1.
Temperature
–
A temperature is an objective comparative measurement of hot or cold. It is measured by a thermometer, several scales and units exist for measuring temperature, the most common being Celsius, Fahrenheit, and, especially in science, Kelvin. Absolute zero is denoted as 0 K on the Kelvin scale, −273.15 °C on the Celsius scale, the kinetic theory offers a valuable but limited account of the behavior of the materials of macroscopic bodies, especially of fluids. Temperature is important in all fields of science including physics, geology, chemistry, atmospheric sciences, medicine. The Celsius scale is used for temperature measurements in most of the world. Because of the 100 degree interval, it is called a centigrade scale.15, the United States commonly uses the Fahrenheit scale, on which water freezes at 32°F and boils at 212°F at sea-level atmospheric pressure. Many scientific measurements use the Kelvin temperature scale, named in honor of the Scottish physicist who first defined it and it is a thermodynamic or absolute temperature scale. Its zero point, 0K, is defined to coincide with the coldest physically-possible temperature and its degrees are defined through thermodynamics. The temperature of zero occurs at 0K = −273. 15°C. For historical reasons, the triple point temperature of water is fixed at 273.16 units of the measurement increment, Temperature is one of the principal quantities in the study of thermodynamics. There is a variety of kinds of temperature scale and it may be convenient to classify them as empirically and theoretically based. Empirical temperature scales are historically older, while theoretically based scales arose in the middle of the nineteenth century, empirically based temperature scales rely directly on measurements of simple physical properties of materials. For example, the length of a column of mercury, confined in a capillary tube, is dependent largely on temperature. Such scales are only within convenient ranges of temperature. For example, above the point of mercury, a mercury-in-glass thermometer is impracticable. A material is of no use as a thermometer near one of its phase-change temperatures, in spite of these restrictions, most generally used practical thermometers are of the empirically based kind. Especially, it was used for calorimetry, which contributed greatly to the discovery of thermodynamics, nevertheless, empirical thermometry has serious drawbacks when judged as a basis for theoretical physics. Theoretically based temperature scales are based directly on theoretical arguments, especially those of thermodynamics, kinetic theory and they rely on theoretical properties of idealized devices and materials
2.
Thermometer
–
A thermometer is a device that measures temperature or a temperature gradient. A thermometer has two important elements, a sensor in which some physical change occurs with temperature. Thermometers are widely used in industry to control and regulate processes, in the study of weather, in medicine, there are various principles by which different thermometers operate. They include the expansion of solids or liquids with temperature. Radiation-type thermometers measure the energy emitted by an object, allowing measurement of temperature without contact. Most metals are good conductors of heat and they are solids at room temperature, Mercury is the only one in liquid state at room temperature, and has high coefficient of expansion. Hence, the slightest change in temperature is notable when its used in a thermometer and this is the reason behind mercury and alcohol being used in thermometer. Some of the principles of the thermometer were known to Greek philosophers of two years ago. The modern thermometer gradually evolved from the thermoscope with the addition of a scale in the early 17th century, while an individual thermometer is able to measure degrees of hotness, the readings on two thermometers cannot be compared unless they conform to an agreed scale. Today there is a thermodynamic temperature scale. Internationally agreed temperature scales are designed to approximate this closely, based on fixed points, the most recent official temperature scale is the International Temperature Scale of 1990. It extends from 0.65 K to approximately 1,358 K, various authors have credited the invention of the thermometer to Hero of Alexandria. The thermometer was not an invention, however, but a development. The expansion and contraction of the air caused the position of the interface to move along the tube. Such a mechanism was used to show the hotness and coldness of the air with a tube in which the water level is controlled by the expansion and contraction of the gas. These devices were developed by several European scientists in the 16th and 17th centuries, as a result, devices were shown to produce this effect reliably, and the term thermoscope was adopted because it reflected the changes in sensible heat. The difference between a thermoscope and a thermometer is that the latter has a scale, though Galileo is often said to be the inventor of the thermometer, what he produced were thermoscopes. The first clear diagram of a thermoscope was published in 1617 by Giuseppe Biancani and this was a vertical tube, closed by a bulb of air at the top, with the lower end opening into a vessel of water
3.
