1.
Temperature
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A temperature is an objective comparative measurement of hot or cold. It is measured by a thermometer, several scales and units exist for measuring temperature, the most common being Celsius, Fahrenheit, and, especially in science, Kelvin. Absolute zero is denoted as 0 K on the Kelvin scale, −273.15 °C on the Celsius scale, the kinetic theory offers a valuable but limited account of the behavior of the materials of macroscopic bodies, especially of fluids. Temperature is important in all fields of science including physics, geology, chemistry, atmospheric sciences, medicine. The Celsius scale is used for temperature measurements in most of the world. Because of the 100 degree interval, it is called a centigrade scale.15, the United States commonly uses the Fahrenheit scale, on which water freezes at 32°F and boils at 212°F at sea-level atmospheric pressure. Many scientific measurements use the Kelvin temperature scale, named in honor of the Scottish physicist who first defined it and it is a thermodynamic or absolute temperature scale. Its zero point, 0K, is defined to coincide with the coldest physically-possible temperature and its degrees are defined through thermodynamics. The temperature of zero occurs at 0K = −273. 15°C. For historical reasons, the triple point temperature of water is fixed at 273.16 units of the measurement increment, Temperature is one of the principal quantities in the study of thermodynamics. There is a variety of kinds of temperature scale and it may be convenient to classify them as empirically and theoretically based. Empirical temperature scales are historically older, while theoretically based scales arose in the middle of the nineteenth century, empirically based temperature scales rely directly on measurements of simple physical properties of materials. For example, the length of a column of mercury, confined in a capillary tube, is dependent largely on temperature. Such scales are only within convenient ranges of temperature. For example, above the point of mercury, a mercury-in-glass thermometer is impracticable. A material is of no use as a thermometer near one of its phase-change temperatures, in spite of these restrictions, most generally used practical thermometers are of the empirically based kind. Especially, it was used for calorimetry, which contributed greatly to the discovery of thermodynamics, nevertheless, empirical thermometry has serious drawbacks when judged as a basis for theoretical physics. Theoretically based temperature scales are based directly on theoretical arguments, especially those of thermodynamics, kinetic theory and they rely on theoretical properties of idealized devices and materials
2.
Thermometer
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A thermometer is a device that measures temperature or a temperature gradient. A thermometer has two important elements, a sensor in which some physical change occurs with temperature. Thermometers are widely used in industry to control and regulate processes, in the study of weather, in medicine, there are various principles by which different thermometers operate. They include the expansion of solids or liquids with temperature. Radiation-type thermometers measure the energy emitted by an object, allowing measurement of temperature without contact. Most metals are good conductors of heat and they are solids at room temperature, Mercury is the only one in liquid state at room temperature, and has high coefficient of expansion. Hence, the slightest change in temperature is notable when its used in a thermometer and this is the reason behind mercury and alcohol being used in thermometer. Some of the principles of the thermometer were known to Greek philosophers of two years ago. The modern thermometer gradually evolved from the thermoscope with the addition of a scale in the early 17th century, while an individual thermometer is able to measure degrees of hotness, the readings on two thermometers cannot be compared unless they conform to an agreed scale. Today there is a thermodynamic temperature scale. Internationally agreed temperature scales are designed to approximate this closely, based on fixed points, the most recent official temperature scale is the International Temperature Scale of 1990. It extends from 0.65 K to approximately 1,358 K, various authors have credited the invention of the thermometer to Hero of Alexandria. The thermometer was not an invention, however, but a development. The expansion and contraction of the air caused the position of the interface to move along the tube. Such a mechanism was used to show the hotness and coldness of the air with a tube in which the water level is controlled by the expansion and contraction of the gas. These devices were developed by several European scientists in the 16th and 17th centuries, as a result, devices were shown to produce this effect reliably, and the term thermoscope was adopted because it reflected the changes in sensible heat. The difference between a thermoscope and a thermometer is that the latter has a scale, though Galileo is often said to be the inventor of the thermometer, what he produced were thermoscopes. The first clear diagram of a thermoscope was published in 1617 by Giuseppe Biancani and this was a vertical tube, closed by a bulb of air at the top, with the lower end opening into a vessel of water
3.
Galileo Galilei
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Galileo Galilei was an Italian polymath, astronomer, physicist, engineer, philosopher, and mathematician. He played a role in the scientific revolution of the seventeenth century. Galileo also worked in applied science and technology, inventing an improved military compass, Galileos championing of heliocentrism and Copernicanism was controversial during his lifetime, when most subscribed to either geocentrism or the Tychonic system. He met with opposition from astronomers, who doubted heliocentrism because of the absence of a stellar parallax. He was tried by the Inquisition, found vehemently suspect of heresy and he spent the rest of his life under house arrest. He has been called the father of observational astronomy, the father of modern physics, the father of scientific method, and the father of science. Galileo was born in Pisa, Italy, on 15 February 1564, the first of six children of Vincenzo Galilei, a famous lutenist, composer, and music theorist, and Giulia, three of Galileos five siblings survived infancy. The youngest, Michelangelo, also became a noted lutenist and composer although he contributed to financial burdens during Galileos young adulthood, Michelangelo was unable to contribute his fair share of their fathers promised dowries to their brothers-in-law, who would later attempt to seek legal remedies for payments due. Michelangelo would also occasionally have to borrow funds from Galileo to support his musical endeavours and these financial burdens may have contributed to Galileos early fire to develop inventions that would bring him additional income. When Galileo Galilei was eight, his family moved to Florence and he then was educated in the Vallombrosa Abbey, about 30 km southeast of Florence. Galileo Bonaiuti was buried in the church, the Basilica of Santa Croce in Florence. It was common for mid-sixteenth century Tuscan families to name the eldest son after the parents surname, hence, Galileo Galilei was not necessarily named after his ancestor Galileo Bonaiuti. The Italian male given name Galileo derives from the Latin Galilaeus, meaning of Galilee, the biblical roots of Galileos name and surname were to become the subject of a famous pun. In 1614, during the Galileo affair, one of Galileos opponents, in it he made a point of quoting Acts 1,11, Ye men of Galilee, why stand ye gazing up into heaven. Despite being a genuinely pious Roman Catholic, Galileo fathered three children out of wedlock with Marina Gamba and they had two daughters, Virginia and Livia, and a son, Vincenzo. Their only worthy alternative was the religious life, both girls were accepted by the convent of San Matteo in Arcetri and remained there for the rest of their lives. Virginia took the name Maria Celeste upon entering the convent and she died on 2 April 1634, and is buried with Galileo at the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence. Livia took the name Sister Arcangela and was ill for most of her life, Vincenzo was later legitimised as the legal heir of Galileo and married Sestilia Bocchineri
4.
Santorio Santorio
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He is also known as the inventor of several medical devices, including the thermometer. His work De Statica Medicina, written in 1614, saw many publications through 1784, Santorio was born in the Mediterranean coastal town of Capodistria. From 1611 to 1624 he was a professor at Padua where he performed experiments in temperature, respiration, Santorio was the first to use a wind gauge, a water current meter, the pulsilogium, an early waterbed, and a thermoscope. He also invented a device which he called the trocar for removing bladder stones, Santorio introduced the thermoscope in the work titled Sanctorii Sanctorii Commentaria in Artem medicinalem Galeni in 1612. The pulsilogium was probably the first machine of precision in medical history. Extensive experimentation with his new tool allowed Santorio to derive the circadian rhythm of the cardiac frequency, a century later another physician, de Lacroix, used the pulsilogium to test cardiac function. Sanctorius studied the so-called perspiratio insensibilis or insensible perspiration of the body, already known to Galen and other ancient physicians, for a period of thirty years Santorio weighed himself, everything he ate and drank, as well as his urine and feces. He compared the weight of what he had eaten to that of his waste products and this important experiment is the origin of the significance of weight measurement in medicine. While his experiments were replicated and augmented by his followers and were surpassed by those of Lavoisier in 1790. The weighing chair, which he constructed and employed during this experiment, is also famous
5.
Perpetual motion
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Perpetual motion is motion of bodies that continues indefinitely. A perpetual motion machine is a machine that can do work indefinitely without an energy source. This kind of machine is impossible, as it would violate the first or second law of thermodynamics and these laws of thermodynamics apply even at very grand scales. Thus, machines that extract energy from finite sources will not operate indefinitely, because they are driven by the energy stored in the source, a common example is devices powered by ocean currents, whose energy is ultimately derived from the Sun, which itself will eventually burn out. Machines powered by more obscure sources have proposed, but are subject to the same inescapable laws. The history of perpetual motion machines dates back to the Middle Ages, for millennia, it was not clear whether perpetual motion devices were possible or not, but the development of modern theories of thermodynamics has shown that they are impossible. Despite this, many attempts have been made to such machines. Modern designers and proponents often use other terms, such as over unity, there is a scientific consensus that perpetual motion in an isolated system violates either the first law of thermodynamics, the second law of thermodynamics, or both. The first law of thermodynamics is a version of the law of conservation of energy, in other words, In any isolated system, one cannot create new energy The output work power of heat engines is always smaller than the input heating power. The rest of the energy supplied is wasted as heat to the ambient surroundings. The efficiency has a maximum, given by the Carnot efficiency and it is always lower than one. The efficiency of heat engines is even lower than the Carnot efficiency due to irreversibility arising from the speed of processes. Statements 2 and 3 apply to heat engines, other types of engines which convert e. g. mechanical into electromagnetic energy, cannot operate with 100% efficiency, because it impossible to design any system that is free of energy dissipation. By way of example, clocks and other machines, such as Coxs timepiece, have been designed to run on the differences in barometric pressure or temperature between night and day. These machines have a source of energy, albeit one which is not readily apparent so that they seem to violate the laws of thermodynamics. Even machines which extract energy from long-lived sources - such as ocean currents - will run down when their energy sources inevitably do and they are not perpetual motion machines because they are consuming energy from an external source and are not isolated systems. It thus violates the first law of thermodynamics, the law of conservation of energy, a perpetual motion machine of the second kind is a machine which spontaneously converts thermal energy into mechanical work. When the thermal energy is equivalent to the work done, this does not violate the law of conservation of energy, however, it does violate the more subtle second law of thermodynamics
6.
