1.
Rhodesia
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Rhodesia, commonly known from 1970 onwards as the Republic of Rhodesia, was an unrecognised state in southern Africa from 1965 to 1979, equivalent in territorial terms to modern Zimbabwe. With its capital in Salisbury, Rhodesia was considered a de facto successor state to the former British colony of Southern Rhodesia, the UDI administration initially sought recognition as an autonomous realm within the Commonwealth of Nations, but reconstituted itself as a republic in 1970. Following a brutal guerrilla war fought with two African nationalist organisations, Rhodesian premier Ian Smith conceded to bi-racial democracy in 1978, however, a provisional government subsequently headed by Smith and his moderate colleague Abel Muzorewa failed in appeasing international critics or halting the bloodshed. It finally achieved internationally recognised independence in April 1980, the nation was renamed the Republic of Zimbabwe. A wholly landlocked area, Rhodesia was bordered by South Africa to the south, Bechuanaland to the southwest, Zambia to the northwest, the state was named after Cecil Rhodes, whose British South Africa Company acquired the land in the late 19th century. The official name of the country, according to the constitution adopted concurrently with the Unilateral Declaration of Independence in 1965, was Rhodesia and this naming dispute dated back to October 1964, when Northern Rhodesia became independent from Britain and concurrently changed its name to Zambia. The Southern Rhodesian colonial government in Salisbury felt that in the absence of a Northern Rhodesia, Salisbury went on using the shortened name in an official manner nevertheless, while the British government continued referring to the country as Southern Rhodesia. This situation continued throughout the UDI period, the shortened name was used by many people including the British government in the House of Commons. Southern Rhodesia subsequently gained international recognition of its independence in April 1980, in 1922, faced with the decision to join the Union of South Africa as a fifth province or accept nearly full internal autonomy, the electorate cast its vote against South African integration. In view of the outcome of the referendum, the territory was annexed by the United Kingdom on 12 September 1923, shortly after annexation, on 1 October 1923, the first constitution for the new Colony of Southern Rhodesia came into force. By colonial standards, public services were well-organised and praised for their efficiency, as it began to appear that decolonisation was inevitable and indigenous black populations were pressing heavily for change, the federation was dissolved in 1963. Rhodesian colonials initially balked at the suggestion, some felt they had a right to political control, at least for the time being. The authorities were also disturbed by the chaos which was plaguing other African nations at the time. Harold Wilson and his incoming Labour government took a harder line on demanding that these points be legitimately addressed before an independence agenda could be set. By 1964, growing dissatisfaction with the ongoing negotiations ousted Salisburys incumbent Winston Field, replacing him with Ian Smith, Smith, the colonys first Rhodesian-born leader, soon came to personify resistance to liberals in British government and those agitating for change at home. Emboldened by the results of referendum and the subsequent general election. Harold Wilson countered by warning that such a procedure would be considered treasonous, although he specifically rejected using armed force against the English kith. Wilsons refusal to consider a military option encouraged Smith to proceed with his plans, on 11 November 1965, following a brief but solemn consensus, Rhodesias leading statesmen issued their countrys unilateral declaration of independence
2.
Selous Scouts
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The Selous Scouts was a special forces regiment of the Rhodesian Army, that operated from 1973 until the reconstitution of the country as Zimbabwe in 1980. Named after the British explorer Frederick Courteney Selous, its motto was pamwe chete—a Shona phrase roughly meaning all together, together only or forward together, the charter of the Selous Scouts directed them to the clandestine elimination of terrorists/terrorism both within and without the country. The period during which the Selous Scouts were most active was during the Rhodesian Bush War and this was a war of annihilation through terrorism and insurgency waged by black guerrillas with the goal of ending white minority rule in Rhodesia, a nation led by Prime Minister Ian Smith. However, it was a nation of a few hundred thousand whites, principally farmers. As a land-locked nation, that had recently declared its independence from Britain, Rhodesia was quickly isolated by the United Kingdom. Ultimately, these led to the creation of its counter-insurgency unit. This concept of unit was similar to the Portuguese Flechas, operating in the nearby territories of Angola. The Selous Scouts had many black Rhodesians in their ranks who were from 50%–80% of its ranks, many times, due to their intelligence collecting, the HUMINT side of the Selous Scouts was more up to date than the guerrillas. Compartmentalization was key, and the basis was strictly enforced. While on a mission to assassinate Nkomo they had to observe operational security and this consisted of using code words to tell a handler when one was out of money or to warn the agent if the authorities were aware of his activities in Zambia. This message would tell the scout whether he had to leave Zambia the traditional route of using buses or cars or if he had to leave Zambia through the bush. Part of the problem in the days of the Selous Scouts and Rhodesia, was that the security forces. If the guerrilla were injured in a skirmish, the first thing would be to make sure no one knew of his existence. While still wounded the guerrilla would be brought into the Selous Scouts fort, with the realisation that his life was being saved, a feeling of gratitude would normally follow. The next step was to send a former guerrilla or tame terr to visit him in the hospital. He would next be examined by the Selous Scouts only, in order to ensure loyalty, if passed, additionally, and where possible, the guerrillas family would be moved into protection where they would receive free rations, housing, education, and medical care. In most cases the guerrilla chose to side with the security forces, the Selous Scouts had to make a final, difficult decision on whether to allow the turned guerrilla into their group or not. This decision had largely to do with their gut feeling of how the guerrilla presented himself, was he trustworthy or was he just biding his time
3.
Rhodesian Light Infantry
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Barely a year after its creation, it was relocated to Cranborne Barracks where its headquarters remained for the rest of its existence. An all-white regiment, the RLI was made up wholly of professional soldiers until 1973, Foreign volunteers from across the world, many veterans of foreign conflicts, also joined and became a key part of the Regiment. So prominent were the airborne aspects of typical RLI operations that the battalion became a regiment in 1976. The RLI served under the government of Zimbabwe Rhodesia in 1979. After serving under the new government of Zimbabwe for a brief period, the RLIs tactics and training contributed to repeated successes in its counter-insurgency operations. Says United States Army Lieutenant-Colonel Dave Grossman. added up to nothing less than total tactical superiority, the regiment was assembled into a Headquarters and four company-sized units called Commandos, One, Two, Three and Support. As a premise, a commando could have five troops, of only four troops were normally activated. However, with the arrival of Intake 150 the commandos were up to strength for the first. Some of the commandos mustered five troops until the end of 1976, with the university students demobbing at the end of 1976, the commandos reverted back to four troops. The troops in each commando relayed R&R consistently one at a time, depending on the deployment and/or purpose, troops were divided into a small headquarters and either two patrols or three sections. Support Commando had a history dissimilar to all the units and. Battalion Headquarters — Front and Rear — was called Base Group, Base Group imparted logistical, operational and tactical support at the Front, through specialised sub-units, and organised administrative support at the Rear. A sizable portion of the support was performed by other military services stationed at Cranborne Barracks for that purpose. Signals Troop and Tracking Troop were specialised sub-units that interpolated into Support Group or Base Group, Signals Troop focused on front line communications in support of special operations and airborne forces, but also provided other essential services for the Battalion. A high percentage of Signals Troop had served in one or more Commandos before being selected and trained as communicators, during the early planning stages for proposed changes to Support Group, it was accepted that Base Group was more suitable as the cynosure for all signals. So Signals Troop was scattered but still functioned as the organ that connected all the detachments in the network. The majority were transmigrated to Support Group where they became known as Reconnaissance Troop after the change to a Commando was actualised. As mentioned, Support Commando had been called Support Group and came from the original Headquarters Company, consequently, they had some additional skills, Support Commando had a Headquarters and four cross-trained Troops, Mortar, Assault Pioneer, Anti-Tank and Reconnaissance
4.
World Organization of the Scout Movement
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The World Organization of the Scout Movement is the largest international Scouting organization. These members are recognized national Scout organizations, which collectively have over 40 million participants, WOSM was established in 1922, and has its operational headquarters at Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia and its legal seat in Geneva, Switzerland. It is the counterpart of the World Association of Girl Guides, WOSM is organized into regions and operates with a conference, committee and bureau. The WOSM is associated with three World Scout Centres, the World Scout Jamboree is held roughly every four years under the auspices of the WOSM, with members of WAGGGS also invited. WOSM also organises the World Scout Moot, a Jamboree for 17- to 26-year-olds, and has organised the World Scout Indaba, a gathering for Scout leaders. The World Scout Foundation is a perpetual fund governed by a separate Board of Governors, WOSM is a non-governmental organization with General Consultative Status to the United Nations Economic and Social Council. As a result of a conference held during the first World Scout Jamboree at Olympia, London in 1920. The first task of the bureau was to co-ordinate the discussions, at the 1922 Paris conference The International Conference of the Boy Scout Movement, its committee and BSIB were constituted by the founding member organizations. In 1961 The International Conference of the Boy Scout Movement reconstituted the organization introducing the name World Organization of the Scout Movement, the World Scout Conference is the governing body and meets every three years, preceded by the World Scout Youth Forum. The World Scout Conference is the assembly of Scouting and is composed of six delegates from each of the member Scout associations. If a country has more than one association, the form a federation for coordination. The Conference meets every three years and is hosted by a member association, at the World Scout Conference basic cooperative efforts are agreed upon and a plan of mutual coordination is adopted. The World Scout Committee is the body of the World Scout Conference and is composed of elected volunteers. The World Scout Committee represents World Scout Conference between the meetings of the full conference, the World Scout Committee is responsible for the implementation of the resolutions of the World Scout Conference and for acting on its behalf between its meetings. The Committee meets twice a year, usually in Geneva and its Steering Committee, consisting of the Chairman, two Vice-Chairmen and the Secretary General, meet as needed. Twelve, each from a different country, are elected for three-year terms by the World Scout Conference, the members, elected without regard to their nationality, represent the interests of the movement as a whole, not those of their country. The Secretary General and the Treasurer of WOSM are ex-officio members of the Committee, the chairmen of the regional Scout committees participate in the World Scout Committee meetings in a consultative capacity. The Bronze Wolf Award is the only awarded by WOSM
5.
Scouting
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During the first half of the twentieth century, the movement grew to encompass three major age groups for boys and, in 1910, a new organization, Girl Guides, was created for girls. It is one of worldwide youth organizations. In 1906 and 1907 Robert Baden-Powell, a lieutenant general in the British Army, wrote a book for boys about reconnaissance, in the summer of 1907 Baden-Powell held a camp on Brownsea Island in England to test ideas for his book. This camp and the publication of Scouting for Boys are generally regarded as the start of the Scout movement. The movement employs the Scout method, a programme of education with an emphasis on practical outdoor activities, including camping, woodcraft, aquatics, hiking, backpacking. Distinctive uniform insignia include the fleur-de-lis and the trefoil, as well as badges, the year 2007 marked the centenary of Scouting worldwide, and member organizations planned events to celebrate the occasion. Scouting virtually started itself, but the trigger that set it going was the 1908 publication of Scouting for Boys written by Robert Baden-Powell, at Charterhouse, one of Englands most famous public schools, Baden-Powell had an interest in the outdoors. Later, as an officer, Baden-Powell was stationed in British India in the 1880s where he took an interest in military scouting and in 1884 he published Reconnaissance. These skills eventually formed the basis of what is now called scoutcraft, three years later, in South Africa during the Second Boer War, Baden-Powell was besieged in the small town of Mafeking by a much larger Boer army. The Mafeking Cadet Corps was a group of youths that supported the troops by carrying messages, the Cadet Corps performed well, helping in the defense of the town, and were one of the many factors that inspired Baden-Powell to form the Scouting movement. Each member received a badge that illustrated a combined compass point, the badges logo was similar to the fleur-de-lis shaped arrowhead that Scouting later adopted as its international symbol. In the United Kingdom, the public, through newspapers, followed Baden-Powells struggle to hold Mafeking, and he was urged to rewrite this book for boys, especially during an inspection of the Boys Brigade, a large youth movement drilled with military precision. Baden-Powell thought this would not be attractive and suggested that the Boys Brigade could grow much larger were Scouting to be used and he studied other schemes, parts of which he used for Scouting. In July 1906, Ernest Thompson Seton sent Baden-Powell a copy of his 1902 book The Birchbark Roll of the Woodcraft Indians, Seton, a British-born Canadian-American living in the United States, met Baden-Powell in October 1906, and they shared ideas about youth training programs. In 1907 Baden-Powell wrote a draft called Boy Patrols, in the same year, to test his ideas, he gathered 21 boys of mixed social backgrounds and held a week-long camp in August on Brownsea Island in Poole Harbour, Dorset, England. His organizational method, now known as the Patrol System and a key part of Scouting training, in the autumn of 1907, Baden-Powell went on an extensive speaking tour arranged by his publisher, Arthur Pearson, to promote his forthcoming book, Scouting for Boys. He had not simply rewritten his Aids to Scouting, he omitted the military aspects and transferred the techniques to non-military heroes, backwoodsmen and he also added innovative educational principles by which he extended the attractive game to a personal mental education. At the beginning of 1908, Baden-Powell published Scouting for Boys in six fortnightly parts, the reaction was phenomenal, and quite unexpected
6.