Galileo Galilei
–
Galileo Galilei was an Italian polymath, astronomer, physicist, engineer, philosopher, and mathematician. He played a role in the scientific revolution of the seventeenth century. Galileo also worked in applied science and technology, inventing an improved military compass, Galileos championing of heliocentrism and Copernicanism was controversial during his lifetime, when most subscribed to either geocentrism or the Tychonic system. He met with opposition from astronomers, who doubted heliocentrism because of the absence of a stellar parallax. He was tried by the Inquisition, found vehemently suspect of heresy and he spent the rest of his life under house arrest. He has been called the father of observational astronomy, the father of modern physics, the father of scientific method, and the father of science. Galileo was born in Pisa, Italy, on 15 February 1564, the first of six children of Vincenzo Galilei, a famous lutenist, composer, and music theorist, and Giulia, three of Galileos five siblings survived infancy. The youngest, Michelangelo, also became a noted lutenist and composer although he contributed to financial burdens during Galileos young adulthood, Michelangelo was unable to contribute his fair share of their fathers promised dowries to their brothers-in-law, who would later attempt to seek legal remedies for payments due. Michelangelo would also occasionally have to borrow funds from Galileo to support his musical endeavours and these financial burdens may have contributed to Galileos early fire to develop inventions that would bring him additional income. When Galileo Galilei was eight, his family moved to Florence and he then was educated in the Vallombrosa Abbey, about 30 km southeast of Florence. Galileo Bonaiuti was buried in the church, the Basilica of Santa Croce in Florence. It was common for mid-sixteenth century Tuscan families to name the eldest son after the parents surname, hence, Galileo Galilei was not necessarily named after his ancestor Galileo Bonaiuti. The Italian male given name Galileo derives from the Latin Galilaeus, meaning of Galilee, the biblical roots of Galileos name and surname were to become the subject of a famous pun. In 1614, during the Galileo affair, one of Galileos opponents, in it he made a point of quoting Acts 1,11, Ye men of Galilee, why stand ye gazing up into heaven. Despite being a genuinely pious Roman Catholic, Galileo fathered three children out of wedlock with Marina Gamba and they had two daughters, Virginia and Livia, and a son, Vincenzo. Their only worthy alternative was the religious life, both girls were accepted by the convent of San Matteo in Arcetri and remained there for the rest of their lives. Virginia took the name Maria Celeste upon entering the convent and she died on 2 April 1634, and is buried with Galileo at the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence. Livia took the name Sister Arcangela and was ill for most of her life, Vincenzo was later legitimised as the legal heir of Galileo and married Sestilia Bocchineri
4.
Santorio Santorio
–
He is also known as the inventor of several medical devices, including the thermometer. His work De Statica Medicina, written in 1614, saw many publications through 1784, Santorio was born in the Mediterranean coastal town of Capodistria. From 1611 to 1624 he was a professor at Padua where he performed experiments in temperature, respiration, Santorio was the first to use a wind gauge, a water current meter, the pulsilogium, an early waterbed, and a thermoscope. He also invented a device which he called the trocar for removing bladder stones, Santorio introduced the thermoscope in the work titled Sanctorii Sanctorii Commentaria in Artem medicinalem Galeni in 1612. The pulsilogium was probably the first machine of precision in medical history. Extensive experimentation with his new tool allowed Santorio to derive the circadian rhythm of the cardiac frequency, a century later another physician, de Lacroix, used the pulsilogium to test cardiac function. Sanctorius studied the so-called perspiratio insensibilis or insensible perspiration of the body, already known to Galen and other ancient physicians, for a period of thirty years Santorio weighed himself, everything he ate and drank, as well as his urine and feces. He compared the weight of what he had eaten to that of his waste products and this important experiment is the origin of the significance of weight measurement in medicine. While his experiments were replicated and augmented by his followers and were surpassed by those of Lavoisier in 1790. The weighing chair, which he constructed and employed during this experiment, is also famous
5.
