1.
Gravity separation
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All of the gravitational methods are common in the sense that they all use gravity as the dominant force. The working principle is to lift the material by vacuum over an inclined vibrating screen covered deck and this results in the material being suspended in air while the heavier impurities are left behind on the screen and are discharged from the stone outlet. Often other methods are applied to make the separation faster and more efficient, the most notable advantages of the gravitational methods are their cost effectiveness and in some cases excellent reduction. They can be used to separate and standardize coffee beans, cocoa beans, peanuts, corn, peas, rice, wheat, sesame, the Gravity Separator separates products of same size but with difference in specific weight. It has a vibrating rectangular deck, which makes it easy for the product to travel a longer distance, the pressurized air in the deck enables the material to split according to its specific weight. As a result, the particles travel to the higher level while the lighter particles travel to the lower level of the deck. It comes with adjustable air fans to control the volume of air distribution at different areas of the vibrating deck to meet the air supply needs of the deck. The table inclination, speed of motion and the feed rate can be precisely adjusted to achieve smooth operation of the machine. Recycling, Gravity Separators are used to remove viable or valuable components from the recycling mixture i. e. The rocks are crushed, and while sand, limestone, dolomite, clarification is a name for the method of separating fluid from solid particles. Thickening is the same as clarification except reverse, solids that sink to the bottom are obtained and fluid is rejected from the surface. The obtained sludge is pumped into the thickeners, where sludge thickens farther and is then obtained to be pumped into digestion to be prepared into fertilizer. This method is used mostly because of its cheap cost
2.
Chemical substance
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A chemical substance is a form of matter that has constant chemical composition and characteristic properties. It cannot be separated into components by physical methods, i. e. without breaking chemical bonds. Chemical substances can be chemical elements, chemical compounds, ions or alloys, Chemical substances are often called pure to set them apart from mixtures. A common example of a substance is pure water, it has the same properties. Other chemical substances commonly encountered in pure form are diamond, gold, table salt, however, in practice, no substance is entirely pure, and chemical purity is specified according to the intended use of the chemical. Chemical substances exist as solids, liquids, gases, or plasma, Chemical substances may be combined or converted to others by means of chemical reactions. Forms of energy, such as light and heat, are not matter, a chemical substance may well be defined as any material with a definite chemical composition in an introductory general chemistry textbook. According to this definition a chemical substance can either be a chemical element or a pure chemical compound. But, there are exceptions to this definition, a substance can also be defined as a form of matter that has both definite composition and distinct properties. The chemical substance index published by CAS also includes several alloys of uncertain composition, in geology, substances of uniform composition are called minerals, while physical mixtures of several minerals are defined as rocks. Many minerals, however, mutually dissolve into solid solutions, such that a rock is a uniform substance despite being a mixture in stoichiometric terms. Feldspars are an example, anorthoclase is an alkali aluminium silicate. In law, chemical substances may include both pure substances and mixtures with a composition or manufacturing process. For example, the EU regulation REACH defines monoconstituent substances, multiconstituent substances and substances of unknown or variable composition, the latter two consist of multiple chemical substances, however, their identity can be established either by direct chemical analysis or reference to a single manufacturing process. For example, charcoal is a complex, partially polymeric mixture that can be defined by its manufacturing process. Therefore, although the chemical identity is unknown, identification can be made to a sufficient accuracy. The CAS index also includes mixtures, polymers almost always appear as mixtures of molecules of multiple molar masses, each of which could be considered a separate chemical substance. However, the polymer may be defined by a precursor or reaction
3.
Viscosity
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The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to gradual deformation by shear stress or tensile stress. For liquids, it corresponds to the concept of thickness, for example. Viscosity is a property of the fluid which opposes the motion between the two surfaces of the fluid in a fluid that are moving at different velocities. For a given velocity pattern, the stress required is proportional to the fluids viscosity, a fluid that has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal or inviscid fluid. Zero viscosity is observed only at low temperatures in superfluids. Otherwise, all fluids have positive viscosity, and are said to be viscous or viscid. A fluid with a high viscosity, such as pitch. The word viscosity is derived from the Latin viscum, meaning mistletoe, the dynamic viscosity of a fluid expresses its resistance to shearing flows, where adjacent layers move parallel to each other with different speeds. It can be defined through the situation known as a Couette flow. This fluid has to be homogeneous in the layer and at different shear stresses, if the speed of the top plate is small enough, the fluid particles will move parallel to it, and their speed will vary linearly from zero at the bottom to u at the top. Each layer of fluid will move faster than the one just below it, in particular, the fluid will apply on the top plate a force in the direction opposite to its motion, and an equal but opposite one to the bottom plate. An external force is required in order to keep the top plate moving at constant speed. The magnitude F of this force is found to be proportional to the u and the area A of each plate. The proportionality factor μ in this formula is the viscosity of the fluid, the ratio u/y is called the rate of shear deformation or shear velocity, and is the derivative of the fluid speed in the direction perpendicular to the plates. Isaac Newton expressed the forces by the differential equation τ = μ ∂ u ∂ y, where τ = F/A. This formula assumes that the flow is moving along parallel lines and this equation can be used where the velocity does not vary linearly with y, such as in fluid flowing through a pipe. Use of the Greek letter mu for the dynamic viscosity is common among mechanical and chemical engineers. However, the Greek letter eta is used by chemists, physicists
4.