Zimbabwe
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Zimbabwe, officially the Republic of Zimbabwe, is a landlocked country located in southern Africa, between the Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers. It is bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the west and southwest, Zambia to the northwest, although it does not border Namibia, less than 200 metres of the Zambezi River separates it from that country. The capital and largest city is Harare, a country of roughly 13 million people, Zimbabwe has 16 official languages, with English, Shona, and Ndebele the most commonly used. Since the 11th century, present-day Zimbabwe has been the site of several organised states and kingdoms as well as a route for migration. The British South Africa Company of Cecil Rhodes first demarcated the present territory during the 1890s, in 1965, the conservative white minority government unilaterally declared independence as Rhodesia. Zimbabwe then rejoined the Commonwealth of Nations—which it withdrew from in 2003 and it is a member of the United Nations, the Southern African Development Community, the African Union, and the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa. Robert Mugabe became Prime Minister of Zimbabwe in 1980, when his ZANU-PF party won the following the end of white minority rule. Under Mugabes authoritarian regime, the security apparatus has dominated the country. Mugabe has maintained the revolutionary socialist rhetoric from the Cold War era, the name Zimbabwe stems from a Shona term for Great Zimbabwe, an ancient ruined city in the countrys south-east whose remains are now a protected site. Two different theories address the origin of the word, many sources hold that Zimbabwe derives from dzimba-dza-mabwe, translated from the Karanga dialect of Shona as large houses of stone. The Karanga-speaking Shona people live around Great Zimbabwe in the province of Masvingo. Zimbabwe was formerly known as Southern Rhodesia, Rhodesia, and Zimbabwe Rhodesia, a further alternative, put forward by nationalists in Matabeleland, had been Matopos, referring to the Matopos Hills to the south of Bulawayo. In a 2001 interview, black nationalist Edson Zvobgo recalled that Mawema mentioned the name during a rally, and it caught hold. The black nationalist factions subsequently used the name the during the Second Chimurenga campaigns against the Rhodesian government during the Rhodesian Bush War of 1964-1979, major factions in this camp included the Zimbabwe African National Union, and the Zimbabwe African Peoples Union. Proto-Shona-speaking societies first emerged in the middle Limpopo valley in the 9th century before moving on to the Zimbabwean highlands, the Zimbabwean plateau eventually became the centre of subsequent Shona states, beginning around the 10th century. Around the early 10th century, trade developed with Arab merchants on the Indian Ocean coast, the main archaeological site uses a unique dry stone architecture. The Kingdom of Mapungubwe was the first in a series of sophisticated trade states developed in Zimbabwe by the time of the first European explorers from Portugal and they traded in gold, ivory, and copper for cloth and glass. From about 1300 until 1600, Mapungubwe was eclipsed by the Kingdom of Zimbabwe and this Shona state further refined and expanded upon Mapungubwes stone architecture, which survives to this day at the ruins of the kingdoms capital of Great Zimbabwe
7.
The Scout Association of Malawi
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Established in 1931, the Scout Association of Malaŵi was disallowed between 1964 and 1996. Scouting in Malaŵi shares history with Zimbabwe and Zambia, with which it was linked for decades, the 4,000 member Scout Association of Malaŵi was reorganized in 1996 and became a member of the World Organization of the Scout Movement in September 2005. Scouting in the former Rhodesia and Nyasaland started in 1909 during the British colonial era, Scouting grew quickly and in 1924 Rhodesia and Nyasaland sent a large contingent to the second World Scout Jamboree in Ermelunden, Denmark. The great popularity of the Boy Scout movement was due to its outdoor program such as hiking, camping, cooking and pioneering, additionally, the training and progressive badge system was targeted towards helping others, leading to responsible citizenship. Because of the prevailing circumstances earlier in the 20th century, a movement was established for black Africans called Pathfinders. By the 1950s the time was considered to merge both movements into one Scout Association, since independence, as a Commonwealth member, Scouting in Malaŵi continued under The Scout Association, though it had the option to register directly with the World Scout Bureau. Scouting was re-introduced in 2001, after Malaŵi moved from a one-party state to a multi-party democracy in 1994, the Malaŵi Scout Association was officially relaunched in 2001, and its members are now building upon their newfound freedom of expression. On July 6,2003 Scouts from Northern Ireland visited Malaŵi, Northern Ireland Cub Scout Leader Margaret Qua made the presentation, which was received by the Chairman of the Malaŵi Scout Association, Ahabu Kafansiyanji. Making the presentation, Margaret said, We are pleased to be associated with Scouting in Malaŵi and she said that she was impressed with how Scouting in Malaŵi is growing and encouraged the leadership to work hard and reach out to more young people in Malaŵi. The African Regional Office gave the support to ensure that Malaŵi qualified for recognition by the World Organization of the Scout Movement. Since reforming, the Scout Association of Malaŵi has managed to rescue over 30 street children, the number of children who have benefited from the Scout Association of Malaŵi is around 1,000 across the country. The United Kingdom Africa Scout Fellowship launched an initiative to take British Scouts to Malaŵi in July 2007, the expedition to Malaŵi was designed to run in parallel with the World Jamboree, and took its title from the proposed Sunrise Ceremony. The objective of this expedition was to spend five weeks in Malaŵi, working alongside the Scout Association of Malaŵi, the region also has strong links with Scandinavia, and it was hoped that Swedish and Norwegian Scouts would join the UK expedition party, however this was not possible. Malaŵi hosted events on July 4,2007 to mark celebrations of the Scouting 2007 Centenary, Scout Association of Malaŵi Executive Director Steve Kanene said that when the rehabilitation work is finished, the centre will be able to accommodate 150 people, from its current capacity of 10. Malaŵi sent a contingent to the 21st World Scout Jamboree in Essex, after the initiative by Scouts in Scotland to raise money for SAM, another expedition has been arranged to return to Makwawa to do some work using the funds raised. Some of the money has already used to build the maize mill described by Steve Kanene in 2007. A team of 37 young people, aged 14–19, and 13 adult leaders have gathered from across Scotland to aid in this work. The Malawi Girl Guides Association Malawi to host Scout centenary celebrations Rhodesian News, 1950s travelog showing Nyasaland Scouts
8.
Zambia
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The capital city is Lusaka, in the south-central part of Zambia. The population is concentrated mainly around Lusaka in the south and the Copperbelt Province to the northwest, originally inhabited by Khoisan peoples, the region was affected by the Bantu expansion of the thirteenth century. After visits by European explorers in the century, Zambia became the British protectorate of Northern Rhodesia towards the end of the nineteenth century. For most of the period, Zambia was governed by an administration appointed from London with the advice of the British South Africa Company. On 24 October 1964, Zambia became independent of the United Kingdom, Kaundas socialist United National Independence Party maintained power from 1964 until 1991. Kaunda played a key role in diplomacy, cooperating closely with the United States in search of solutions to conflicts in Rhodesia, Angola. From 1972 to 1991 Zambia was a one-party state with the UNIP as the legal political party under the motto One Zambia. Kaunda was succeeded by Frederick Chiluba of the social-democratic Movement for Multi-Party Democracy in 1991, beginning a period of social-economic growth, after Mwanawasas death, Rupiah Banda presided as Acting President before being elected President in 2008. Holding office for three years, Banda stepped down after his defeat in the 2011 elections by Patriotic Front party leader Michael Sata. Sata died on 28 October 2014, the second Zambian president to die in office, Guy Scott served briefly as interim president until new elections were held on 20 January 2015, in which Edgar Lungu was elected as the sixth President. In 2010, the World Bank named Zambia one of the worlds fastest economically reformed countries, the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa is headquartered in Lusaka. The territory of what is now Zambia was known as Northern Rhodesia from 1911 and it was renamed Zambia at independence in 1964. The new name of Zambia was derived from the Zambezi river, the area of modern Zambia is known to have been inhabited by the Khoisan until around AD300, when migrating Bantu began to settle around these areas. These early hunter-gatherer groups were either annihilated or absorbed by subsequent more organised Bantu groups. Archaeological excavation work on the Zambezi Valley and Kalambo Falls show a succession of human cultures, in particular, ancient camping site tools near the Kalambo Falls have been radiocarbon dated to more than 36,000 year ago. The fossil skull remains of Broken Hill Man, dated between 300,000 and 125,000 years BC, further shows that the area was inhabited by pre-historic man. The early history of tribes of modern-day Zambia can only be gleaned from knowledge passed down by successive generations through word of mouth, in the 12th century, major waves of Bantu-speaking immigrants arrived during the Bantu expansion. Among them, the Tonga people were the first to settle in Zambia and are believed to have come from the east near the big sea, by the late 12th century, more advanced kingdoms and empires had been established in most regions of modern-day Zambia
9.
Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell
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After having been educated at Charterhouse School in Surrey, Baden-Powell served in the British Army from 1876 until 1910 in India and Africa. In 1899, during the Second Boer War in South Africa, several of his military books, written for military reconnaissance and scout training in his African years, were also read by boys. In 1907, he held a camp, the Brownsea Island Scout camp. Based on his books, he wrote Scouting for Boys, published in 1908 by Sir Arthur Pearson. In 1910 Baden-Powell retired from the army and formed The Boy Scouts Association, in 1912 he married Olave St Clair Soames. He gave guidance to the Scouting and Girl Guiding Movements until retiring in 1937, Baden-Powell lived his last years in Nyeri, Kenya, where he died and was buried in 1941. Baden-Powell was born as Robert Stephenson Smyth Powell at 6 Stanhope Street and he was called Stephe by his family, He was named after his godfather, Robert Stephenson, the railway and civil engineer, his third name was his mothers maiden name. Baden-Powells father died when Baden-Powell was three, subsequently, Baden-Powell was raised by his mother, a strong woman who was determined that her children would succeed. Baden-Powell would say of her in 1933 The whole secret of my getting on, Baden-Powell attended Rose Hill School, Tunbridge Wells. He was given a scholarship to Charterhouse, a public school. He played the piano and violin, was an ambidextrous artist, holidays were spent on yachting or canoeing expeditions with his brothers. His first introduction to Scouting skills was through stalking and cooking game while avoiding teachers in the nearby woods, in 1876 Baden-Powell joined the 13th Hussars in India with the rank of lieutenant. During one of his travels, he came across a string of wooden beads. The beads were later incorporated into the Wood Badge training programme he started after he founded the Scouting Movement and he was posted in Malta for three years, also working as intelligence officer for the Mediterranean for the Director of Military Intelligence. He frequently travelled disguised as a collector, incorporating plans of military installations into his drawings of butterfly wings. In 1884 he published Reconnaissance and Scouting, Baden-Powell returned to Africa in 1896, and served in the Second Matabele War, in the expedition to relieve British South Africa Company personnel under siege in Bulawayo. This was an experience for him not only because he commanded reconnaissance missions into enemy territory in the Matopos Hills. Baden-Powell was accused of executing a prisoner of war in 1896, the Matabele chief Uwini
10.
Frederick Russell Burnham
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Frederick Russell Burnham DSO was an American scout and world-traveling adventurer. He is known for his service to the British South Africa Company and to the British Army in colonial Africa and he helped inspire the founding of the international Scouting Movement. Burnham was born on a Dakota Sioux Indian reservation in Minnesota where he learned the ways of American Indians as a boy. By the age of 14, he was supporting himself in California, while also learning scouting from some of the last of the cowboys, Burnham had little formal education, never finishing high school. After moving to the Arizona Territory in the early 1880s, he was drawn into the Pleasant Valley War and he escaped and later worked as a civilian tracker for the United States Army in the Apache Wars. Feeling the need for new adventures, Burnham took his family to southern Africa in 1893, Burnham distinguished himself in several battles in Rhodesia and South Africa and became Chief of Scouts. Despite his U. S. citizenship, his title was British. He had become friends with Baden-Powell during the Second Matabele War in Rhodesia, teaching him outdoor skills, Burnham returned to the United States, where he became involved in national defense efforts, business, oil, conservation, and the Boy Scouts of America. During World War I, Burnham was selected as an officer and recruited volunteers for a U. S. Army division similar to the Rough Riders, for political reasons, the unit was disbanded without seeing action. After the war, Burnham and his business partner John Hays Hammond formed the Burnham Exploration Company, Burnham joined several new wilderness conservation organizations, including the California State Parks Commission. In the 1930s, he worked with the BSA to save the big horn sheep from extinction and this effort led to the creation of the Kofa and Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuges in Arizona. He earned the BSAs highest honor, the Silver Buffalo Award, in 1936, to symbolise the friendship between Burnham and Baden-Powell, the mountain beside Mount Baden-Powell in California was formally named Mount Burnham in 1951. Burnham was born on May 11,1861 on a Dakota Sioux Indian reservation in Minnesota, to a family living near the small pioneer town of Tivoli. His father, the Reverend Edwin Otway Burnham, was a Presbyterian minister educated and ordained in New York, he was born in Ghent, Kentucky. His mother Rebecca Russell Burnham had spent most of her childhood in Iowa, having emigrated with her family from Westminster and she hid Frederick in a basket of green corn husks in a corn field and fled for her life. Once the Sioux attack had been repulsed, she returned to find their house burned down, the young Burnham attended schools in Iowa. There he met Blanche Blick, whom he later married, Two years later, Edwin died, leaving the family destitute. For the next few years, Burnham worked as a messenger for the Western Union Telegraph Company in California
11.
