grown in the tropics, however, some are only grown in cooler highlands, where it may be possible to grow multiple crops per year
20.
Gunpowder
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Gunpowder, also known as black powder, is the earliest known chemical explosive. It is a mixture of sulfur, charcoal, and potassium nitrate, the sulfur and charcoal act as fuels, and the saltpeter is an oxidizer. Black powder firearms are in limited use today in hunting, shooting, Black powder has been replaced for most industrial uses by high explosives such as dynamite. Black powder is assigned the UN number UN0027 and has a class of 1. 1D. It has a point of approximately 427–464 °C. The specific flash point may vary based on the composition of the gunpowder. Gunpowders specific gravity is 1. 70–1.82 or 1. 92–2.08, Gunpowder is classified as a low explosive because of its relatively slow decomposition rate and consequently low brisance. Low explosives deflagrate at subsonic speeds, whereas high explosives detonate, ignition of the powder packed behind a bullet must generate enough pressure to force it from the muzzle at high speed, but not enough to rupture the gun barrel. Gunpowder thus makes a good propellant, but is suitable for shattering rock or fortifications. Gunpowder was widely used to fill artillery shells and in mining and civil engineering to blast rock until the half of the 19th century. Black powder is used as a delay element in various munitions where its slow-burning properties are valuable. The spread of gunpowder across Asia from China is widely attributed to the Mongols, the earliest record of a written formula for gunpowder appears in the 11th century Song dynasty text, Wujing Zongyao. This discovery led to the invention of fireworks and the earliest gunpowder weapons in China, in the centuries following the Chinese discovery, gunpowder weapons began appearing in the Muslim world and Europe. The technology spread from China through the Middle East or Central Asia, the earliest Western accounts of gunpowder appear in texts written by English philosopher Roger Bacon in the 13th century. The most ardent protagonists were Nathaniel Halhad, Johann Backmann, Quintin Craufurd, however, due to lack of sufficient proof, these theories have not been widely accepted. A major problem confronting the study of the history of gunpowder is ready access to sources close to the events described. The translation difficulty has led to errors or loose interpretations bordering on artistic licence, early writings potentially mentioning gunpowder are sometimes marked by a linguistic process where old words acquired new meanings. For instance, the Arabic word naft transitioned from denoting naphtha to denoting gunpowder, saltpeter was known to the Chinese by the mid-1st century AD and there is strong evidence of the use of saltpeter and sulfur in various largely medicinal combinations
21.
River Medway
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The River Medway is a river in South East England. It rises in the High Weald, Sussex, and flows through Tonbridge, Maidstone and the Medway conurbation in Kent before emptying into the Thames Estuary near Sheerness, about 13 miles of the river lies in Sussex, with the remainder being in Kent. It has a catchment area of 930 square miles, the second largest in southern England after the Thames, the map opposite shows only the major tributaries, a more detailed map shows the extensive network of smaller streams feeding into the main river. Those tributaries rise from points along the North Downs, the Weald, the major tributaries are, River Eden River Bourne, known as the River Shode and River Busty River Teise, major sub tributary River Bewl. The river and its tributaries flow through largely rural areas, Tonbridge, Maidstone, until 1746 the river was not navigable above Maidstone. Up to that point each village on the river had its wharf or wharves, at Halling, Snodland, New Hythe, cargoes included corn, fodder, fruit, stone and timber. In 1746 improvements to the channel meant that barges of 40 long tons could reach East Farleigh, Yalding, in 1828, the channel was further improved up to Leigh. There are eleven locks on the river, the lowest, opened in 1792, is at Allington, and is the tidal limit. The others are at East Farleigh, Teston, Hampstead Lane, Stoneham Old Lock, Sluice Weir Lock, Oak Weir Lock, East Lock, Porters, Eldridges and Town Lock in Tonbridge. The locks will take craft up to 80 feet by 18 feet, the shallowest point is just below Sluice Weir Lock, which is prone to silting after heavy rain. Small craft such as canoes can travel as far as Penshurst. The stretch from Leigh to Allington is known as the Medway Navigation, the Environment Agency is the navigation authority. Until recently the lowest crossing of the Medway was at Rochester, in the 14th century the Wardens and Commonalty of Rochester Bridge were instituted by Sir John de Cobham to pay for the rebuilding and upkeep of the bridge. Until 1963 the nearest crossing to Rochester Bridge was the 14th-century bridge at Aylesford,12 miles upstream, since then the following additional crossings have come into use,1963, A viaduct over the river was built south of Rochester to carry the first section of the M2 motorway. In 2003 this was widened to two separate spans, between 1963 and 1996 the M20 was built, with a bridge over the Medway south of Aylesford. 1996, The Medway Tunnel became the rivers lowest crossing, connecting Gillingham to Strood, the four-lane tunnel was constructed using the immersed tube method, and was partially paid for by Rochester Bridge Trust, the successor to the Wardens and Commonalty. 2003, A railway bridge 0.8 miles long, with a span of 498 feet, was constructed for High Speed 1. The railway bridge lies parallel to the M2 motorway bridges,2017, A new road bridge from the A228 between Holborough and Halling across to Hall Road, Wouldham, to facilitate the development of Peters Village
22.
America's Cup
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The Americas Cup, affectionately known as the Auld Mug, is a trophy awarded to the winner of the Americas Cup match races between two sailing yachts. The timing of each match is determined by an agreement between the defender and the challenger, the Americas Cup is the oldest international sporting trophy. The ewer was originally awarded in 1851 by the Royal Yacht Squadron for a race around the Isle of Wight in England, any yacht club that meets the requirements specified in the deed of gift has the right to challenge the yacht club that holds the cup. If the challenging club wins the match, it gains stewardship of the cup, the history and prestige associated with the Americas Cup attracts not only the worlds top sailors and yacht designers but also the involvement of wealthy entrepreneurs and sponsors. It is a test not only of sailing skill and boat and sail design, from the first defense of the cup in 1870 through the twentieth defense in 1967, there was always only one challenger. Since 1983, Louis Vuitton has sponsored the Louis Vuitton Cup as a prize for the winner of the challenger selection series, early matches for the cup were raced between yachts 65–90 ft on the waterline owned by wealthy sportsmen. This culminated with the J-Class regattas of the 1930s, after a long legal battle, the 2010 Americas Cup was raced in 90 ft lwl multihull yachts in a best of three deed of gift match in Valencia, Spain. The victorious Golden Gate Yacht Club then elected to race the 34th Americas Cup in AC72 foiling, Golden Gate Yacht Club successfully defended the cup. The 35th Americas Cup match was announced to be sailed in 50 ft foiling catamarans, the history of the Americas Cup has included legal battles and disputes over rule changes including most recently over the rule changes for the 2017 Americas Cup. It was originally known as the R. Y. S, £100 Cup, standing for a cup of a hundred GB Pounds or sovereigns in value. The cup was subsequently mistakenly engraved as the 100 Guinea Cup by the America syndicate, today, the trophy is officially known as the Americas Cup after the 1851 winning yacht, and is affectionately called the Auld Mug by the sailing community. It is inscribed with names of the yachts that competed for it, the syndicate contracted with pilot boat designer George Steers for a 101 ft schooner, which was christened America and launched on 3 May 1851. On 22 August 1851, America raced against 15 yachts of the Royal Yacht Squadron in the Clubs annual 53-nautical-mile regatta around the Isle of Wight, America won, finishing 8 minutes ahead of the closest rival. Apocryphally, Queen Victoria, who was watching at the line, was reported to have asked who was second. No challenge to race for the Cup was issued until British railway tycoon James Lloyd Ashburys topsail schooner Cambria beat the Yankee schooner Sappho in the Solent in 1868. This success encouraged the Royal Thames Yacht Club in believing that the cup could be back home. Ashbury entered Cambria in the NYYC Queens Cup race in New York City on 8 August against a fleet of seventeen schooners, the Cambria only placed eighth, behind the aging America in fourth place and Franklin Osgoods Magic in the fleets lead. Trying again, Ashbury offered a match race challenge for October 1871
23.
