1.
Abolitionism in the United States
–
Abolitionism in the United States was the movement before and during the American Civil War to end slavery in the United States. In the Americas and western Europe, abolitionism was a movement to end the Atlantic slave trade, in the 17th century, English Quakers and Evangelicals condemned slavery as un-Christian. At that time, most slaves were Africans, but thousands of Native Americans were also enslaved, in the 18th century, as many as six million Africans were transported to the Americas as slaves, at least a third of them on British ships to North America. Abolition was part of the message of the First Great Awakening of the 1730s and 1740s in the Thirteen Colonies, in the same period, rationalist thinkers of the Enlightenment criticized slavery for violating human rights. A member of the British Parliament, James Edward Oglethorpe, was among the first to articulate the Enlightenment case against slavery, founder of the Province of Georgia, Oglethorpe banned slavery on humanistic grounds. He argued against it in Parliament and eventually encouraged his friends Granville Sharp, soon after his death in 1785, Sharp and More joined with William Wilberforce and others in forming the Clapham Sect. Although anti-slavery sentiments were widespread by the late 18th century, colonies and emerging nations, notably in the southern United States, continued to use and uphold traditions of slavery. Massachusetts ratified a constitution that declared all men equal, freedom suits challenging slavery based on this principle brought an end to slavery in the state, in other states, such as Virginia, similar declarations of rights were interpreted by the courts as not applicable to Africans. During the ensuing decades, the abolitionist movement grew in Northern states, britain banned the importation of African slaves in its colonies in 1807 and abolished slavery in the British Empire in 1833. The United States criminalized the international trade in 1808 and made slavery unconstitutional in 1865 as a result of the American Civil War. Historian James M. McPherson defines an abolitionist as one who before the Civil War had agitated for the immediate, unconditional and total abolition of slavery in the United States. He does not include antislavery activists such as Abraham Lincoln, U. S. President during the Civil War, or the Republican Party, the first Americans who made a public protest against slavery were the Mennonites of Germantown, Pennsylvania. Soon after, in April 1688, Quakers in the town wrote a two-page condemnation of the practice and sent it to the governing bodies of their Quaker church. The Quaker establishment never took action, the Quaker Quarterly Meeting of Chester, Pennsylvania, made its first protest in 1711. Within a few decades the entire slave trade was under attack, being opposed by leaders as William Burling, Benjamin Lay, Ralph Sandiford, William Southby. Slavery was banned in the Province of Georgia soon after its founding in 1733, the colonys founder, James Edward Oglethorpe, fended off repeated attempts by South Carolina merchants and land speculators to introduce slavery to the colony. In 1739, he wrote to the Georgia Trustees urging them to hold firm, If we allow slaves we act against the principles by which we associated together. Whereas, now we should occasion the misery of thousands in Africa, by setting men upon using arts to buy, the struggle between Georgia and South Carolina led to the first debates in Parliament over the issue of slavery, occurring between 1740 and 1742
2.
William Lloyd Garrison
–
William Lloyd Garrison was a prominent American abolitionist, journalist, suffragist, and social reformer. He was one of the founders of the American Anti-Slavery Society and he promoted immediate emancipation of slaves in the United States. In the 1870s, Garrison became a prominent voice for the suffrage movement. Garrison was born on December 10,1805, in Newburyport, Massachusetts, under An Act for the relief of sick and disabled seamen, Abijah Garrison, a merchant sailing pilot and master, had obtained American papers and moved his family to Newburyport in 1806. Embargo Act of 1807, intended to injure Great Britain, caused a decline in American commercial shipping, the elder Garrison became unemployed and deserted the family in 1808. Garrisons mother was Frances Maria Lloyd, reported to have tall, charming. She started referring to their son William as Lloyd, his middle name and she died in 1823, in the town of Springfield, Massachusetts. Garrison sold home-made lemonade and candy as a youth, and also delivered wood to support the family. In 1818, at 13, Garrison began working as a compositor for the Newburyport Herald. He soon began writing articles, often under the pseudonym Aristides, Aristides was an Athenian statesman and general nicknamed the Just. After his apprenticeship ended, Garrison and a printer named Isaac Knapp bought their own newspaper in 1826. One of their regular contributors was poet and abolitionist John Greenleaf Whittier, in this early work as a small town newspaper writer, Garrison acquired skills he would later use as a nationally known writer, speaker and newspaper publisher. In 1828, he was appointed editor of the National Philanthropist in Boston, Massachusetts, at the age of 25, Garrison joined the anti-slavery movement, later crediting the 1826 book of Presbyterian Reverend John Rankin, Letters on Slavery, for attracting him to the cause. For a brief time he associated with the American Colonization Society. Although some members of the society encouraged granting freedom to slaves, Southern members thought reducing the threat of free blacks in society would help preserve the institution of slavery. By late 1829–1830, Garrison rejected colonization, publicly apologized for his error, Garrison began writing for and became co-editor with Benjamin Lundy of the Quaker newspaper Genius of Universal Emancipation in Baltimore, Maryland. With his experience as a printer and newspaper editor, Garrison changed the layout of the paper, Lundy was freed to spend more time touring as an anti-slavery speaker. Garrison initially shared Lundys gradualist views, but while working for the Genius, Lundy and Garrison continued to work together on the paper in spite of their differing views
3.
Isaac Knapp
–
Isaac Knapp was a printer and publisher in Boston, Massachusetts. Knapp was born in Newburyport, Massachusetts to Philip Coombs Knapp and Abigail Remmick, in 1825 he was proprietor of the Essex Courant newspaper. With his friend William Lloyd Garrison he produced the anti-slavery Liberator newspaper and he also co-founded the New England Anti-Slavery Society. His printing office was located on Congress Street and then on Cornhill, Garrison and Knapp had a falling out around 1840, and Knapp left the Liberator. In a otherwise favorable eulogy written by Garrison and printed in the Liberator, Garrison implies Knapp became an alcoholic, constitution of the New England Anti-Slavery Society. The Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African, southard, American Anti-Slavery Almanac for 1838 Thomas Treadwell Stone, Martyr of Freedom John Gabriel Stedman. Narrative of Joanna, An Emancipated Slave, of Surinam, narrative of James Williams, an American slave, who was for several years a driver on a cotton plantation in Alabama. Memoir and poems of Phillis Wheatley, a native African and a slave, childs Appeal, Mrs. Britain, Thompsons Lectures and Debates, Valuable Documents, Vigilance Committee, Whittiers Poems, Wilberforce. Standard Anti-Slavery Books for Sale by Isaac Knapp, no.25 Cornhill,1838 Wendell Phillips Garrison, William Lloyd Garrison, 1805-1879, The Story of His Life Told by His Children
4.
Boston
–
Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
5.
African Americans
–
African Americans are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The term may also be used to only those individuals who are descended from enslaved Africans. As a compound adjective the term is usually hyphenated as African-American, Black and African Americans constitute the third largest racial and ethnic group in the United States. Most African Americans are of West and Central African descent and are descendants of enslaved peoples within the boundaries of the present United States. On average, African Americans are of 73. 2–80. 9% West African, 18–24% European, according to US Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities, immigrants from some Caribbean, Central American and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term. After the founding of the United States, black people continued to be enslaved, believed to be inferior to white people, they were treated as second-class citizens. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U. S. citizenship to whites only, in 2008, Barack Obama became the first African American to be elected President of the United States. The first African slaves arrived via Santo Domingo to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony, the ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the slaves revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterwards of an epidemic, the settlers and the slaves who had not escaped returned to Haiti, whence they had come. The first recorded Africans in British North America were 20 and odd negroes who came to Jamestown, as English settlers died from harsh conditions, more and more Africans were brought to work as laborers. Typically, young men or women would sign a contract of indenture in exchange for transportation to the New World, the landowner received 50 acres of land from the state for each servant purchased from a ships captain. An indentured servant would work for years without wages. The status of indentured servants in early Virginia and Maryland was similar to slavery, servants could be bought, sold, or leased and they could be physically beaten for disobedience or running away. Africans could legally raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom and they raised families, married other Africans and sometimes intermarried with Native Americans or English settlers. By the 1640s and 1650s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown and some became wealthy by colonial standards and purchased indentured servants of their own. In 1640, the Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of slavery when they sentenced John Punch. One of Dutch African arrivals, Anthony Johnson, would own one of the first black slaves, John Casor
6.
Slavery in the United States
–
Slavery had been practiced in British North America from early colonial days, and was legal in all Thirteen Colonies at the time of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. By the time of the American Revolution, the status of slave had been institutionalized as a racial caste associated with African ancestry, when the United States Constitution was ratified, a relatively small number of free people of color were among the voting citizens. During and immediately following the Revolutionary War, abolitionist laws were passed in most Northern states, most of these states had a higher proportion of free labor than in the South and economies based on different industries. They abolished slavery by the end of the 18th century, some with gradual systems that kept adults as slaves for two decades. But the rapid expansion of the industry in the Deep South after the invention of the cotton gin greatly increased demand for slave labor. Congress during the Jefferson administration prohibited the importation of slaves, effective in 1808, domestic slave trading, however, continued at a rapid pace, driven by labor demands from the development of cotton plantations in the Deep South. More than one million slaves were sold from the Upper South, which had a surplus of labor, New communities of African-American culture were developed in the Deep South, and the total slave population in the South eventually reached 4 million before liberation. As the West was developed for settlement, the Southern state governments wanted to keep a balance between the number of slave and free states to maintain a balance of power in Congress. The new territories acquired from Britain, France, and Mexico were the subject of major political compromises, by 1850, the newly rich cotton-growing South was threatening to secede from the Union, and tensions continued to rise. When Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 election on a platform of halting the expansion of slavery, the first six states to secede held the greatest number of slaves in the South. Shortly after, the Civil War began when Confederate forces attacked the US Armys Fort Sumter, four additional slave states then seceded. In the early years of the Chesapeake Bay settlements, colonial officials found it difficult to attract and retain laborers under the frontier conditions. Most laborers came from Britain as indentured servants, having signed contracts of indenture to pay with work for their passage, their upkeep and training and these indentured servants were young people who intended to become permanent residents. In some cases, convicted criminals were transported to the colonies as indentured servants, the indentured servants were not slaves, but were required to work for four to seven years in Virginia to pay the cost of their passage and maintenance. Historians estimate that more than half of all immigrants to the English colonies of North America during the 17th and 18th centuries came as indentured servants. The number of indentured servants among immigrants was particularly high in the South, many Germans, Scots-Irish, and Irish came to the colonies in the 18th century, settling in the backcountry of Pennsylvania and further south. The planters in the South found that the problem with indentured servants was that many left after several years, just when they had become skilled. In addition, an economy in England in the late 17th
7.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
8.