The Assayer
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The debate between Galileo and Grassi started in 1618, when the latter published Disputatio astronomica de tribus cometis anni MDCXVIII, in which he asserted that comets are celestial bodies. Grassi adopted Tycho Brahes Tychonic system, in which the planets of the solar system orbit around the sun. In his Disputatio Grassi referenced many of Galileos observations, such as the surface of the moon, Grassi argued from the apparent absence of observable parallax that comets move beyond the moon. Galileo mistakenly believed that comets are an optical illusion, in 1616 Galileo may have been silenced on Copernicanism. In 1623 his supporter and friend, Cardinal Maffeo Barberini, a patron of the Lynx and uncle of future Cardinal Francesco Barberini. The election of Barberini seemed to assure Galileo of support at the highest level in the Church, a visit to Rome confirmed this. The title page of The Assayer shows the crest of the Barberini family, in The Assayer, Galileo weighs the astronomical views of a Jesuit, Orazio Grassi, and finds them wanting. The book was dedicated to the new pope, the title page also shows that Urban VIII employed a member of the Lynx, Cesarini, at a high level in the papal service. This book was edited and published by members of the Lynx, in The Assayer Galileo mainly criticized Grassis method of inquiry, heavily biased by his religious belief and based on ipse dixit, rather than his hypothesis on comets. Furthermore, he insisted that philosophy should be mathematical. According to the page, he was the philosopher]] of the Grand Duke of Tuscany. Natural philosophy spans the gamut from processes of generation and growth to the structure of the universe. Mathematics, on the hand, is symbolized by telescopes. This is the book containing Galileo’s famous statement that mathematics is the language of science, only through mathematics can one achieve lasting truth in physics. Those who neglect mathematics wander endlessly in a dark labyrinth, from the book, Galileo used a sarcastic and witty tone throughout the essay. The book was read with delight at the table by Urban VIII. In 1620 Maffeo Barberini wrote a poem entitled Adulatio Perniciosa in Galileos honor, an official, Giovanni di Guevara, said that The Assayer was free from any unorthodoxy. Book of Nature Galileo Galilei, Il Saggiatore, The Assayer, stillman Drake and C. D. OMalley, in The Controversy on the Comets of 1618
7.
Classical Greece
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Classical Greece was a period of around 200 years in Greek culture. This Classical period saw the annexation of much of modern-day Greece by the Persian Empire, Classical Greece had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire and on the foundations of western civilization. Much of modern Western politics, artistic thought, scientific thought, theatre, literature, in the context of the art, architecture, and culture of Ancient Greece, the Classical period, sometimes called the Hellenic period, corresponds to most of the 5th and 4th centuries BC. The Classical period in this sense follows the Archaic period and is in turn succeeded by the Hellenistic period and this century is essentially studied from the Athenian outlook because Athens has left us more narratives, plays, and other written works than the other ancient Greek states. From the perspective of Athenian culture in Classical Greece, the period referred to as the 5th century BC extends slightly into the 4th century BC. In this context, one might consider that the first significant event of this occurs in 508 BC, with the fall of the last Athenian tyrant. However, a view of the whole Greek world might place its beginning at the Ionian Revolt of 500 BC. The Persians were defeated in 490 BC, the Delian League then formed, under Athenian hegemony and as Athens instrument. Athens excesses caused several revolts among the cities, all of which were put down by force. After both forces were spent, a brief peace came about, then the war resumed to Spartas advantage, Athens was definitively defeated in 404 BC, and internal Athenian agitations mark the end of the 5th century BC in Greece. Since its beginning, Sparta had been ruled by a diarchy and this meant that Sparta had two kings ruling concurrently throughout its entire history. The two kingships were both hereditary, vested in the Agiad dynasty and the Eurypontid dynasty, according to legend, the respective hereditary lines of these two dynasties sprang from Eurysthenes and Procles, twin descendants of Hercules. They were said to have conquered Sparta two generations after the Trojan War, in 510 BC, Spartan troops helped the Athenians overthrow their king, the tyrant Hippias, son of Peisistratos. Cleomenes I, king of Sparta, put in place a pro-Spartan oligarchy headed by Isagoras, but his rival Cleisthenes, with the support of the middle class and aided by democrats, took over. Cleomenes intervened in 508 and 506 BC, but could not stop Cleisthenes, through his reforms, the people endowed their city with isonomic institutions — i. e. with equal rights for all —and established ostracism. The isonomic and isegoric democracy was first organized into about 130 demes, the 10,000 citizens exercised their power as members of the assembly, headed by a council of 500 citizens chosen at random. The territory of the city was divided into thirty trittyes as follows, ten trittyes in the coastal region ten trittyes in the ἄστυ. A tribe consisted of three trittyes, selected at random, one each of the three groups
8.
Empedocles
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Empedocles was a Greek pre-Socratic philosopher and a citizen of Acragas, a Greek city in Sicily. Empedocles philosophy is best known for originating the theory of the four classical elements. He also proposed forces he called Love and Strife which would mix as well as separate the elements and these physical speculations were part of a history of the universe which also dealt with the origin and development of life. Influenced by the Pythagoreans, Empedocles was a vegetarian who supported the doctrine of reincarnation and he is generally considered the last Greek philosopher to have recorded his ideas in verse. Some of his survives, more than is the case for any other pre-Socratic philosopher. Empedocles death was mythologized by ancient writers, and has been the subject of a number of literary treatments, Empedocles was born, c.490 BC, at Acragas in Sicily to a distinguished family. Very little is known about his life and his father Meto seems to have been instrumental in overthrowing the tyrant of Agrigentum, presumably Thrasydaeus in 470 BC. Empedocles continued this tradition by helping to overthrow the succeeding oligarchic government, Empedocles was acquainted or connected by friendship with the physicians Pausanias and Acron, with various Pythagoreans, and even, it is said, with Parmenides and Anaxagoras. The only pupil of Empedocles who is mentioned is the sophist, according to Aristotle, he died at the age of sixty, even though other writers have him living up to the age of one hundred and nine. The contemporary Life of Empedocles by Xanthus has been lost, Empedocles is considered the last Greek philosopher to write in verse and the surviving fragments of his teaching are from two poems, Purifications and On Nature. Lucretius speaks of him with enthusiasm, and evidently viewed him as his model, the two poems together comprised 5000 lines. About 550 lines of his survive, although because ancient writers rarely mentioned which poem they were quoting. Some scholars now believe there was only one poem. We possess only about 100 lines of his Purifications and it seems to have given a mythical account of the world which may, nevertheless, have been part of Empedocles philosophical system. Humans, animals, and even plants are such spirits, the moral conduct recommended in the poem may allow us to become like gods again. There are about 450 lines of his poem On Nature extant, the poem originally consisted of 2000 lines of hexameter verse, and was addressed to Pausanias. It was this poem which outlined his philosophical system, although acquainted with the theories of the Eleatics and the Pythagoreans, Empedocles did not belong to any one definite school. An eclectic in his thinking, he combined much that had been suggested by Parmenides, Pythagoras and he was a firm believer in Orphic mysteries, as well as a scientific thinker and a precursor of physical science
9.
Giuseppe Biancani
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Giuseppe Biancani was an Italian Jesuit astronomer, mathematician, and selenographer, after whom the crater Blancanus on the Moon is named. He was a native of Bologna and his Aristotelis loca mathematica ex universis ipsius operibus collecta et explicata, published in Bologna, appeared in 1615, in which Biancani discussed Aristotelian thought on floating bodies. The work suffered censorship whilst undergoing peer review, a common Jesuit practice, Biancani wrote his Sphaera mundi, seu cosmographia demonstrativa, ac facili methodo tradita in 1615. However, it was not published until 1619 in Bologna, after the Decree of the Congregation of the Index in 1616, the original earth emerged on the third day of the creation myth as a perfectly smooth sphere, Biancani reasoned. If not for the hand of God, natural law would have allowed the earth to remain in that form, Biancani believed, however, that God had created the depths of the sea and formed the mountains of the earth. Moreover, if left to law, the earth would be consumed in water. However, the hand of God would intervene in order to cause the earth to be destroyed entirely by fire, the contents of the book are described in Latin as, Sphaera Mundi seu Cosmographia. Demonstrativa, ac facili Methodo tradita, In qua totius Mundi fabrica, una cum novis, Tychonis, Kepleri, Galilaei, aliorumque, echometria, idest Geometrica tractatio de Echo. As evidenced in the table of contents, this also presented a summary of the discoveries made with the telescope by Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, Galileo, Copernicus. The censorship of Biancanis previous work affected the manner in which he wrote Sphaera mundi, the work not only included studies on the natural phenomenon of the echo and on sundials, but also included a diagram of the moon. Giuseppe Biancanis map was not drawn up in support of new Copernican ideas but those berthed in traditional geocentric cosmology, Biancani disagreed with Galileo, who believed in the existence of lunar mountains. In a 1611 letter to Christoph Grienberger, Biancani wrote of his certainty that there could not be any mountains on the moon, Biancani opined that the Copernican system was of opinionem falsam. Biancanis Constructio instrumenti ad horologia solaria discusses how to make a perfect sundial, bernhardus Varenius based much of his geographical work on Biancanis ideas
10.