Wood
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Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees, and other woody plants. It is a material, a natural composite of cellulose fibers which are strong in tension embedded in a matrix of lignin which resists compression. Wood is sometimes defined as only the secondary xylem in the stems of trees, in a living tree it performs a support function, enabling woody plants to grow large or to stand up by themselves. It also conveys water and nutrients between the leaves, other growing tissues, and the roots, Wood may also refer to other plant materials with comparable properties, and to material engineered from wood, or wood chips or fiber. In 2005, the stock of forests worldwide was about 434 billion cubic meters. As an abundant, carbon-neutral renewable resource, woody materials have been of intense interest as a source of renewable energy, in 1991 approximately 3.5 billion cubic meters of wood were harvested. Dominant uses were for furniture and building construction, a 2011 discovery in the Canadian province of New Brunswick discovered the earliest known plants to have grown wood, approximately 395 to 400 million years ago. Wood can be dated by carbon dating and in species by dendrochronology to make inferences about when a wooden object was created. People have used wood for millennia for many purposes, primarily as a fuel or as a material for making houses, tools, weapons, furniture, packaging, artworks. Constructions using wood date back ten thousand years, buildings like the European Neolithic long house were made primarily of wood. Recent use of wood has changed by the addition of steel. The year-to-year variation in tree-ring widths and isotopic abundances gives clues to the climate at that time. This process is known as growth, it is the result of cell division in the vascular cambium, a lateral meristem. These cells then go on to form thickened secondary cell walls, composed mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose, if the distinctiveness between seasons is annual, these growth rings are referred to as annual rings. Where there is little seasonal difference growth rings are likely to be indistinct or absent, if the bark of the tree has been removed in a particular area, the rings will likely be deformed as the plant overgrows the scar. It is usually lighter in color than that near the portion of the ring. The outer portion formed later in the season is known as the latewood or summerwood. However, there are differences, depending on the kind of wood
24.
Hull (watercraft)
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The hull is the watertight body of a ship or boat. Above the hull is the superstructure and/or deckhouse, where present, the line where the hull meets the water surface is called the waterline. The structure of the hull varies depending on the vessel type, the uppermost continuous deck may be called the upper deck, weather deck, spar deck, main deck, or simply deck. The particular name given depends on the type of ship or boat. In a typical wooden sailboat, the hull is constructed of wooden planking, supported by transverse frames and bulkheads, often but not always there is a centerline longitudinal member called a keel. In fiberglass or composite hulls, the structure may resemble wooden or steel vessels to some extent, in many cases, composite hulls are built by sandwiching thin fiber-reinforced skins over a lightweight but reasonably rigid core of foam, balsa wood, impregnated paper honeycomb or other material. The shape of the hull is entirely dependent upon the needs of the design, shapes range from a nearly perfect box in the case of scow barges, to a needle-sharp surface of revolution in the case of a racing multihull sailboat. Hulls come in varieties and can have composite shape, but are grouped primarily as follows. Examples are the flat-bottom, v-bottom, and multi-bottom hull and these types have at least one pronounced knuckle throughout all or most of their length. These hull shapes all have smooth curves, examples are the round bilge, semi-round bilge, and s-bottom hull. After this they can be categorized as, Displacement The hull is supported exclusively or predominantly by buoyancy, vessels that have this type of hull travel through the water at a limited rate that is defined by the waterline length. They are often, though not always, heavier than planing types, planing The planing hull form is configured to develop positive dynamic pressure so that its draft decreases with increasing speed. The dynamic lift reduces the surface and therefore also the drag. They are sometimes flat-bottomed, sometimes V-bottomed and more rarely, round-bilged, the most common form is to have at least one chine, which makes for more efficient planing and can throw spray down. Planing hulls are more efficient at speeds, although they still require more energy to achieve these speeds. An effective planing hull must be as light as possible with flat surfaces that are consistent with sea keeping. Sail boats that plane must also sail efficiently in displacement mode in light winds, semi-displacement, or semi-planing The hull form is capable of developing a moderate amount of dynamic lift, however, most of the vessels weight is still supported through buoyancy. At present, the most widely used form is the round bilge hull, in the inverted bell shape of the hull, with a smaller payload the waterline cross-section is less, hence the resistance is less and the speed is higher
25.
Steel
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Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon, that is widely used in construction and other applications because of its high tensile strength and low cost. Steels base metal is iron, which is able to take on two forms, body centered cubic and face centered cubic, depending on its temperature. It is the interaction of those allotropes with the elements, primarily carbon. In the body-centred cubic arrangement, there is an atom in the centre of each cube. Carbon, other elements, and inclusions within iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations that otherwise occur in the lattices of iron atoms. The carbon in steel alloys may contribute up to 2. 1% of its weight. Steels strength compared to pure iron is possible at the expense of irons ductility. With the invention of the Bessemer process in the mid-19th century and this was followed by Siemens-Martin process and then Gilchrist-Thomas process that refined the quality of steel. With their introductions, mild steel replaced wrought iron, further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking, largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the product. Today, steel is one of the most common materials in the world and it is a major component in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards organizations, the noun steel originates from the Proto-Germanic adjective stakhlijan, which is related to stakhla. The carbon content of steel is between 0. 002% and 2. 1% by weight for plain iron–carbon alloys and these values vary depending on alloying elements such as manganese, chromium, nickel, iron, tungsten, carbon and so on. Basically, steel is an alloy that does not undergo eutectic reaction. In contrast, cast iron does undergo eutectic reaction, too little carbon content leaves iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon contents higher than those of steel make an alloy, commonly called pig iron, while iron alloyed with carbon is called carbon steel, alloy steel is steel to which other alloying elements have been intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel. Common alloying elements include, manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, boron, titanium, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, and niobium. Additional elements are important in steel, phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, and traces of oxygen, nitrogen, and copper. Alloys with a higher than 2. 1% carbon content, depending on other element content, cast iron is not malleable even when hot, but it can be formed by casting as it has a lower melting point than steel and good castability properties
26.