Matobo National Park
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The Matobo National Park forms the core of the Matobo or Matopos Hills, an area of granite kopjes and wooded valleys commencing some 35 kilometres south of Bulawayo, southern Zimbabwe. Mzilikazi, founder of the Ndebele nation, gave the area its name, the Hills cover an area of about 3100 km², of which 424 km² is National Park, the remainder being largely communal land and a small proportion of commercial farmland. The park extends along the Thuli, Mtshelele, Maleme and Mpopoma river valleys, part of the national park is set aside as a 100 km² game park, which has been stocked with game including the white rhinoceros. The highest point in the hills is the promontory named Gulati just outside the north-eastern corner of the park, administratively, Matobo National Park incorporates the Lake Matopos Recreational Park, being the area around Hazelside, Sandy Spruit and Lake Matopos. The national park is located within the southern Africa bushveld ecoregion, the national park is the oldest in Zimbabwe, established in 1926 as Rhodes Matopos National Park, a bequest from Cecil Rhodes. The original park borders extended well to the south and east of the current park and these areas were redesignated for settlement as part of a compromise between the colonial authorities and the local people, creating the Khumalo and Matobo Communal Lands. The park area then increased with the acquisition of Worlds View, the current name Matobo reflects the correct vernacular pronunciation of the area. The Matobo Hills were designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003, the area exhibits a profusion of distinctive rock landforms rising above the granite shield that covers much of Zimbabwe. The Matobo Hills is an area of high diversity, with over 200 species of tree recorded in the national park, including the mountain acacia, wild pear. There are also many aloes, wild herbs and over 100 grass species, Matobo National Park has a wide diversity of fauna,175 bird,88 mammal,39 snake and 16 fish species. Game include white rhinos, sable antelopes, impala and leopards, the park contains the worlds densest population of the latter, due to the abundance of hyrax, which make up 50% of their diet. The game park in the west has been restocked with white and black rhinos, the former from Kwa-Zulu Natal in the 1960s and the latter from the Zambezi Valley in the 1990s. It has been designated as an Intensive Protection Zone for the two species, as well as hyenas, hippopotami, giraffes, zebras, wildebeest sand ostriches, Matobo National Park contains the highest concentration of black eagles, and breeding pairs of these birds, worldwide. A limnological research centre has operated since 1950 at Maleme Dam, the Matobo Hills are composed entirely of granite, making up the Matopos Batholith. The granite weathers into fantastic shapes, such as the rocks known as Mother. Between the granite mountains, narrow valleys form and these are often swampy valleys known as dambos or vleis, due to runoff from the whaleback mountains. These valleys form the headwaters of the Maleme, Mpopoma and Mtsheleli rivers, san lived in the hills about 2,000 years ago, leaving a rich heritage in hundreds of rock paintings. There are over 3,000 registered rock art sites, with the periods of painting being between 320 and 500 C. E
12.
Matabeleland
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Modern-day Matabeleland is a region in Zimbabwe divided into three provinces, Matabeleland North, Bulawayo and Matabeleland South. These provinces are in the west and south-west of Zimbabwe, between the Limpopo and Zambezi rivers, the region is named after its inhabitants the Ndebele people. Other ethnic groups who inhabit parts of Matabeleland include the Tonga, Kalanga, Venda, as for the Matabeleland Northern Province, it had a total population of 749,017 people out of the population of Zimbabwe of 13,061,239. The proportion of male and female population was 48 and 52 percent respectively within an area of just over 75,017 square kilometres, the remaining Bulawayo province had a population of 653,337 in an area of 1,706.8 square kilometres. Thus the region has a population of 2,086,247 in an area of just over 130,000 square kilometres. The major city is Bulawayo, other towns are Plumtree. The land is fertile but dry. This area has important gold deposits, industries include gold and other mineral mines, and engineering. There has been a decline in the industries in region as water is in short supply. Promises by the government to water for the region through the Matabeleland Zambezi Water Project have not been carried out. The region is allegedly marginalised by the government and it is also the former name of all South Rodesia / Zimbabwe. Around the 10th and 11th centuries the Bantu-speaking Kalanga arrived from the north, later they moved north and both the San and the early ironworkers were driven out. By the 15th century, the Kalanga had established an empire, known as Munhumutapa. This empire was split by the end of the 15th century with southern part becoming the Rozvi Empire, in the late 1830s, some 20,000 Ndebele, descendants of the Zulus in South Africa and led by Mzilikazi Khumalo, invaded the Kalanga people Lozvi Empire. Many of the Kalanga people were incorporated and the rest of the tribes that comprise the Shona today were made satellite territories who paid tribute to the Ndebele Kingdom. He called his new nation Mthwakazi, a Zulu word which means something which became big at conception, in Zulu into ethe ithwasa yabankulu, Mzilikazi organised this ethnically diverse nation into a militaristic system of regimental towns and established his capital at Bulawayo. Mzilikazi was a statesman of considerable stature, able to weld the many conquered tribes into a strong, in 1852, the Boer government in Transvaal made a treaty with Mzilikazi. However, gold was discovered in the area known as Mashonaland, the home of the Ma-Shona, in 1867
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Second Matabele War
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It pitted the British South Africa Company against the Ndebele people, which led to conflict with the Shona people in the rest of Rhodesia. In March 1896, the Ndebele revolted against the authority of the British South Africa Company in what is now celebrated in Zimbabwe as the First Chimurenga, the Mlimo the Ndebele spiritual leader, is credited with fomenting much of the anger that led to this confrontation. He convinced the Ndebele and the Shona that the settlers were responsible for the drought, locust plagues, the Mlimos call to battle was well-timed. This left the country nearly defenceless, the British immediately sent troops to suppress the Ndebele and the Shona, but it cost the lives of many on both sides. Months passed before the amount of British forces were adequate to break the sieges and defend the major settlements, the Mlimo planned to wait until the night of 29 March, the first full moon, to take Bulawayo by surprise immediately after a ceremony called the Big Dance. He promised, through his priests, that if the Ndebele went to war and his plan was to kill all of the settlers in Bulawayo first, but not to destroy the town itself as it would serve again as the royal kraal for the newly reincarnated King Lobengula. Once the settlers were purged from Bulawayo, the Ndebele and Shona warriors would head out into the countryside, however, several young Ndebele were overly anxious to go to war, and the rebellion started prematurely. On 20 March, Ndebele rebels shot and stabbed a native policeman, over the next few days, other outlying settlers and prospectors were killed. Frederick Selous, the famous hunter, had heard rumours of settlers in the countryside being killed. When news of the murder reached Selous on 23 March. Nearly 2,000 Ndebele warriors began the rebellion in earnest on 24 March, many, although not all, of the young native police quickly deserted and joined the rebels. The Ndebele headed into the countryside armed with a variety of weapons, including, Martini-Henry rifles, Winchester repeaters, Lee-Metfords, assegais, as news of the massive rebellion spread, the Shona joined in the fighting, and the settlers headed towards Bulawayo. Within a week,141 settlers were slain in Matabeleland, another 103 killed in Mashonaland, with few troops to support them, the settlers quickly built a laager of sandbagged wagons in the centre of Bulawayo on their own. Barbed wire was added to Bulawayos defences, oil-soaked fagots were arranged in strategic locations in case of attack at night. Blasting gelatin was secreted in outlying buildings that were beyond the defence perimeter, smashed glass bottles were spread around the front of the wagons. Except for hunting rifles, there were few weapons to be found in Bulawayo, fortunately for settlers, there were a few working artillery pieces and a small assortment of machine guns. Selous raised a troop of forty men to scout southward into the Matobo Hills. Maurice Gifford, along with 40 men, rode east along the Iniza River, whenever settlers were found, they were quickly loaded into their wagons and closely guarded on their way to Bulawayo
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Frederick Carrington
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Major General Sir Frederick Carrington, KCB, KCMG, was a British soldier and friend of Cecil John Rhodes. He acquired fame by crushing the 1896 Matabele rebellion, Carrington was educated at Cheltenham College and joined the 24th Regiment of Foot in 1864. In 1875, he arrived in South Africa where he raised and commanded the Mounted Infantry in the Griqualand West expedition and he commanded the Transvaal Volunteer Force against Sekhukhune in 1878–1879 and the Cape Mounted Riflemen in the Basuto Gun War of 1881. He was severely wounded in this campaign, in 1885, he accompanied Sir Charles Warrens expedition to Bechuanaland in command of the 2nd Mounted Infantry, which soon became known as Carringtons Horse. He commanded the Bechuanaland Police beginning in 1888 and he also was appointed military adviser to the High Commissioner in the First Matabele War and commanded the British force in the Matabele Rebellion in 1896. He was in command of the Rhodesian Field Force during the war and he was created a KCMG in 1887, an KCB in 1897, and retired with the rank of major-general. He was the father-in-law of World War I fighter ace William Mayes Fry, article and colour painting at Pine Tree Web
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Africa
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Africa is the worlds second-largest and second-most-populous continent. At about 30.3 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earths total surface area and 20.4 % of its land area. With 1.2 billion people as of 2016, it accounts for about 16% of the human population. The continent includes Madagascar and various archipelagos and it contains 54 fully recognized sovereign states, nine territories and two de facto independent states with limited or no recognition. Africas population is the youngest amongst all the continents, the age in 2012 was 19.7. Algeria is Africas largest country by area, and Nigeria by population, afarensis, Homo erectus, H. habilis and H. ergaster – with the earliest Homo sapiens found in Ethiopia being dated to circa 200,000 years ago. Africa straddles the equator and encompasses numerous climate areas, it is the continent to stretch from the northern temperate to southern temperate zones. Africa hosts a diversity of ethnicities, cultures and languages. In the late 19th century European countries colonized most of Africa, Africa also varies greatly with regard to environments, economics, historical ties and government systems. However, most present states in Africa originate from a process of decolonization in the 20th century, afri was a Latin name used to refer to the inhabitants of Africa, which in its widest sense referred to all lands south of the Mediterranean. This name seems to have referred to a native Libyan tribe. The name is connected with Hebrew or Phoenician ʿafar dust. The same word may be found in the name of the Banu Ifran from Algeria and Tripolitania, under Roman rule, Carthage became the capital of the province of Africa Proconsularis, which also included the coastal part of modern Libya. The Latin suffix -ica can sometimes be used to denote a land, the later Muslim kingdom of Ifriqiya, modern-day Tunisia, also preserved a form of the name. According to the Romans, Africa lay to the west of Egypt, while Asia was used to refer to Anatolia, as Europeans came to understand the real extent of the continent, the idea of Africa expanded with their knowledge. 25,4, whose descendants, he claimed, had invaded Libya, isidore of Seville in Etymologiae XIV.5.2. Suggests Africa comes from the Latin aprica, meaning sunny, massey, in 1881, stated that Africa is derived from the Egyptian af-rui-ka, meaning to turn toward the opening of the Ka. The Ka is the double of every person and the opening of the Ka refers to a womb or birthplace
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Cecil Rhodes
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Cecil John Rhodes PC was a British businessman, mining magnate and politician in South Africa, who served as Prime Minister of the Cape Colony from 1890 to 1896. An ardent believer in British imperialism, Rhodes and his British South Africa Company founded the southern African territory of Rhodesia, South Africas Rhodes University is also named after him. Rhodes set up the provisions of the Rhodes Scholarship, which is funded by his estate, the son of a vicar, Rhodes grew up in Bishops Stortford, Hertfordshire, and was a sickly child. He was sent to South Africa by his family when he was 17 years old in the hope that the climate might improve his health. He entered the trade at Kimberley in 1871, when he was 18. His De Beers diamond company, formed in 1888, retains its prominence into the 21st century, Rhodes entered the Cape Parliament in 1880, and a decade later became Prime Minister. After Rhodess death in 1902, at the age of 48, at the time of his death he was already a very controversial figure. One of Rhodess primary motivators in politics and business was his belief that the Anglo-Saxon race was, to quote his will. Most histories of South Africa covering the last decades of the century are contributions to the historiography of Cecil Rhodes. According to McFarlane, the aforementioned historiography may be divided into two categories, chauvinistic approval or utter vilification. Rhodes was born in 1853 in Bishops Stortford, Hertfordshire, England and he was the fifth son of the Reverend Francis William Rhodes and his wife Louisa Peacock Rhodes. His father was a Church of England clergyman who was proud of never having preached a sermon longer than 10 minutes and his siblings included Francis William Rhodes, who became an army officer. His father therefore determined to send him abroad to try the effect of a sea voyage, Herbert had already set up as a planter in Natal, South Africa, so Cecil was despatched on a sailing vessel to join Herbert in Natal. The voyage to Durban took him seventy days, and on 1 September 1870 he first set foot on African soil and his familys hope was that the climate would improve his health. They expected he would help his older brother Herbert who operated a cotton farm, when he first came to Africa, Rhodes lived on money lent by his aunt Sophia. After a brief stay with the Surveyor-General of Natal, Dr. P. C, sutherland, in Pietermaritzburg, Rhodes took an interest in agriculture. He joined his brother Herbert on his farm in the Umkomazi valley in Natal. The land was unsuitable for cotton, and the venture failed, in October 1871, 18-year-old Rhodes and his brother Herbert left the colony for the diamond fields of Kimberley