United States Declaration of Independence
–
Instead they formed a new nation—the United States of America. John Adams was a leader in pushing for independence, which was passed on July 2 with no opposing vote cast, a committee of five had already drafted the formal declaration, to be ready when Congress voted on independence. The term Declaration of Independence is not used in the document itself, John Adams persuaded the committee to select Thomas Jefferson to compose the original draft of the document, which Congress would edit to produce the final version. The next day, John Adams wrote to his wife Abigail, The Second Day of July 1776, will be the most memorable Epocha, but Independence Day is actually celebrated on July 4, the date that the Declaration of Independence was approved. After ratifying the text on July 4, Congress issued the Declaration of Independence in several forms and it was initially published as the printed Dunlap broadside that was widely distributed and read to the public. The source copy used for printing has been lost. Jeffersons original draft, complete with changes made by John Adams and Benjamin Franklin, the best known version of the Declaration, a signed copy that is popularly regarded as the official document, is displayed at the National Archives in Washington, D. C. This engrossed copy was ordered by Congress on July 19, the sources and interpretation of the Declaration have been the subject of much scholarly inquiry. Having served its purpose in announcing independence, references to the text of the Declaration were few in the following years. Abraham Lincoln made it the centerpiece of his rhetoric, and his policies and this has been called one of the best-known sentences in the English language, containing the most potent and consequential words in American history. The passage came to represent a standard to which the United States should strive. Believe me, dear Sir, there is not in the British empire a man who more cordially loves a union with Great Britain than I do. But, by the God that made me, I will cease to exist before I yield to a connection on such terms as the British Parliament propose, and in this, I think I speak the sentiments of America. By the time that the Declaration of Independence was adopted in July 1776, relations had been deteriorating between the colonies and the mother country since 1763. Parliament enacted a series of measures to increase revenue from the colonies, such as the Stamp Act of 1765, Parliament believed that these acts were a legitimate means of having the colonies pay their fair share of the costs to keep them in the British Empire. Many colonists, however, had developed a different conception of the empire, the colonies were not directly represented in Parliament, and colonists argued that Parliament had no right to levy taxes upon them. This tax dispute was part of a divergence between British and American interpretations of the British Constitution and the extent of Parliaments authority in the colonies. In the colonies, however, the idea had developed that the British Constitution recognized certain fundamental rights that no government could violate, after the Townshend Acts, some essayists even began to question whether Parliament had any legitimate jurisdiction in the colonies at all
9.
Genius of Universal Emancipation
–
The Genius of Universal Emancipation was an abolitionist newspaper from Baltimore, Maryland run by Benjamin Lundy. Elihu Embree established the Manumission Intelligencier in 1819 which became The Emancipator in 1820, in 1821 the paper was bought by Benjamin Lundy and renamed Genius of Universal Emancipation, running from 1821 to 1839 under Lundys editorship. Lundys contributions reflected his Quaker views, condemning slavery on moral and religious grounds but advocating gradual emancipation, Lundy moved the paper to Jonesboro, Tennessee in 1823, and then established himself in Baltimore, Maryland in 1824, where most of the papers run would be published. In 1829, Lundy recruited the young William Lloyd Garrison to join him in Baltimore, Maryland, garrisons experience as a printer and newspaper editor allowed him to revamp the layout of the paper and free Lundy to spend more time traveling as an antislavery speaker. Lundy and Garrison continued to work together on the paper in spite of their differing views, todd filed a suit for libel against both Garrison and Lundy, filing in Maryland in order to secure the favor of pro-slavery courts. The state of Maryland also brought charges against Garrison, quickly finding him guilty and ordering him to pay a fine of $50. Garrison was unable to pay the fine and was sentenced to a term of six months. Garrison returned to New England, and soon began his own abolitionist newspaper, in 1839, Lundy revived the Genius and printed one more issue before he died of a fever on August 22,1839. All on Fire, William Lloyd Garrison and the Abolition of Slavery, the Genius of Universal Emancipation Vocal Abolitionism and The Genius of Universal Emancipation Benjamin Lundy, Quaker Abolitionist Vaughn, Stephen L. Encyclopedia of American Journalism p.4
10.
Moral suasion
–
Moral suasion is an appeal to morality in order to influence or change behavior. A famous example is the attempt by William Lloyd Garrison and his American Anti-Slavery Society to end slavery in the United States by using moral suasion. The moral aspect comes from the pressure for moral responsibility to operate in a way that is consistent with furthering the good of the economy, moral suasion in this narrower sense is also sometimes known as jawboning. In early educational thought, it was paired against corporal punishment as a means of achieving school discipline. Similarly, in parenting, writers from the 19th century through Benjamin Spock have advocated the use of moral suasion with children as an alternative to physical violence, in politics, moral suasion has frequently been employed by movements for social change, but its effectiveness has varied widely. In the temperance movement of the 18th and early 19th centuries in Britain and North America, as the movement began to face the limitations of this strategy in the late 19th century, its members turned to legal coercion, leading to the rise of prohibitionism. In the American Civil Rights Movement of the century, moral suasion was one of three major prongs of the movement, the others being legal action and collective nonviolent protest. After initial victories, this nonviolent strategy began to struggle in the 1960s, moral suasion has sometimes been effective in resolving religious disharmony, especially if the Government is actively involved as a mediator. Moral suasion has been effective in Singapore in the creation of harmony among different religious groups. Usage of moral suasion in environment regulation consists in making polluters feel responsible for the negative externalities that they cause, furthermore, the administrative costs of using moral suasion to deal with environmental problems is very low. The evidence on the effectiveness of moral suasion methods to induce environmentally desirable behaviour however is not strong unless it is coupled with other instruments. As a policy tool, impure moral suasion differs from direct suasion using laws and this has led some authors to criticise moral suasion as immoral, since compliers get penalised for cooperating with the stated government agenda while non-compliers are not punished. Moral suasion will be an economic policy whenever the expected costs of noncompliance is made to exceed the cost of compliance. There are 2 necessary conditions for this to happen, first, citizens must support the Governments policy, thus entailing objective congruence between the promoter of moral suasion and the target whose behaviour should be changed. The business community felt that the rules being enforced through moral suasion were not just, second, the population of economic agent to be persuaded must be small. Fewness entails the identification of economic agents to persuade. Although neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition, a low level of competition amongst suppliers in the economy contributes to increased effectiveness of moral suasion. It could also be defined generally as a process whereby commercial banks co-operate with the central bank either for altruistic reasons or out of fear of administrative or legislative sanctions
11.
American Civil War
–
The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
12.
The Nation
–
The Nation is the oldest continuously published weekly magazine in the United States, and the most widely read weekly journal of liberal/progressive political and cultural news, opinion, and analysis. It is published by The Nation Company, L. P. at 33 Irving Place and it is associated with The Nation Institute. The Nation has bureaus in Washington, D. C, London and South Africa, with departments covering architecture, art, corporations, defense, environment, films, legal affairs, music, peace and disarmament, poetry, and the United Nations. Circulation peaked at 187,000 in 2006 but by 2010 had dropped to 145,000 in print, the Nation was established in July 1865 on Newspaper Row at 130 Nassau Street in Manhattan. The publisher was Joseph H. Richards, and the editor was Edwin Lawrence Godkin, dennett interviewed Confederate veterans, freed slaves, agents of the Freedmens Bureau, and ordinary people he met by the side of the road. The articles, since collected as a book, have been praised by The New York Times as examples of masterly journalism, closely related to this was the publications advocacy of the elimination of protective tariffs in favor of lower prices of consumer goods associated with a free trade system. Wendell Phillips Garrison, son of William Lloyd Garrison, was Literary Editor from 1865 to 1906, the magazine would stay at Newspaper Row for 90 years. In 1881, newspaperman-turned-railroad-baron Henry Villard acquired The Nation and converted it into a literary supplement for his daily newspaper the New York Evening Post. The offices of the magazine were moved to the Evening Posts headquarters at 210 Broadway, in 1900, Henry Villards son, Oswald Garrison Villard, inherited the magazine and the Evening Post, selling off the latter in 1918. Villards takeover prompted the FBI to monitor the magazine for roughly 50 years, the FBI had a file on Villard from 1915. Villard sold the magazine in 1935 and it became a nonprofit in 1943. Almost every editor of The Nation from Villards time to the 1970s was looked at for subversive activities and ties. S, during the 1930s, The Nation showed enthusiastic support for Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal. This organization was responsible for academic responsibilities, including conducting research and organizing conferences. Nation Associates became responsible for the operation and publication of the magazine on a nonprofit basis, before Pearl Harbor, The Nation repeatedly called on the United States to enter World War II to resist Fascism, and after the US entered the war, supported the American war effort. It also supported the use of the bomb on Hiroshima. During the late 1940s and again in the early 1950s, a merger was discussed by The Nations Freda Kirchwey, the new publication would have been called The Nation and New Republic. Kirchwey was the most hesitant, and both attempts to merge failed, the two magazines would later take very different paths, with The Nation having a higher circulation and The New Republic moving more to the right. In the 1950s, The Nation was attacked as pro-communist because of its advocacy of friendship with the Soviet Union, one of the magazines writers, Louis Fischer resigned from the magazine afterwards, claiming The Nations foreign coverage was too pro-Soviet
13.
The North Star (anti-slavery newspaper)
–
The paper commenced publication on December 3,1847 and ceased as the The North Star in June 1851 when it merged with Gerrit Smiths Liberty Party Paper to form Frederick Douglass Paper. The North Stars slogan was Right is of no Sex—Truth is of no Color—God is the Father of us all, in 1846, Frederick Douglass was first inspired to publish The North Star after subscribing to The Liberator, a weekly newspaper published by William Lloyd Garrison. The Liberator was a newspaper established by Garrison and his supporters founded upon moral principles, the North Star title was a reference to the directions given to runaway slaves trying to reach the Northern states and Canada, Follow the North Star. Published weekly, The North Star was four pages long and sold by subscription at the cost of $2 per year to more than 4,000 readers in the United States, Europe, the first of its four pages focused on current events concerning abolitionist issues. The Garrisonian Liberator was founded upon the notion that the Constitution was fundamentally pro-slavery, Douglass disagreed but supported the nonviolent approach to the emancipation of slaves by education and moral suasion. Under the guidance of the abolitionist society, Douglass became well acquainted with the pursuit of the emancipation of slaves through a New England religious perspective. Garrison had earlier convinced the Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society to hire Douglass as an agent, touring with Garrison, Douglass worked with another abolitionist, Martin R. Delany, who traveled to lecture, report, and generate subscriptions to The North Star. Douglass thoughts toward political inaction changed when he attended the National Convention of Colored Citizens, one of the many speakers present at the convention was Henry Highland Garnet. Formerly a slave in Maryland, Garnet was a Presbyterian minister who supported violent action against slaveholders, garnets demands of independent action addressed to the American slaves remained one of the leading issues of change for Douglass. During a nineteen-month stay in Britain and Ireland, several of Douglass’ supporters bought his freedom, with this assistance Douglass was determined to begin an African-American newspaper that would engage the anti-slavery movement politically. On his return to the United States in March 1847, Douglass shared his ideas of The North Star with his mentors, ignoring the advice of the American Anti-Slavery Society, Douglass moved to Rochester, New York to publish the first edition. When questioned on his decision to create The North Star, Douglass is said to have responded, I still see before me a life of toil, but, justice must be done, the truth must be told. I will not be silent. Abolitionist publications Ira Berlin, Who Freed the Slaves, Emancipation and Its Meaning, in Blight, Union and Emancipation, Essays on Politics and Race in the Civil War Era, p121. The North Star, The North Star, Complete December 3, 1847–April 17,1851, the North Star, The North Star, Online Collection, Lavery Library, St. John Fisher College. Our Paper and Its Prospects, The North Star, December 3,1847
14.