Beam (nautical)
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The beam of a ship is its width at the widest point as measured at the ships nominal waterline. The beam is a bearing projected at right-angles from the fore and aft line, Beam may also be used to define the maximum width of a ships hull, or maximum width plus superstructure overhangs. Typical length-to-beam ratios for small sailboats are from 2,1 to 5,1, large ships have widely varying beam ratios, some as large as 20,1. Rowing shells designed for racing may have length to beam ratios as high as 30,1. The beam of many vessels can be calculated using the following formula. Some examples, For a standard 27 ft yacht, the root of 27 is 3,3 squared is 9 plus 1 =10. The beam of many 27 ft monohulls is 10 ft, for a Volvo Open 70 yacht,70.5 to the power of 2/3 =17 plus 1 =18. The beam is often around 18 ft, for a 741 ft long ship, the cube root is 9, and 9 squared is 81, plus 1. The beam will usually be around 82 ft, e. g. Seawaymax, as catamarans have more than one hull, there is a different beam calculation for this kind of vessel. BOC stands for Beam On Centerline and this term in typically used in conjunction with LOA. The ratio of LOA/BOC is used to estimate the stability of multihull vessels, the lower the ratio the greater the boats stability. The BOC for vessels is measured as follows, For a catamaran, carlin – similar to a beam, except running in a fore and aft direction. Keever, John M. American Merchant Seamans Manual, turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A
27.
Leeboard
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A leeboard is a lifting foil used by a sailboat, much like a centerboard, but located on the leeward side of the boat. The leeward side is used so that the leeboard is not lifted from the water when the boat heels, or leans under the force of the wind. Leeboards existed in China from at least the eighth century on warships that held the ships, so even when wind and wave arise in fury, they are neither driven sideways. Leeboards used to stabilize the junk and to improve its capability to sail upwind, are documented from a book by Li Chuan, the innovation was transmitted to Portuguese and Dutch ships around 1570. The Portuguese experimented with caulking their vessels in the Chinese manner, leeboards have been used by relatively large inshore sailing vessels used for transport since 1570, such as Dutch barges and Thames barges. For these boats, leeboards provided the advantages of shallow draught for working close inshore and they were also easier to build than a large centerboard would have been. Leeboards are no common in commercially built boats, because many people consider them inelegant. They are far more common in boats, especially the Puddle Duck Racer and stitch. Leeboards simplify construction of the hull, as they are attached to the outside and do not require holes in the hull, use of leeboards, while it adds complexity to the process of tacking, leaves the floor of the boat unobstructed. However, some small sailboat designers claim to have created seaworthy vessels with only a single, on a traditional two-leeboard design, the boards are designed so that the windward board can be retracted, to reduce drag. Unlike centerboards, which are symmetric along the axis, leeboards are often asymmetric. Some fast racing scows use bilgeboards, which are mounted between the centerline of the hull and the sides, so they can use a pair of foils for maximum lift
28.
Rigging
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According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition rigging derives from Anglo-Saxon wrigan or wringing, to clothe. The same source points out that rigging a sailing vessel refers to putting all the components in place to allow it to function, including the masts, spars, sails and the rigging. Rigging is divided into two classes, standing, which supports the mast, and running, which controls the orientation of the sails, configurations differ for each type of rigging, between fore-and-aft rigged vessels and square-rigged vessels. Standing rigging is cordage which is fixed in position, standing rigging is almost always between a mast and the deck, using tension to hold the mast firmly in place. Due to its role, standing rigging is now most commonly made of steel cable and it was historically made of the same materials as running rigging, only coated in tar for added strength and protection from the elements. Most fore-and-aft rigged vessels have the types of standing rigging, a forestay, a backstay. Less common rigging configurations are diamond stays and jumpers, both of these are used to keep a thin mast in column especially under the load of a large down wind sail or in strong wind. Rigging parts include swageless terminals, swage terminals, shackle toggle terminals, whereas 20th-Century square-rigged vessels were constructed of steel with steel standing rigging, prior vessels used wood masts with hemp-fiber standing rigging. This construction relied heavily on support by an array of stays. Each stay in either the fore-and-aft or athwartships direction had a one in the opposite direction providing counter-tension. Fore-and-aft the system of tensioning started with the stays that were anchored at in front each mast, each additional mast segment is supported fore and aft by a series of stays that led forward. These lines were countered in tension by backstays, which were secured along the sides of the vessel behind the shrouds, running rigging is the cordage used to control the shape and position of the sails. Materials have evolved from the use of Manilla rope to synthetic fibers, running rigging varies between fore-and-aft rigged vessels and square-rigged vessels. They have common functions between them for supporting, shaping and orienting sails, which different mechanisms. For supporting sails, halyards, are used to raise sails, on gaff-riged vessels, topping lifts hold the yards across the top of the sail aloft. Sail shape is controlled by lines that pull at the corners of the sail, including the downhaul at the clew. The orientation of sails to the wind is controlled primarily by sheets, but also by braces, full rigged ship Lateen rig Shipbuilding Superstructure Harland, John. Seamanship in the Age of Sail, the Masting and Rigging of English Ships of War, 1625–1860
29.