Otto von Guericke
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Otto von Guericke was a German scientist, inventor, and politician. Otto von Guericke was born to a family of Magdeburg. In 1617 he became a student at the Leipzig University, owing to the outbreak of the Thirty Years War his studies at Leipzig were disrupted and subsequently he studied at the Academia Julia in Helmstedt and the universities of Jena and Leyden. At the last of these he attended courses on mathematics, physics and his education was completed by a nine-month-long trip to France and England. On his return to Magdeburg in 1626 he married Margarethe Alemann and he was to remain a member of this body until old age. Von Guericke was personally distrustful of the enthusiasm for the cause of Gustavus Adolphus but was nonetheless a victim of the fall of Magdeburg to von Tillys troops in May 1631. Following a period of employment as engineer in the service of Gustavus Adolphus he, for the next decade he was occupied rebuilding his own and the citys fortunes from the ruins of the fire of 1631. Diplomatic missions, often dangerous as well as tedious, occupied much of his time for the twenty years. A private scientific life, of which remains unclear, was developing in parallel. One of them, the Archbishop Elector Johann Philip von Schonborn, one of the professors at the College, Fr. Gaspar Schott, entered into correspondence with von Guericke and thus it was that, at the age of 55. Schott - Mechanica Hydraulico-pneumatica - published in 1657, the following year this was translated into Latin and, made aware of it in correspondence with Fr. Schott, von Guericke acquired a copy, in the decade following the first publication of his own work von Guericke, in addition to his diplomatic and administrative commitments, was scientifically very active. In the Preface to the Reader he claims to have finished the book on March 14,1663 though publication was delayed for nine years until 1672. In 1664, his work appeared in print, again through the good offices of Fr. Schott, the first section of whose book Technica Curiosa, entitled Mirabilia Magdeburgica, was dedicated to von Guerickes work, the earliest reference to the celebrated Magdeburg hemispheres experiment is on p.39 of the Technica Curiosa, where Fr. Schott notes that von Guericke had mentioned them in a letter of July 22,1656. Schott goes on to quote a subsequent letter of von Guericke of August 4,1657 in which he states that he now had carried out the experiment, at considerable cost, with 12 horses
11.
Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany
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Ferdinando II de Medici was grand duke of Tuscany from 1621 to 1670. He was the eldest child of Cosimo II de Medici and Maria Maddalena of Austria and his 49-year rule was punctuated by the beginning of Tuscanys long economic decline. He married Vittoria della Rovere, with whom he had two children, Cosimo III de Medici, his successor, and Francesco Maria de Medici, Duke of Rovere and Montefeltro. Ferdinando was the eldest son of Cosimo II de Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, Cosimo II died when Ferdinando was 10, because he had not yet reached maturity, his mother and paternal grandmother, Christina of Lorraine, acted as joint regents. In his seventeenth year, Ferdinando embarked on a tour of Europe, one year later, his regency ended and his personal rule began. Dowager Grand Duchess Christina was the power behind the throne until her death in 1636, ferdinand, like Christina before him, was a patron, ally, and friend of Galileo. Galileo dedicated his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems to him and this work led to Galileos second set of hearings before the Inquisition. The first calamity of Ferdinando’s reign was in 1630, when a plague swept through Florence, unlike the Tuscan nobility, Ferdinando and his brothers stayed in the city to try to ameliorate the general suffering. His mother and grandmother arranged a marriage with Vittoria della Rovere, together they had two children, Cosimo, in 1642, and Francesco Maria de Medici, in 1660. The latter was the fruit of a reconciliation, as after the birth of Cosimo. Grand Duke Ferdinando was obsessed with new technology, and had several hygrometers, barometers, thermometers, in 1654, influenced by Galileo, he is reported to have invented the sealed-glass thermometer, by sealing the glass tip of a tube filled to a certain height with colored alcohol. Small glass bubbles filled with air at varying pressures hovered trapped within the liquid, changing positions as the temperature rose or fell. Marked off with 360 divisions, like the gradations or degrees of a circle, in 1657, Leopoldo de Medici, the Grand Duke’s youngest brother, established the Accademia del Cimento. It was set up to attract scientists from all over Tuscany to Florence for mutual study, Tuscany participated in the Wars of Castro and inflicted a defeat on the forces of Urban VIII in 1643. The treasury was so empty that when the Castro mercenaries were paid for the state could no longer afford to pay interest on government bonds, the interest rate was lowered by 0. 75%. The economy was so decrepit that barter trade became prevalent in rural market places, Ferdinando died on 23 May 1670 of apoplexy and dropsy. He was interred in the Basilica of San Lorenzo, the Medicis necropolis, at the time of his death, the population of the grand duchy was 730,594 souls, the streets were lined with grass and the buildings on the verge of collapse in Pisa. R. Florence and the Medici, Orion books, London,1977, ISBN 1-84212-456-0 Liedtke, new York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art
12.
Robert Fludd
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Robert Fludd, also known as Robertus de Fluctibus, was a prominent English Paracelsian physician with both scientific and occult interests. He is remembered as an astrologer, mathematician, cosmologist, Qabalist, Fludd is best known for his compilations in occult philosophy. He had an exchange of views with Johannes Kepler concerning the scientific and hermetic approaches to knowledge. He was born at Milgate House, Bearsted, Kent, not too long before 17 January 1573/4 and he was the son of Sir Thomas Fludd, a high-ranking governmental official, and Member of Parliament. His mother was Elizabeth Andrews Fludd and he entered St John’s College, Oxford as a commoner in 1591, graduating with a B. A. in 1597 and a M. A. in 1598. Fludd may have encountered Gwinne, or his writing, during his time at Oxford, providing an additional influence for his later medical philosophy, between 1598 and 1604, Fludd studied medicine, chemistry and hermeticism on the European mainland following his graduation. His itinerary is not known in detail, on his own account he spent a winter in the Pyrenees studying theurgy with the Jesuits. Furthermore, he indicated that he traveled throughout Spain, Italy, upon returning to England in 1604, Fludd matriculated to Christ Church, Oxford. He intended to take a degree in medicine from Christ Church College, the main requirements to obtain this, at the time, included demonstrating that he had read and understood the required medical texts—primarily those by Galen and Hippocrates. Fludd defended three theses following these texts, and on 14 May 1605, Fludd made his supplication and he graduated with his M. B. and M. D. on 16 May 1605. After graduating from Christ Church, Fludd moved to London, settling in Fenchurch Street, after at least six failures, he was admitted in September 1609. He became a prosperous London doctor, serving as Censor of the College four times and he became such an established figure within the College that he was included in seventeenth century critiques of the College, including those by Nicholas Culpepper and Peter Coles. Subsequently both his career and his standing in the College took a very much for the better. He was on terms with Sir William Paddy. Fludd was one of the first to support in print the theory of the circulation of the blood of the Colleges William Harvey, to what extent Fludd may have actually influenced Harvey is still debated, in the context that Harveys discovery is hard to date precisely. The term circulation was certainly ambiguous at that time, while he followed Paracelsus in his medical views rather than the ancient authorities, he was also a believer that real wisdom was to be found in the writings of natural magicians. His view of these mystical authorities was inclined towards the great mathematicians, and he believed, like Pythagoras and his followers, certainty in religion could only be discovered through serious study of numbers and ratios. This later brought Fludd into conflict with Johannes Kepler, isaac Newton, at this time, also held similar beliefs, focused on the dimensions of Solomons Temple
13.
Galileo thermometer
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A Galileo thermometer is a thermometer made of a sealed glass cylinder containing a clear liquid and several glass vessels of varying densities. As the temperature changes, the individual floats rise or fall in proportion to their respective density, although named after Italian physicist Galileo Galilei, the thermometer described in this article was not invented by him. Galileo did invent a thermometer, called Galileos air thermometer, in or before 1603, the English translation of this work describes the device as slow and lazy, a description that is reflected in an alternative Italian name for the invention, the termometro lento. The device now called the Galileo thermometer was revived in the era by the Natural History Museum, London. The Galilean thermometer works on the principle of buoyancy, buoyancy determines whether objects float or sink in a liquid, and is responsible for the fact that even boats made of steel float in water. The only factor that determines whether an object rises or falls in a particular liquid is the objects density relative to the density of the liquid. If the object is denser than the liquid then it sinks, if the object is more dense than the liquid then it begins to sink until the weight of the displaced liquid becomes equal to the objects weight, then it floats at that depth. Suppose there are two objects, each with a volume of 1 L, the mass of water displaced by an object of this size is 1 kg. The brown object on the left is floating because the mass of water it would displace if completely submerged is greater than the mass of the object. It floats half submerged because that is the point where the mass of the water displaced is equal to the mass of the object, the green object on the right has sunk because the mass of water it is displacing is less than the objects mass. All objects made of the material above will sink. In Figure 2, the interior of the object has been hollowed out. The total mass of the object is now 0.5 kg, yet its volume remains the same, in the examples above, the liquid in which the objects have been floating is assumed to be water. Water has a density of 1 kilogram per litre, which means that the mass of water displaced by any of the objects when fully submerged, is 1 kg. Galileo discovered that the density of a liquid is a function of its temperature and this is the key to how the Galileo thermometer works, as the temperature of most liquids increases, their density decreases. Figure 3 shows a 1 kg hollow object made of the green material, in the left-hand container, the density of the liquid is 1.001 kg/L. Since the object weighs less than the water it displaces, it floats, in the right-hand container, the density of the liquid is 0.999 kg/L. Since the object more than the mass of the water it displaces
14.