North Carolina
–
North Carolina is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west, Virginia to the north, North Carolina is the 28th most extensive and the 9th most populous of the U. S. states. The state is divided into 100 counties, the most populous municipality is Charlotte, which is the second largest banking center in the United States after New York City. The state has a range of elevations, from sea level on the coast to 6,684 feet at Mount Mitchell. The climate of the plains is strongly influenced by the Atlantic Ocean. Most of the falls in the humid subtropical climate zone. More than 300 miles from the coast, the western, mountainous part of the state has a highland climate. North Carolina is bordered by South Carolina on the south, Georgia on the southwest, Tennessee on the west, Virginia on the north, the United States Census Bureau places North Carolina in the South Atlantic division of the southern region. So many ships have been lost off Cape Hatteras that the area is known as the Graveyard of the Atlantic, the most famous of these is the Queen Annes Revenge, which went aground in Beaufort Inlet in 1718. The coastal plain transitions to the Piedmont region along the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, the Piedmont region of central North Carolina is the states most populous region, containing the six largest cities in the state by population. It consists of rolling countryside frequently broken by hills or low mountain ridges. The Piedmont ranges from about 300 feet in elevation in the east to about 1,500 feet in the west, the western section of the state is part of the Appalachian Mountain range. Among the subranges of the Appalachians located in the state are the Great Smoky Mountains, Blue Ridge Mountains, the Black Mountains are the highest in the eastern United States, and culminate in Mount Mitchell at 6,684 feet, the highest point east of the Mississippi River. North Carolina has 17 major river basins, the five basins west of the Blue Ridge Mountains flow to the Gulf of Mexico, while the remainder flow to the Atlantic Ocean. Of the 17 basins,11 originate within the state of North Carolina, but only four are contained entirely within the states border – the Cape Fear, the Neuse, the White Oak, and the Tar-Pamlico basin. Elevation above sea level is most responsible for temperature change across the state, the climate is also influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Stream, especially in the coastal plain. These influences tend to cause warmer winter temperatures along the coast, the coastal plain averages around 1 inch of snow or ice annually, and in many years, there may be no snow or ice at all. North Carolina experiences severe weather in summer and winter, with summer bringing threat of hurricanes, tropical storms, heavy rain
15.
Felony
–
The term felony, in some common law countries, means a serious crime. The word originates from English common law, where felonies were originally crimes that involved confiscation of a persons land. Many common law countries have now abolished the distinction and replaced it with other distinctions. A felony is generally considered a crime of high seriousness, while a misdemeanor is not, a person who has committed a felony is a felon, and upon conviction of a felony in a court of law is known as a convicted felon or a convict. In the United States, where the distinction is still widely applied. If punishable by one year or less, it is classified as a misdemeanor. Note that the prison sentence handed out has no effect on this. For example, if a person is sentenced to six months, individual states may differ in this definition, using other categories as seriousness or context. Similar to felonies in some civil law countries are delicts, whereas in others crimes and delicts, larceny or theft above a certain statutorily established value or quantity of goods Vandalism on federal property. Some offenses, though similar in nature, may be felonies or misdemeanors depending on the circumstances, for example, the illegal manufacture, distribution or possession of controlled substances may be a felony, although possession of small amounts may be only a misdemeanor. Additionally, driving while intoxicated in some states may be a misdemeanor if a first offense, in the course of the 20th century, however, American jurisdictions eliminated the distinction among the first three categories. Gonzales v. Duenas-Alvarez,549 U. S.183, a felony may be punishable with imprisonment for two or more years or death in the case of the most serious felonies, such as murder. Indeed, at law when the British and American legal systems divorced in 1776. Standards for measurement of an offenses seriousness include attempts to quantitatively estimate, in some states, all or most felonies are placed into one of various classes according to their seriousness and their potential punishment upon conviction. The number of classifications and the corresponding crimes vary by state and are determined by the legislature, usually, the legislature also determines the maximum punishment allowable for each felony class, doing so avoids the necessity of defining specific sentences for every possible crime. For example, Virginia classifies most felonies by number, ranging from Class 6 through Class 2 up to Class 1, some felonies remain outside the classification system. New York State classifies felonies by letter, with some divided into sub-classes by Roman numeral, classes range from Class E through Classes D, C, B. Massachusetts classifies felony as an offense that carries any prison time, ohio classifies felonies by degree ranging from first, second, third, fourth, to fifth degree
16.
Columbia, South Carolina
–
Columbia is the capital and largest city of the U. S. state of South Carolina, with a population of 133,803 as of 2015. The city serves as the county seat of Richland County, the name Columbia is a poetic term used for the United States, originating from the name of Christopher Columbus. The city is located approximately 13 miles northwest of the center of South Carolina. It lies at the confluence of the Saluda River and the Broad River, in 1860, the city was the location of the South Carolina Secession Convention, which marked the departure of the first state from the Union in the events leading up to the Civil War. At the time of European encounter, the inhabitants of the area that became Columbia were a people called the Congaree, in May 1540, a Spanish expedition led by Hernando de Soto traversed what is now Columbia while moving northward. The expedition produced the earliest written records of the area. From the creation of Columbia by the South Carolina General Assembly in 1786, the Congarees, a frontier fort on the west bank of the Congaree River, was the head of navigation in the Santee River system. A ferry was established by the government in 1754 to connect the fort with the growing settlements on the higher ground on the east bank. Like many other significant early settlements in colonial America, Columbia is on the line from the Piedmont region. The fall line is the spot where a river becomes unnavigable when sailing upstream, State Senator John Lewis Gervais of the town of Ninety Six introduced a bill that was approved by the legislature on March 22,1786, to create a new state capital. There was considerable argument over the name for the new city, according to published accounts, Senator Gervais said he hoped that in this town we should find refuge under the wings of COLUMBIA, for that was the name which he wished it to be called. One legislator insisted on the name Washington, but Columbia won by a vote of 11–7 in the state senate, the site was chosen as the new state capital in 1786, due to its central location in the state. The State Legislature first met there in 1790, after remaining under the direct government of the legislature for the first two decades of its existence, Columbia was incorporated as a village in 1805 and then as a city in 1854. Columbia received a stimulus to development when it was connected in a direct water route to Charleston by the Santee Canal. This canal connected the Santee and Cooper rivers in a 22-mile-long section and it was first chartered in 1786 and completed in 1800, making it one of the earliest canals in the United States. With increased railroad traffic, it ceased operation around 1850, the commissioners designed a town of 400 blocks in a 2-mile square along the river. The blocks were divided into lots of 0.5 acres and sold to speculators, buyers had to build a house at least 30 feet long and 18 feet wide within three years or face an annual 5% penalty. The perimeter streets and two streets were 150 feet wide
17.
Bounty (reward)
–
A bounty is a payment or reward often offered by a group as an incentive for the accomplishment of a task by someone usually not associated with the group. Bounties are most commonly issued for the capture or retrieval of a person or object and they are typically in the form of money. By definition bounties can be retracted at any time by whomever issued them, two modern examples of bounties are the bounty placed for the capture of Saddam Hussein and his sons by the United States government and Microsofts bounty for computer virus creators. Those who make a living by pursuing bounties are known as bounty hunters, a bounty system was used in the American Civil War. It was an incentive to increase enlistments, another bounty system was used in New South Wales to increase the number of immigrants from 1832. Bounties were sometimes paid as rewards for killing Native Americans, in 1862, a farmer received a $500 bounty for shooting Taoyateduta. In 1856 Governor Isaac Stevens put a bounty on the head of Indians from Eastern Washington, $20 for ordinary Indians and $80 for a chief. In Australia in 1824, a bounty of 500 acres of land was offered for capturing alive the Wiradjuri warrior Windradyne, a week after the bounty being offered the word alive was dropped from the reward notices, however he was neither captured nor betrayed by his people. Bounties have been offered on animals deemed undesirable by particular governments or corporations, in Tasmania, the thylacine was relentlessly hunted to extinction based on such schemes. Gray wolves too were extirpated from much of the present United States by bounty hunters, since after the Restoration criminality was increasing, the dissatisfaction with the penal system led to the implementation of the rewards. £10 were promised to anyone who gave information about a robber or burglar, between 1660 and 1692 Parliament introduced a series of statutes that offered rewards up to £40. Under William III the rewards became an element in the fight against crime. As it was written in the legislation of 1692, when a statutory reward overlapped a proclamation, prosecuting or convicting of a highway robber could be worth £140 a head, £240 for a pair or £420 for a three-person group. These were huge sums at the time when an artisan earned about £20, supplementary reward was part of the administration of the law for six years, then with the death of George I it came to an end. After two years, in February 1728 a new proclamation reinstated the £100 reward by respecting the original terms, private parties were also free to offer rewards in addition to rewards by proclamations, then this practice was taken up by governmental departments and local authorities. In 1716, Robert Griffith was indicted for stealing from Thomas Brooks, one watch, value £51. She offered a reward of £15 to anyone who gave information about the robber, the reward was received by Mr. Holder, after he brought Mrs. Smith the silver watch that was stolen. In 1732 Henry Carey offered a reward of 2 guineas for the securing of Richard Marshall, Marshall together with Mary Horsenail and Amy Mason were indicted for breaking and entering the house of Mr. Carey in Dorrington-street
18.
United States dollar
–
The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
19.
Nat Turner's slave rebellion
–
Nat Turners Rebellion was a slave rebellion that took place in Southampton County, Virginia, during August 1831. Led by Nat Turner, rebel slaves killed from 55 to 65 people, the rebellion was put down within a few days, but Turner survived in hiding for more than two months afterwards. The rebellion was suppressed at Belmont Plantation on the morning of August 23,1831. There was widespread fear in the aftermath of the rebellion, the state executed 56 slaves accused of being part of the rebellion. In the frenzy, many non-participant slaves were punished, approximately 120 slaves and free African Americans were murdered by militias and mobs in the area. Nat Turner was an African-American slave who had lived his life in Southampton County, Virginia. Turner was highly intelligent and learned how to read and write at a young age and he grew up deeply religious and was often seen fasting, praying or immersed in reading the stories of the Bible. He frequently had visions, which he interpreted as messages from God and these visions greatly influenced his life. Turner often conducted Baptist services, and preached the Bible to his fellow slaves, Turner also had an influence over white people. In the case of Ethelred T. Brantley, Turner said that he was able to convince Brantley to cease from his wickedness, by the spring of 1828, Turner was convinced that he was ordained for some great purpose in the hands of the Almighty. In 1830, Joseph Travis purchased Turner and became his master, Turner later recalled that Travis was a kind master who had placed the greatest confidence in him. Turner eagerly anticipated Gods signal to start his task of slay my enemies with their own weapons, Turner witnessed a solar eclipse on February 11,1831, and was convinced that this was the sign for which he was waiting. Following in the steps of the late Denmark Vesey of South Carolina, Turner communicated the great work laid out to do, to four in whom I had the greatest confidence – his fellow slaves Henry, Hark, Nelson and Sam. Turner had originally planned for the rebellion to begin on July 4,1831, Turner started with several trusted fellow slaves, and ultimately gathered more than 70 enslaved and free blacks, some of whom were mounted on horseback. On August 13,1831, an atmospheric disturbance made the sun appear bluish-green, Turner took this as the final signal, and began the rebellion a week later on August 22. The rebels traveled from house to house, freeing slaves and killing all the people they encountered. As muskets and firearms were to difficult to collect and would gather unwanted attention, the rebels used knives, hatchets, axes, oates states that Turner called on his group to kill all the white people. The group spared a few homes because Turner believed the white inhabitants thought no better of themselves than they did of negroes
20.