Mast (sailing)
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The mast of a sailing vessel is a tall spar, or arrangement of spars, erected more or less vertically on the centre-line of a ship or boat. Its purposes include carrying sail, spars, and derricks, and giving necessary height to a light, look-out position, signal yard, control position. Large ships have several masts, with the size and configuration depending on the style of ship, nearly all sailing masts are guyed. Until the mid-19th century all vessels masts were made of wood formed from a single or several pieces of timber which typically consisted of the trunk of a conifer tree. From the 16th century, vessels were built of a size requiring masts taller and thicker than could be made from single tree trunks. On these larger vessels, to achieve the height, the masts were built from up to four sections, known in order of rising height above the decks as the lower, top, topgallant. Giving the lower sections sufficient thickness necessitated building them up separate pieces of wood. Such a section was known as a made mast, as opposed to sections formed from pieces of timber. Jigger-mast, typically, where it is the shortest, the aftmost mast on vessels with more than three masts. On a two-masted vessel with the main-mast forward and a smaller second mast, such as a ketch, or particularly a yawl. Although two-masted schooners may be provided with masts of identical size, the aftmost is still referred to as the main-mast, schooners have been built with up to seven masts in all, with several six-masted examples. On square-rigged vessels, each mast carries several horizontal yards from which the sails are rigged. A two-masted merchant vessel with a sizable foresail rigged on a slightly inclined foremast is depicted in an Etruscan tomb painting from 475–450 BC. While most of the ancient evidence is iconographic, the existence of foremasts can also be deduced archaeologically from slots in foremast-feets located too close to the prow for a mainsail. Artemon, along with mainsail and topsail, developed into the rig of seagoing vessels in imperial times. The imperial grain freighters travelling the routes between Alexandria and Rome also included three-masted vessels, a mosaic in Ostia depicts a freighter with a three-masted rig entering Romes harbour. Special craft could carry many more masts, Theophrastus records how the Romans imported Corsican timber by way of a raft propelled by as many as fifty masts. Throughout antiquity, both foresail and mizzen remained secondary in terms of size, although large enough to require full running rigging
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Flax
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Flax, Linum usitatissimum, is a member of the genus Linum in the family Linaceae. It is a food and fiber crop cultivated in regions of the world. The textiles made from flax are known in the Western countries as linen, and traditionally used for bed sheets, underclothes, the oil is known as linseed oil. In addition to referring to the plant itself, the word flax may refer to the fibers of the flax plant. The plant species is only as a cultivated plant, and appears to have been domesticated just once from the wild species Linum bienne. Several other species in the genus Linum are similar in appearance to L. usitatissimum, cultivated flax, including some that have similar blue flowers, some of these are perennial plants, unlike L. usitatissimum, which is an annual plant. Cultivated flax plants grow to 1.2 m tall, with slender stems, the leaves are glaucous green, slender lanceolate, 20–40 mm long, and 3 mm broad. The flowers are pale blue, 15–25 mm in diameter. The fruit is a round, dry capsule 5–9 mm in diameter, containing several brown seeds shaped like an apple pip. Flax was first domesticated in the Fertile Crescent region, evidence exists of a domesticated oilseed flax with increased seed size by 9,000 years ago from Tell Ramad in Syria. Use of the crop steadily spread, reaching as far as Switzerland, in China and India, domesticated flax was cultivated also by at least 5,000 years ago. Flax was extensively cultivated in ancient Egypt, where the walls had paintings of flowering flax. Egyptian priests only wore linen, as flax was considered a symbol of purity, phoenicians traded Egyptian linen throughout the Mediterranean, and the Romans used it for their sails. Eventually, Flanders became the center of the linen industry in the European Middle Ages. Since then, flax has lost its importance as a commercial crop, Flax is grown for its oil, used as a nutritional supplement, and as an ingredient in many wood-finishing products. Flax is also grown as a plant in gardens. Flax fibers are used to make linen, the Latin species name usitatissimum means most useful. Flax fibers are taken from the stem of the plant, and are two to three times as strong as those of cotton, additionally, flax fibers are naturally smooth and straight
31.
Ultra-violet
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Ultraviolet is an electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength from 10 nm to 400 nm, shorter than that of visible light but longer than X-rays. UV radiation constitutes about 10% of the light output of the Sun. It is also produced by electric arcs and specialized lights, such as lamps, tanning lamps. Consequently, the effects of UV are greater than simple heating effects. Suntan, freckling and sunburn are familiar effects of over-exposure, along with risk of skin cancer. Living things on dry land would be damaged by ultraviolet radiation from the Sun if most of it were not filtered out by the Earths atmosphere. More-energetic, shorter-wavelength extreme UV below 121 nm ionizes air so strongly that it is absorbed before it reaches the ground, Ultraviolet is also responsible for the formation of bone-strengthening vitamin D in most land vertebrates, including humans. The UV spectrum thus has both beneficial and harmful to human health. Ultraviolet rays are invisible to most humans, the lens in a human eye ordinarily filters out UVB frequencies or higher, and humans lack color receptor adaptations for ultraviolet rays. Under some conditions, children and young adults can see ultraviolet down to wavelengths of about 310 nm, near-UV radiation is visible to some insects, mammals, and birds. Small birds have a fourth color receptor for ultraviolet rays, this gives birds true UV vision, reindeer use near-UV radiation to see polar bears, who are poorly visible in regular light because they blend in with the snow. UV also allows mammals to see urine trails, which is helpful for animals to find food in the wild. The males and females of some species look identical to the human eye. Ultraviolet means beyond violet, violet being the color of the highest frequencies of visible light, Ultraviolet has a higher frequency than violet light. He called them oxidizing rays to emphasize chemical reactivity and to them from heat rays. The terms chemical and heat rays were eventually dropped in favour of ultraviolet and infrared radiation, in 1878 the effect of short-wavelength light on sterilizing bacteria was discovered. By 1903 it was known the most effective wavelengths were around 250 nm, in 1960, the effect of ultraviolet radiation on DNA was established. The discovery of the ultraviolet radiation below 200 nm, named vacuum ultraviolet because it is absorbed by air, was made in 1893 by the German physicist Victor Schumann
32.
Carbon black
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Carbon black is a material produced by the incomplete combustion of heavy petroleum products such as FCC tar, coal tar, ethylene cracking tar, and a small amount from vegetable oil. Carbon black is a form of carbon that has a high surface-area-to-volume ratio. It is dissimilar to soot in its much higher surface-area-to-volume ratio, however, carbon black is widely used as a model compound for diesel soot for diesel oxidation experiments. Carbon black is used as a reinforcing filler in tires. In plastics, paints, and inks carbon black is used as a color pigment, the current International Agency for Research on Cancer evaluation is that, Carbon black is possibly carcinogenic to humans. Short-term exposure to concentrations of carbon black dust may produce discomfort to the upper respiratory tract. Total production was around 8,100,000 metric tons in 2006, the most common use of carbon black is as a pigment and reinforcing phase in automobile tires. Carbon black also helps conduct heat away from the tread and belt area of the tire, reducing thermal damage, the high tinting strength and stability of carbon black has also provided use in coloring of resins and films. About 20% of world production goes into belts, hoses, the balance is mainly used as a pigment in inks, coatings and plastics. For example, it is added to polypropylene because it absorbs ultraviolet radiation, Carbon black from vegetable origin is used as a food coloring, in Europe known as additive E153. It is approved for use as additive 153 in Australia and New Zealand but has been banned in the US, Carbon black has been used in various applications for electronics. As a good conductor of electricity, carbon black is used as a mixed in plastics, elastomer, films, adhesives. Application of carbon black as an agent has provided uses as an additive for fuel caps. Additionally, the color pigment carbon black has been used in food. It is used in multi-layer UHT milk bottles in the US, parts of Europe and Asia, and South Africa, the Canadian Government’s assessment in 2011 concluded that carbon black should continue to be used in products – including food packaging for consumers – in Canada. The highest volume use of black is as a reinforcing filler in rubber products. It is used often in the Aerospace industry in elastomers for aircraft vibration control components such as engine mounts, practically all rubber products where tensile and abrasion wear properties are crucial use carbon black, so they are black in color. Traditionally silica fillers had worse abrasion wear properties, but the technology has improved to a point where they can match carbon black abrasion performance
33.