Tasimeter
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The tasimeter, or Microtasimeter, or measurer of infinitesimal pressure, is a device designed by Thomas Edison to measure infrared radiation. To satisfy those needs Edison devised a microtasimeter employing a carbon button, the value of the instrument lies in its ability to detect small variations of temperature. During the total eclipse of the sun in 1878, it demonstrated the existence of heat in the corona. It is also of service in ascertaining the relative expansion of substances due to a rise of temperature, the functional parts are represented in the partial cross section, which shows its construction and mode of operation. The substance whose expansion is to be measured is shown at A and it is firmly clamped at B, its lower end fitting into a slot in the metal plate, M, which rests upon the carbon-button. The latter is in a circuit, which includes also a delicate galvanometer. Any variation in the length of the rod changes the pressure upon the carbon and this causes a deflection of the galvanometer-needle—a movement in one direction denoting expansion of A, while an opposite motion signifies contraction. To avoid any deflection which might arise from change in strength of battery, the screw works a second screw, causing the rod to ascend or descend, and the exact distance through which the rod moves is indicated by the needle, N, on the dial. The instrument can also be used to measure changes in the humidity of the atmosphere. In this case the strip of vulcanite is replaced by one of gelatine, the basic problem seemed to be to keep the burner, or bulb, from being consumed by preventing it from overheating. Edison thought he would be able to solve this by fashioning a microtasimeter-like device to control the current and he boldly announced that he would invent a safe, mild, and inexpensive electric light that would replace the gaslight. Eclipse Vicissitudes, Thomas Edison and the Chickens, J. Donald Fernie, Edison the scientist, John A. Eddy, Applied Optics
15.
Rice University
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William Marsh Rice University, commonly referred to as Rice University or Rice, is a private research university located on a 295-acre campus in Houston, Texas, United States. The university is situated near the Houston Museum District and is adjacent to the Texas Medical Center, Rice is generally considered the top university and the most selective institute of higher education in the state of Texas. Opened in 1912 after the murder of its namesake William Marsh Rice, Rice is now a university with an undergraduate focus. Its emphasis on education is demonstrated by a student body and 6,1 student-faculty ratio. The university has a high level of research activity for its size. Rice is noted for its science programs in the fields of artificial heart research, structural chemical analysis, signal processing, space science. It was ranked first in the world in materials science research by the Times Higher Education in 2010, Rice is a member of the Association of American Universities. Graduate programs are offered through the Jesse H. Jones Graduate School of Business, School of Architecture, Shepherd School of Music, Rice students are bound by the strict Honor Code, which is enforced by a student-run Honor Council. Rice competes in 14 NCAA Division I varsity sports and is a part of Conference USA, intramural and club sports are offered in a wide variety of activities such as jiu jitsu, water polo, and crew. In 1891, Rice decided to charter a free-tuition educational institute in Houston, bearing his name, to be created upon his death, Rices will specified the institution was to be a competitive institution of the highest grade and that only white students would be permitted to attend. On the morning of September 23,1900, Rice, age 84, was dead by his valet. Shortly thereafter, a large check made out to Rices New York City lawyer. The lawyer, Albert T. Patrick, then announced that Rice had changed his will to leave the bulk of his fortune to Patrick, rather than to the creation of Rices educational institute. Rices friend and personal lawyer in Houston, James A. Baker, Jones was not prosecuted since he cooperated with the district attorney, and testified against Patrick. Patrick was found guilty of conspiring to steal Rices fortune and convicted of murder in 1901, Baker helped Rices estate direct the fortune, worth $4.6 million in 1904, towards the founding of what was to be called the Rice Institute. The board took control of the assets on April 29 of that year and he came recommended by Princetons president, Woodrow Wilson. In 1908, Lovett accepted the challenge, and was inaugurated as the Institutes first president on October 12,1912. Lovett undertook extensive research before formalizing plans for the new Institute, Lovett called for the establishment of a university of the highest grade, an institution of liberal and technical learning devoted quite as much to investigation as to instruction
16.
ABC-CLIO
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ABC-CLIO, LLC is a publishing company for academic reference works and periodicals primarily on topics such as history and social sciences for educational and public library settings. ABC-CLIO provides service to fifteen different online databases which contain one million online textbooks. The company consults academic leaders in the fields they cover in order to provide authority for their reference titles, the headquarters are located in Santa Barbara, California. ABC-CLIO was founded in 1953 as a privately held corporation by Eric Boehm with its first publication, during the 1960s, a sister bibliographic and abstract publication on American history was added, America, History and Life, which was considered an award-winning title. The company entered into publishing with electronic data in the 1960s and in 1975. During the 1980s, ABC-CLIO expanded into providing primary reference books such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, in the 1990s, ABC-CLIO began to provide access to its humanities database on CD-ROM. The Exegy Current Events CD-ROM was named Best Disc of the Year by Library Journal, in 1998, ABC-CLIO provided electronic access to America, History and Life. By the 2000s, one of companys most popular products had become online databases for researching many topics in the field of the humanities, in 2001, ABC-CLIO began to publish eBooks, initially providing 150 different titles to schools and libraries. The companys reference books had won awards, and the company started a series of subject-related online databases for secondary school use. In 2004, the acquired the quarterly historical journal, Journal of the West. In 1996, ABC-CLIO merged with a publishing company, Intellimation. The merger brought Becky Snyder, ABC-CLIOs current president, from Intellimation and it sold Historical Abstracts and America, History and Life to EBSCO Publishing in 2007. In 2009-03-18, Libraries Unlimited announced the acquisition of Linworth Publishing, Journal of the West In 2008, ABC-CLIO acquired the Greenwood Publishing Group from Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. The deal gave ABC-CLIO a perpetual license to use the imprints of Greenwood Press, acquiring the publishing group gave ABC-CLIO access to Greenwood Press, Praeger Publishers, Praeger Security International and Libraries Unlimited. Greenwood focuses on publishing full-text reference works which are authoritative on various topics, Libraries Unlimited came to ABC-CLIO as part of a deal with Greenwood Press. In 2012, Kathyrn Suárez was named Publisher for this division focuses on publishing for librarians. ABC-CLIO databases are provided under the umbrella of ABC-CLIO Solutions, there are fifteen different databases providing access to different subject areas. ABC-CLIO Solutions provides digital curriculum with multimedia content, text-to-speech features, translation tools which covers topics relating to history
17.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
18.
Observational astronomy
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It is the practice of observing celestial objects by using telescopes and other astronomical apparatus. As a science, the study of astronomy is somewhat hindered in that direct experiments with the properties of the distant universe are not possible, however, this is partly compensated by the fact that astronomers have a vast number of visible examples of stellar phenomena that can be examined. This allows for data to be plotted on graphs. Nearby examples of phenomena, such as variable stars, can then be used to infer the behavior of more distant representatives. Those distant yardsticks can then be employed to measure other phenomena in that neighborhood, galileo Galilei turned a telescope to the heavens and recorded what he saw. Since that time, observational astronomy has made steady advances with each improvement in telescope technology, visible-light astronomy falls in the middle of this range. Infrared astronomy deals with the detection and analysis of infrared radiation, the most common tool is the reflecting telescope but with a detector sensitive to infrared wavelengths. Space telescopes are used at wavelengths where the atmosphere is opaque. Radio astronomy detects radiation of millimetre to decametre wavelength, the receivers are similar to those used in radio broadcast transmission but much more sensitive. High-energy astronomy includes X-ray astronomy, gamma-ray astronomy, and extreme UV astronomy, in addition to using electromagnetic radiation, modern astrophysicists can also make observations using neutrinos, cosmic rays or gravitational waves. Observing a source using multiple methods is known as multi-messenger astronomy, optical and radio astronomy can be performed with ground-based observatories, because the atmosphere is relatively transparent at the wavelengths being detected. Observatories are usually located at high altitudes so as to minimise the absorption and distortion caused by the Earths atmosphere, some wavelengths of infrared light are heavily absorbed by water vapor, so many infrared observatories are located in dry places at high altitude, or in space. Powerful gamma rays can, however be detected by the air showers they produce. For much of the history of astronomy, almost all observation was performed in the visual spectrum with optical telescopes. The seeing conditions depend on the turbulence and thermal variations in the air, locations that are frequently cloudy or suffer from atmospheric turbulence limit the resolution of observations. Likewise the presence of the full Moon can brighten up the sky with scattered light, for observation purposes, the optimal location for an optical telescope is undoubtedly in outer space. There the telescope can make observations without being affected by the atmosphere, however, at present it remains costly to lift telescopes into orbit. Thus the next best locations are certain mountain peaks that have a number of cloudless days
19.
Galileo affair
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In 1610, Galileo published his Sidereus Nuncius, describing the surprising observations that he had made with the new telescope, namely the phases of Venus and the Galilean moons of Jupiter. With these observations he promoted the theory of Nicolaus Copernicus. Galileos initial discoveries were met with opposition within the Catholic Church, heliocentric books were banned and Galileo was ordered to refrain from holding, teaching or defending heliocentric ideas. Galileo went on to propose a theory of tides in 1616, in 1632 Galileo, now an old man, published his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, which implicitly defended heliocentrism, and was immensely popular. Galileo was kept under house arrest until his death in 1642, other observations followed, including the phases of Venus and the existence of sunspots. In 1611, Galileo visited the Collegium Romanum in Rome, where the Jesuit astronomers by that time had repeated his observations, truly, just as the asp stops its ears, so do these philosophers shut their eyes to the light of truth. Brahe argued that the distance to the stars in the Copernican system would have to be 700 times greater than the distance from the sun to Saturn, Galileo became involved in a dispute over priority in the discovery of sunspots with Christoph Scheiner, a Jesuit. This became a lifelong feud. Neither of them, however, was the first to recognise sunspots—the Chinese had already been familiar with them for centuries, at this time, Galileo also engaged in a dispute over the reasons that objects float or sink in water, siding with Archimedes against Aristotle. The debate was unfriendly, and Galileos blunt and sometimes sarcastic style, though not extraordinary in academic debates of the time, according to Cigoli, one of the plotters asked a priest to denounce Galileos views from the pulpit, but the latter refused. Nevertheless, three years later another priest, Tommaso Caccini, did in fact do precisely that, as described below. Geostaticism agreed with an interpretation of Scripture in several places, such as 1 Chronicles 16,30, Psalm 93,1, Psalm 96,10, Psalm 104,5. Heliocentrism, the theory that the Earth was a planet, which along with all the others revolved around the Sun, contradicted both geocentrism and the prevailing theological support of the theory. One of the first suggestions of heresy that Galileo had to deal with came in 1613 from a professor of philosophy, poet and specialist in Greek literature, Galileo was defended on the spot by his former student Benedetto Castelli, now a professor of mathematics and Benedictine abbot. Later, in 1615, he expanded this into his much longer Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina, in late 1614 or early 1615, one of Caccinis fellow Dominicans, Niccolò Lorini, acquired a copy of Galileos letter to Castelli. Lorini and other Dominicans at the Convent of San Marco considered the letter of doubtful orthodoxy, Lorini and his colleagues decided to bring Galileos letter to the attention of the Inquisition. Were taking it upon themselves to expound the Holy Scripture according to their private lights, on March 19, Caccini arrived at the Inquisitions offices in Rome to denounce Galileo for his Copernicanism and various other alleged heresies supposedly being spread by his pupils. Galileo soon heard reports that Lorini had obtained a copy of his letter to Castelli and was claiming that it contained many heresies and he also heard that Caccini had gone to Rome and suspected him of trying to stir up trouble with Lorinis copy of the letter
20.