Virginia
–
Virginia is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, as well as in the historic Southeast. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, the capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond, Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealths estimated population as of 2014 is over 8.3 million, the areas history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony, slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colonys early politics and plantation economy. Although the Commonwealth was under one-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, the Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. The state government was ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States in both 2005 and 2008 and it is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally, manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginias economy changed from agricultural to industrial during the 1960s and 1970s. Virginia has an area of 42,774.2 square miles, including 3,180.13 square miles of water. Virginias boundary with Maryland and Washington, D. C. extends to the mark of the south shore of the Potomac River. The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′ parallel north, the border with Tennessee was not settled until 1893, when their dispute was brought to the U. S. Supreme Court. The Chesapeake Bay separates the portion of the Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginias Eastern Shore. The bay was formed from the river valleys of the Susquehanna River. Many of Virginias rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, the Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay, the Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic era. The region, known for its clay soil, includes the Southwest Mountains around Charlottesville. The Blue Ridge Mountains are a province of the Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state. The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains and includes the Great Appalachian Valley, the region is carbonate rock based and includes Massanutten Mountain. The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the southwest corner of Virginia, in this region, rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic drainage system, into the Ohio River basin
21.
John Brown (abolitionist)
–
John Brown was an American abolitionist who believed armed insurrection was the only way to overthrow the institution of slavery in the United States. Brown first gained attention when he led groups of volunteers during the Bleeding Kansas crisis of 1856. Dissatisfied with the pacifism of the organized abolitionist movement, he said, during the Kansas campaign, Brown commanded forces at the Battle of Black Jack and the Battle of Osawatomie. He and his supporters killed five pro-slavery supporters in the Pottawatomie massacre of May 1856 in response to the sacking of Lawrence by pro-slavery forces, in 1859, Brown led a raid on the federal armory at Harpers Ferry, to start a liberation movement among the slaves there. During the raid, he seized the armory, seven people were killed and he intended to arm slaves with weapons from the arsenal, but the attack failed. Within 36 hours, Browns men had fled or been killed or captured by local farmers, militiamen. Marines led by Robert E. Lee and he was tried for treason against the Commonwealth of Virginia, the murder of five men and inciting a slave insurrection. He was found guilty on all counts and was hanged, Historians agree that the Harpers Ferry raid escalated tensions that, a year later, led to the Souths secession and Civil War. David Potter has said the effect of Browns raid was greater than the philosophical effect of the Lincoln–Douglas debates. Some writers, including Bruce Olds, describe him as a zealot, others. Oates, regard him as one of the most perceptive human beings of his generation, David S. John Browns Body was a popular Union marching song during the Civil War and made him a martyr. Browns actions prior to the Civil War as an abolitionist, and he is sometimes memorialized as a heroic martyr and a visionary, and sometimes vilified as a madman and a terrorist. John Brown was born May 9,1800, in Torrington and he was the fourth of the eight children of Owen Brown and Ruth Mills and grandson of Capt. Brown could trace his ancestry back to 17th-century English Puritans, in 1805, the family moved to Hudson, Ohio, where Owen Brown opened a tannery. Browns personal religion is well documented in the papers of the Rev Clarence Gee. Browns father had as an apprentice Jesse R. Grant, father of Ulysses S. Grant, at 16, Brown left his family and went to Plainfield, Massachusetts, where he enrolled in a preparatory program. Shortly afterward, he transferred to the Morris Academy in Litchfield and he hoped to become a Congregationalist minister, but money ran out and he suffered from eye inflammations, which forced him to give up the academy and return to Ohio. In Hudson, he worked briefly at his fathers tannery before opening a successful tannery of his own outside of town with his adopted brother, in 1820, Brown married Dianthe Lusk
22.
Harpers Ferry, West Virginia
–
Harpers Ferry is a historic town in Jefferson County, West Virginia, United States. It was formerly spelled Harpers Ferry with an apostrophe and that continues to appear in some references. It is situated at the confluence of the Potomac and Shenandoah rivers where the U. S. states of Maryland, Virginia and it is the easternmost town in West Virginia. The towns original, lower section is on a plain created by the two rivers and surrounded by higher ground. Historically, Harpers Ferry is best known for John Browns raid on the Armory in 1859, the population was 286 at the 2010 census. The lower part of Harpers Ferry is within Harpers Ferry National Historical Park, most of the remainder, which includes the more highly populated area, is included in the separate Harpers Ferry Historic District. Two other National Register of Historic Places properties adjoin the town, the Appalachian Trail Conservancy headquarters is in Harpers Ferry and the town is one of only a few through which the Appalachian Trail passes directly. Other popular outdoor activities include white water rafting, fishing, mountain biking, tubing, canoeing, hiking, zip lining, and rock climbing. In 1733, Peter Stephens, a squatter, had settled on land near The Point, fourteen years later, while traveling from Maryland to Virginia, Robert Harper passed through the area which was named The Hole. Harper recognized the potential for industry, given the power the two rivers could generate, and the traffic he could ferry across the Potomac River, Harper paid Stephens 30 British guinea for what was essentially Stephens squatting rights, since the land actually belonged to Lord Fairfax. In April 1751, Harper purchased 126 acres of land from Lord Fairfax, in 1761, the Virginia General Assembly granted Harper the right to establish and maintain a ferry across the Potomac River. In 1763, the Virginia General Assembly established the town of Shenandoah Falls at Mr. Harpers Ferry, on October 25,1783, Thomas Jefferson visited Harpers Ferry. He viewed the passage of the Potomac through the Blue Ridge from a rock that is now named for him and this stop took place as Jefferson was traveling to Philadelphia and passed through Harpers Ferry with his daughter Patsy. Jefferson called the site one of the most stupendous scenes in nature. George Washington, as president of the Patowmack Company, traveled to Harpers Ferry during the summer of 1785 to determine the need for bypass canals, in 1794, Washingtons familiarity with the area led him to propose the site for a new United States armory and arsenal. In 1796, the government purchased a 125-acre parcel of land from the heirs of Robert Harper. Construction began on the United States Armory and Arsenal at Harpers Ferry in 1799 and this was one of only two such facilities in the U. S. the other being Springfield, Massachusetts. Together they produced most of the arms for the U. S. Army
23.
Tremont Temple
–
The Tremont Temple on 88 Tremont Street is a Baptist church in Boston, affiliated with the American Baptist Churches, USA. The existing multi-storey structure was designed by architect Clarence Blackall of Boston and it replaced a much smaller,1827 structure that had repeatedly suffered damage by fires. The building is currently understudy for landmark status by the Boston Landmarks Commission, on 28 December 1843, the Free Church Baptists bought the Tremont Theatre, built in 1827 in Greek Revival style. They renamed it the Tremont Temple and adapted it for use for religious worship and they did not charge for attending their church and had a racially integrated congregation. Although the building was used for religious purposes, it also served occasionally as the venue for public events. An Egyptian mummy was displayed beginning on 28 September 1850, Boston had a strong community of abolitionists, both black and white. The Temple was damaged by fire in April 1852, at the time, offices were occupied by music instructors, dentists, a taxidermist, king, B. F. Mason, Wellman Morrison, John Pope, and John W. A. Scott. The temple suffered subsequent fires in 1879 and 1893 and was repaired, the Temple was the site of Charles Dickens first reading during his 1867-68 tour of the United States. Dickens read from A Christmas Carol and The Pickwick Papers during his two-hour reading on December 2,1867, the congregation called it Tremont Street Baptist Church and later Union Temple Baptist Church, adopting the name Tremont Temple Baptist Church in 1891. Lorimer served as pastor of the church for years, interrupted by brief pastorships in other locations. He left in 1901, after guiding the congregation through construction and opening of a new building, the congregation had decided on a new, larger structure, which was completed and opened in May 1896. Designed by architect Clarence Blackall, it was intended to be a church with an auditorium and other spaces suitable for leasing for business purposes, the building originally was designed with retail stores on the ground floor and commercial offices on the upper floors. Revenue from business rents and rental of the auditorium for concerts enabled the church to continue to provide seats to all worshippers. At various times in the 20th century, films were screened at Tremont Temple, the auditorium was used December 31,1985, for a staged production of the opera, The Burning Fiery Furnace, by Benjamin Britten. Black Nativity Tremont Theatre, Boston Kilde, Jeanne Halgren, when Church Became Theatre, The Transformation of Evangelical Architecture and Worship in Nineteenth-Century America. Cf. especially p.142 Savage, Edward H, a Chronological History of the Boston Watch and Police, from 1631 to 1865, Together with Recollections of a Boston Police Officer, or Boston by Daylight and Gaslight. From the Diary of an Officer Fifteen Years in the Service, built in Boston, City and Suburb, 1800-2000. Cf. pp.153,177,182,207,209, History of Tremont Temple - Tremont Temple Baptist Church Map, 42°21′27″N 71°03′39″W Cornell Univ
24.
Hammatt Billings
–
Charles Howland Hammatt Billings was an artist and architect from Boston, Massachusetts. He worked for years with his brother Joseph Edward Billings. He was the artist of one of the portrayals of the Battle of Lexington. M. Life story of Hosea Ballou, for the young, racial Innocence, Performing American Childhood from Slavery to Civil Rights. New York University Press, pages 95-97, 105-119, accomplished in All Departments of Art, Hammatt Billings of Boston 1818-1874. O’Gorman, James F. Hammatt Billings, in The Private Library Autumn 1994, society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities. Archived from the original on October 30,2007
25.