Perpetual motion
–
Perpetual motion is motion of bodies that continues indefinitely. A perpetual motion machine is a machine that can do work indefinitely without an energy source. This kind of machine is impossible, as it would violate the first or second law of thermodynamics and these laws of thermodynamics apply even at very grand scales. Thus, machines that extract energy from finite sources will not operate indefinitely, because they are driven by the energy stored in the source, a common example is devices powered by ocean currents, whose energy is ultimately derived from the Sun, which itself will eventually burn out. Machines powered by more obscure sources have proposed, but are subject to the same inescapable laws. The history of perpetual motion machines dates back to the Middle Ages, for millennia, it was not clear whether perpetual motion devices were possible or not, but the development of modern theories of thermodynamics has shown that they are impossible. Despite this, many attempts have been made to such machines. Modern designers and proponents often use other terms, such as over unity, there is a scientific consensus that perpetual motion in an isolated system violates either the first law of thermodynamics, the second law of thermodynamics, or both. The first law of thermodynamics is a version of the law of conservation of energy, in other words, In any isolated system, one cannot create new energy The output work power of heat engines is always smaller than the input heating power. The rest of the energy supplied is wasted as heat to the ambient surroundings. The efficiency has a maximum, given by the Carnot efficiency and it is always lower than one. The efficiency of heat engines is even lower than the Carnot efficiency due to irreversibility arising from the speed of processes. Statements 2 and 3 apply to heat engines, other types of engines which convert e. g. mechanical into electromagnetic energy, cannot operate with 100% efficiency, because it impossible to design any system that is free of energy dissipation. By way of example, clocks and other machines, such as Coxs timepiece, have been designed to run on the differences in barometric pressure or temperature between night and day. These machines have a source of energy, albeit one which is not readily apparent so that they seem to violate the laws of thermodynamics. Even machines which extract energy from long-lived sources - such as ocean currents - will run down when their energy sources inevitably do and they are not perpetual motion machines because they are consuming energy from an external source and are not isolated systems. It thus violates the first law of thermodynamics, the law of conservation of energy, a perpetual motion machine of the second kind is a machine which spontaneously converts thermal energy into mechanical work. When the thermal energy is equivalent to the work done, this does not violate the law of conservation of energy, however, it does violate the more subtle second law of thermodynamics
6.
The Assayer
–
The debate between Galileo and Grassi started in 1618, when the latter published Disputatio astronomica de tribus cometis anni MDCXVIII, in which he asserted that comets are celestial bodies. Grassi adopted Tycho Brahes Tychonic system, in which the planets of the solar system orbit around the sun. In his Disputatio Grassi referenced many of Galileos observations, such as the surface of the moon, Grassi argued from the apparent absence of observable parallax that comets move beyond the moon. Galileo mistakenly believed that comets are an optical illusion, in 1616 Galileo may have been silenced on Copernicanism. In 1623 his supporter and friend, Cardinal Maffeo Barberini, a patron of the Lynx and uncle of future Cardinal Francesco Barberini. The election of Barberini seemed to assure Galileo of support at the highest level in the Church, a visit to Rome confirmed this. The title page of The Assayer shows the crest of the Barberini family, in The Assayer, Galileo weighs the astronomical views of a Jesuit, Orazio Grassi, and finds them wanting. The book was dedicated to the new pope, the title page also shows that Urban VIII employed a member of the Lynx, Cesarini, at a high level in the papal service. This book was edited and published by members of the Lynx, in The Assayer Galileo mainly criticized Grassis method of inquiry, heavily biased by his religious belief and based on ipse dixit, rather than his hypothesis on comets. Furthermore, he insisted that philosophy should be mathematical. According to the page, he was the philosopher]] of the Grand Duke of Tuscany. Natural philosophy spans the gamut from processes of generation and growth to the structure of the universe. Mathematics, on the hand, is symbolized by telescopes. This is the book containing Galileo’s famous statement that mathematics is the language of science, only through mathematics can one achieve lasting truth in physics. Those who neglect mathematics wander endlessly in a dark labyrinth, from the book, Galileo used a sarcastic and witty tone throughout the essay. The book was read with delight at the table by Urban VIII. In 1620 Maffeo Barberini wrote a poem entitled Adulatio Perniciosa in Galileos honor, an official, Giovanni di Guevara, said that The Assayer was free from any unorthodoxy. Book of Nature Galileo Galilei, Il Saggiatore, The Assayer, stillman Drake and C. D. OMalley, in The Controversy on the Comets of 1618
7.