Galileo's escapement
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Galileos escapement is a design for a clock escapement, invented around 1637 by Italian scientist Galileo Galilei. It was the earliest design of a pendulum clock, since he was blind, Galileo described the device to his son, who drew a sketch of it. The son began construction of a prototype, but both he and Galileo died before it was completed, Galileo was the first to investigate the timekeeping properties of pendulums, beginning around 1602. His interest was sparked by his discovery that, at least for small swings and he realized that this property made the pendulum useful for timekeeping. He also discovered that the period is dependent on its length. He used freeswinging pendulums as timers in scientific experiments and for keeping time for music. In 1637, when he was 73, Galileo had the idea of a mechanism that would keep the pendulum swinging by giving it pushes, since he was totally blind, he described the mechanism to his son Vincenzio, who drew a picture from his description. Finally they decided on the scheme shown in the accompanying drawing, the existing clocks of the time which used the verge escapement with a crude balance wheel were very inaccurate. The pendulum, due to its isochronism could be a much better timekeeper and his son Vincenzio began building a clock, but both he and Galileo died before it was completed. The first pendulum clock was built in 1657 by Christiaan Huygens using a different design, the pendulum clock remained the worlds most accurate timekeeper for 300 years, until the 1930s. Since his time, various working models of Galileos clock have been built
21.
Galilean invariance
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Galilean invariance or Galilean relativity states that the laws of motion are the same in all inertial frames. In other words, all related to one another by such a transformation is inertial. In this context it is sometimes called Newtonian relativity, among the axioms from Newtons theory are, There exists an absolute space, in which Newtons laws are true. An inertial frame is a frame in relative uniform motion to absolute space. All inertial frames share a universal time, Galilean relativity can be shown as follows. Consider two inertial frames S and S, a physical event in S will have position coordinates r = and time t, similarly for S. By the second axiom above, one can synchronize the clock in the two frames and assume t = t, suppose S is in relative uniform motion to S with velocity v. Consider a point object whose position is given by r = r in S. We see that r ′ = r − v t, the velocity of the particle is given by the time derivative of the position, u ′ = d d t r ′ = d d t r − v = u − v. Another differentiation gives the acceleration in the two frames, a ′ = d d t u ′ = d d t u −0 = a and it is this simple but crucial result that implies Galilean relativity. Assuming that mass is invariant in all frames, the above equation shows Newtons laws of mechanics, if valid in one frame. But it is assumed to hold in space, therefore Galilean relativity holds. A comparison can be made between Newtonian relativity and special relativity, some of the assumptions and properties of Newtons theory are, The existence of infinitely many inertial frames. Each frame is of infinite size, any two frames may be in relative uniform motion. The inertial frames may move in all possible forms of uniform motion. There is a universal, or absolute, notion of time, two inertial frames are related by a Galilean transformation. In all inertial frames, Newtons laws, and gravity, hold, each frame may be of infinite size, but its definition is always determined locally by contextual physical conditions. Any two frames may be in relative non-uniform motion, rather than freely allowing all conditions of relative uniform motion between frames of reference, the relative velocity between two inertial frames becomes bounded above by the speed of light. Instead of universal time, each inertial frame possesses its own notion of time, the Galilean transformations are replaced by Lorentz transformations
22.
Galilean moons
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The Galilean moons are the four largest moons of Jupiter—Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. They were first seen by Galileo Galilei in January 1610, and they are the first objects found to orbit another planet. Their names derive from the lovers of Zeus and they are among the largest objects in the Solar System with the exception of the Sun and the eight planets, with radii larger than any of the dwarf planets. Ganymede is the largest moon in the Solar System, and is bigger than the planet Mercury. The three inner moons—Io, Europa, and Ganymede—are in a 4,2,1 orbital resonance with each other, because of their much smaller size, and therefore weaker self-gravitation, all of Jupiters remaining moons have irregular forms rather than a spherical shape. The Galilean moons were discovered in either 1609 or 1610 when Galileo made improvements to his telescope, galileos discovery showed the importance of the telescope as a tool for astronomers by proving that there were objects in space that cannot be seen by the naked eye. Galileo initially named his discovery the Cosmica Sidera, but the names that eventually prevailed were chosen by Simon Marius. Marius discovered the moons independently at the time as Galileo, and gave them their present names. As a result of improvements Galileo Galilei made to the telescope, with a capability of 20×. This allowed Galilei to discover in either December 1609 or January 1610 what came to be known as the Galilean moons, on January 7,1610, Galileo wrote a letter containing the first mention of Jupiters moons. At the time, he saw three of them, and he believed them to be fixed stars near Jupiter. He continued to observe these celestial orbs from January 8 to March 2,1610, in these observations, he discovered a fourth body, and also observed that the four were not fixed stars, but rather were orbiting Jupiter. Galileos discovery proved the importance of the telescope as a tool for astronomers by showing that there were objects in space to be discovered that until then had remained unseen by the naked eye, nevertheless, Galileo accepted the Copernican theory. In 1605, Galileo had been employed as a tutor for Cosimo de Medici. In 1609, Cosimo became Grand Duke Cosimo II of Tuscany, Galileo, seeking patronage from his now-wealthy former student and his powerful family, used the discovery of Jupiters moons to gain it. Galileo asked whether he should name the moons the Cosmian Stars, after Cosimo alone, or the Medician Stars, the secretary replied that the latter name would be best. On March 12,1610, Galileo wrote his letter to the Duke of Tuscany. Behold, therefore, four stars reserved for your illustrious name, make their journeys and orbits with a marvelous speed around the star of Jupiter
23.
Galilean transformation
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In physics, a Galilean transformation is used to transform between the coordinates of two reference frames which differ only by constant relative motion within the constructs of Newtonian physics. These transformations together with spatial rotations and translations in space and time form the inhomogeneous Galilean group, without the translations in space and time the group is the homogeneous Galilean group. The Galilean group is the group of motions of Galilean relativity action on the four dimensions of space and time and this is the passive transformation point of view. The equations below, although obvious, are valid only at speeds much less than the speed of light. Galileo formulated these concepts in his description of uniform motion, the topic was motivated by his description of the motion of a ball rolling down a ramp, by which he measured the numerical value for the acceleration of gravity near the surface of the Earth. Though the transformations are named for Galileo, it is absolute time, in essence, the Galilean transformations embody the intuitive notion of addition and subtraction of velocities as vectors. This assumption is abandoned in the Poincaré transformations and these relativistic transformations are applicable to all velocities, while the Galilean transformation can be regarded as a low-velocity approximation to the Poincaré transformation. Note that the last equation expresses the assumption of a time independent of the relative motion of different observers. In the language of algebra, this transformation is considered a shear mapping. The Galilean symmetries can be written as the composition of a rotation, a translation. Let x represent a point in space, and t a point in one-dimensional time. A general point in spacetime is given by an ordered pair, a uniform motion, with velocity v, is given by ↦, where v ∈ ℝ3. A translation is given by ↦, where a ∈ ℝ3, a rotation is given by ↦, where G, ℝ3 → ℝ3 is an orthogonal transformation. As a Lie group, the Galilean transformations span 10 dimensions, Two Galilean transformations G compose to form a third Galilean transformation, G G = G. The set of all Galilean transformations Gal on space forms a group with composition as the group operation, the group is sometimes represented as a matrix group with spacetime events as vectors where t is real and x ∈ ℝ3 is a position in space. The action is given by =, where s is real and v, x, the composition of transformations is then accomplished through matrix multiplication. The identity component is denoted SGal, let m represent the transformation matrix with parameters v, R, s, a, G1 =, uniformly special transformations. G2 = ≅, shifts of origin, G3 = ≅ S O, rotations of reference frame
24.
Galileo's Leaning Tower of Pisa experiment
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Via this experiment, Galileo supposedly discovered that the objects fell with the same acceleration, proving his prediction true, while at the same time disproving Aristotles theory of gravity. At the time when Viviani asserts that the experiment took place and he had, however, formulated an earlier version which predicted that bodies of the same material falling through the same medium would fall at the same speed. This was contrary to what Aristotle had taught, that objects fall faster than lighter ones. An exception is Drake, who argues that it took place, more or less as Viviani described it and this proves that Aristotle is wrong. Galileo arrived at his hypothesis by a thought experiment outlined in his book On Motion. Imagine two objects, one light and one heavier than the one, are connected to each other by a string. Drop this system of objects from the top of a tower, if we assume heavier objects do indeed fall faster than lighter ones, the string will soon pull taut as the lighter object retards the fall of the heavier object. But the system considered as a whole is heavier than the heavy object alone and this contradiction leads one to conclude the assumption is false. Terminal velocity Nordtvedt effect Newtons second law Galileo and the Leaning Tower of Pisa The Hammer-Feather Drop in the world’s biggest vacuum chamber
25.