Abolitionism
–
Abolitionism is a movement to end slavery, whether formal or informal. In Western Europe and the Americas, abolitionism is a movement to end the African and Indian slave trade. An abolitionist movement only started in the late 18th century, however, soon after his death in 1785, they joined with William Wilberforce and others in forming the Clapham Sect. Massachusetts ratified a constitution that declared all men equal, freedom suits challenging slavery based on this principle brought an end to slavery in the state, Vermont, which existed as an unrecognized state from 1777 to 1791, abolished adult slavery in 1777. In other states, such as Virginia, similar declarations of rights were interpreted by the courts as not applicable to Africans, during the following decades, the abolitionist movement grew in northern states, and Congress regulated the expansion of slavery in new states admitted to the union. France abolished slavery within the French Kingdom in 1315, Haiti achieved independence from France in 1804 and brought an end to slavery in its territory. The northern states in the U. S. all abolished slavery by 1804, the United Kingdom and the United States outlawed the international slave trade in 1807, after which Britain led efforts to block slave ships. In Eastern Europe, groups organized to abolish the enslavement of the Roma in Wallachia and Moldavia and it was declared illegal in 1948 under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The last country to abolish slavery was Mauritania, where it was officially abolished by presidential decree in 1981. In 1315, Louis X, king of France, published a decree proclaiming that France signifies freedom and this prompted subsequent governments to circumscribe slavery in the overseas colonies. Some cases of African slaves freed by setting foot on the French soil were recorded such as example of a Norman slave merchant who tried to sell slaves in Bordeaux in 1571. He was arrested and his slaves were freed according to a declaration of the Parlement of Guyenne which stated that slavery was intolerable in France, born into slavery in Saint Domingue, Thomas-Alexandre Dumas became free when his father brought him to France in 1776. As in other New World colonies, the French relied on the Atlantic slave trade for labour for their sugar plantations in their Caribbean colonies. In addition, French colonists in Louisiane in North America held slaves, particularly in the South around New Orleans, Louis XIVs Code Noir regulated the slave trade and institution in the colonies. It gave unparalleled rights to slaves and it includes the right to marry, gather publicly, or take Sundays off. Although the Code Noir authorized and codified cruel corporal punishment against slaves under certain conditions and it also forced the owners to instruct them in the Catholic faith, implying that Africans were human beings endowed with a soul, a fact that was not seen as evident until then. It resulted in a far higher percentage of blacks being free in 1830 and they were on average exceptionally literate, with a significant number of them owning businesses, properties, and even slaves. Other free people of colour, such as Julien Raimond, spoke out against slavery, during the Age of Enlightenment, many philosophers wrote pamphlets against slavery and its moral and economical justifications, including Montesquieu in The Spirit of the Laws or in the Encyclopédie
26.
Frederick Douglass
–
Frederick Douglass was an African-American social reformer, abolitionist, orator, writer, and statesman. In his time, he was described by abolitionists as a living counter-example to slaveholders arguments that slaves lacked the capacity to function as independent American citizens. Northerners at the found it hard to believe that such a great orator had once been a slave. After the Civil War, Douglass remained an active campaigner against slavery and wrote his last autobiography, Life, First published in 1881 and revised in 1892, three years before his death, it covered events during and after the Civil War. Douglass also actively supported womens suffrage, and held public offices. Douglass was a believer in the equality of all peoples, whether black, female, Native American. He was also a believer in dialogue and in making alliances across racial and ideological divides, one biographer argues, The most influential African American of the nineteenth century, Douglass made a career of agitating the American conscience. He spoke and wrote on behalf of a variety of causes, womens rights, temperance, peace, land reform, free public education. But he devoted the bulk of his time, immense talent and these were the central concerns of his long reform career. Douglass understood that the struggle for emancipation and equality demanded forceful, persistent, and he recognized that African Americans must play a conspicuous role in that struggle. Less than a month before his death, when a black man solicited his advice to an African American just starting out in the world, Douglass replied without hesitation. Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey was born into slavery on the Eastern Shore of the Chesapeake Bay in Talbot County, the plantation was between Hillsboro and Cordova, his birthplace was likely his grandmothers shack east of Tappers Corner, and west of Tuckahoe Creek. The exact date of his birth is unknown, and he chose to celebrate his birthday on February 14. In his first autobiography, Douglass stated, I have no knowledge of my age. Douglass was of mixed race, which likely included Native American on his mothers side and he was given his name by his mother, Harriet Bailey. After escaping to the North years later, he took the surname Douglass and he wrote of his earliest times with his mother, The opinion was. Whispered that my master was my father, but of the correctness of this opinion I know nothing and my mother and I were separated when I was but an infant. It common custom, in the part of Maryland from which I ran away, … I do not recollect ever seeing my mother by the light of day
27.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
28.
Boston Public Library
–
The Boston Public Library is a municipal public library system in Boston, Massachusetts, United States, founded in 1848. In fiscal year 2014, the library held over 10,000 programs, all free to the public, and lent 3.7 million materials. According to its website, the Boston Public Library has a collection of over 23.7 million items, the vast majority of the collection – over 22.7 million volumes — is held in the Central Branch research stacks. Between July 2012 and June 2013, the circulation of the BPL was 3.69 million. The New York Public Library is the other public library that is a member of the ARL. The library has established collections of distinction, based on the depth and breadth, including subjects such as Boston history. In addition, the library is both a federal and state depository of government documents, included in the BPLs research collection are more than 1.7 million rare books and manuscripts. There are large collections of prints, photographs, postcards, the library, for example, holds one of the major collections of watercolors and drawings by Thomas Rowlandson. In the mid-19th century, several people were instrumental in the establishment of the Boston Public Library, George Ticknor, a Harvard professor and trustee of the Boston Athenaeum, raised the possibility of establishing a public library in Boston beginning as early as 1826. At the time, Ticknor could not generate enough interest, in 1839, Alexandre Vattemare, a Frenchman, suggested that all of Bostons libraries combine themselves into one institution for the benefit of the public. The idea was presented to many Boston libraries, however, most were uninterested in the idea, at Vattemares urging, Paris sent gifts of books in 1843 and 1847 to assist in establishing a unified public library. Vattemare made yet another gift of books in 1849, josiah Quincy, Jr. anonymously donated $5,000 to begin the funding of a new library. Quincy made the donation while he was mayor of Boston, indirectly, John Jacob Astor also influenced the establishment of a public library in Boston. At the time of his death, Astor bequeathed $400,000 to New York to establish a library there. Because of the cultural and economic rivalry between Boston and New York, this bequest prompted more discussion of establishing a library in Boston. In 1848, a statute of the Great and General Court of Massachusetts enabled the creation of the library, the library was officially established in Boston by a city ordinance in 1852. Mayor Benjamin Seaver recommended to the city council that a librarian be appointed, in May 1852 the city council adopted the recommendations of the mayor and Edward Capen was chosen to become Boston Public Librarys first librarian. Eager to support the library, Edward Everett collected documents from both houses of Congress, bound them at his own expense, and offered this collection to establish the new library
29.
Internet Archive
–
The Internet Archive is a San Francisco–based nonprofit digital library with the stated mission of universal access to all knowledge. As of October 2016, its collection topped 15 petabytes, in addition to its archiving function, the Archive is an activist organization, advocating for a free and open Internet. Its web archive, the Wayback Machine, contains over 150 billion web captures, the Archive also oversees one of the worlds largest book digitization projects. Founded by Brewster Kahle in May 1996, the Archive is a 501 nonprofit operating in the United States. It has a budget of $10 million, derived from a variety of sources, revenue from its Web crawling services, various partnerships, grants, donations. Its headquarters are in San Francisco, California, where about 30 of its 200 employees work, Most of its staff work in its book-scanning centers. The Archive has data centers in three Californian cities, San Francisco, Redwood City, and Richmond, the Archive is a member of the International Internet Preservation Consortium and was officially designated as a library by the State of California in 2007. Brewster Kahle founded the Archive in 1996 at around the time that he began the for-profit web crawling company Alexa Internet. In October 1996, the Internet Archive had begun to archive and preserve the World Wide Web in large quantities, the archived content wasnt available to the general public until 2001, when it developed the Wayback Machine. In late 1999, the Archive expanded its collections beyond the Web archive, Now the Internet Archive includes texts, audio, moving images, and software. It hosts a number of projects, the NASA Images Archive, the contract crawling service Archive-It. According to its web site, Most societies place importance on preserving artifacts of their culture, without such artifacts, civilization has no memory and no mechanism to learn from its successes and failures. Our culture now produces more and more artifacts in digital form, the Archives mission is to help preserve those artifacts and create an Internet library for researchers, historians, and scholars. In August 2012, the Archive announced that it has added BitTorrent to its file download options for over 1.3 million existing files, on November 6,2013, the Internet Archives headquarters in San Franciscos Richmond District caught fire, destroying equipment and damaging some nearby apartments. The nonprofit Archive sought donations to cover the estimated $600,000 in damage, in November 2016, Kahle announced that the Internet Archive was building the Internet Archive of Canada, a copy of the archive to be based somewhere in the country of Canada. The announcement received widespread coverage due to the implication that the decision to build an archive in a foreign country was because of the upcoming presidency of Donald Trump. Kahle was quoted as saying that on November 9th in America and it was a firm reminder that institutions like ours, built for the long-term, need to design for change. For us, it means keeping our cultural materials safe, private and it means preparing for a Web that may face greater restrictions
30.
LibriVox
–
On 6 August 2016, the project completed project number 10,000. Most releases are in the English language, but many works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that are providing additional content, LibriVox is closely affiliated with Project Gutenberg from where the project gets some of its texts, and the Internet Archive that hosts their offerings. LibriVox was started in August 2005 by Montreal-based writer Hugh McGuire, who set up a blog, the first recorded book was The Secret Agent by Joseph Conrad. LibriVox is an invented word inspired by Latin words liber in its genitive form libri and vox, the word was also coined because of other connotations as liber also means child and free, independent, unrestricted. As the LibriVox forum says it, We like to think LibriVox might be interpreted as child of the voice, finally, the other link we like is library so you could imagine it to mean Library of Voice. There has been no decision or consensus by LibriVox founders or the community of volunteers for a single pronunciation of LibriVox and it is accepted that any audible pronunciation is accurate. LibriVox is a volunteer-run, free content, Public Domain project and it has no budget or legal personality. The development of projects is managed through an Internet forum, supported by an admin team, in early 2010, LibriVox ran a fundraising drive to raise $20,000 to cover hosting costs for the website of about $5, 000/year and improve front- and backend usability. Volunteers can choose new projects to start, either recording on their own or inviting others to join them, once a volunteer has recorded his or her contribution, it is uploaded to the site, and proof-listened by members of the LibriVox community. Finished audiobooks are available from the LibriVox website, and MP3, recordings are also available through other means, such as iTunes, and, being free of copyright, they are frequently distributed independently of LibriVox on the Internet and otherwise. LibriVox only records material that is in the domain in the United States. Because of copyright restrictions, LibriVox produces recordings of only a number of contemporary books. These have included, for example, the 9/11 Commission Report and it contains much popular classic fiction, but also includes less predictable texts, such as Immanuel Kants Critique of Pure Reason and a recording of the first 500 digits of pi. The collection also features poetry, plays, religious texts and non-fiction of various kinds, in January 2009, the catalogue contained approximately 55 percent fiction and drama,25 percent non-fiction and 20 percent poetry. By the end of 2016, the most viewed item was The Adventures of Tom Sawyer in a 2006 solo recording by John Greenman, around 90 percent of the catalogue is recorded in English, but recordings exist in 31 languages altogether. Chinese, French and German are the most popular languages other than English amongst volunteers, LibriVox has garnered significant interest, in particular from those interested in the promotion of volunteer-led content and alternative approaches to copyright ownership on the Internet. It has received support from the Internet Archive and Project Gutenberg, intellectual freedom and commons proponent Mike Linksvayer described it in 2008 as perhaps the most interesting collaborative culture project this side of Wikipedia
31.