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Cape to Cairo Railway
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The Cape to Cairo Railway is an uncompleted project to cross Africa from south to north by rail. While most sections of the Cape to Cairo railway are in operation, the construction of this project presented a major technological challenge. France had a rival strategy in the late 1890s to link its western and eastern African colonies. Southern Sudan and Ethiopia were in the way, but France sent expeditions in 1897 to establish a protectorate in southern Sudan, the Portuguese considered an Angola to Mozambique railway to link west with east and produced the Pink Map representing their claims to sovereignty in Africa. Opposition to British rule in South Africa was settled after the First, British interests had to overcome obstacles of geography and climate, and the competing imperial schemes of the French and Portuguese mentioned above and of the Germans. The continuous line of colonies was complete, the British Empire possessed the political power to complete the Cape to Cairo Railway, but economic issues such as the Great Depression prevented its completion before World War II. After World War II, wars of liberation and the demise of colonialism removed the will among both outgoing and incoming powers to complete the railroad. Egypt has a system that as early as 1854 connected Alexandria and Cairo. In Egypt the railway is 1435km, after a ferry link up on the Nile, the railway continues in Sudan from Wadi Halfa to Khartoum at the 1067km narrow gauge, see Northern Africa Railroad Development. This part of the system was started by Lord Kitchener in 1897 when he subjugated the Mahdist uprising, further railway links go south, the most southern point being Wau. A large part of the Sudanese railway network is currently in disrepair due to political turmoil. East Africa has a network of narrow gauge 1,000 mm railways that historically grew from ports on the Indian Ocean and went westward, built in parallel under British, the furthest string north was the Uganda Railway. Today, railway business in Uganda is run by Rift Valley Railways of Kenya, the Kenya Railways Corporation, and the Tanzania Railways Corporation. From Dar es Salaam, a 1,860 km link to Kapiri Mposhi in Zambia was completed six years by workers. Not intended in the picture of the Cape to Cairo Railway. This connection is the 1,067 mm gauge of the part of Africa. In 1998, a transshipment hub was built at Kidatu in southern Tanzania to connect the metre gauge Central Line with the Cape gauge TAZARA line. The southern section was completed during British rule before the First World War and has a system of national railways using the Cape-gauge of 1,067 mm
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Allan Wilson (army officer)
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Allan Wilson, was an officer in the Victoria Volunteers. He is best known for his leadership of the Shangani Patrol in the First Matabele War and his death fighting overwhelming odds made him a national hero in Britain and Rhodesia. Upon completion of his apprenticeship at a Fochabers bank, he went to the Cape Colony and he fought in the Zulu War and the First Boer War and was promoted to Sergeant. After taking his discharge he became a trader and gold prospector, when the First Matabele War broke out, Wilson was given command of the Victoria Column and appointed the rank of major. He led the Shangani Patrol in search of King Lobengula and, on 4 December 1893, he and 33 of his men were cut off from the main column and killed by the Ndebele warriors. In desperation and only hours before his defeat, Wilson sent Frederick Russell Burnham, the battle raging there was just as intense and there was no hope of anyone reaching Wilson in time. The incident achieved a lasting, prominent place in Rhodesian colonial history and is considered to be roughly the British equivalent to Custers Last Stand, Wilson is buried, along with most of his patrol and with Cecil Rhodes, in Matabo Hills, Zimbabwe. He was considered a hero and one of the founding fathers of Rhodesia. The date of his death was a Rhodesian national holiday, a patriotic play by Augustus Harris called Cheer, Boys, Cheer. was performed in Londons Drury Lane theatre in 1895, running for 177 performances. Its climax was Wilsons Last Stand, a reenactment of Wilsons death, in the play, based on some embellished facts, it is said that in the killing of Wilson and his thirty-one men, Lobengula lost 80 of his royal guard and another 500 Ndebele warriors. Wilson was the last to fall and the men of the Shangani Patrol loaded rifles. When their ammunition ran out, the men of the Patrol are said to have risen. Once both of Wilson’s arms were broken and he could no longer shoot, he stepped from behind a barricade of dead horses, walked toward the Ndebele, a rescue party, led by a plucky girl, arrive just too late. A film called Major Wilson’s Last Stand, based on the play, was produced in 1899, Robert Baden-Powell in his Scouting for Boys advised scoutmasters to put on patriotic plays, giving Wilsons Last Stand as one of the suitable subjects. A docudrama by David Millin, Shangani Patrol, was released in 1970, the film was based on the book A Time To Die by Robert Cary, and was made on location by RPM Film Studios. It stars Brian OShaughnessy as Major Allan Wilson and co-stars Will Hutchins as Fred Burnham. History of Rhodesia, by Howard Hensman -- the full-text of the book can be online for free PDF Scouting on Two Continents, by Major Frederick Russell Burnham
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First Matabele War
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The First Matabele War was fought between 1893 and 1894 in the country today called Zimbabwe. It pitted the British South Africa Company against the Ndebele Kingdom, Lobengula had 80,000 spearmen and 20,000 riflemen, armed with nine-pound Martini-Henrys, which were modern arms at that time. However, poor training meant that these were not used effectively, matters came to a head when Lobengula approved a raid to forcibly extract tribute from a Mashona chief in the district of the town of Fort Victoria, which inevitably led to a clash with the Company. The British government agreed that the British South Africa Company would administer the territory stretching from the Limpopo to the Zambezi under royal charter, queen Victoria signed the charter in 1889. However, in 1893, a chief in the Victoria district named Gomara refused tribute, in order to save face, Lobengula was impelled to send a raiding party of several thousand warriors to bring his vassal to heel. The raiding party destroyed several villages and murdered many of the inhabitants, as a result the Company officials demanded from the raiders that they leave immediately. The Ndebele refused and in the hostilities that developed the Ndebele sustained a number of casualties. There was a delay of just over two months while Jameson corresponded with Rhodes in Cape Town and considered how to amass enough troops to undertake an invasion of Matabeleland. BSAP columns rode from Fort Salisbury and Fort Victoria, and combined at Iron Mine Hill, around the point of the country. Together the force totalled about 700 men, commanded by Major Patrick Forbes, Forbes combined column moved on the Matabele kings capital at Bulawayo, to the south-west. An additional force of 700 Bechuanas marched on Bulawayo from the south under Khama III, the most influential of the Bamangwato chiefs, and a staunch ally of the British. The Matabele army mobilised to prevent Forbes from reaching the city, by the time the Matabele withdrew, they had suffered around 1,500 fatalities, the BSAP, on the other hand, had lost only four men. Lobengula fled Bulawayo as soon as he heard the news from Bembesi, in keeping with custom, he. In the resultant conflagration, the large store of ivory, gold and other treasure was destroyed. The reconstruction of Bulawayo began almost as soon as the fires were out, the column of Khamas men from the south had reached the Tati River, and won a victory on the Singuesi river on 2 November. The town, mostly made up of wood-beam huts with mud walls, was largely destroyed, on 3 November, Bulawayo was reached by the Victoria column from Mashonaland, accompanied by Jameson and Sir John Willoughby. By this time, Lobengula and his warriors were in flight towards the Zambezi. An attempt was made to induce Lobengula to surrender, but no replies were received to the messages, the United Salisbury Column later arrived in Bulawayo, and on 13 November, Major Patrick Forbes organized his column and started in pursuit of Lobengula
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Shangani Patrol
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The Shangani Patrol, comprising 34 soldiers in the service of the British South Africa Company, was ambushed and annihilated by more than 3,000 Matabele warriors during the First Matabele War in 1893. Headed by Major Allan Wilson, the patrol was attacked just north of the Shangani River in Matabeleland in Rhodesia, the patrol comprised elements of the Mashonaland Mounted Police and the Bechuanaland Border Police. Scouting ahead of Major Patrick Forbess column attempting the capture of the Matabele King Lobengula and it moved on Lobengula the next morning, but was ambushed by a host of Matabele riflemen and warriors near the kings wagon. Surrounded and outnumbered about a hundred-fold, the made a last stand as three of its number broke out and rode back to the river to muster reinforcements from Forbes. However, the Shangani had risen significantly in flood, and Forbes was himself involved in a skirmish near the bank, Wilson. After fighting to the last cartridge, and killing over ten times their own number, the patrols members, particularly Wilson and Captain Henry Borrow, were elevated in death to the status of national heroes, representing endeavour in the face of insurmountable odds. The anniversary of the battle on 4 December 1893 became a public holiday in Rhodesia two years later, and was an official non-work day until 1920. A historical war film depicting the episode, Shangani Patrol, was produced and released in 1970, on geopolitical maps, British territories were generally marked in red or pink, so this concept became known as the Cape to Cairo red line. Having secured the Rudd Concession on mining rights from King Lobengula on 30 October 1888, Rhodes, in return for these rights, the Company would govern and develop any territory it acquired, while respecting laws enacted by extant African rulers, and upholding free trade within its borders. The first settlers referred to their new home as Rhodesia, after Rhodes, though the Company made good on most of its pledges, the assent of Lobengula and other native leaders, particularly regarding mining rights, was often evaded, misrepresented or simply ignored. It also offended Lobengula by demanding that he stop the customary Matabele raids on the Mashona people who inhabited the white-governed areas, angered by the Companys attitude towards his authority, Lobengula made war on the new arrivals and the Mashonas in 1893. The First Matabele War had started, Company columns rode from Fort Salisbury and Fort Victoria, and combined at Iron Mine Hill, around the centre point of the country, on 16 October 1893. Together the force totalled about 700 men, commanded by Major Patrick Forbes, Forbess combined column moved on the Matabele kings capital at Bulawayo, to the south-west. The Matabele army mobilised to prevent Forbes from reaching the city, by the time the Matabele withdrew, they had suffered around 1,500 fatalities, the Company, on the other hand, had lost only four men. Lobengula fled Bulawayo as soon as he heard the news from Bembezi, on 3 November 1893, with the column on the outskirts of the city, he and his subjects left, torching the royal town as they went. In the resultant conflagration, the large store of ivory, gold and other treasure was destroyed, as was its ammunition magazine. Using a tree to improvise a flagstaff, they hoisted first the Company flag, the reconstruction of Bulawayo began almost as soon as the blaze was out, with a new white-run city rising atop the ruins of Lobengulas former residence. The king replied in English, Jameson did not regard this ambiguity as a proper answer, after standing by for the specified two days and receiving nothing, he correctly concluded that Lobengula was stalling him, and using the extra time to distance himself from his former capital
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Frontier
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A frontier is the political and geographical area near or beyond a boundary. The term came from French in the 15th century, with the meaning borderland—the region of a country that fronts on another country, a frontier can also be referred to as a front. A difference has also established in academic scholarship between Frontier and Border, the latter denoting a fixed, rigid and clear-cut form of state boundary. In the European Union, the frontier is the region beyond the borders of the European Union itself. EU has designated the countries surrounding it as part of the European Neighbourhood and this is a region of primarily less-developed countries, many of which aspire to become part of the union. Current applicants include Turkey and many countries in the Balkans. Romania and Bulgaria joined EU in 2007, if all or most East European states become members, the frontier may be the boundaries with Russia and Turkey. The expansion of Russia to the north, south and east exploited ever-changing frontier regions over several centuries, the outside was another term frequently used in colonial Australia, this term seemingly covered not only the frontier but the districts beyond. Settlers at the frontier thus frequently referred to themselves as the outsiders or outside residents, the word frontier has often meant a region at the edge of a settled area, especially in North American development. It was a zone where explorers, pioneers and settlers were arriving. Frederick Jackson Turner said that the significance of the frontier was that as pioneers moved into the frontier zone, for example, Turner argues that in the United States in 1893, unlimited free land in this zone was available, and thus offered the psychological sense of unlimited opportunity. This, in turn, had many such as optimism, future orientation, shedding the restraints of land scarcity. Lawrence, Connecticut, Hudson, Delaware, Susquehanna River and James, English, French, Spanish and Dutch patterns of expansion and settlement were quite different. Only a few thousand French migrated to Canada, although French fur traders ranged widely through the Great Lakes and Mississippi River watersheds, as far as the Rocky Mountains, they did not usually settle down. French settlement in these areas was limited to a few small villages on the lower Mississippi. The Dutch set up fur trading posts in the Hudson River valley, followed by grants of land to patroons. The typical English settlements were quite compact and small—under 3 square kilometres, conflict with the Native Americans arose out of political issues, i. e. who would rule. Early frontier areas east of the Appalachian Mountains included the Connecticut River valley, the French and Indian Wars of the 1760s resulted in a complete victory for the British, who took over the French colonial territory west of the Appalachians to the Mississippi River