Phases of Venus
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The phases of the planet Venus are the different variations of lighting seen on the planets surface, similar to lunar phases. The first recorded observations of them were telescopic observations by Galileo Galilei in 1610, although the extreme crescent phase of Venus has been observed with the naked eyes, there are no indisputable historical pre-telescopic records of it being observed. The Phases of Venus result from the orbit around the Sun inside the Earths orbit giving the telescopic observer a sequence of progressive lighting similar in appearance to the moons phases. It presents an image when it is on the opposite side of the Sun. It shows a phase when it is at its maximum elongation from the Sun. Venus presents a thin crescent in telescopic views as it comes around to the side between the Earth and the Sun and presents its new phase when it is between the Earth and the Sun. Since the planet has an atmosphere it can be seen at new in a telescope by the halo of light refracted around the planet, the full cycle from new to full to new again takes 584 days. The planet also changes in apparent size from 9.9 arc seconds at full up to a maximum of 68 arc seconds at new. Venus reaches its greatest magnitude of −4.5 when it is a crescent shape at the point in its orbit. The first known observations of the full planetary phases of Venus were by Galileo at the end of 1610, using a telescope, Galileo was able to observe Venus going through a full set of phases, something prohibited by the Ptolemaic system. The extreme crescent phase of Venus can be seen without a telescope by those with exceptionally acute eyesight, the angular resolution of the naked eye is about 1 minute of arc. The apparent disk of Venus extreme crescent measures between 60.2 and 66 seconds of arc, depending on the distance from Earth, nevertheless it is possible for observers with extremely acute eyesight to see a crescent Venus under ideal atmospheric circumstances. There have been numerous reports stating such observations, the phases of Venus are alleged to have been seen in Mesopotamian times by priest-astronomers. Ishtar is described in text as having horns. However, other Mesopotamian deities were depicted with horns, so the phrase could have simply an symbol of divinity. Aspects of Venus Ashen Light Campbell, William Wallace, is the Crescent Form of Venus Visible to the Naked Eye. Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, notes and Queries, Phase of Venus seen with the Naked Eye. Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, observers Notebook, Naked Eye Crescent of Venus
26.
Celatone
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The celatone was a device invented by Galileo Galilei to observe Jupiters moons with the purpose of finding longitude on Earth. It took the form of a piece of headgear with a taking the place of an eyehole. In 2013, Matthew Dockrey created a replica celatone, using notes from a version created by Samuel Parlour, from April 2014 to January 2015, Dockreys celatone has been on display in the Greenwich Observatory in Greenwich, London. Longitude prize Galilean moons Sobel, Dava, longitude, The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time. Video animation of a Celatone and its use in discovering the longitude for marine navigation Dockrey celatone Apparatus to render a telescope manageable on shipboard
27.
Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems
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The Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems is a 1632 Italian-language book by Galileo Galilei comparing the Copernican system with the traditional Ptolemaic system. It was translated into Latin as Systema cosmicum in 1635 by Matthias Bernegger, the book was dedicated to Galileos patron, Ferdinando II de Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, who received the first printed copy on February 22,1632. In the Copernican system, the Earth and other planets orbit the Sun, while in the Ptolemaic system, the Dialogue was published in Florence under a formal license from the Inquisition. In 1633, Galileo was found to be vehemently suspect of heresy based on the book, in an action that was not announced at the time, the publication of anything else he had written or ever might write was also banned in Catholic countries. While writing the book, Galileo referred to it as his Dialogue on the Tides, and when the manuscript went to the Inquisition for approval, the title was Dialogue on the Ebb and Flow of the Sea. As a result, the title on the title page is Dialogue, which is followed by Galileos name, academic posts. This must be kept in mind when discussing Galileos motives for writing the book, although the book is presented formally as a consideration of both systems, there is no question that the Copernican side gets the better of the argument. He is named after Galileos friend Filippo Salviati, Sagredo is an intelligent layman who is initially neutral. He is named after Galileos friend Giovanni Francesco Sagredo, Simplicio, a dedicated follower of Ptolemy and Aristotle, presents the traditional views and the arguments against the Copernican position. He is supposedly named after Simplicius of Cilicia, a commentator on Aristotle. Colombe was the leader of a group of Florentine opponents of Galileos, the discussion is not narrowly limited to astronomical topics, but ranges over much of contemporary science. Some of this is to show what Galileo considered good science, other parts are important to the debate, answering erroneous arguments against the Earths motion. A classic argument against earth motion is the lack of speed sensations of the surface, though it moves, by the earths rotation. The bulk of Galileos arguments may be divided into three classes, Rebuttals to the objections raised by traditional philosophers, for example, the experiment on the ship. Generally, these arguments have held up well in terms of the knowledge of the four centuries. Just how convincing they ought to have been to a reader in 1632 remains a contentious issue. Galileo attempted a class of argument, Direct physical argument for the Earths motion. As an account of the causation of tides or a proof of the Earths motion, the fundamental argument is internally inconsistent and actually leads to the conclusion that tides do not exist
28.
Discourse on the Tides
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Though conclusively misguided and eventually discredited by theories addressing gravity, the essay represents the early lineage of tidal theory. Galileos intrigue for tidal theory was motivated by a trip in 1595. While aboard a ferry carrying freshwater to Venice, Galileo noticed that the cargo would undulate in accordance with the rocking of the ship. Galileo composed Discourse on the Tides while in Rome and appealing for papal acceptance of the teaching of Copernican theory, Galileo wished to present a convincing argument for heliocentrism. He was aware that all the arguments in the Dialogue were also consistent with the Tychonic system. Hence, his desire to present his theory of the tides which, comparably, the oceans tides are due to Earths terrain, wind currents, and circular accelerations. Galileos theory of the tides could not account for one of the two occurrences of high tide observed along most coastlines. Also, Galileo argued that most natural scientists were examining and basing theories on the tides of the Mediterranean Sea, historical writer E. J. Occurring invisibly, gravity was far too mystic for Galileos consideration. Galileo did end the Discourse on the Tides with reservations that his theory may be incorrect, still, his 1632 Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems omitted gravitational forces and included a reprisal of his tidal theory in its fourth section
29.
Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina
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The Letter to The Grand Duchess Christina is an essay written in 1615 by Galileo Galilei. The intention of this letter was to accommodate Copernicanism with the doctrines of the Catholic Church, Galileo tried to use the ideas of Church Fathers and Doctors to show that the condemnation of Copernicanism would be inappropriate. Christina was the daughter of Charles III of Lorraine and granddaughter of Catherine de Medici, in 1611 Galileo was informed by a friend, Cigoli, “ill-disposed men envious of your virtue and merits met. Any means by which they could damage you, late in 1613, Galileos former student Benedetto Castelli, a Benedictine monk, wrote to Galileo about the events at a recent dinner with the Grand Duke Cosimo II de Medici. In the course of conversation at the dinner Cosimo Boscaglia, a professor of philosophy, argued that the motion of the Earth could not be true, after dinner ended, Castelli was called back to answer scriptural arguments against the motion of the Earth from Christina. The monk took on the role of theologian in response, and convinced everyone there except the Duchess, Galileo decided to address Christina because of her desire to learn more about astronomy. Christinas position of power would give the letter more exposure to other noble. Galileo replied with a letter giving his position on the relation between science and Scripture. By 1615, with the controversy over the Earths motion widespread and increasingly dangerous, Galileo revised this letter and greatly expanded it, the letter circulated in manuscript but was not printed until much later, when the Inquisition had condemned Galileo. It appeared in Strasbourg in 1636 with both Italian and Latin text, as seen in the top right image and it was suppressed in Catholic jurisdictions, as were all works of Galileo at that period which dealt with that subject. Galileo argued that the Copernican theory was not just a mathematical calculating tool and they know also that I support this position not only by refuting the arguments of Ptolemy and Aristotle. This approach caused some, including Dominican friar Niccolo Lorini, to complain to the Inquisition, Galileo starts the letter with a little flattery of the Grand Duchess. He tries to build her up as an authority figure and then presents his own credentials to show that he has similar authority. Since The Grand Duchess was a person of authority but did not have much knowledge in the field of astronomy he was able to write the letter in a way the common person is able to understand. He attempted to manipulate the Duchess by attempting to attain her sympathy by mentioning the unfair attacks made against his honor. He tried to portray “himself as a man of good will who seeks only to disclose the truth. ”He states he was motivated to write the letter to himself to men of religion he holds in great esteem. Critics of the Copernican system used the Battle of Gibeon from Joshua X as scriptural evidence against heliocentrism, in the passage, Joshua asks God to stop the sun in order to lengthen the day and allow the Israelites to win the battle. When taken literally, this implies that the sun is mobile
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Sidereus Nuncius