Norfolk wherry
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The Norfolk wherry is a type of boat used on The Broads in Norfolk and Suffolk, England. Three main types were developed over its life, all featuring the distinctive gaff rig with a single, high-peaked sail, wherries were sail and oar craft dating to 1604. These were small craft, in 1727 being of 8 tons burthen and they were still sail and oar boats, fitted with hoops and canvas tilts for the comfort of their passengers. They would have provided a service carrying passengers and small perishable cargoes, the keel had been built since the Middle Ages and the design probably went back to the Viking invasion. After 1800, the Norfolk Keel disappeared, partly because a wherry could be sailed with fewer crew, the Trading Wherry developed from the Keel. It is double-ended, its painted black with a white nose to aid visibility after dusk. Most trading wherries were clinker-built, but Albion, surviving today, was the example to be carvel-built. They carry a gaff rig, the sail historically also black from being treated with a mixture of tar, the mast tops and wind vanes were often painted or shaped to identify the wherrys owner - a traditional design is a Jenny Morgan, after a folk song character. Sizes varied, but many of these vessels would carry around 25 tons of goods, wherries were able to reach larger boats just off the coast at Great Yarmouth or Lowestoft and take their cargoes off to be transported inland through the broads and rivers. The last trading wherry, Ella, was built in 1912, the Pleasure Wherry evolved as railways took on the cargo business that had supported the traders. Some were fitted out to a high standard indeed, for example, Hathor, built for the Colman family. For some holidaymakers, the distinction between the boats and pleasure wherries was not strong enough, and the sleeker and more genteel Wherry Yacht was developed. The main distinguishing features are a smooth, white yacht-like hull, wherries came in different sizes, according to the river they used. The North Walsham & Dilham Canal Wherry was maximum 50 ft x 12 ft x 36, the River Ant Wherry was 50 x 12 max. The River Bure Wherry was 54 x 128, but for the Aylsham Navigation, i. e. the upper reaches of the Bure, on the southern Broads, steam wherries were used. The River Waveney Wherry was 70 x 16 max, the mast is pivoted with a large counterbalance weight at the bottom. This enables the wherry to lower the mast for passing under bridges, the mast can be dropped, the wherry continues forward under its momentum and the mast is raised again on the far side by the crew of two. If there is no wind, or the wherry must be turned or otherwise manoeuvred, a special wherry wheelbarrow was used to unload cargo, e. g. stone, from the wherries
34.
Knot (unit)
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The knot is a unit of speed equal to one nautical mile per hour, approximately 1.151 mph. The ISO Standard symbol for the knot is kn, the same symbol is preferred by the IEEE, kt is also common. The knot is a unit that is accepted for use with the SI. Etymologically, the term derives from counting the number of knots in the line that unspooled from the reel of a log in a specific time. 1 international knot =1 nautical mile per hour,1.852 kilometres per hour,0.514 metres per second,1.151 miles per hour,20.254 inches per second,1852 m is the length of the internationally agreed nautical mile. The US adopted the definition in 1954, having previously used the US nautical mile. The UK adopted the international nautical mile definition in 1970, having used the UK Admiralty nautical mile. The speeds of vessels relative to the fluids in which they travel are measured in knots, for consistency, the speeds of navigational fluids are also measured in knots. Thus, speed over the ground and rate of progress towards a distant point are given in knots. Until the mid-19th century, vessel speed at sea was measured using a chip log, the chip log was cast over the stern of the moving vessel and the line allowed to pay out. Knots placed at a distance of 8 fathoms -47 feet 3 inches from each other, passed through a sailors fingers, the knot count would be reported and used in the sailing masters dead reckoning and navigation. This method gives a value for the knot of 20.25 in/s, the difference from the modern definition is less than 0. 02%. On a chart of the North Atlantic, the scale varies by a factor of two from Florida to Greenland, a single graphic scale, of the sort on many maps, would therefore be useless on such a chart. Recent British Admiralty charts have a latitude scale down the middle to make this even easier, speed is sometimes incorrectly expressed as knots per hour, which is in fact a measure of acceleration. Prior to 1969, airworthiness standards for aircraft in the United States Federal Aviation Regulations specified that distances were to be in statute miles. In 1969, these standards were amended to specify that distances were to be in nautical miles. At 11000 m, an airspeed of 300 kn may correspond to a true airspeed of 500 kn in standard conditions. Beaufort scale Hull speed, which deals with theoretical estimates of maximum speed of displacement hulls Knot count Knotted cord Metre per second Orders of magnitude Rope Kemp
35.
Chelsea Waterworks Company
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The company was established for the better supplying the City and Liberties of Westminster and parts adjacent with water and received a Royal Charter on 8 March 1723. The company created extensive ponds in the area bordering Chelsea and Pimlico using water from the tidal Thames and these were to form the basis of the Grosvenor Canal which was opened to traffic in 1825. The Metropolis Water Act of 1852 prohibited the extraction of water for household purposes from the River Thames below Teddington Lock, the company moved to Seething Wells above the lock at Surbiton in 1856 becoming the last water company to move their inlets above the polluted tidal water zone. The site was adjacent to the Lambeth Waterworks Company, who had moved there. The vacated site at Pimlico was used by the companies to build lines into west London and London Victoria Station was built on the site of much of the Grosvenor Canal basin. The inlets at Seething Wells sucked up too much mud with the water because of turbulence caused by the River Mole, River Ember, both companies were incorporated into the Metropolitan Water Board in 1902
36.