Underground Railroad
–
The term is also applied to the abolitionists, both black and white, free and enslaved, who aided the fugitives. Various other routes led to Mexico or overseas, an earlier escape route running south toward Florida, then a Spanish possession, existed from the late 17th century until shortly after the American Revolution. However, the now generally known as the Underground Railroad was formed in the late 1700s. One estimate suggests that by 1850,100,000 slaves had escaped via the Railroad, British North America, where slavery was prohibited, was a popular destination, as its long border gave many points of access. Most former slaves settled in Ontario, more than 30,000 people were said to have escaped there via the network during its 20-year peak period, although U. S. Census figures account for only 6,000. Numerous fugitives stories are documented in the 1872 book The Underground Railroad Records by William Still, the resulting economic impact was minuscule, but the psychological influence on slaveholders was immense. With heavy lobbying by Southern politicians, the Compromise of 1850 was passed by Congress after the Mexican–American War, because the law required sparse documentation to claim a person was a fugitive, slave catchers also kidnapped free blacks, especially children, and sold them into slavery. Southern politicians often exaggerated the number of escaped slaves and often blamed escapes on Northerners interfering with Southern property rights. The law deprived suspected slaves of the right to themselves in court. In a de facto bribe, judges were paid a fee for a decision that confirmed a suspect as a slave than for one ruling that the suspect was free. Many Northerners who might have ignored slave issues in the South were confronted by local challenges that bound them to support slavery. This was a primary grievance cited by the Union during the American Civil War, the escape network was not literally underground nor a railroad. It was figuratively underground in the sense of being an underground resistance and it was known as a railroad by way of the use of rail terminology in the code. The Underground Railroad consisted of meeting points, secret routes, transportation, and safe houses, escaped slaves would move north along the route from one way station to the next. Conductors on the railroad came from various backgrounds and included blacks, white abolitionists, former slaves. Without the presence and support of black residents, there would have been almost no chance for fugitive slaves to pass into freedom unmolested. To reduce the risk of infiltration, many associated with the Underground Railroad knew only their part of the operation. Conductors led or transported the fugitives from station to station, a conductor sometimes pretended to be a slave in order to enter a plantation
32.
William L. Chaplin
–
William Lawrence Chaplin was a prominent abolitionist in the years before the American Civil War. Known by the title of General, he was an agent for the New York Anti-Slavery Society, in 1850 in Washington, DC, Chaplin aided two of the slaves of then congressman Robert Toombs in an attempted escape. The slaves were Lousia and, possibly, Garland H. White, during the pursuit of the escapees, Toombs said that he was more concerned about Lousia than White, as he did not care for White. Both were caught when a posse of six slave catchers chased Chaplins carriage out of Washington, during the chase, the posse shot into the carriage, wounding the occupants. When they were caught, Chaplin was beaten and held in D. C. for six weeks, Chaplin was bailed by prominent abolitionist Gerrit Smith and others. The money was forfeited, as Chaplin skipped bail and returned to New York
33.
Levi Coffin
–
Levi Coffin was an American Quaker, abolitionist, businessman, and humanitarian. He was a leader in the Underground Railroad in Indiana. An estimated three thousand fugitive slaves are believed to have reported to have passed through his care, the Coffin home in Fountain City, Indiana, is often called the Grand Central Station of the Underground Railroad. Born in North Carolina, Coffin was exposed to and developed an opposition to slavery as a child and he followed his family and immigrated to Indiana in 1826, following the slaveholders persecution of Quakers. In Indiana he became a business leader, merchant. Coffins financial position and standing in the community provided the mead to supply food, clothing. At the urging of friends in the movement, Coffin moved to Cincinnati, Ohio. Despite making considerable progress with the business, the venture proved unprofitable. From 1847 through 1857, Coffin continued to assist hundreds of slaves by lodging them in his Ohio home. Coffin retired from life in the 1870s and wrote an autobiography, Reminiscences of Levi Coffin, published in 76. Coffin was born on a farm near New Garden in Guilford County and he was one of seven children and the only son of Prudence and Levi Coffin Sr. Both of his parents were devout Quakers, Coffins father was born in Massachusetts during the 1760s and migrated from Nantucket to North Carolina, where he was a farmer among a community of Quakers. Coffin explained in his autobiography, Reminiscences of Levi Coffin, that he inherited his anti-slavery views from his parent and grandparents, the Coffin family was greatly influenced by the teachings of John Woolman who believed that slaveholding was not fair. Coffins parents probably met Woolman in 1767 during religious meetings held near their New Garden home with other non-slaveholding Quaker families and it is also likely that his cousin, Vestal Coffin, attended the meeting. Coffin grew up on the farm in North Carolina. He was educated at home and received little, if any, exposed to slaves throughout his childhood, he sympathized with their condition. According to his own account, Coffin became an abolitionist at the age of seven when he asked a slave who was in a chain gang why he was bound, the man replied that it was to prevent him from escaping and returning to his wife and children. The event disturbed Coffin, who considered the impact of a father being taken away from his family, by the age of fifteen, Coffin was helping his family assist escaping slaves by taking food to those who were hiding on his familys farm
34.
Richard Dillingham
–
Tried April 12,1849, he was sentenced to three years in the Tennessee State Penitentiary in Nashville. He undertook the project, though fully conscious that he encountered great danger, reaching Nashville, he made himself known to the slaves whom he had come to rescue, and made private arrangements with them about escaping. At the appointed time the party left the city, the three slaves being in a hack, which Dillingham had hired, with a colored man who acted as driver. The way to freedom and safety seemed open, but treachery thwarted all their plans, a colored man in whom Dillingham had confided, betrayed him–through what motive, it is not known--and the whole party were arrested when they reached the bridge across the Cumberland river. Tried and convicted for Negro stealing, Dillingham was given the sentence of three years. Levi Coffins Memoir relates what happened next, Richard Dillingham was transferred from the county jail to the penitentiary and he was allowed to write to his friends but once in three months, and his letters were inspected by the warden. His health suffered, and he became despondent, after nine months imprisonment he was made steward of the penitentiary hospital, a post which he filled to the satisfaction of the prison officials. In the summer of 1850, the cholera broke out among the inmates of the penitentiary, Richard Dillingham dealt out medicines, and was unwearied in his attentions to his fellow prisoners, many of whom he saw die and be buried in one day. At last the solemn message came to him, one Sabbath morning he was attacked with cholera, he died at two oclock, p. m. and was buried at half past three. The exact location of Dillinghams grave is not known and he was buried in a cemetery on the prison grounds. The site was built over in the course of Nashvilles later urban development, the Key to Uncle Toms Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe A. L. Benedict, Memoir of Richard Dillingham, Philadelphia, Merrihew and Thompson, Printers,1852. Full text facsimile from Samuel J. May Anti-Slavery Collection, Cornell University ISBN 1-4297-1672-X Wilbur H. Seibert, The Underground Railroad from Slavery to Freedom, New York, Richard Dillingham at Find a Grave The Cross by John Greenleaf Whittier
35.
Calvin Fairbank
–
Calvin Fairbank was an American abolitionist and Methodist minister from New York state who was twice convicted in Kentucky of aiding the escape of slaves, and served a total of 19 years in prison. Fairbank is believed to have aided the escape of 47 slaves, pardoned in 1849 after four years of his first sentence, Fairbank returned to his Underground Railroad work. He was arrested in 1851 with the aid of the governor of Indiana, Fairbank was convicted again in Kentucky and served the full sentence of 15 years. Calvin Fairbank was born in 1816 in Pike, in what is now Wyoming County, New York, to Chester Fairbank and his wife and it was also the period of the Second Great Awakening, and western New York was a center of evangelical activity. Listening to the stories told by two escaped slaves whom he met at a Methodist quarterly meeting, the young Fairbank became strongly anti-slavery. He began his career freeing slaves in 1837 when, piloting a lumber raft down the Ohio River, soon he was delivering escaped slaves to the Quaker abolitionist Levi Coffin for transportation on the Underground Railroad to northern US cities or to Canada. The Methodist Episcopal Church licensed Fairbank to preach in 1840 and ordained him as a minister in 1842, hoping to improve his education, he enrolled in 1844 in the preparatory division of Oberlin Collegiate Institute in Ohio, now Oberlin College. It was interracial and a center of anti-slavery sentiment, at Oberlin, Fairbank met future AME bishop, John M. Brown and the pair worked together in underground railroad activities. She was to help with the rescue, but Berrys wife failed to meet Fairbank as planned, by chance, he met Lewis Hayden and his family, who were planning an escape. He asked Hayden, Why do you want your freedom, Hayden responded, Because I am a man. Fairbank and Webster transported Hayden, his wife Harriet and Harriets son Joseph by carriage to freedom in Ripley, the fugitive couple put flour on their faces to appear white and, in times of danger, would hide their son under the wagon seat. As Fairbank and Webster returned to Kentucky, they were identified and arrested for assisting the runaway slaves. Webster was tried in December 1844 and sentenced to two years in the Kentucky state penitentiary, but she was pardoned by the governor after serving less than two months of her sentence. Fairbank was tried in 1845 and sentenced to a 15-year term and he was pardoned in 1849 in an effort begun by his father. Effectively Lewis Hayden ransomed Fairbank, as he raised the $650 demanded by his master to approve the pardon. Hayden had quickly collected the money within a few weeks from 160 people in Boston, in 1851, Fairbank helped a slave named Tamar escape from Kentucky to Indiana. In 1852, he was sentenced to 15 years in the state penitentiary, while imprisoned, he was singled out for exceptionally harsh treatment, he was frequently flogged and overworked. Over his combined imprisonment of more than 17 years, Fairbank was reported to have received 35,000 lashes in prison floggings
36.
Thomas Garrett
–
Thomas Garrett was an American abolitionist and leader in the Underground Railroad movement before the American Civil War. Garrett was born into a prosperous landowning Quaker family on their homestead called Riverview Farm in Delaware County, when Thomas was a boy, one of the familys free black female servants was kidnapped by men who intended to sell her into slavery in the South. The Garrets rescued her, but this incident confirmed them in their abolitionist views, and all the sons would become involved in abolitionism. He established an iron and hardware business and made it prosper, later that year, Wales and Garrett represented the group at the National Convention of Abolitionists. In 1835, Garrett became a director of the new Wilmington Gas Company, Garrett openly worked as a stationmaster on the last stop of the Underground Railroad in Delaware. Because he openly defied slave hunters as well as the slave system, the authorities were aware of his activities, but he was never arrested. In 1848, however, he and fellow Quaker John Hunn were sued in federal court, U. S. Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger B. Taney presided at the trial in the New Castle Court House, Garrett and Hunn were found guilty of violating the Fugitive Slave Act by helping a family of slaves escape. As the architect of the escape, Garrett received a $4,500 fine, a lien was put on his house until the fine was paid, with the aid of friends. Garrett thus continued in his iron and hardware business and helping runaway slaves to freedom, william Lloyd Garrison, whom Garrett admired greatly, once visited him. However, they held different views regarding the opposition to slavery, Garrison was willing to be a martyr to the abolition of slavery and would not defend himself if attacked physically. Garrett, on the hand, believed slavery could only be abolished through a civil war and. Garrett was also a friend and benefactor to the great Underground Railroad Conductor Harriet Tubman, in addition to lodging and meals, Garrett frequently provided her with money and shoes to continue her missions conducting runaways from slavery to freedom. Garrett also provided Tubman with the money and the means for her parents to escape from the South, the number of runaways Garrett assisted has sometimes been exaggerated. He said he only helped 2,700 before the Civil War put an end to slavery, during the American Civil War, the free Negroes of Wilmington guarded Garretts house. When the 15th Amendment passed, giving Negro males the right to vote, Wilmingtons African Americans carried Garrett through the streets in an open barouche with a sign, Garrett died on January 25,1871, at the age of 81. Freed blacks carried his bier on their shoulders to the Quaker Meeting House on West 4th Street in Wilmington, in 1993, Wilmington named Tubman-Garrett Riverfront Park after the two Underground Railroad agents and friends. Pennsylvania and Delaware have also erected historical markers at sites associated with Garrett, in Drexel Hill and Wilmington and his house, Thornfield, remains private property near the historic marker on Garrett Road in Upper Darby
37.