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Sidereus Nuncius is a short astronomical treatise published in New Latin by Galileo Galilei on March 13,1610. The Latin word nuncius was typically used during time period to denote messenger, however. Therefore, the correct English translation of the title is Sidereal Message, a copy of the original edition is a valuable rare book and as of December 2010 has sold at auction for USD $662,500, including premium. Although it is unclear who built the first telescope, its invention is credited to Hans Lippershey. The telescope allows the user to view distant objects as if they were closer and larger. Galileo was one of the first to use the telescope to view, one of Galileo’s first Optical Canons, as he referred to them, had 8-10 enlargements and was made out of lenses that he had ground himself. This increased to the 20-enlargement telescope that he used to make the observations in Sidereus Nuncius, Sidereus Nuncius contains more than seventy drawings and diagrams of the Moon, certain constellations such as Orion, Pleiades, and Taurus, and the Medicean Stars of Jupiter. Galileos text also includes descriptions, explanations, and theories of his observations, in observing the Moon, Galileo saw that the line separating lunar day from night was smooth where it crossed the darker regions of the moon but quite irregular where it crossed the brighter areas. From this he deduced that the regions are flat, low-lying areas. Basing his estimate on the distance of sunlit mountaintops from the terminator, he judged, quite accurately, Galileo’s engravings of the lunar surface provided a new form of visual representation, besides shaping the field of selenography, the study of physical features on the Moon. With the naked eye observers could see only six stars in the Taurus constellation, through his telescope, however, when he turned his telescope on Orion, he was capable of seeing eighty stars, rather than the previously observed nine – almost nine times more. In Sidereus Nuncius, Galileo revised and reproduced these two groups by distinguishing between the stars seen without the telescope and those seen with it. Also, when he observed some of the stars in the Ptolemaic star catalogue, he saw that rather than being cloudy. From this he deduced that the nebulae and the Milky Way were congeries of innumerable stars grouped together in clusters too small, in the last part of Sidereus Nuncius, Galileo reported his discovery of four objects that appeared to form a straight line of stars near Jupiter. Throughout the text, Galileo gave illustrations of the positions of Jupiter. That they changed their positions relative to Jupiter from night to night and yet always appeared in the straight line near it. In his drawings, Galileo used a circle to represent Jupiter. He made this distinction to show there was in fact a difference between these two types of celestial bodies
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Two New Sciences
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After his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, the Roman Inquisition had banned the publication of any of Galileos works, including any he might write in the future. Discourses was written in a similar to Dialogues, in which three men discuss and debate the various questions Galileo is seeking to answer. There is a change in the men, however, Simplicio, in particular, is no longer quite as simple-minded. His arguments are representative of Galileos own early beliefs, as Sagredo represents his middle period, the book is divided into four days, each addressing different areas of physics. Galileo dedicates Two New Sciences to Lord Count of Noailles, in the First Day, Galileo addressed topics that were discussed in Aristotles Physics and also the Aristotelian school Mechanics. It also provides an introduction to the discussion of both of the new sciences, the likeness between the topics discussed, specific questions that are hypothesized, and the style and sources throughout give Galileo the backbone to his First Day. The First Day introduces the speakers in the dialogue, Salviati, Sagredo, and Simplicio and these three people are all Galileo just at different stages of his life, Simplicio the youngest and Salviati, Galileos closest counterpart. It also provides an introduction to the discussion of both of the new sciences, the second day addresses the question of the strength of materials. The Third and Fourth days address the science of motion, the Third day discusses uniform and naturally accelerated motion, the issue of terminal velocity having been addressed in the First day. The Fourth day discusses projectile motion, in Two Sciences uniform motion is defined as a motion that, over any equal periods of time, covers equal distance. With the use of the quantifier ″any″, uniformity is introduced and expressed more explicitly than in previous definitions, page numbers at the start of each paragraph are from the 1898 standard Italian version and are found in the Crew and Drake translations. Sagredo cannot understand why with machines one cannot argue from the small to the large, I do not see that the properties of circles, triangles, Salviati says the common opinion is wrong. Scale matters, a horse falling from a height of 3 or 4 cubits will break its bones whereas a cat falling from twice the height wont, nor will a grasshopper falling from a tower. The first example is a rope which is constructed from small fibres which bind together in the same way as a rope round a windlass to produce something much stronger. Then the vacuum that prevents two highly polished plates from separating even though they slide easily gives rise to an experiment to test whether water can be expanded or whether a vacuum is caused. In fact, Sagredo had observed that a suction pump could not lift more than 18 cubits of water, the discussion turns to the strength of a copper wire and whether there are minute void spaces inside the metal or whether there is some other explanation for its strength. This leads into a discussion of infinites and the continuum and thence to the observation that the number of squares equal the number of roots. He comes eventually to the view that if any number can be said to be infinite, it must be unity and demonstrates a construction in which a circle is approached
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Vincenzo Galilei
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This article refers to the father of Galileo Galilei. For Galileo’s son of the name, see Vincenzo Gamba. He was a figure in the musical life of the late Renaissance. Vincenzo, in his study of pitch and string tension, produced perhaps the first non-linear mathematical description of a phenomenon known to history. It was an extension of a Pythagorean tradition but went beyond it and he was born around 1520 in Santa Maria a Monte, and began studying the lute at an early age. Sometime before 1562 he moved to Pisa, where he married into a noble family, in 1564 Galileo was born, the first of his either six or seven children, another son, Michelagnolo, born in 1575, who also became an accomplished lutenist and composer. Vincenzo was a player of the lute, and early in life attracted the attention of powerful. In 1563 he met Gioseffo Zarlino, the most important music theorist of the century, in Venice. Sometime in the 1570s his interests in music theory, as well as his composition and this describes Baroque practice, especially as he defines rules for resolution of suspensions by a preliminary leap away from, followed by a return to, the expected note of resolution. The use of recitative in opera is widely attributed to Galilei, since he was one of the inventors of monody, Vincenzo Galilei was one of the pioneers in the systematic study of acoustics, mainly in his research in the mathematical formula of stretched strings. Vincenzo made some substantial discoveries in acoustics, particularly involving the physics of vibrating strings and he discovered that while the ratio of an interval is proportional to string lengths it varied with the square root of the tension applied. In the case of strings tuned in a fifth, weights suspended from them needed to be in a ratio of 9,4 to produce the 3,2 perfect fifth. This work was taken further by Marin Mersenne who formulated the current law of vibrating strings, Mersenne was a regular correspondent to many scientists and, after the death of Vincenzo he maintained a regular link to Galileo, and treated him as a prized member of his scientific network. He communicated Galileos ideas for a clock to Christiaan Huygens. Despite being a priest, Mersenne defended Galileo when he came under attack by the church in 1633 and he conducted his own duplicate experiments which improved on their accuracy. Claude Palisca, Vincenzo Galilei, Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy, Article Vincenzo Galilei, in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ISBN 1-56159-174-2 Gustave Reese, Music in the Renaissance. ISBN 0-393-09530-4 The Concise Edition of Bakers Biographical Dictionary of Musicians, della musica antica, et della moderna Fronimo Dialogo
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Maria Celeste
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Sister Maria Celeste, born Virginia Galilei, was the daughter of the Italian scientist Galileo Galilei and Marina Gamba. Virginia was the eldest of three siblings, with a sister Livia and a brother Vincenzio, all three were born out of wedlock, and the two daughters were considered unworthy for marriage. Troubled by monetary problems, Galileo placed them in the San Matteo convent shortly after Virginias thirteenth birthday, when she took the veil in 1616 Virginia chose her religious name, Maria Celeste, in honor of the Virgin Mary, and her fathers love of astronomy. From her cloister Maria Celeste was a source of not only for her Poor Clares sisters. Maria Celeste served as San Matteos apothecary and she sent her father herbal treatments for his various maladies while additionally seeing to the convents finances and sometimes staging plays inside the convents walls. There is evidence she prepared the manuscripts for some of Galileos books, Maria Celeste frequently asked her father for help, and kept the convent afloat through his influence. Galileo helped repair windows and made sure the convent clock was in order, Maria Celeste was a mediator between her father and her brother. The Inquisition tried Galileo for being suspected of heresy in 1633. He was forced to recant his views on heliocentrism, and he was sentenced to house arrest for the remainder of his life, soon after Galileo returned to Arcetri in disgrace, Maria Celeste contracted dysentery, she died on 2 April 1634, aged 33. Galileo described Maria Celeste as a woman of mind, singular goodness. After Galileos death,124 letters from Maria Celeste written between 1623 and 1633 were discovered among his papers, Galileos responses to Maria Celeste—possibly describing what kind of help she brought to his work and describing his state of mind during the Roman trial—seem to have been lost. Maria Celestes letters have been published, Virginia Galilei, Lettere al padre on Wikisource Galilei, Maria Celeste, letters to father, suor Maria Celeste to Galileo, 1623-1633. New York, Walker & Co.2001 Also online Maria Celeste appears as a character in the play Life of Galileo, by Bertold Brecht, the play does not give an accurate portrayal of her life as it depicts her becoming engaged, rather than as a nun. The International Astronomical Union has named the impact crater Maria Celeste on the planet Venus after her, Galileo Galilei e suor Maria Celeste, p. PP7, at Google Books, Florence, G. Barbèra,1891 Sobel, Dava. Galileos Daughter, A Historical Memoir of Science, Faith and Love, Penguin Group,1999,420 p. ISBN9780670878048
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And yet it moves
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In this context, the implication of the phrase is, despite his recantation, the Churchs proclamations to the contrary, or any other conviction or doctrine of men, the Earth does, in fact, move. As such, the phrase is used today as a sort of pithy retort implying that it doesnt matter what you believe and this other home was also his own, the Villa Il Gioiello, in Arcetri. The earliest biography of Galileo, written by his disciple Vincenzo Viviani in 1655–1656, does not mention this phrase and it would have been imprudent for Galileo to have said such a thing before the Inquisition. In 1911, the words E pur si muove were found on a Spanish painting which had just been acquired by an art collector, Jules van Belle, of Roulers, Belgium. This painting was completed within a year or two of Galileos death, as it is dated 1643 or 1645, the book was written 124 years after the supposed utterance and became widely published in Querelles Littéraires in 1761
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Villa Il Gioiello