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American Old West
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Frontier refers to a contrasting region at the edge of a European-American line of settlement. American historians cover multiple frontiers but the folklore is focused primarily on the 19th century west of the Mississippi River. As defined by Hine and Faragher, frontier history tells the story of the creation and defense of communities, the use of the land, the development of markets, and the formation of states. They explain, It is a tale of conquest, but also one of survival, persistence, thus, Turners Frontier Thesis proclaimed the westward frontier as the defining process of American history. As the American frontier passed into history, the myths of the West in fiction and film took firm hold in the imagination of Americans, America is exceptional in choosing its iconic self-image. David Murdoch has said, No other nation has taken a time and place from its past, the frontier line was the outer line of European-American settlement. It moved steadily westward from the 1630s to the 1880s, Turner favored the Census Bureau definition of the frontier line as a settlement density of two people per square mile. The West was the settled area near that boundary. Thus, parts of the Midwest and American South, though no longer considered western, have a frontier heritage along with the western states. In the 21st century, however, the term American West is most often used for the area west of the Mississippi River, in the colonial era, before 1776, the west was of high priority for settlers and politicians. The American frontier began when Jamestown, Virginia was settled by the English in 1607, English, French, Spanish and Dutch patterns of expansion and settlement were quite different. Although French fur traders ranged widely through the Great Lakes and mid-west region they settled down. French settlement was limited to a few small villages such as Kaskaskia. They created a rural settlement in upstate New York. Areas in the north that were in the stage by 1700 generally had poor transportation facilities. The wealthy speculator, if one was involved, usually remained at home, the class of landless poor was small. Few artisans settled on the frontier except for those who practiced a trade to supplement their primary occupation of farming, there might be a storekeeper, a minister, and perhaps a doctor, and there were a number of landless laborers. However frontier areas of 1700 that had good river connections were transformed into plantation agriculture
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Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian peoples of the Americas and their descendants. The term Amerindian is used in Quebec, the Guianas, Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives. Application of the term Indian originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for Asia, eventually, the Americas came to be known as the West Indies, a name still used to refer to the islands of the Caribbean Sea. This led to the blanket term Indies and Indians for the indigenous inhabitants, although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers—and many, especially in the Amazon basin, still are—many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time, although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and empires. Many parts of the Americas are still populated by peoples, some countries have sizable populations, especially Belize, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Greenland, Guatemala, Mexico. At least a different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages, many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization, and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects, some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples. The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are the subject of ongoing research. According to archaeological and genetic evidence, North and South America were the last continents in the world with human habitation. During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the bridge of Beringia that joined Siberia to northwest North America. Alaska was a glacial refugium because it had low snowfall, allowing a small population to exist, the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of North America, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska for thousands of years. Indigenous genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single population, one that developed in isolation. The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10–20,000 years, around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets. Another route proposed involves migration - either on foot or using primitive boats - along the Pacific Northwest coast to the south, archeological evidence of the latter would have been covered by the sea level rise of more than 120 meters since the last ice age
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Scoutcraft
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Scoutcraft is a term used to cover a variety of woodcraft knowledge and skills required by people seeking to venture into wild country and sustain themselves independently. The term has been adopted by Scouting organizations to reflect skills and knowledge which are felt to be a part of the various programs. Skills commonly included are camping, cooking, first aid, wilderness survival, for Europeans, Scoutcraft grew out of the woodcraft skills necessary to survive in the expanding frontiers of the New World in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Frontiersmen such as Daniel Boone needed these skills to travel through the uncharted wildernesses, as the nineteenth century moved on, Scoutcraft began to be adopted by parts of some military forces, as the way in which wars and battles were fought changed. The American scout Frederick Russell Burnham brought Scoutcraft to Africa and, in the Second Matabele War, he introduced it to Robert Baden-Powell, Baden-Powell first began forming his idea for a programme of training young men in Scoutcraft whilst scouting with Burnham in Matobo Hills, Matabeleland. Later, Baden-Powell wrote a number of books on the subject, after the Second Boer War, Baden-Powell enjoyed a celebrity status for his command at Mafeking. He set about writing a new book, Scouting for Boys and this was removed from his earlier, more martial works, but kept the idea of Scoutcraft as a core part of the Scouting program. Similar books were published in America by Ernest Thompson Seton, a pioneer of the Scouting movement in the United States, Scoutcraft is still a core part of many organisations programs
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British Army
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The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany
26.
Exploration
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Exploration is the act of searching for the purpose of discovery of information or resources. Exploration occurs in all animal species, including humans. In human history, its most dramatic rise was during the Age of Discovery when European explorers sailed and charted much of the rest of the world for a variety of reasons. Since then, major explorations after the Age of Discovery have occurred for reasons mostly aimed at information discovery, in scientific research, exploration is one of three purposes of empirical research. The term is used metaphorically. For example, an individual may speak of exploring the Internet, sexuality, the Phoenicians traded throughout the Mediterranean Sea and Asia Minor though many of their routes are still unknown today. The presence of tin in some Phoenician artifacts suggests that they may have traveled to Britain, according to Virgils Aeneid and other ancient sources, the legendary Queen Dido was a Phoenician from Tyre who sailed to North Africa and founded the city of Carthage. Hanno the Navigator, a Carthaginean navigator explored the Western Coast of Africa, the Greek explorer from Marseille, Pytheas was the first to circumnavigate Great Britain, explore Germany, and reach Thule. Africa Exploration The Romans organized expeditions to cross the Sahara desert with five different routes, through the western Sahara, toward the Niger river, through the Tibesti mountains, toward Lake Chad and actual Nigeria through the Nile river, toward actual Uganda. Though the western coast of Africa, toward the Canary Islands, through the Red Sea, toward actual Somalia and perhaps Tanzania. All these expeditions were supported by legionaries and had mainly a commercial purpose, only the one done by emperor Nero seemed to be a preparative for the conquest of Ethiopia or Nubia, in 62 AD two legionaries explored the sources of the Nile river. One of the reasons of the explorations was to get gold using the camel to transport it. The explorations near the African western and eastern coasts were supported by Roman ships, Romans organized several explorations also in Northern Europe, and as far as Asia up to China. 30 BC-640 AD With the acquisition of Ptolemaic Egypt, The Romans begin trading with India, the Empire now has a direct connection to the Spice trade Egypt had established beginning in 118 BC.100 AD-166 AD Romano-Chinese relations begin. Ptolemy writes of the Golden Chersonese and the port of Kattigara, now identified as Óc Eo in northern Vietnam, then part of Jiaozhou. The Chinese historical texts describe Roman embassies, from a land they called Daqin, 2nd century Roman traders reach Siam, Cambodia, Sumatra, and Java. 161 An embassy from Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius or his successor Marcus Aurelius reaches Chinese Emperor Huan of Han at Luoyang, when Zhang returned to China in 125 BC, he reported on his visits to Dayuan, Kangju, and Daxia. Zhang described Dayuan and Daxia as agricultural and urban countries like China, from about 800 Ad to 1040 AD, the Vikings explored Europe and much of the Western Northern Hemisphere via rivers and oceans
27.
Tracking (hunting)
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Tracking in hunting and ecology is the science and art of observing animal tracks and other signs, with the goal of gaining understanding of the landscape and the animal being tracked. A further goal of tracking is the understanding of the systems. The practice of tracking may focus on, but is not limited to, Trackers must be able to recognize and follow animals through their tracks, signs, and trails, also known as spoor. The skilled tracker is able to discern these clues, recreate what transpired on the landscape, the tracker may attempt to predict the current location of the quarry and follow the quarrys spoor to that location, in an activity known as trailing. Prehistoric hunters used tracking principally to gather food, even in historic times, tracking has been traditionally practiced by the majority of tribal people all across the world. The military and intelligence agencies also use tracking to find enemy combatants in the bush, land, sea and it has been suggested that the art of tracking may have been the first implementation of science, practiced by hunter-gatherers since the evolution of modern humans. Apart from knowledge based on observations of animals, trackers gain a detailed understanding of animal behavior through the interpretation of tracks. In this way information can be obtained that would otherwise remain unknown. Tracks and signs offer information on undisturbed, natural behavior, while direct observations often influence the animal by the presence of the observer. Tracking is therefore a method of information gathering, in which potential stress caused to animals can be minimized. The modern science of tracking is widely practiced in the fields of wildlife biology, zoology, mammalogy, conservation. Tracking enables the detection of rare, endangered, and elusive species, the science of tracking is utilized in the study of forest carnivores like the Canada Lynx and the Wolverine. Various measurements of tracks, and/or an animals paws, and subsequent analyses of the datum, can reveal important information about animals physiology. For example, measurements of lynx paws demonstrate their capacity to be double that of bobcat. In order to recognize a specific sign, a tracker often has an image of what a typical sign looks like. Without preconceived images many signs may be overlooked, however, with a preconceived image of a specific animals spoor in mind, trackers will tend to recognize spoor in markings made by another animal, or even in random markings. Their mind will be prejudiced to see what they want to see, decisions made at a glance can often be erroneous, so when encountering new signs, trackers take their time to study signs in detail. While preconceived images may help in recognizing signs, the tracker must, however, Trackers will always try to identify the trail positively by some distinguishing mark or mannerism in order not to lose it in any similar spoor
28.
Campaign hat
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A campaign hat is a broad-brimmed felt or straw hat, with a high crown, pinched symmetrically at the four corners. The hat is most commonly worn as part of a uniform, it is worn by such agencies as the New Zealand Army, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, United States park rangers, and Scouts. Although the campaign hat is referred to as a Stetson. It should not be confused with the quite different Stetson hat type with a different brim and crease, commonly known as the hat. The campaign hat also should not be confused with a slouch hat, some were worn with campaign cords, mainly as a form of decoration. At least as early as 1893, hats of this type were being re-creased into pointed tops, in order to keep off rain, by British South Africa Company scouts in Africa. A few years later, during the Spanish–American War the standard central crease on the crown was found to be impractical as it tended to hold the rainwater from the frequent tropical downpours. Many soldiers again reshaped the crown to form a pinched Montana peak, the army officially adopted the peaked design on 8 September 1911 as the Hat, Service Through the World War I era, the campaign hat worn by American soldiers was fairly soft. Those worn by the United States Armys general officers had a cord around it. Field clerks, as well as their successors the warrant officers, had a silver-and-black cord. By the 1930s the felt was very stiff with a permanently flat brim. Due to the frequent wearing of helmets in France in World War I, in 1942 the campaign hat ceased to be issued generally, but it was still commonly found in the Pacific theatre for much of the war, and was the trademark of General Joseph Stilwell. In Canada the campaign hat was the official hat of the North-West Mounted Police as well as Canadian cavalry units in the Boer War. In the Boer War all Canadian military units with the exception of the Royal Canadian Regiment wore campaign hats. The campaign hat was also the hat of the Canadian Scouts and the South African Constabulary, the hat was phased out of military use by the service dress cap following the First World War. It was also used by members of the Ontario Provincial Police, the New Zealand Army, whose uniforms have historically followed the British pattern, retain the felt campaign hat as their most visible national distinction. This headdress is distinguished by a crown and deep indentations on all four sides. It was adopted by the Wellington Regiment about 1912 and became general issue for all New Zealand units during the stages of World War I
29.