Laura Smith Haviland
–
Laura Smith Haviland was an American abolitionist, suffragette, and social reformer. She was an important figure in the history of the Underground Railroad, Haviland’s father was a minister in the Society and her mother was an Elder. Though the Quakers dressed plainly, and strictly forbade dancing, singing, Quaker women as well as men acted as ministers. While most Quakers did not agitate vocally for abolition, the majority condemned slavery as brutal and it was in this atmosphere that Haviland was raised. In 1815, her family left Canada and returned to the United States, settling in the remote and sparsely populated town of Cambria, in western New York. At the time there was no school near their home, at sixteen, Laura met Charles Haviland, Jr. a devout young Quaker, whose parents were both respected ministers. They were married on November 11,1825, at Lockport, according to Laura, Charles was a devoted husband and theirs was a happy marriage. They were the parents of eight children, the Havilands spent the first four years of their marriage in Royalton Township, near Lockport, New York, before moving in September,1829, to Raisin, Lenawee County in the Michigan Territory. They settled three miles from the homestead her parents acquired four years earlier, Michigan was then a largely unsettled wilderness, but land was cheap, and there were a number of other Quakers in the vicinity. Haviland vividly recalled seeing African Americans verbally abused, and even physically assaulted, in Lockport, New York and these experiences, combined with the horrific descriptions in John Woolmans history of the slave-trade, made an indelible impression. Haviland and other members of the Raisin community helped Elizabeth Margaret Chandler organize the Logan Female Anti-Slavery Society in 1832 and it was the first anti-slavery organization in Michigan. Five years later, in 1837, Haviland and her husband founded a manual labor school…designed for indigent children, Haviland instructed the girls in household chores, while her husband and one of her brothers, Harvey Smith, taught the boys to perform farm work. At the Havilands insistence, the school was open to all children, “regardless of race, creed, some of Havilands white students, upon learning they were to study with African Americans, threatened to leave. Most were persuaded to remain, however, and Laura wrote that once the students were together in the classroom their prejudices “soon melted away. ”In 1838, Harvey Smith sold his farm, and the proceeds were used to erect accommodations for fifty students. The Havilands expanded the curriculum, operating it more closely along the lines of traditional elementary and secondary schools. They then hired a graduate of Oberlin College to serve as the schools principal, due to their diligence, the Raisin Institute was soon recognized as one of the best schools in the Territory. As the Havilands became more involved in anti-slavery work, tensions grew within the Quaker community. There was a split between the so-called “radical abolitionists, ” like the Havilands, who wanted immediate emancipation, although the Quakers condemned slavery, most did not approve of active participation in abolitionist societies
38.
Daniel Hughes (underground railroad)
–
Daniel Hughes was a conductor, agent and station master in the Underground Railroad based in Loyalsock Township, Lycoming County, Pennsylvania in the United States. He was the owner of a barge on the Pennsylvania Canal and transported lumber from Williamsport on the West Branch Susquehanna River to Havre de Grace, Hughes home was located in a hollow or small valley in the mountains just north of Williamsport. This hollow is now known as Freedom Road, having previously been called Nigger Hollow, in response to the actions of concerned African American citizens of Williamsport, the pejorative name was formally changed by the Williamsport City Council in 1936. Hughes was a man of a racial background. The census of 1850 designated him as a mulatto and he was at least part Mohawk. He was a giant for his time, standing 6 feet 8 inches, Hughes moved to Williamsport in 1828 and married a local African American freewoman, Ann Rotch. According to the 1850 census, she too was mulatto and his work on the river and canals gave him an opportunity to take an important role in the Underground Railroad. Hughes barge and home provided a haven for the fugitive slaves. His property in the north of Williamsport was in a densely wooded area that was covered with vines. A series of caves under the Hughes property provided further cover for the runaway slaves. Although Daniel Hughes operated in an area of the United States where slavery had long since been banned, Hughes, his wife and 16 children had to take care in hiding their work to liberate the slaves. Allowing slave catchers to pursue runaways into the states made life more dangerous and difficult for all conductors on the Underground Railroad. Racial tensions in Lycoming County were also at a high in the following the Muncy Abolition Riot of 1842. Hughes was forced to lead the slaves under the cover of darkness, local bounty hunters and professional slave catchers from the south sought to capture any slaves that they could. Hughes and his sons tried to work on moonless nights, Hughes led the fugitive slaves from his home to the next station in Lewis Township near the hamlet of Trout Run on Lycoming Creek. From there the slaves would work their way north to Elmira, New York, Daniel Hughes son, Robert, recalled many details of his experiences on the Underground Railroad in his later years. He said about the runaways, We would hide them in the woods in brush houses, I was just a little boy, but I remember very well carrying meals out to them in the woods. They usually traveled in groups of two or three men, often patrollers would come to our place looking for runaways
39.
William Cooper Nell
–
Writing for abolitionist newspapers The Liberator and The North Star, he helped publicize the anti-slavery cause. He published the North Star from 1847 to 18xx, moving temporarily to Rochester and he also helped found the New England Freedom Association in the early 1840s, and later the Committee of Vigilance, to aid refugee slaves. The Committee of Vigilance supported resistance to the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, Nells short histories, Services of Colored Americans in the Wars of 1776 and 1812 and The Colored Patriots of the American Revolution, were the first studies published about African Americans. He is noted as the first African American to serve in the civil service. Nell was born in 1816 in Boston, Massachusetts to Louise Cooper, from Brookline and his father was an important figure in the abolitionist movement, having helped to create the Massachusetts General Colored Association in the 1820s. Nell encountered racial discrimination as a student, in 1829 he was passed over for an award given to excellent students upon graduation from the Smith School, apparently because of his ethnicity, and excluded from a celebratory dinner. The award was financially supported by the estate of anti-slavery advocate Benjamin Franklin, the school committee instead gave Nell The Life of Ben Franklin, an autobiography. Inspired by the founding of William Lloyd Garrisons newspaper, The Liberator, Nell decided to challenge race-based discrimination and segregation, Nell was particularly interested in encouraging the intellectual and social well-being of young African Americans. He was dedicated to integration and opposed the separate abolitionist organizations for blacks, in his devotion to integration, he dismantled the abolitionist Massachusetts General Colored Association, which had been organized by his father. Nell studied law in the early 1830s and he was never admitted to the bar because he would not swear allegiance to the Constitution of the United States, as he believed it was a pro-slavery document. He was influenced by the opinions of Garrison and Wendell Phillips, around this time, Nell also began his association with Garrison and The Liberator. This connection would continue until the paper closed in 1865, Nell fought for the ideals of Garrison throughout the abolitionist campaign. In 1855 Nell and his colleagues gained a victory, segregation was ended in Boston schools, Nell also encouraged young African Americans to learn outside of the public school system. Garrison said of him, Perhaps no one has done so much—certainly no one has done more—for the intellectual and moral improvement of our colored youth, in 1843, Nell continued his crusade against segregation within the abolitionist movement by denouncing the Buffalo National Negro Convention. He claimed they served as, and promoted, exactly the type of separate abolitionism he was fighting against, on the other hand, he was influential in beginning the New England Freedom Association, an all-black organization which helped fugitive slaves in the North. In this case, Nell supported an African-American group since he believed its cause was closer to the hearts of blacks than whites, Nell publicized the Freedom Associations direct aid to fugitive slaves as well as the abolitionist cause. He also fought for education and encouraged the improvement of young African Americans, with John T. Hilton, he founded the Adelphia Union. He was a leader in campaigns to desegregate public facilities in Boston, Nell served as publisher to Frederick Douglass The North Star, from late 1847 until 1851, moving temporarily to Rochester, New York, during this period
40.
Harriet Forten Purvis
–
Harriet Forten Purvis was an African-American abolitionist and first generation suffragette. With her mother and sisters, she formed the first biracial womens abolitionist group and she hosted anti-slavery events at her home and with her husband Robert Purvis ran an Underground Railroad station. Robert and Harriet also founded the Gilbert Lyceum and she fought against segregation and for the right for blacks to vote after the Civil War. Harriet Davy Forten, born in Philadelphia in 1810, was one of eight children of James Forten and Charlotte Vandine Forten, James Forten was a wealthy inventor, businessman and abolitionist who was born free. Forten, born in 1766, was a boy and was taken prisoner from the Royal Lewis during the Revolutionary War. Her father was given a start in business by Robert Bridges, Harriet was named for one of Bridges daughters. The Fortens, the most well-known black family in the city, were noted for their gentility and hospitality, William Lloyd Garrison wrote of the family who have few superiors in refinement, in moral worth, in all that makes the human character worthy of admiration and praise. Her father is one of the 100 Greatest African Americans, as determined by Professor Molefi Kete Asante in 2002, James and Charlotte helped found and fund six abolitionist organizations. Many abolitionists who visited Philadelphia stayed in the Forten house, the first countrys biracial abolitionist organization, the Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society, was founded by Charlotte, her daughters, and Lucretia Mott. The Forten women were members and officers. Her father established a school with Grace Douglass. Harriet and her siblings attended the school and was taught foreign languages. Her younger sisters were Sara and Margaretta, born in 1814 and 1815, there was also a sister named Mary Isabella. Her brothers were James, William Deas, Robert Bridges, the girls were raised to be refined women. Abolitionist and poet John Greenleaf Whittier wrote a verse for Harriet and she was also said to have the ladylike demeanor and manners of a Southern belle. Harriet read a range of literature, including novels, religious works, literary criticism, antislavery literature. She engaged in debate and enjoyed reading aloud, with a speaking voice. She sought people who had interests in music, art
41.