Sailing ballast
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Ballast is used in sailboats to provide moment to resist the lateral forces on the sail. Insufficiently ballasted boats will tend to tip, or heel, excessively in high winds, too much heel may result in the boat capsizing. If a sailing vessel should need to voyage without cargo then ballast of little or no value would be loaded to keep the vessel upright, some or all of this ballast would then be discarded when cargo was loaded. The simplest form of ballast used in small day sailers is so-called live ballast, by sitting on the windward side of the hull, the heeling moment must lift the weight of the crew. On larger modern vessels, the keel is made of or filled with a high density material, such as concrete, iron, by placing the weight as low as possible the maximum righting moment can be extracted from the given mass. Traditional forms of ballast carried inside the hull were stones or sand, there are disadvantages to using high-density ballast. The first is the mass of the boat, a heavier boat sits lower in the water, increasing drag when it moves. A heavier boat is more difficult to put on a trailer. Secondly, since the ballast needs to be as low as possible, it is placed into a centerboard or retracting keel. The simplest solution is to use a fixed ballasted keel, but that makes the boat nearly incapable of sailing in shallow water. While prohibited by most class racing rules, some cutting-edge boats use a bulb of ballast on a long and this lets the ballast be placed on the windward side, providing a far greater righting moment with a lower angle of heel. A common type of ballast for small boats that avoids many of the problems of high-density ballast is water ballast, while it seems counter-intuitive that placing water in the hull would add any stability, adding water ballast below the vertical center of gravity increases stability. The water ballast does not need to be lifted above the waterline to affect stability and it is the relationship between centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy that dictates the righting moment. The advantage of water ballast is that the tanks can be emptied, reducing draft or the weight of the boat and water added back in after the boat is launched or cargo unloaded. Pumps can also be used to empty the leeward ballast tank and fill the tank as the boat tacks. On empty cargo vessels water is added to ballast tanks to increase propeller immersion, to improve steering, a disadvantage of water ballast is that water is not very dense and therefore the tanks required take up more space than other forms of ballast. Some manufacturers offer flexible ballast bags that are mounted outboard of the hull on both sides, and pumps that use the speed through the water for power. When under way, the pump can be used to fill the windward side and this system, while not very attractive, does allow significant gains in righting force with no modifications to the hull
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Sloop
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A sloop is a sailing boat with a single mast and a fore-and-aft rig. A sloop has only one head-sail, if a vessel has two or more head-sails, the cutter is used, and its mast may be set further aft than on a sloop. The most common rig of modern sailboats is the Bermuda-rigged sloop, typically, a modern sloop carries a mainsail on a boom aft of the mast, with a single loose-footed head-sail forward of the mast. Sloops are either masthead-rigged or fractional-rigged, on a masthead-rigged sloop, the forestay attaches at the top of the mast. The mainsail may be smaller than the headsail, which is called a genoa jib. On a fractional-rigged sloop, the forestay attaches to the mast at a point below the top, typically 3/4 of the way to top, or perhaps 7/8 or some other fraction. The mast of a fractional-rigged sloop may be placed forward, compared to a masthead-rigged sloop. After the cat rig, which has only a mainsail, the rig is one of the simpler sailing rig configurations. A sloop typically has two sails, a mainsail and a headsail, while the cutter has a mainsail and two or more headsails, next in complexity are the ketch, the yawl and the schooner, each of which has two masts and a minimum of three sails. A sloop has a system of mast rigging — a forestay. By having only two sails, the sails of a sloop are larger than those of an equivalent cutter. Until the advent of lightweight sailcloth and modern sail-handling systems, the sails of a sloop could be a handful. So, until the 1950s, sailboats over 10 metres Length Over All would typically use a rig or a two-mast rig. After the advent of modern winches and light sailcloth, the became the dominant sailing rig type for all. No rig type is perfect for all conditions, sloops, with their paucity of spars and control lines tend to impart less aerodynamic drag. Compared to other rigs, sloops tend to very well when sailing close hauled to windward. Cutters, ketches and yawls are often preferred to sloops when venturing far offshore, because it is easier to reef small sails as the wind increases, while still keeping the boat balanced. To maximize the amount of sail carried, the classic sloop may use a bowsprit, for downwind sailing, the typical foresail may be replaced by larger curved sails known as spinnakers or gennakers
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Ketch
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A ketch is a sailing craft with two masts. The distinguishing characteristic of a ketch is that the forward of the two masts is larger than the after mast, historically the ketch was a square-rigged vessel, most commonly used as a freighter or fishing boat in northern Europe, particularly in the Baltic and North seas. In modern usage, the ketch is a rigged vessel used as a yacht or pleasure craft. To assist going to windward, a ketch may carry one or more jibs or foresails, if a ketch has no jibs, it is called a cat ketch or a periauger. On older, larger ketches the main mast may in addition one or more square rigged topsails. The large fore-and-aft sail on the mainmast is the mainsail, while the sail on the mizzen mast is the mizzen and these sails may be any type of fore-and-aft sail, in any combination. Most modern ketches are Bermuda rigged, but other possible rigs on a ketch include gunter rigs, the Scots Zulu, for example, had a dipping lug main with a standing lug mizzen. In northern Europe and among long distance cruisers, the ketch is often preferred to a sloop, since the additional sail allows a balance. An advantage of the ketch is when sudden increases in wind strength require a rapid reefing, the ketch rig also allows sailing only on the mizzen and jib, without introducing excessive lee helm, and in an emergency can be quite well steered without use of the rudder. When running before the wind or reaching across the wind, a ketch may set extra sails such as a spinnaker on the main mast, and a spinnaker or mizzen staysail on the mizzen mast. Another advantage of a ketch is at anchor, where the sail may be used to hold the boat steady in the wind. The square-rigged ketch was largely supplanted by the brig, which differs from the ketch by having a forward mast smaller than the after mast, and by the hoy, other similar craft include the snow and the pink. But the balance of sail area can be an overriding characteristic, if 20% or more of the sail area is in the mizzen sail the rig would be termed a ketch. This is particularly true on center cockpit yachts, compared to a ketch, a similar size yawls mizzen sail is much smaller than the main, because of the limitations of the mizzen sheet. So on a ketch, the purpose of the mizzen sail is to both propel and balance the vessel, while on a yawl, the smaller mizzen mainly serves the purpose of trim or balance. Yawls tend to have mainsails almost as large as those of comparable sloops, a ketch may be distinguished from a cutter or a sloop by virtue of having two masts rather than one, though a ketch with two foresails is sometimes called a cutter-rigged ketch. Both the ketch and the yawl differ from the two-masted schooner, if a vessel has two masts of approximately the same height, the rig with the larger sail forward is called a ketch, while the rig with the larger sail aft is a schooner. The American two-masted schooner is rare in Europe, where the rig is preferred
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SB Cambria
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SB Cambria is a preserved spritsail barge used for sail training. She is owned and operated by the Cambria Trust, a charity under English law. Cambria is a sister to the spritsail SB Hibernia which was lost off the coast of Norfolk on the evening of 9/10 November 1937, william built Cambria for £1895, whilst her sister barge cost £1905. She was also faster than Hibernia and it came second in the coasting class in the Thames. Brusher Milton was her first skipper and he recounted one event, when she arrived in Dover, an hour ahead of a steamer which she had overtaken on her way up the Channel from the Solent. We were doing nine knots, quoted on the steamer, and she was the last Thames sailing barge, to trade entirely under sail, and was owned by Captain A. W. Roberts. Roberts sailed the Cambria for more than twenty years, and gained a reputation for hard sailing and fast passages in other Everard barges. Cambrias last mate was Dick Durham from Leigh-on-Sea, Essex, with whom Bob carried the last freight under sail alone,100 tons of cattle cake from Tilbury Dock to Ipswich in October 1970, Dick wrote Bob Roberts biography, The Last Sailorman. Bob Roberts sold Cambria to the Maritime Trust in 1971, for display at St Katharine Docks in London, but she was not looked after very well and in 1987, the Maritime Trust was disbanded. It was agreed that the barge was moved to the Dolphin Sailing Barge Museum at Sittingbourne, on 6 September 2007, Cambria came to Standard Quay in Faversham for restoration and rebuilding after the Barge Museum was damaged in a fire. Her funded restoration cost a £1.4 million with help from the National Lottery and she was re-launched into the Faversham Creek on 23 March 2011. She then underwent sea trials and then re-fitting to prepare her for use in supporting local schools and she won the coasting class in the 2011 Thames sailing barge match. In 2012, the 82nd Thames Sailing Barge Match took place, Cambria won again and Edith May came fifth, behind Thalatta, Lady of the Lea and Pudge. Prizes were presented by Richard Horlock and special guest Griff Rhys Jones, in 2013 another Thames Barge Match took place. Cambria came 1st in the Coasting class, Thames Barge Cambria Trust site Cambria under restoration photo site The Barge Blog archive about Cambria Documentary about the Cambria narrated by Captain Bob Roberts
40.