Adolescent
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Adolescence is a transitional stage of physical and psychological development that generally occurs during the period from puberty to legal adulthood. Adolescence is usually associated with the years, but its physical, psychological or cultural expressions may begin earlier. For example, puberty now typically begins during preadolescence, particularly in females, physical growth, and cognitive development can extend into the early twenties. Thus age provides only a marker of adolescence, and scholars have found it difficult to agree upon a precise definition of adolescence. A thorough understanding of adolescence in society depends on information from various perspectives, including psychology, biology, history, sociology, education, and anthropology. Within all of these perspectives, adolescence is viewed as a period between childhood and adulthood, whose cultural purpose is the preparation of children for adult roles. It is a period of transitions involving education, training, employment and unemployment. The end of adolescence and the beginning of adulthood varies by country, Adolescence is usually accompanied by an increased independence allowed by the parents or legal guardians, including less supervision as compared to preadolescence. Major pubertal and biological changes include changes to the sex organs, height, weight, cognitive advances encompass both increment in knowledge and in the ability to think abstractly and to reason more effectively. The study of adolescent development often involves interdisciplinary collaborations, for example, researchers in neuroscience or bio-behavioral health might focus on pubertal changes in brain structure and its effects on cognition or social relations. Sociologists interested in adolescence might focus on the acquisition of social roles, developmental psychologists might focus on changes in relations with parents and peers as a function of school structure and pubertal status. Some scientists have questioned the universality of adolescence as a developmental phase, puberty is a period of several years in which rapid physical growth and psychological changes occur, culminating in sexual maturity. The average age of onset of puberty is at 11 for girls and 12 for boys, every persons individual timetable for puberty is influenced primarily by heredity, although environmental factors, such as diet and exercise, also exert some influences. These factors can contribute to precocious and delayed puberty. Some of the most significant parts of pubertal development involve distinctive physiological changes in height, weight, body composition. These changes are largely influenced by hormonal activity, puberty occurs through a long process and begins with a surge in hormone production, which in turn causes a number of physical changes. It is the stage of life characterized by the appearance and development of sex characteristics. This is triggered by the pituitary gland, which secretes a surge of hormonal agents into the blood stream, initiating a chain reaction to occur
30.
Siege of Mafeking
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The Siege of Mafeking was a 217-day siege battle for the town of Mafeking in South Africa during the Second Boer War from October 1899 to May 1900. The siege received considerable attention as Lord Edward Cecil, the son of the British Prime Minister, was besieged in the town, the siege turned the British commander, Colonel Robert Baden-Powell, into a national hero. The relief of Mafeking, while of little significance, was a morale boost for the struggling British. As well, the town had good stocks of food and other necessities, however, Mafeking was isolated, exposed and close to Boer controlled areas. Baden-Powell, whose orders were to command a highly mobile force of cavalry. Consequently, he chose to immobilize half his force to hold Mafeking against a Boer attack, however, contrary to Baden-Powells claims, his forces that remained outside the besieged town showed they were well trained as they performed remarkably well in their intended mobile role. The British garrison armed 300 African natives with rifles, were nicknamed the Black Watch and used to guard the perimeter. Prior to the siege, Lord Edward Cecil formed the Mafeking Cadet Corps of boys aged 12 to 15 who acted as messengers and orderlies and released men to fight. Work to build defences around the 6-mile perimeter of Mafeking started on 19 September 1899, president Kruger of the Boer South African Republic declared war on 12 October 1899. Under orders of General Cronje the Mafeking railway and telegraph lines were cut the day. Mafeking was first shelled on 16 October after the British commanders ignored Cronjes 9 oclock deadline to surrender, Colonel Baden-Powell had postage stamps printed with his own picture on them. In late 1899, he authorized the printing of siege banknotes, made by Townshend & Son, Printers using woodcut printing, notes were backed by the Standard Bank of South Africa and issued in denominations of 1,2,3, and 10 shillings, and 1 pound. Each note has the signatures of Robert Urry, Standard Bank of South Africa and Captain Herbert Greener. Redemption of the notes ended in 1908, although usually outnumbered by Boer troops, the garrison withstood the siege for 217 days, defying the predictions of the politicians on both sides. In reality, the Boers risked little to tie up Baden-Powells force and stores, while at one time the Boer troops numbered over 8,000 and more artillery was briefly brought up, most of these were merely moving through the siege camp. The Boers were able to control of the railway and roads just outside the town. Baden-Powell remained invested in the town despite repeated orders and, for most of the time until he ate his own horses, having the capacity to break out. As the siege drew on, it became apparent to the Boers that mounting public pressure in Britain would force attempted relief of Mafeking, tying up far more British forces, with few soldiers, no modern artillery and little risk, the Boers tied up enormous British forces
31.
Second Boer War
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The Second Boer War, usually known as the Boer War and also at the time as the South African War, started on 11 October 1899 and ended on 31 May 1902. Great Britain defeated two Boer states in South Africa, the South African Republic and the Orange Free State, Britain was aided by its Cape Colony, Colony of Natal and some native African allies. The British war effort was supported by volunteers from the British Empire, including Southern Africa, the Australian colonies, Canada, India. All other nations were neutral, but public opinion in them was largely hostile to Britain, inside Britain and its Empire there also was significant opposition to the Second Boer War. The British were overconfident and under-prepared, the Boers were very well armed and struck first, besieging Ladysmith, Kimberley, and Mafeking in early 1900, and winning important battles at Colenso, Magersfontein and Stormberg. Staggered, the British brought in numbers of soldiers and fought back. General Redvers Buller was replaced by Lord Roberts and Lord Kitchener and they relieved the three besieged cities, and invaded the two Boer republics in late 1900. The onward marches of the British Army were so overwhelming that the Boers did not fight staged battles in defense of their homeland, the British quickly seized control of all of the Orange Free State and Transvaal, as the civilian leadership went into hiding or exile. In conventional terms, the war was over, Britain officially annexed the two countries in 1900, and called a khaki election to give the government another six years of power in London. However, the Boers refused to surrender and they reverted to guerrilla warfare under new generals Louis Botha, Jan Smuts, Christiaan de Wet and Koos de la Rey. Two more years of attacks and quick escapes followed. As guerrillas without uniforms, the Boer fighters easily blended into the farmlands, which provided hiding places, supplies, the British solution was to set up complex nets of block houses, strong points, and barbed wire fences, partitioning off the entire conquered territory. The civilian farmers were relocated into concentration camps, where very large proportions died of disease, especially the children, then the British mounted infantry units systematically tracked down the highly mobile Boer guerrilla units. The battles at this stage were small operations with few combat casualties The war ended in surrender, the British successfully won over the Boer leaders, who now gave full support to the new political system. Both former republics were incorporated into the Union of South Africa in 1910, the conflict is commonly referred to as simply the Boer War, since the First Boer War is much less well known. Boer was the term for Afrikaans-speaking white South Africans descended from the Dutch East India Companys original settlers at the Cape of Good Hope. It is officially called the South African War and it is known as the Anglo-Boer War among some South Africans. In Afrikaans it may be called the Anglo-Boereoorlog, Tweede Boereoorlog, in South Africa it is officially called the South African War
32.
Shona people
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The Shona are a group of Bantu ethnic group native to Zimbabwe and neighbouring countries. The main part of them is divided into five major clans and adjacent to some people of very similar culture, therefore, there are various interpretations whom to subsume to the Shona proper and whom only to the Shona family. The Shona people are divided into Western Shonas and Eastern Shonas, origins of the Western Kalanga come from the Rozvi State. Ethnologue notes that the language of the Western Shona is mutually intelligible with the dialects of the Eastern Shona. In Desmond Dales basic Shona dictionary, also special vocabulary of Manyika dialect is included and their language is only partly intelligible with the main Shona dialects and comprises some click sounds that do not occur in standard ChiShona. When the term Shona was invented during the Mfecane in late 19th century, possibly by the Ndebele king Mzilikazi, on one hand, it is claimed that there was no consciousness of a common identity among the tribes and peoples now forming the Shona of today. On the other hand, the Shona people of Zimbabwe highland always had in common a vivid memory of the ancient kingdoms, the terms Karanga/Kalanga/Kalaka, now the names of special groups, seem to have been used for all Shona before the Mfecane. Dialect groups are important in Shona although there are huge similarities among the dialects, although standard Shona is spoken throughout Zimbabwe, the dialects not only help to identify which town or village a person is from but also the ethnic group which the person belongs to. Each Shona dialect is specific to an ethnic group, i. e. if one speaks the Manyika dialect, they are from the Manyika group/tribe. As such, if one is Zezuru, they speak the Zezuru dialect and observe those customs, in 1931, during the process of trying to reconcile the dialects into the single standard Shona, Professor Clement Doke identified six groups, each with subdivisions,1. The Korekore or Northern Shona, including Taυara, Shangwe, Korekore proper, Goυa, Budya, the Korekore of Urungwe, the Korekore of Sipolilo, Tande, Nyongwe of Darwin, Pfungwe of Mrewa,2. The Zezuru group, including Shawasha, Haraυa, another Goυa, Nohwe, Hera, Njanja, Mbire, Nobvu, Vakwachikwakwa, Vakwazvimba, the Karanga group, including Duma, Jena, Mari, Goυera, Nogoυa, Nyubi,4. The Manyika group, including Hungwe, Manyika themselves, Teυe, Unyama, Karombe, Nyamuka, Bunji, Domba, Nyatwe, Guta, Bvumba, Here, Jindwi, the Ndau group, including Ndau themselves, Tonga, Garwe, Danda, Shanga,6. The Kalanga group, including Nyai, Nambzya, Rozvi, Kalanga proper, Talahundra, Lilima or Humbe, the above differences in dialects developed during the dispersion of tribes across the country over a long time. The influx of immigrants, into the country from bordering countries, has contributed to the variety. There are more than ten people who speak a range of related dialects whose standardized form is also known as Shona. Most researchers point to the ancestors of the Shona as the creators of Great Zimbabwe, the origin of the ruins was once highly debated but has largely been resolved. Their crops were sorghum, yam, beans, bananas, African groundnuts, sorghum and maize are used to prepare the main dish, a thickened porridge called sadza, and the traditional beer, called hwahwa
33.
Shield
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A shield is a piece of personal armour held in the hand or mounted on the wrist or forearm. Shields are used to specific attacks, whether from close-ranged weaponry or projectiles such as arrows, by means of active blocks. Shields vary greatly in size, ranging from large panels that protect the whole body to small models that were intended for hand-to-hand-combat use. In prehistory and during the era of the earliest civilisations, shields were made of wood, animal hide and they were carried by foot soldiers, knights and cavalry. Depending on time and place, shields could be round, oval, square, rectangular, triangular, sometimes they took on the form of kites or flatirons, or had rounded tops on a rectangular base with perhaps an eye-hole, to look through when used with combat. The shield was held by a grip or by straps that went over or around the users arm. Often shields were decorated with a pattern or an animal representation to show their army or clan. These designs developed into systematized heraldic devices during the High Middle Ages for purposes of battlefield identification, even after the introduction of gunpowder and firearms to the battlefield, shields continued to be used by certain groups. In the 20th and 21st century, shields have been used by military and police units that specialize in anti-terrorist actions, hostage rescue, riot control and siege-breaking. The modern term usually refers to a device that is held in the hand or attached to the arm, Shields are also sometimes mounted on vehicle-mounted weapons to protect the operator. The oldest form of shield was a device designed to block attacks by hand weapons, such as swords, axes and maces, or ranged weapons like sling-stones. Shields have varied greatly in construction time and place. Sometimes shields were made of metal, but wood or animal hide construction was more common, wicker. Many surviving examples of metal shields are generally felt to be rather than practical, for example the Yetholm-type shields of the Bronze Age. Lightly armored warriors relying on speed and surprise would generally carry light shields that were small or thin. Heavy troops might be equipped with robust shields that could cover most of the body, many had a strap called a guige that allowed them to be slung over the users back when not in use or on horseback. During the 14th–13th century BC, the Sards or Shardana, working as mercenaries for the Egyptian pharaoh Ramses II, the Mycenaean Greeks used two types of shields, the figure-of-eight shield and a rectangular tower shield. These shields were made primarily from a frame and then reinforced with leather
34.