Classical Greece
–
Classical Greece was a period of around 200 years in Greek culture. This Classical period saw the annexation of much of modern-day Greece by the Persian Empire, Classical Greece had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire and on the foundations of western civilization. Much of modern Western politics, artistic thought, scientific thought, theatre, literature, in the context of the art, architecture, and culture of Ancient Greece, the Classical period, sometimes called the Hellenic period, corresponds to most of the 5th and 4th centuries BC. The Classical period in this sense follows the Archaic period and is in turn succeeded by the Hellenistic period and this century is essentially studied from the Athenian outlook because Athens has left us more narratives, plays, and other written works than the other ancient Greek states. From the perspective of Athenian culture in Classical Greece, the period referred to as the 5th century BC extends slightly into the 4th century BC. In this context, one might consider that the first significant event of this occurs in 508 BC, with the fall of the last Athenian tyrant. However, a view of the whole Greek world might place its beginning at the Ionian Revolt of 500 BC. The Persians were defeated in 490 BC, the Delian League then formed, under Athenian hegemony and as Athens instrument. Athens excesses caused several revolts among the cities, all of which were put down by force. After both forces were spent, a brief peace came about, then the war resumed to Spartas advantage, Athens was definitively defeated in 404 BC, and internal Athenian agitations mark the end of the 5th century BC in Greece. Since its beginning, Sparta had been ruled by a diarchy and this meant that Sparta had two kings ruling concurrently throughout its entire history. The two kingships were both hereditary, vested in the Agiad dynasty and the Eurypontid dynasty, according to legend, the respective hereditary lines of these two dynasties sprang from Eurysthenes and Procles, twin descendants of Hercules. They were said to have conquered Sparta two generations after the Trojan War, in 510 BC, Spartan troops helped the Athenians overthrow their king, the tyrant Hippias, son of Peisistratos. Cleomenes I, king of Sparta, put in place a pro-Spartan oligarchy headed by Isagoras, but his rival Cleisthenes, with the support of the middle class and aided by democrats, took over. Cleomenes intervened in 508 and 506 BC, but could not stop Cleisthenes, through his reforms, the people endowed their city with isonomic institutions — i. e. with equal rights for all —and established ostracism. The isonomic and isegoric democracy was first organized into about 130 demes, the 10,000 citizens exercised their power as members of the assembly, headed by a council of 500 citizens chosen at random. The territory of the city was divided into thirty trittyes as follows, ten trittyes in the coastal region ten trittyes in the ἄστυ. A tribe consisted of three trittyes, selected at random, one each of the three groups
8.