Leigh-on-Sea
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Leigh-on-Sea, also referred to as Leigh, is a town and civil parish in Essex, England. A district of Southend-on-Sea, with its own council, it is currently the only civil parish within the borough. Leigh-on-Sea is situated on the side of the Thames Estuary, only a few miles from the open waters of the North Sea to the east. The coastal environs of the feature a nature reserve at Two Tree Island. At low tide, Leighs foreshore has an expanse of mud flats and creeks. Leigh is approximately 40 miles from central London via road and rail networks and is considered part of the London commuter belt, archaeological finds of pottery and coins from the Romano-British era in the locality suggest early settlement. From at least the Saxon period a hilltop clearing amidst the woodland that covered much of the area of Essex came to be known as Leigh. A place of economic importance at the time of the Norman Conquest. Ley is an element found also in the nearby towns and villages of Hadleigh, Rayleigh, Hockley. The parish church, St. Clements, dates from the 15th century, the fabric of the church is of Kentish ragstone, with a Tudor porch constructed of red brick. The medieval structure of the church was added to and altered during the 19th, Leigh Hall, a medieval manor house demolished in the early 20th century, was once situated near the ancient eastern manorial boundary of Leigh and Prittlewell. The house and a trackway leading from it to a church on a nearby clifftop pre-dated the centre of modern-day Leigh-on-Sea, in the late 1830s Leighs rector, the Rt Rev Robert Eden, commissioned a large rectory to be built. A proper fine little towne and verie full of stout and adventurous sailers, the main seafood catch from Leigh fishing boats has always been shellfish and whitebait. Many of the trawlers were at one time bawleys. Local fish merchants land, process and trade a range of supplies daily, including shrimps, lobster, crab, seabass, haddock, cod and mackerel, cockles, whelks, mussels. The riverside settlement of Old Leigh, or The Old Town, is historically significant, from the Middle Ages until the turn of the 20th century, Old Leigh hosted the settlements market square, and high street. Leigh had grown to become a port by the 16th century, ships as large as 340 tons were built here for fishing. By the 1740s however, Leighs deep water access had become silted up, Broadway developed between the 1870s and the 1920s from a residential street to a commercial parade of shopfronts, as the town began to expand
41.
Port of Tilbury
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The Port of Tilbury is located on the River Thames at Tilbury in Essex, England. It is the port for London, as well as being the main United Kingdom port for handling the importation of paper. There are extensive facilities for containers, grain, and other bulk cargoes, there are also facilities for the importation of cars. It forms part of the wider Port of London, the Port of Tilbury lies on the north shore of the River Thames,25 miles downstream of London Bridge, at a point where the river makes a loop southwards, and where its width narrows to 800 yards. The loop is part of the Thames lower reaches, within the meander was a area of marshland. Gravesend on the shore had long been a port of entry for shipping, all of which had used the river itself for loading and unloading of cargo. There was also a naval dockyard at Northfleet, the new deepwater docks were an extension of all that maritime activity. The original docks of London, all close to the City, were opened in stages by what was to become the East and West India Docks Company at the beginning of the 19th century. The Company had long been in competition with their rival, the London and St Katherine Dock Company, the E&WIDC were forced to retaliate. In 1882, an Act of Parliament allowed the latter to construct the docks at Tilbury, work began a fortnight later, and the first vessel to enter the docks was on 17 April 1886. The original docks consisted of a basin on Gravesend Reach opposite Northfleet. Between the tidal basin and Main Dock were two dry docks, in 1909 Tilbury, along with the upstream docks, became part of the newly established Port of London Authority. In 1921, and again in 1929, the PLA carried out major improvements. These included a new lock 1,000 feet long and 110 ft wide, linking the docks directly to the Thames to the west at Northfleet Hope, and these works were carried out by Sir Robert McAlpine. During the 1960s, at the time when the docks were closing. Between 1963–1966 a huge fourth branch dock, running north from Main Dock for nearly 1 mile, was constructed, the tidal basin was closed and eventually filled in. In 1969 a £6M riverside grain terminal on Northfleet Hope was brought into use, by the early 1980s Tilbury was the last set of enclosed docks in operation by the PLA. The PLA funded a new container port which opened in 1967
42.