The Scout Association
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The Scout Association is the largest Scouting organisation in the United Kingdom and is the World Organization of the Scout Movements recognised member for the United Kingdom. Following the origin of Scouting in 1907, the Association was formed in 1910, the Association is the largest national scout organisation in Europe, representing 35% of the membership of the European Scout Region. The Association claims to provide activities to 452,000 young people in the UK with over 122,000 adult volunteers which is more than one adult for each 4 young people. Its programmes include Beaver Scouts, Cub Scouts, Scouts, Explorer Scouts up to adult Network members, the Associations president is The Duke of Kent and its Patron is Queen Elizabeth II. The Association is a member of the National Council for Voluntary Youth Services, from 1912 to 1967 the associations name was The Boy Scouts Association and until 1976 only boys were admitted to its programmes. In 1976, girls were allowed to join the Venture Scouts section for 16- to 20-year-olds and this expanded to all the Associations programme sections in 1991, although the admission of girls was optional and has only been compulsory since 2007. Girls now make up 25% of participants with a total of 94,366 female participants aged between 6 and 25 and a further 50,600 women involved in volunteer roles.2014 Annual Report. The Scout Associations activities and adult leadership positions are open to lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans-sexual, the Association is open to all faiths with variations to the Scout Promise available to accommodate to those of different religious obligations or national beliefs. For the origins of Boy Scouts and the Scout Movement before the formation of The Scout Association see Scouting, originally, Scouting was for boys aged between 11 and 18. However, many girls and younger boys wanted to join in, one group of Girl Scouts participated in the 1909 Crystal Palace Rally. The solution for younger boys was the creation of the younger Wolf Cubs Section, later, many of those who had grown out of Scouts still wanted to be a part of Scouting resulting in another section, the Rover Scouts, for those over 18 being created in 1918. Scouting spread throughout the British Empire and wider world, during the First World War, more than 50,000 Scouts participated in some form of war work on the home front. Scout buglers sounded the all clear after air raids, others helped in hospitals and made up aid parcels, Sea Scouts assisted the Coastguard in watching the vulnerable East coast. In 1929, the Boy Scouts Association hosted the 3rd World Scout Jamboree at Arrowe Park in Cheshire, some 56,000 Scouts from 35 countries attended, the first Gang Show, produced by Ralph Reader, opened at the Scala Theatre in London in October 1932. Following the outbreak of World War II, over 50,000 Scouts trained under the National War Service scheme, tasks undertaken included police messengers and stretcher bearers. The Air Scout branch was launched in January 1941, allowing Scout Troops to specialise in related to aircraft. Lord Baden-Powell died in 1941 and was succeeded as the Associations Chief Scout by Lord Somers, Scouts were prominent in their support of the 1948 Summer Olympics, playing leading roles in the open and closing ceremonies at Wembley Stadium and the sailing events at Torbay. The first Bob a Job Week took place in April 1949, in which Scouts did small tasks for the public in return for a bob to raise funds for the Association and for C. Arthur Pearsons fund for the blind
35.
5th World Scout Jamboree
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The 5th World Scout Jamboree was the World Scout Jamboree where 81-year-old Robert Baden-Powell gave his farewell. The Jamboree in Vogelenzang, Bloemendaal in the Netherlands was opened on July 31,1937 by Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands, given 650 water taps and 120 showers, it was considered the cleanest jamboree to date. The main camp was at Vogelenzang, the Sea Scout camp was at Bennebroek, the host site was on the farm of the Vertegaal family. The symbol used for the jamboree is the Jacobs staff. The ten arms symbolize the ten articles of the Scout Law, after this jamboree the Jacob’s staff became the award of gratitude for the Netherlands Scout organizations. Wooden versions were given to Scouts who had supported the jamboree organization, later on, the silver and gold Jacobs staff became official awards of gratitude in the Dutch national Scouts organization. The camp consisted of 12 subcamps, each with its own color, Although girls did not participate in the jamboree, they were allowed to give a salute to Olave Baden-Powell. Also a special Cub Scout day was organized during the jamboree, at the closure of the event on August 9,1937, Baden-Powell pointed out the symbol of this jamboree, the Jacobs Staff and took his farewell. André Lefèvre Jan van Hoof Leonard Webb Prince Gustaf Adolf, Duke of Västerbotten Jamboree film Jamboree Histories at ScoutBase Jamboree Histories at Scout. org
36.
Southern Rhodesia
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The Colony of Southern Rhodesia was a self-governing British Crown colony in southern Africa from 1923 to 1980, the predecessor state of modern Zimbabwe. After a period of interim British control following the Lancaster House Agreement in December 1979, initially, the territory was referred to as South Zambezia, a reference to the River Zambezi, until the name Rhodesia came into use in 1895. This was in honour of Cecil Rhodes, the British empire-builder, Southern was first used in 1898 and dropped from normal usage in 1964, on the break-up of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Rhodesia then remained the name of the country until the creation of Zimbabwe Rhodesia in 1979, legally, from the British perspective, the name Southern Rhodesia continued to be used until 18 April 1980, when the Republic of Zimbabwe was promulgated. The British government agreed that Rhodes company, the British South Africa Company, queen Victoria signed the charter in 1889. A Legislative Council was created in 1899 to manage the companys affairs, with a minority of elected seats. Prior to about 1918, the opinion among the electorate supported continued BSAC rule but opinion changed because of the development of the country and increased settlement. In addition, a decision in the British courts that land not in private ownership belonged to the British Crown rather than the BSAC gave great impetus to the campaign for self-government. In the resulting treaty government self-government, Crown lands which were sold to settlers allowed those settlers the right to vote in the self-governing colony, the territory north of the Zambezi was the subject of separate treaties with African chiefs, today, it forms the country of Zambia. The first BSAC Administrator for the part was appointed for Barotseland in 1897. The first BSAC Administrator for the part, North-Eastern Rhodesia, was appointed in 1895. The whites in the south of the river paid it scant regard though. This resulted in the formation of new movements for expanding the self-government of the Rhodesian people which saw BSAC rule as an impediment to further expansion, in view of the outcome of the referendum, the territory was annexed by the United Kingdom on 12 September 1923. Shortly after annexation, on 1 October 1923, the first constitution for the new Colony of Southern Rhodesia came into force, under this constitution Sir Charles Coghlan became the first Premier of Southern Rhodesia and upon his death in 1927 he was succeeded by Howard Unwin Moffat. During World War II, Southern Rhodesian military units participated on the side of the United Kingdom, Southern Rhodesian forces were involved on many fronts including the East and North African Campaigns, Italy, Madagascar and Burma. Southern Rhodesian forces had the highest loss ratio of any constituent element, colony, additionally, the Rhodesian pilots earned the highest number of decorations and ace appellations of any group within the Empire. This resulted in the Royal Family paying a state visit to the colony at the end of the war to thank the Rhodesian people. Economically, Southern Rhodesia developed an economy that was based on production of a few primary products, notably, chrome
37.
Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland
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The Federation was established on 1 August 1953. The Federation was established with a Governor-General as the Queens representative at the centre, the rulers of the new black African states were united in wanting to end colonialism in Africa. These groups supported the aspirations of the black African nationalists and accepted their claims to speak on behalf of the people, the federation officially ended on 31 December 1963. In 1964, shortly after the dissolution, Northern Rhodesia became an independent republic under the name Zambia, in 1965, Southern Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence from the United Kingdom as the state of Rhodesia. It was commonly understood that Southern Rhodesia would be the dominant territory in the federation – economically, electorally, how much so defined much of the lengthy constitutional negotiations and modifications that followed. African political opposition and nationalist aspirations, for the time, were mute, compounding this was the significant growth in Southern Rhodesias European settler population, unlike in the Northern Protectorates. This was to shape future developments in the Federation. Nyasaland showed the least European and greatest African population growth, rather than a federation, Huggins favoured an amalgamation, creating a single state. However, after World War II, Britain opposed this because Southern Rhodesia would dominate the property, a federation was intended to curtail this. The CO ruled the territories of Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia. The Northern Territories opposed a Southern Rhodesian hegemony, one that the CRO promoted, significantly, the CO tended to be more sympathetic to African rights than the CRO, which tended to promote the interests of the Southern Rhodesian European settler populations. It was convenient to have all three territories colonised by Cecil Rhodes under one constitution, but, for Huggins and the Rhodesian establishment, the central economic motive behind the CAF had always been the abundant copper deposits of Northern Rhodesia. Unlike the Rhodesias, Nyasaland had no sizeable deposits of minerals and its community of Europeans. Its inclusion in the Federation was always more a symbolic gesture than a practical necessity, ironically, it was to be largely Nyasaland and its African population where the impetus for destabilisation of the CAF arose, leading to its dissolution. On 8 November 1950, the first negotiations for a state for the Rhodesias. While many points of contention were worked out in the conferences that followed, several proved to be acute, the negotiations and conferences were arduous. Southern Rhodesia and the Northern Territories had very different traditions for the Native Question, an agreement would likely not have been reached without Sir Andrew Cohen, CO Assistant Undersecretary for African Affairs. Cohen, who was Jewish and traumatised by the Holocaust, was an anti-racialist, Lord Blake, the Oxford-based historian, wrote, In that sense, Apartheid can be regarded as the father of Federation
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World Scout Jamboree
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The World Scout Jamboree is a Scouting jamboree of the World Organization of the Scout Movement, typically attended by several tens of thousands of Scouts from around the world, aged 14 to 17. The first World Scout Jamboree was organized by The Boy Scout Association in London, the 21st World Scout Jamboree in 2007 was held in Hylands Park, Essex, United Kingdom, and celebrated the Centenary of Scouting. The 22nd World Scout Jamboree was at Rinkaby in Sweden from 27 July 2011 to 8 August 2011, the 23rd World Scout Jamboree was at Kirara-hama, Yamaguchi City in Japan. It opened on 28 July 2015, and closed 8 August 2015, in lexicography, Jamboree is considered an Americanism that traces back to 1860–65 and refers to a joyful, noisy gathering. The term is believed to originate from the words jabber and shivaree, while World Scout Jamboree is the expression used by the World Organization of the Scout Movement, other organizations held events called jamborees for their members. The Scouting program became a success following its founding by Robert Baden-Powell in 1907. With its continuing growth, the founder of the movement saw a need for a gathering of representatives of Scouting from all around the world. The general aim was to foster a worldwide brotherhood, and to help the young Scouts in the movement learn about other peoples, captain Melas proposed the gatherings should repeat every four years, in the same way Olympic Games were held in Ancient Greece. The suggestion was accepted with enthusiasm by Baden-Powell, who named the gatherings Jamborees and it was in 1920 that the first World Scout Jamboree was realized, held in the Olympia halls in Kensington, London. Symbolically, the Jamboree site bore the name of the birthplace of the Olympic Games,8,000 Scouts from 34 countries attended the event. Thereafter, a Jamboree has been held four years. The Jamboree has been held in different countries around the world, the first seven Jamborees were held in Europe. The eighth World Jamboree was held in North America where the tradition of moving the Jamboree among the continents began, as yet, Africa has not hosted a jamboree. To replace the event of 1979, the World Scout Committee determined that an alternative celebration. This Join-in programme was reproduced again as part of the Scouting 2007 Centenary celebrations, so far, the greatest attendance of all Jamborees was in 2011, where over 40,000 members from around the world descended upon Rinkaby in Sweden. This number represented the permanent contingent who remained for the entire event and they were joined by hundreds of thousands of visiting Scouts who participated on a day basis. The first Jamboree was more akin to an exhibition of Scouting, allowing visitors to see how things were done in parts of the world. The 2007 Jamboree coincided with the Scouting Centenary celebrations, because of this, the honour of hosting the event was again bestowed upon the United Kingdom, as the birthplace of Scouting
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Scouts South Africa
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Scouts South Africa is the World Organization of the Scout Movement recognised Scout association in South Africa. Scouting began in the United Kingdom in 1907 through the efforts of Robert Baden-Powell and rapidly spread to South Africa, South Africa has contributed many traditions and symbols to World Scouting. Scouts South Africa caters for youth and young adults from the ages of 7 through 30 and it is split into three sections, Cubs, Scouts, and Rovers, with each section serving a different age group, and concentrating on different areas of personal development. It is also one of the largest youth organisations in the parts of South Africa. The highest award attainable by a Scout in South Africa is the Springbok award, a Scout is required to complete all the requirements for the Springbok award before their 18th birthday. Scouts South Africa is based on the principles of duty to God, duty to others, organized Scouting spread to South Africa only a few months after its birth in Britain in 1907. In 1908, several troops formed in Cape Town, Natal, and Johannesburg, Scouting in South Africa grew rapidly, and in 1912 Robert Baden-Powell visited South African Scouts. Due to the spread of Scouting it became necessary to provide some form of local co-ordination. Provincial Councils were formed in South Africa between 1912 and 1916 and these councils had no direct contact with each other and reported directly to Imperial Scout Headquarters in London. The first Union Scout Council was formed in 1922 to provide a national control on an advisory basis. Six years later, in 1928, the Union Scout Council adopted a constitution which enabled it to perform the functions of Imperial Scout Headquarters, Scouting in South Africa, as in most British Colonies, was originally segregated by race. This did not prevent black Scout groups from forming, and in the 1920s, the Pathfinder Council was formed in 1929. In 1930, the Imperial Scout Headquarters granted the independence of the Scout Movement in South Africa. Work started on yet another constitution which was finalised in 1936 at Bloemfontein during the visit of Baden-Powell, during 1937, the Boy Scouts Association of South Africa became a member of the International Scout Conference and was registered with the International Bureau on 1 December 1937. South Africa was the first of the Commonwealth countries to achieve independence for its Scout Movement, the now independent association maintained the racial segregation with four separate associations. After consultation with Baden-Powell, four separate Scouting organisations were created in 1936 and these were The Boy Scouts Association, The African Boy Scouts Association, The Coloured Boy Scouts Association and The Indian Boy Scouts Association. These had a social and political aim. Negotiations about an amalgamation of both movements in the years 1930 to 1936 were not successful, in the 1970s, the Nordic countries placed pressure on the World Organization of the Scout Movement to expel the South African Movement for its racial policies
40.