Robert Purvis
–
Robert Purvis was an American abolitionist in the United States. He was born in Charleston, South Carolina, and was educated at Amherst College in Massachusetts, in 1833 he helped found the American Anti-Slavery Society and the Library Company of Colored People. From 1845–1850 he served as president of the Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society, of mixed race, Purvis and his brothers were three-quarters European by ancestry and inherited considerable wealth from their native English father after his death in 1826. Purviss parents had lived in common law marriage, preventing them from marrying because his mother was a woman of color, of Moroccan. Purvis was born in 1810 in Charleston, South Carolina and his maternal grandparents were Dido Badaraka, a former slave, and Baron Judah, a Jewish American native of Charleston. His mother Harriet Judah was therefore a free woman of color, Purviss father was an English immigrant. He described her as a full-blooded Moor, dark-skinned with tightly curled hair and she was freed at age 19 by her masters will. Harriets father was Baron Judah, born in Charleston of European-Jewish descent, Baron was the third of ten children born to Hillel Judah, a German-Jewish immigrant, and Charleston native Abigail Seixas, his Sephardic Jewish wife. Purvis told the reporter that his grandparents Badaraka and Judah had married and this claim has been questioned by 21st century biographers, given the social prominence of the Judah family in Charleston. Badaraka and Judah had a relationship for years, and had two children together, Harriet and her brother. In 1790, Judah broke off his relationship with Badaraka when he moved with his parents from Charleston to Savannah, in 1791 he moved to Richmond, Virginia. There he married a Jewish woman and had four children with her and his father died while he was a child, and his mother moved to Edinburgh for her sons education. He immigrated to the United States as a man with some of his brothers to make their fortunes. William became a cotton salesman in Charleston and was a naturalized United States citizen. William Purvis and Harriet Judah lived together as husband and wife, the couple had three sons, William born in 1806, Robert born in 1810, and Joseph born in 1812. In 1819 the family moved north to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where the boys attended the Pennsylvania Abolitionist Societys Clarkson School, William intended to consolidate his business affairs and return with his family to England, where he thought his sons would have better opportunities. He died in 1826 before they could move, Purvis had intended his sons to be educated as gentlemen, and Robert and Joseph Purvis both graduated from Amherst College in Massachusetts. They returned to Philadelphia, where their family was among the black elite, after their father died, Purvis and his two brothers were to share an estate worth $250,000
42.
John Rankin (abolitionist)
–
John Rankin was an American Presbyterian minister, educator and abolitionist. Upon moving to Ripley, Ohio in 1822, he known as one of Ohios first and most active conductors on the Underground Railroad. Prominent pre-Civil War abolitionists William Lloyd Garrison, Henry Ward Beecher and Harriet Beecher Stowe were influenced by Rankins writings, when Henry Ward Beecher was asked after the end of the Civil War, Who abolished slavery. He answered, Reverend John Rankin and his sons did, Rankin was born at Dandridge, Jefferson County, Tennessee, and raised in a strict Calvinist home. He attended Washington College near Jonesborough, and soon after married Jean Lowry, in 1814, he became a Presbyterian minister. Not a natural speaker, Rankin worked hard while at Jefferson County Presbyterian Church simply to deliver an effective sermon. Within a few months, however, despite Tennessees status as a state, he summoned the courage to speak against all forms of oppression and then, specifically. He was shocked when his elders responded by telling him that he should consider leaving Tennessee if he intended ever to oppose slavery from the pulpit again. On the way north, Rankin stopped to preach at Lexington and Paris, Kentucky, spurred by a financial crisis in the area, Rankin decided to complete his familys journey to Ripley. On the night of December 31,1821 – January 1,1822, in Ripley he founded a Presbyterian academy for boys, where in 1838 the young Ulysses S. Grant once attended. In 1822 Ripley was a town of frequent street fights and shootouts where the most common type of business was a saloon. When the local newspaper began publishing his letters to his brother on the topic of slavery, Slave owners and hunters often viewed him as their prime suspect and appeared at his door at all hours demanding information about fugitives. Soon, Rankin realized that the home was too accessible a place for him to raise his family. Folklore associated with the Rankin home suggested that a lantern or candle was placed in the front window to guide runaway slaves from across the Ohio River in Mason County, however, ex-slave narrative recall a pole with a light. This is a more plausible means of being based on the proximity of the house to the river. From there the family could raise a lantern on a flagpole to signal fleeing slaves in Kentucky when it was safe for them to cross the Ohio River. Rankin also constructed a staircase leading up the hill to the house for slaves to climb up to safety on their way further north, for over forty years leading up to the Civil War, many of the slaves who escaped to freedom through Ripley stayed at the familys home. It became known as the Rankin House and is now a U. S. National historic landmark, stowes wife also heard the account and later modeled the character Eliza in her book Uncle Toms Cabin after the woman
43.
Gerrit Smith
–
Gerrit Smith was a leading United States social reformer, abolitionist, politician, and philanthropist. A staunch abolitionist, he was a member of the Secret Six who financially supported John Browns raid at Harpers Ferry, Smith was born in Utica, Oneida County, New York, to Peter Gerrit Smith and Elizabeth Smith, daughter of Col. James Livingston and Elizabeth Livingston. Smiths maternal aunt, Margaret Livingston, was married to Judge Daniel Cady and their daughter Elizabeth Cady Stanton, a founder and leader of the womens suffrage movement, was Smiths first cousin. Elizabeth Cady met her husband, Henry Stanton, also an active abolitionist, at the Smith family home in Peterboro. Established in 1795, the town had been founded by and named for Gerrit Smiths father, Peter Smith, Gerrit Smith graduated from Hamilton College in 1818. In January 1819, he married Wealtha Ann Backus, daughter of Hamilton Colleges first President, Azel Backus D. D. and sister of Frederick F. Backus, but Wealtha died in August of the same year. Returning home from college, Smith took on the management of the vast estate of his father, a partner of John Jacob Astor. In 1822, he married Ann Carroll Fitzhugh, sister of Henry Fitzhugh and they had two children, Elizabeth Smith Miller and Greene Smith. About 1828 Smith became a temperance campaigner, and in his hometown of Peterboro. He became an abolitionist in 1835, after attending a meeting in Utica. In 1840 Smith played a part in the organization of the Liberty Party. In the same year, their presidential candidate James G. Birney married Elizabeth Potts Fitzhugh, Smith and Birney travelled to London that year to attend the World Anti-Slavery Convention in London. Birney, but not Smith, are recorded in the painting of the event. In 1848, Smith was nominated for the Presidency by the remnant of this organization that had not been absorbed by the Free Soil Party, an Industrial Congress at Philadelphia also nominated him for the presidency in 1848, and the Land Reformers in 1856. In 1840 and again in 1858, he ran for Governor of New York on an anti-slavery platform, on June 2,1848, in Rochester, New York, Smith was nominated as the Liberty Partys presidential candidate. Argues, conclusively, that, not as yet, is one nation so far emerged from barbarism. In 1852, Smith was elected to the United States House of Representatives as a Free-Soiler, at the end of the first session, he resigned his seat, largely out of frustration concerning the imminent passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Smith, disillusioned by the apparent failure of electoral change, brought his life quickly to a close
44.
William Still
–
William Still was an African-American abolitionist in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, conductor on the Underground Railroad, businessman, writer, historian and civil rights activist. Before the American Civil War, Still was chairman of the Vigilance Committee of the Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society, William Still was born October 7,1821, in Shamong Township, Burlington County, New Jersey to Sidney and Levin Still. His parents had come to New Jersey separately, first, his father bought his freedom in 1798 from his master in Caroline County, Maryland on the Eastern Shore and moved north to New Jersey. His mother, Charity, escaped twice from Maryland, the first time, she and four children were all recaptured and returned to slavery. A few months later, Charity escaped again, taking only her two daughters with her and reached her husband in New Jersey. Following her escape, Charity and Levin had 14 more children, though these children were born in the free state of New Jersey, under Maryland and federal slave law, they were still legally slaves, as their mother was an escaped slave. According to New Jersey law, they were free, however, neither Charity nor Levin could free their older boys, who remained enslaved. Levin, Jr. and Peter Still were sold from Maryland to slaveowners in Lexington, later they were resold to planters in Alabama in the Deep South. Levin, Jr. died from a whipping while enslaved and they were the subject of a book published in 1856. Peter Still sought help at the Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society to find his parents or other members of his birth family, thus he met William Still, but had no idea they were related. However, William listened to Peters story, and recognized the history his mother had told him many times, after learning that his older brother Levin was whipped to death for visiting his wife without permission, William shouted, What if I told you I was your brother. Later Peter and his mother were reunited after having been separated for 42 years, another of Williams brothers was James Still. Born in New Jersey in 1812, James wanted to become a doctor, James studied herbs and plants and apprenticed himself to a white doctor to learn medicine. He became known as the Black Doctor of the Pines, as he lived and practiced in the Pine Barrens, jamess son, James Thomas Still, completed his dream, graduating from Harvard Medical School in 1871. William’s other siblings included Levin, Jr. Peter, James, Samuel, Mary, a teacher and missionary in the African Methodist Episcopal Church, Mahala, and Kitturah, in 1844, William Still moved from New Jersey to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In 1847, the year he was hired as a clerk for the Pennsylvania Society for the Abolition of Slavery and they had four children who survived infancy. Their oldest was Caroline Virginia Matilda Still, a female medical doctor. Caroline attended Oberlin College and the Womens Medical College of Philadelphia and she married Edward J. Wyley and, after his death, the Reverend Matthew Anderson, longtime pastor of the Berean Presbyterian Church in North Philadelphia
45.
Harriet Beecher Stowe
–
Harriet Elisabeth Beecher Stowe was an American abolitionist and author. She came from the Beecher family, a religious family. It depicts the life for African Americans under slavery. It reached millions as a novel and play, and became influential in the United States and it energized anti-slavery forces in the American North, while provoking widespread anger in the South. She wrote 30 books, including novels, three memoirs, and collections of articles and letters. She was influential for both her writings and her public stands on issues of the day. Harriet Elisabeth Beecher was born in Litchfield, Connecticut, on June 14,1811 and she was the seventh of 13 children born to outspoken Calvinist preacher Lyman Beecher and Roxana, a deeply religious woman who died when Stowe was only five years old. Roxanas maternal grandfather was General Andrew Ward of the Revolutionary War, among her classmates was Sarah P. Willis, who later wrote under the pseudonym Fanny Fern. In 1832, at the age of 21, Harriet Beecher moved to Cincinnati, Ohio to join her father, who had become the president of Lane Theological Seminary. There, she joined the Semi-Colon Club, a literary salon and social club whose members included the Beecher sisters, Caroline Lee Hentz, Salmon P. Chase, Emily Blackwell. Areas of the city had been wrecked in the Cincinnati riots of 1829, Beecher met a number of African Americans who had suffered in those attacks, and their experience contributed to her later writing about slavery. Riots took place again in 1836 and 1841, driven also by native-born anti-abolitionists and it was in the literary club that she met Calvin Ellis Stowe, a widower who was a professor at the seminary. The two married on January 6,1836 and he was an ardent critic of slavery, and the Stowes supported the Underground Railroad, temporarily housing several fugitive slaves in their home. Most slaves continued north to freedom in Canada. The Stowes had seven children together, including twin daughters, in 1850, Congress passed the Fugitive Slave Law, prohibiting assistance to fugitives and strengthening sanctions even in free states. At the time, Stowe had moved with her family to Brunswick, Maine and their home near the campus is protected as a national historic resource in her honor. Stowe claimed to have a vision of a slave during a communion service at the college chapel. However, what more likely allowed her to empathize with slaves was the loss of her eighteen-month-old son and she even stated the following, Having experienced losing someone so close to me, I can sympathize with all the poor, powerless slaves at the unjust auctions