Ipswich
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Ipswich is the county town of Suffolk, England, located on the estuary of the River Orwell, about 60 miles north east of London. The town has been occupied since the Saxon period. It has also known as Gyppewicus and Yppswyche. Ipswich is one of Englands oldest towns, if not the oldest, the claim has also been made of the Essex town of Colchester, but that town was abandoned for some time, leaving Ipswich to claim to be the oldest continuously inhabited town in England. Under the Roman empire, the area around Ipswich formed an important route inland to towns and settlements via the rivers Orwell. A large Roman fort, part of the defences of Britain, stood at Walton near Felixstowe. The modern town took shape in Anglo-Saxon times around Ipswich dock, gipeswic ) arose as the equivalent to these, serving the Kingdom of East Anglia, its early imported wares dating to the time of King Rædwald, supreme ruler of the English. The famous ship-burial and treasure at Sutton Hoo nearby is probably his grave, the Ipswich Museum houses replicas of the Roman Mildenhall and Sutton Hoo treasures. A gallery devoted to the towns origins includes Anglo-Saxon weapons, jewellery, the 7th-century town was centred near the quay. Towards 700 AD, Frisian potters from the Netherlands area settled in Ipswich and their wares were traded far across England, and the industry was unique to Ipswich for 200 years. With growing prosperity, in about 720 AD a large new part of the town was out in the Buttermarket area. Ipswich was becoming a place of national and international importance, parts of the ancient road plan still survive in its modern streets. After the invasion of 869 Ipswich fell under Viking rule, the earth ramparts circling the town centre were probably raised by Vikings in Ipswich around 900 to prevent its recapture by the English. The town operated a mint under royal licence from King Edgar in the 970s, the abbreviation Gipes appears on the coins. King John granted the town its first charter in 1200, laying the foundations of its modern civil government. In the next four centuries it made the most of its wealth, Five large religious houses, including two Augustinian Priories, and those of the Greyfriars, Ipswich Whitefriars and Ipswich Blackfriars, stood in medieval Ipswich. The last Carmelite Prior of Ipswich was the celebrated John Bale, there were also several hospitals, including the leper hospital of St Mary Magdalene, founded before 1199. During the Middle Ages the Marian Shrine of Our Lady of Grace was a pilgrimage destination
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World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
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Lighter (barge)
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A lighter is a type of flat-bottomed barge used to transfer goods and passengers to and from moored ships. Lighters were traditionally unpowered and were moved and steered using long oars called sweeps, unpowered lighters continue to be moved by powered tugs, however, and lighters may also now themselves be powered. The term is used in the Lighter Aboard Ship system. The name itself is of uncertain origin, but is believed to derive from an old Dutch or German word. In Dutch, the word lichter is still used for ships that take over goods from larger ships. The lighter barge gave rise to the tug, a small. Lighter tugs—or simply lighters—are designed for towing lighter barges, as such, they are smaller than traditional harbour tugs and lack the power or equipment to handle large ships. Lighters, albeit powered ones, were proposed to be used in 2007 at Port Lincoln, Hong Kong widely uses lighters in midstream operations where lighters transport cargo, mostly containers, between oceangoing vessels or to and from terminals. Lighters in Hong Kong are usually equipped with cranes of 40-60 tonnes capacity, lighters are not fitted with engines but are towed by tugboats. In 2007, midstream operators handled about 2 million TEUs and 5 million TEUs were transported as river trade cargo which are dependent on lighters
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London Bridge
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London Bridge refers to several historical bridges that have spanned the River Thames between the City of London and Southwark, in central London. The current crossing, which opened to traffic in 1973, is a box girder bridge built from concrete and this replaced a 19th-century stone-arched bridge, which in turn superseded a 600-year-old medieval structure. This was preceded by a succession of bridges, the first built by the Roman founders of London. The current bridge stands at the end of the Pool of London but is positioned 30 metres upstream from previous alignments. The traditional ends of the bridge were marked by St Magnus-the-Martyr on the northern bank. Until Putney Bridge opened in 1729, London Bridge was the only road-crossing of the Thames downstream of Kingston-upon-Thames and its importance has been the subject of popular culture throughout the ages such as in the nursery rhyme London Bridge Is Falling Down and its inclusion within art and literature. The modern bridge is owned and maintained by Bridge House Estates and it carries the A3 road, which is maintained by the Greater London Authority. The crossing also delineates an area along the bank of the River Thames. The abutments of modern London Bridge rest several metres above natural embankments of gravel, sand, between the embankments, the River Thames could have been crossed by ford when the tide was low, or ferry when it was high. There is archaeological evidence for scattered Neolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age settlement nearby, two ancient fords were in use a few miles upstream, beyond the rivers upper tidal reach. They were aligned with the course of Watling Street and led into the heartlands of the Catuvellauni, some time before Claudius conquest of AD43, power shifted to the Trinovantes, who held the region northeast of the Thames estuary from a capital at Camulodunum. Claudius imposed a major colonia on Camulodunum, and made it the city of the new Roman province of Britannia. The first London Bridge was built by the Roman military as part of their road-building programme, around AD55, the temporary bridge over the Thames was replaced by a permanent timber piled bridge, maintained and guarded by a small garrison. On the relatively high, dry ground at the end of the bridge, a small, opportunistic trading and shipping settlement took root. A smaller settlement developed at the end of the bridge. The bridge was destroyed along with the town in the Boudican revolt. Just downstream of the bridge were substantial quays and depots, convenient to seagoing trade between Britain and the rest of the Roman Empire, with the end of Roman rule in Britain in the early 5th century, Londinium was gradually abandoned and the bridge fell into disrepair. In the Saxon period, the became a boundary between the emergent, mutually hostile kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex
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Pool of London
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The Pool of London is a stretch of the River Thames from London Bridge to below Limehouse. Part of the Tideway of the Thames, the Pool was navigable by tall-masted vessels bringing coastal, the Pool of London is divided into two parts, the Upper Pool and Lower Pool. The Upper Pool consists of the section between London Bridge and the Cherry Garden Pier in Bermondsey, the Lower Pool runs from the Cherry Garden Pier to Limekiln Creek. Smuggling, theft and pilferage of cargoes were rife on both the busy open wharves and in the crowded warehouses. By this time the river was lined with nearly continuous walls of wharves running for miles along both banks, and hundreds of ships moored in the river or alongside the quays. The Pool saw an increase in both overseas and coastal trade in the second half of the eighteenth century. Two thirds of coastal vessels using the Pool were colliers meeting an increase in the demand for coal as the population of London rose, coastal trade virtually doubled between 1750 and 1796 reaching 11,964 vessels in 1795. In overseas trade, in 1751 the pool handled 1,682 ships and 234,639 tons of goods, by 1794 this had risen to 3,663 ships and 620,845 tons. The congestion was so extreme that it was said to be possible to walk across the Thames simply by stepping from ship to ship, londons Docklands had their origins in the lack of capacity in the Pool of London which particularly affected the West India trade. Even after the construction of docks, the Pool of London remained an important part of the Port of London. Shipping needed unrestricted access to the Pool of London which imposed constraints on the crossings that became necessary with the commercial development on both sides of the river. The Thames Tunnel from Rotherhithe to Wapping was constructed between 1825 and 1843, tower Bridge opened in 1894 as a bascule bridge. In 1909 the Pool came under the jurisdiction of the Port of London Authority, the docks thrived up until the 1950s, despite suffering extremely severe bomb damage during the Second World War. The area was redeveloped in the 1980s and 1990s to create new residential and commercial neighbourhoods. In 1996, an organisation - the Pool of London Partnership - was established to promote urban renewal of the areas north and south of the river. It also extended its remit slightly further eastwards to include the docks and wharves of St Katharine Docks, andré Derain painted four works on the Thames, and his Pool of London painted in 1906 is on display at the Tate Gallery. Derain was a leading Fauvist and had sent to London by his dealer to produce Thames views in the Fauvist style. A British film, Pool of London, is a drama set within the Pool
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