14th World Scout Jamboree
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The 14th World Scout Jamboree was held July 29 to August 7,1975, and was hosted by Norway at Lillehammer, on the shore of Lake Mjøsa. King Olav V and Harald V of Norway, who then was crown prince, opened Nordjamb 75, as it popularly known. The slogan was Five Fingers, One Hand, an example of cooperation on the part of the five Nordic countries responsible for its organization. The British contingent, led by Robert Baden-Powell, 3rd Baron Baden-Powell, included Scouts from Branches in Bermuda, Hong Kong and Rhodesia. The program of this Jamboree included excursions in the mountains by international patrols, activity areas, Nordic trail, choir, visit to Maihaugen cultural museum, and the Jamboree Country Fair. The relationships that developed were in large due to the warm hospitality given to almost every visiting Scout in the homes of the hosts. This Jamboree included in the several activities involving modern technology. The Jamboree was also visited by Carl XVI Gustav of Sweden, the campground was located on shore of the river Lågen where it enters Lake Mjøsa. For this event Nord Crowns were issued as Camp currency, World Scout Jamboree Remembering Nordjamb75 - 14th World Scout Jamboree, Lillehammer, Norway
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Robert Baden-Powell, 3rd Baron Baden-Powell
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Born in Johannesburg, South Africa, he was educated at Bryanston School. For his national service he served in the Royal Navy, on the death of his father in 1962, he succeeded to the barony. He married Patience Hélène Mary Batty, only daughter of Major Douglas Myers Batty, of Melsetter, Southern Rhodesia, by his wife Elsie May Loker and she was a vice President of the Scout Association. She also conducted a business life and was a director of Imperial Life of Canada, Surrey Radio. She was appointed a CBE for her services to youth and was a deputy lieutenant for Surrey. Lord Baden-Powell served the British Scout Association in a number of local, national and international capacities and he was chief scout commissioner from 1965 to 1982. He led the British delegation to the World Scout Conference in Nairobi in 1973, a director of a number of unit trusts. He was chairman of the Sheldon Grange Housing Association and he is currently managing director of Fieldguard Ltd
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Bermuda Scout Association
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The Scout Association of Bermuda is a branch of The Scout Association of the United Kingdom as Bermuda is a British Overseas Territory. The Bermudian Scout Oath and Law, as well as other Scouting requirements, program activities are taken from the British system but adapted to the local conditions. Leader training including for the Wood Badge is conducted with the help of British, Bermuda Scouts participate in camps and events and a contingent has been fielded to World Scout Jamborees. The Bermuda Scout emblem incorporates elements of the coat of arms of Bermuda, the Scout Association of Bermuda is governed by a Chief Scout and a Chief Commissioner appointed by The Scout Association and an executive committee. In March 2017, John Rankin, Governor of Bermuda was appointed Chief Scout, in March 2012, Dr. Geoffrey Rothwell was named Chief Commissioner. Cub Scout, Scout and Explorer Scout programmes are offered, Bermuda Scouts in recent years have attended Scout summer camps in the United Kingdom as well as Pennsylvania and North Carolina in the United States. Visiting troops from the Boy Scouts of America and Scouts Canada have also hosted at the associations Admiral House facility. A association-wide annual event is a weekend camporee on Darrells Island, another event is the Budding Chef activity, when Scouts compete in cooking skills. Another island-wide annual event is the observance of Saint Georges Day in April, as in the United Kingdom, troops participate in a parade. A renewal of promise then takes place where the Scouts renew the Scouts Promise made at joining, the service concludes with the singing of God Save the Queen. Following the formation of The Boy Scouts Association in United Kingdom in 1910, the Governor of Bermuda became The Boy Scouts Associations Chief Scout of Bermuda. The Boy Scouts Associations founder and Chief Scout, Robert Baden-Powell and his wife, Olave Baden-Powell, Olave visited again in 1951 and 1954. The British contingent to the 14th World Scout Jamboree in 1975, led by Robert Baden-Powell, 3rd Baron Baden-Powell, included Scouts from Branches in Bermuda, Hong Kong and Rhodesia. In 1993, the role of the Scout Association of Bermuda. In 2004, Bermudas Scouts participated in a 12-mile walk to raise money for the victims of Hurricane Ivan in the Caribbean, the Category 5 storm caused extensive in Grenada, Jamaica, Grand Cayman, and Cuba. The stamps show Scoutings founder inspecting Wolf Cubs on Front Street in Hamilton, Girlguiding Bermuda Scout Association of Bermuda webpage Scout Association of Bermuda 19th Bermuda Cub Scouts 19th Bermuda Scouts 22nd Bermuda Cub Scout Pack
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Scout Association of Hong Kong
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The Scout Association of Hong Kong is the largest scouting organisation in Hong Kong. Scout training was first introduced in Hong Kong in 1909 and 1910 by the Protestant based Boys Brigade, Chums Scout Patrols and British Boy Scouts. The Catholic St. Josephs College, formed its Boy Scout Troop in 1913, the Boy Scouts Association formed its Hong Kong Local Association in July 1915 which became its Hong Kong Branch. After changes to the name of the United Kingdom organisation in 1967, the headquarters at the Hong Kong Scout Centre in Tsim Sha Tsui, Kowloon host the administration, headed by the Hong Kong Chief Commissioner. The association runs campsites, including Gilwell Campsite, Tai Tam Scout Centre and Tung Tsz Scout Centre, as well as hostels and it annually organises the traditional Scout Rally, providing Scout competitions and activities. For specific anniversaries, themed jamborees have been organised, the Scout movement is the largest uniform group in Hong Kong, consisting of more than 100,000 members. By 1911, British merchants and military personnel had started to organise Boy Scout troops in the city, on 16 April 1912, Lieutenant-General Baden-Powell, Chief Scout of The Boy Scouts Association, arrived in Hong Kong by the HMS Lutzou. Enthusiasts and organisations, including Queens College and St. Josephs College, on 11 September 1913, St. Josephs College formed a Boy Scout troop. The St. Josephs College troop was the first affiliated with the Boy Scout Association being registered as the 1st Hong Kong Boy Scout Troop on 1 May 1914, at the time, the Chief Scout was Major F. J. Bowen and the Scoutmaster was Albert Edwards. Besides training in map reading and communication, the troop also provided training in ambulance by Dr Coleman, on 29 December 1914, the troop was extended with a short-life Sea Scout Troop by Capt. P. Streafield, connected to the HMS Triumph of the Royal Navy. The Troop also held the first Scout camp in Murray Barracks, at the same time, Bowen was invited to Peak School to educate pupils in Scouting and the school later established a Wolf Cub Pack. The 2nd Hong Kong Scout Troop of St. Andrews Church was registered on 25 November 1914, Major Alexander Anderson McHardy was appointed Colony Commissioner on 1 May 1914 and then-Governor of Hong Kong Francis Henry May became Chief Scout of Hong Kong. At the beginning all member Scouts were of European descent and not well-recognised by Chinese society, Membership was restricted to those of British nationality. Vice Admiral Robert Hamilton Anstruther succeeded Major McHardy as Colony Commissioner on 1 May 1915, the Boy Scout Association Hong Kong branch started up in July 1915, and was responsible for Scout training. At the end of September 1915, there were in total 155 members in the first census. During World War I, many Scouting leaders served in the war, which limited Scouting in Hong Kong, lieutenant-Colonel F. J. Bowen returned to Hong Kong after the end of the war, and actively participated in the Movement. He became the Colony Commissioner in July 1920 and reorganised the Hong Kong Branch, at the end of 1920, membership was approximately 140 members. The reorganised branch held a Scout Rally at the Murray Parade Ground on 8 January 1921 at Garden Road, in September 1921, the Reverend George Turner Waldegrave succeeded Bowen, and the Scout Movement was firmly established in Hong Kong, though it was still small at 384 members
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Sable antelope
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The sable antelope is an antelope which inhabits wooded savannah in East Africa south of Kenya, and in Southern Africa. The sable antelope shares the genus Hippotragus with the bluebuck and the roan antelope. In 1996, an analysis of mitochondrial DNA extracted from a specimen of the bluebuck showed that it is outside the clade containing the roan. The Matsetsi sable population in Zimbabwe is only 450, the sable population in South Africa is about 7,000. Therefore, the Matsetsi sable population apparently is less than 1,500, fortunately, most of the sables in the reserves are pure Matsetsi sables. Anglo-American recently started a program of breeding pure Matsetsi sables commercially, H. n. variani, the giant sable antelope or royal sable, is so named because the horns of both sexes are recognizably longer. It is found only in a few remaining localities in central Angola and it is classified as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List, and is listed on Appendix I of CITES. It is classified as vulnerable H. n. roosevelti, the eastern sable or Shimba sable, is the smallest of the subspecies, the sable antelope is sexually dimorphic, with the male heavier and about one-fifth taller than the female. The head-and-body length is typically between 190 and 255 cm, males reach about 117–140 cm at the shoulder, while females are slightly shorter. Males typically weigh 235 kg and females 220 kg, the tail is 40–75 cm long, with a tuft at the end. The sable antelope has a compact and robust build, characterized by a thick neck and it has a well-developed and often upright mane on its neck, as well as a short mane on the throat. Its general colouration is rich chestnut to black, females and juveniles are chestnut to dark brown, while males begin darkening and turn black after three years. However, in populations, females have a brown to black coat. Calves less than two months old are a tan and show faint markings. The underparts, cheek, and chin are all white, creating a great contrast with the dark back, long, white hairs are present below the eyes, and a wide, black stripe runs over the nose. Both sexes have ringed horns which arch backward, in females, these can reach 61–102 cm, while in males they are 81–165 cm long. The average lifespan of the antelope is 16 years in the wild and 19 years in captivity. Sable antelope live in woodlands and grasslands during the dry season
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Supporter
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In heraldry, supporters, sometimes referred to as attendants, are figures or objects usually placed on either side of the shield and depicted holding it up. Early forms of supporters are found in medieval seals, however, unlike the coronet or helmet and crest, supporters were not part of early medieval heraldry. As part of the achievement, they first become fashionable towards the end of the 15th century. The arms of nutritionist John Boyd-Orr use two garbs as supporters, the arms of the USS Donald Cook, missiles, the arms of the state of Rio Grande do Norte in Brazil, letters of the alphabet are used as supporters in the arms of Valencia, Spain. Human supporters can also be allegorical figures, or, more rarely, specifically named individuals, the arms of the Congo provide an extremely unusual example of two supporters issuing from behind the shield. While such single supporters are generally eagles with one or two heads, there are examples, including the cathedra in the case of some Canadian cathedrals. At the other extreme and even rarer, the Scottish chief Dundas of that Ilk had three supporters, two red lions and the whole supported by a salamander. The coat of arms of Iceland even has four supporters, an example of whales non-rampant is the arms of the Dutch municipality of Zaanstad. However, medieval Scottish seals afford numerous examples in which the 13th and 14th century shields were placed between two creatures resembling lizards or dragons, further, on his retirement from office as Chief Herald, Robert Watt was granted supporters as an honour. Trees and other objects which are sometimes used are called Soutiens. Knights Grand Companion and Principal Companions of the New Zealand Order of Merit are granted the use of heraldic supporters, originally, in England, supporters were regarded as little more than mere decorative and artistic appendages. In the United Kingdom, supporters are typically an example of royal favour. Hereditary supporters are normally limited to hereditary peers, certain members of the Royal Family, knights banneret were also granted non-hereditary supporters, but no such knight has been created since the time of Charles I. Tom Brown was so knighted by George II at the Battle of Dettingen, supporters may also be granted to corporations which have a royal charter