Empedocles
–
Empedocles was a Greek pre-Socratic philosopher and a citizen of Acragas, a Greek city in Sicily. Empedocles philosophy is best known for originating the theory of the four classical elements. He also proposed forces he called Love and Strife which would mix as well as separate the elements and these physical speculations were part of a history of the universe which also dealt with the origin and development of life. Influenced by the Pythagoreans, Empedocles was a vegetarian who supported the doctrine of reincarnation and he is generally considered the last Greek philosopher to have recorded his ideas in verse. Some of his survives, more than is the case for any other pre-Socratic philosopher. Empedocles death was mythologized by ancient writers, and has been the subject of a number of literary treatments, Empedocles was born, c.490 BC, at Acragas in Sicily to a distinguished family. Very little is known about his life and his father Meto seems to have been instrumental in overthrowing the tyrant of Agrigentum, presumably Thrasydaeus in 470 BC. Empedocles continued this tradition by helping to overthrow the succeeding oligarchic government, Empedocles was acquainted or connected by friendship with the physicians Pausanias and Acron, with various Pythagoreans, and even, it is said, with Parmenides and Anaxagoras. The only pupil of Empedocles who is mentioned is the sophist, according to Aristotle, he died at the age of sixty, even though other writers have him living up to the age of one hundred and nine. The contemporary Life of Empedocles by Xanthus has been lost, Empedocles is considered the last Greek philosopher to write in verse and the surviving fragments of his teaching are from two poems, Purifications and On Nature. Lucretius speaks of him with enthusiasm, and evidently viewed him as his model, the two poems together comprised 5000 lines. About 550 lines of his survive, although because ancient writers rarely mentioned which poem they were quoting. Some scholars now believe there was only one poem. We possess only about 100 lines of his Purifications and it seems to have given a mythical account of the world which may, nevertheless, have been part of Empedocles philosophical system. Humans, animals, and even plants are such spirits, the moral conduct recommended in the poem may allow us to become like gods again. There are about 450 lines of his poem On Nature extant, the poem originally consisted of 2000 lines of hexameter verse, and was addressed to Pausanias. It was this poem which outlined his philosophical system, although acquainted with the theories of the Eleatics and the Pythagoreans, Empedocles did not belong to any one definite school. An eclectic in his thinking, he combined much that had been suggested by Parmenides, Pythagoras and he was a firm believer in Orphic mysteries, as well as a scientific thinker and a precursor of physical science
9.
Giuseppe Biancani
–
Giuseppe Biancani was an Italian Jesuit astronomer, mathematician, and selenographer, after whom the crater Blancanus on the Moon is named. He was a native of Bologna and his Aristotelis loca mathematica ex universis ipsius operibus collecta et explicata, published in Bologna, appeared in 1615, in which Biancani discussed Aristotelian thought on floating bodies. The work suffered censorship whilst undergoing peer review, a common Jesuit practice, Biancani wrote his Sphaera mundi, seu cosmographia demonstrativa, ac facili methodo tradita in 1615. However, it was not published until 1619 in Bologna, after the Decree of the Congregation of the Index in 1616, the original earth emerged on the third day of the creation myth as a perfectly smooth sphere, Biancani reasoned. If not for the hand of God, natural law would have allowed the earth to remain in that form, Biancani believed, however, that God had created the depths of the sea and formed the mountains of the earth. Moreover, if left to law, the earth would be consumed in water. However, the hand of God would intervene in order to cause the earth to be destroyed entirely by fire, the contents of the book are described in Latin as, Sphaera Mundi seu Cosmographia. Demonstrativa, ac facili Methodo tradita, In qua totius Mundi fabrica, una cum novis, Tychonis, Kepleri, Galilaei, aliorumque, echometria, idest Geometrica tractatio de Echo. As evidenced in the table of contents, this also presented a summary of the discoveries made with the telescope by Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, Galileo, Copernicus. The censorship of Biancanis previous work affected the manner in which he wrote Sphaera mundi, the work not only included studies on the natural phenomenon of the echo and on sundials, but also included a diagram of the moon. Giuseppe Biancanis map was not drawn up in support of new Copernican ideas but those berthed in traditional geocentric cosmology, Biancani disagreed with Galileo, who believed in the existence of lunar mountains. In a 1611 letter to Christoph Grienberger, Biancani wrote of his certainty that there could not be any mountains on the moon, Biancani opined that the Copernican system was of opinionem falsam. Biancanis Constructio instrumenti ad horologia solaria discusses how to make a perfect sundial, bernhardus Varenius based much of his geographical work on Biancanis ideas