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Villa il Gioiello is a villa in Florence, central Italy, famous for being one of the residences of Galileo Galilei, which he lived in from 1631 until his death in 1642. It is also known as Villa Galileo, the name Gioiello was given due to its favorable position in the hills of Arcetri, near the Torre del Gallo. It was an elegant home, surrounded by acres of farmland with a separate house for workers. The villa and its estate suffered damages during the siege of Florence in the years 1529 and 1530, whilst the area of Arcetri. Calderini I sold it shortly thereafter to the Cavalcanti family, who rebuilt the home with its simple lines. This rented residence with its fields, adjoined the monastery where his daughter, Sister Maria Celeste was a nun, there are 124 remaining letters from Celeste to Galileo which were filed after his death in the inventory of property owned by Galileo. Galileos books are now held in the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale di Firenze and are the subject of a celebratory exhibit, Galileo lived there from 1631, in 1633 the inquisition sentenced him to lifelong house arrest which he served in Il Gioiello from early 1634. Despite becoming blind in 1638, he continued to some of his most significant works. Shortly after Galileo moved to Arcetri, he received visits from Ferdinando II de Medici as well as the painter Giusto Sustermans, other guests were the Ambassador of the Netherlands and the English poet John Milton. He made frequent visits to the students of Villa Castelli, in 1788 Senator Clemente Nelli had affixed a plaque dedicated to Galileo on the façade, and in 1843 a bust of the scientist was placed in a niche by the owners. In the 19th century, the building underwent further changes, especially on the upper floor, Villa il Goiello has been a national monument since 1920 and was in private hands until 1942, when it was purchased by the state. Today, it belongs to the Department of Astronomy at the University of Florence and it was scheduled to re-open to the public during the celebration of Galeleiano in 2009. The villa is in the form of a U, which encompasses the central courtyard, enclosed by a wall on the street side, the courtyard has a loggia, supported by arch-less Tuscan columns. The façade on the street is very simple, with rectangular windows with stone frames. Here you will find the bust of the astronomer, with inscription, giovanni Spadolini, La mia Firenze, frammenti delletà favolosa, Firenze, Le Monnier,1995 Quella casa chiusa di Galileo, articolo sul Corriere Fiorentino,23 dicembre 2008, pag. Il Quartiere 3, Aster Italia, Firenze 2005
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Sector (instrument)
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The sector, also known as a proportional compass or military compass, was a major calculating instrument in use from the end of the sixteenth century until the nineteenth century. It is an instrument consisting of two rulers of equal length joined by a hinge, a number of scales are inscribed upon the instrument which facilitate various mathematical calculations. It was used for solving problems in proportion, trigonometry, multiplication and division and its several scales permitted easy and direct solutions of problems in gunnery, surveying and navigation. The sector derives its name from the proposition of the sixth book of Euclid. It has four parts, two legs with a pivot, a quadrant and a clamp that enables the compass to function as a gunners quadrant, the sector was invented, essentially simultaneously and independently, by a number of different people prior to the start of the 17th century. In 1567 he published a single sheet treatise in Venice showing illustrations of his device, credit for the invention is often given to either Thomas Hood, a British mathematician, or to the Italian mathematician and astronomer Galileo Galilei. Galileo, with the help of his instrument maker MarcAntonio Mazzoleni, created more than 100 copies of his military compass design. Of the credited inventors, Galileo is certainly the most famous, the following is a description of the instrument as it was constructed by Galileo, and for which he wrote a popular manual. The terminating values are arbitrary and varied from manufacturer to manufacturer, the innermost scales of the instrument are called the Arithmetic Lines from their division in arithmetical progression, that is, by equal additions which proceed out to the number 250. It is a linear scale generated by the function f = L n /250, the next scales are called the Geometric Lines and are divided in geometric progression out to 50. The lengths on the lines vary as the square root of the labeled values. If L represents the length at 50, then the function is, f = L1 /2. The Stereometric Lines are so called because their divisions are according to the ratios of solid bodies, one of this scales applications is to calculate, when given one side of any solid body, the side of a similar one that has a given volume ratio to the first. If L is the length at 148, then the scale-generating function is, f = L1 /3. These lines have divisions on which appeared these symbols, Au, Pb, Ag, Cu, Fe, Sn, Mar, from these you can get the ratios and differences of specific weight found between the materials. With the instrument set at any opening, the intervals between any correspondingly marked pair of points will give the diameters of balls similar to one another and equal in weight. From the given information, the length and the number of sides. If the polygon required has n sides, then the angle opposite one side will be 360/n
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Museo Galileo
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Museo Galileo, the former Istituto e Museo di Storia della Scienza is located in Florence, Italy, in Piazza dei Giudici, along the River Arno and close to the Uffizi Gallery. It is housed in Palazzo Castellani, an 11th-century building which was known as the Castello d’Altafronte. Museo Galileo owns one of the major collection of scientific instruments. The Museo di Storia della Scienza re-opened to the public under the new name Museo Galileo on June 10,2010, after a two-year closure due to important redesigning and renovation works. The museum features the scientific instruments from the Medici Collections which were first displayed in the Stanzino delle Matematiche in the Uffizi Gallery. They were later on moved to the Museo di Fisica e Storia Naturale founded by Grand Duke Peter Leopold in 1775, during the reign of the Lorraine Grand Dukes, new instruments were added to the scientific collections. In 1929, the First Italian Exhibition of the History of Science in Florence highlighted the importance of scientific collections within Italy’s cultural heritage, as a consequence, in 1930 the University of Florence gave birth to the Istituto di Storia della Scienza con annesso Museo. The Institute was housed in Palazzo Castellani and was entrusted with the instrument collections of the Medici, the permanent exhibition is arranged by chronological and thematic paths. The first floor’s nine rooms are devoted to the Medici Collections, Museo Galileo carries out research and documentation in the history of science and technology, as well as in the field of preservation and improvement of museum collections. The Library’s book collection and a number of resources are available to scholars. It also organizes and takes part in conferences on scientific museology. Museo Galileo has been enhancing and promoting the dissemination of culture for many years. In order to meet this commitment effectively, it promotes exhibitions on the history of science, to be mentioned also the Archive of Italian Scientists’ Correspondence and the Italian Science Library series. In addition, the Museum publishes catalogues relevant to its collections, the library –which has been a part of the institute since its foundation– was completely remodelled in 2002, when it was moved to the third floor of Palazzo Castellani. The new architectural set-up was awarded the “Bibliocom Biblioteche in vetrina” prize, the library houses about 150,000 works concerning the history of science. The antique book collection consists of nearly 5,000 works and it includes the Medici-Lorraine Collection, made of scientific books mostly about physics and mathematics, gathered by Tuscan dynasties over five centuries. The contemporary collection includes books in Italian and the major European languages and has a growth of about 1,800 new acquisitions. All of the material can be searched on the online catalogue
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Tribune of Galileo
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The Tribune of Galileo is an Neoclassic architectural addition, built to commemorate the famous Florentine scientist, Galileo Galilei and to house some of his scientific instruments. The tribune was completed in 1841 and built within the first floor of the Science Museum of La Specola in Florence, the tribune was built by orders of Leopold II. The House of Lorraine-Habsburg was foreign to Tuscany, and the embrace of Galileo can be seen as an attempt to co-opt local patriotism and it contains a large statue of Galileo and a series of lunettes and frescoes depicting events in scientific history relating to Florence. The tribune is generally not open to the public, the tribune consists mainly of two rooms, a square vaulted hall, and an adjacent square room glass-metal dome. The dome allows light to shine over a statue of Galileo by Aristodemo Costoli. The surrounding niches have busts of famous pupils of Galileo, Benedetto Castelli, Bonaventura Cavalieri, Evangelista Torricelli, medallions in the adjacent hall commemorate the patrons. Ultimately, this is an odd architectural assembly, the layout has a distant resemblance to a church dome and nave, however, if so, this is a temple granting hagiographical attention to a secular scientist. It contains modern touches, such as the dome, but it also adheres to retardataire Neoclassic elements in the niches, arches. The arrangement suggests a tardy apology to Galileo by an aristocracy which had been slow to embrace his pioneering spirit of Enlightenment. It took two centuries for Florentines to honor their greatest scientist with a building, but that is not surprising, they had also been slow to bury Galileo inside a church. After his death in 1642, his interment in the body of the Basilica of Santa Croce. Only a century later, was his body allowed to rest inside the church, media related to Tribuna di Galileo at Wikimedia Commons
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Life of Galileo
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Life of Galileo, also known as Galileo, is a play by the twentieth-century German dramatist Bertolt Brecht with incidental music by Hanns Eisler. The play was written in 1938 and received its first theatrical production at the Zurich Schauspielhaus and this production was directed by Leonard Steckel, with set-design by Teo Otto. The cast included Steckel himself, Karl Paryla and Wolfgang Langhoff, the second version was written in English between 1945–1947 in collaboration with Charles Laughton, and opened at the Coronet Theatre in Los Angeles on 30 July 1947. It was directed by Joseph Losey and Brecht, with direction by Serge Hovey. Laughton played Galileo, with Hugo Haas as Barberini and Frances Heflin as Virginia and this production opened at the Maxine Elliotts Theatre in New York on 7 December of the same year. In 1955, in the wake of the Manhattan Project, Brecht prepared a third version. A production, by the Berliner Ensemble with Ernst Busch in the role, opened in January 1957 at the Theater am Schiffbauerdamm and was directed by Erich Engel. The play was first published in 1940, the play embraces such themes as the conflict between dogmatism and scientific evidence, as well as interrogating the values of constancy in the face of oppression. After emigrating to the United States from Hitlers Germany, Brecht translated and re-worked the first version of his play in collaboration with the actor Charles Laughton. The result of their efforts was the second American version of the play, entitled simply Galileo, the same version formed the basis for Loseys 1975 film adaptation for American Film Theatre under the title Galileo with Topol in the title role. In September 1947, Brecht was subpoenaed in the US by the House Un-American Activities Committee for alleged communist connections and he testified before HUAC on 30 October 1947, and flew to Europe on 31 October. He chose to return to East Germany and continued to work on the play, the final German version premiered at Cologne in April 1955. Matej Danter offers a readily-accessible and detailed comparison of the early, the American, Galileo, an eminent professor and scientist in the 17th century Venetian Republic, is short of money. A prospective student tells him about an invention, the telescope. Galileo replicates it, and offers it to the Republic as his own creation and he gains an increase in his salary, but within a short time his ruse is discovered. Galileo then uses the telescope for observations of the Moon and the planets. His observations strongly support Nicolaus Copernicus heliocentric model of our Solar System and he furthermore publishes in vernacular Italian, rather than traditional scientific Latin, thus making his work and conclusions more accessible to the common people. His daughters engagement to a young man is broken because of Galileos reluctance to distance himself from his unorthodox teachings