Liquid
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A liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid that conforms to the shape of its container but retains a constant volume independent of pressure. As such, it is one of the four states of matter. A liquid is made up of tiny vibrating particles of matter, such as atoms, water is, by far, the most common liquid on Earth. Like a gas, a liquid is able to flow and take the shape of a container, most liquids resist compression, although others can be compressed. Unlike a gas, a liquid does not disperse to fill every space of a container, a distinctive property of the liquid state is surface tension, leading to wetting phenomena. The density of a liquid is usually close to that of a solid, therefore, liquid and solid are both termed condensed matter. On the other hand, as liquids and gases share the ability to flow, although liquid water is abundant on Earth, this state of matter is actually the least common in the known universe, because liquids require a relatively narrow temperature/pressure range to exist. Most known matter in the universe is in form as interstellar clouds or in plasma form within stars. Liquid is one of the four states of matter, with the others being solid, gas. Unlike a solid, the molecules in a liquid have a greater freedom to move. The forces that bind the molecules together in a solid are only temporary in a liquid, a liquid, like a gas, displays the properties of a fluid. A liquid can flow, assume the shape of a container, if liquid is placed in a bag, it can be squeezed into any shape. These properties make a suitable for applications such as hydraulics. Liquid particles are bound firmly but not rigidly and they are able to move around one another freely, resulting in a limited degree of particle mobility. As the temperature increases, the vibrations of the molecules causes distances between the molecules to increase. When a liquid reaches its point, the cohesive forces that bind the molecules closely together break. If the temperature is decreased, the distances between the molecules become smaller, only two elements are liquid at standard conditions for temperature and pressure, mercury and bromine. Four more elements have melting points slightly above room temperature, francium, caesium, gallium and rubidium, metal alloys that are liquid at room temperature include NaK, a sodium-potassium metal alloy, galinstan, a fusible alloy liquid, and some amalgams
5.
Sauce
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In cooking, a sauce is liquid, cream, or semi-solid food served on or used in preparing other foods. Sauces are not normally consumed by themselves, they add flavor, moisture, Sauce is a French word taken from the Latin salsa, meaning salted. Possibly the oldest recorded European sauce is garum, the sauce used by the Ancient Greeks, while doubanjiang. Sauces need a liquid component, but some sauces may contain more components than liquid. Sauces are an element in cuisines all over the world. Sauces may be used for sweet or savory dishes and they may be prepared and served cold, like mayonnaise, prepared cold but served lukewarm like pesto, cooked and served warm like bechamel or cooked and served cold like apple sauce. Sauces may be prepared by the cook, especially in restaurants. Sauces for salad are called salad dressing, Sauce made by deglazing a pan are called pan sauces. A cook who specializes in making sauces is called a saucier, sauces used in traditional Japanese cuisine are usually based on shōyu, miso or dashi. Ponzu, citrus-flavored soy sauce, and yakitori no tare, sweetened soy sauce, are examples of shoyu-based sauces. Miso-based sauces include gomamiso, miso with ground sesame, and amamiso, in modern Japanese cuisine, the word sauce often refers to Worcestershire sauce, introduced in the 19th century and modified to suit Japanese tastes. Tonkatsu, okonomiyaki, and yakisoba sauces are based on this sauce, Japanese horseradish or wasabi sauce is used on sushi and sashimi or mixed with soy sauce to make wasabi-joyu. Some sauces in Chinese cuisine are soy sauce, doubanjiang, hoisin sauce, sweet sauce, chili sauces, oyster sauce. Korean cuisine uses sauces such as doenjang, gochujang, samjang, aekjeot, southeast Asian cuisines, such as Thai and Vietnamese cuisine, often use fish sauce, made from fermented fish. Indian cuisines use sauces such as tomato-based curry sauces, tamarind sauce, coconut milk-/paste-based sauces, there are substantial regional variations in Indian cuisine, but many sauces use a seasoned mix of onion, ginger and garlic paste as the base of various gravies and sauces. Various cooking oils, ghee and/or cream are also ingredients in Indian sauces. Filipino cuisine typically uses toyomansi as well as different varieties of suka, patis, bagoong and banana ketchup, indonesian cuisine uses typical sauces such as kecap manis, bumbu kacang and tauco, while popular hot and spicy sauces are sambal, dabu-dabu and rica-rica. In traditional British cuisine, gravy is a used on roast dinner
6.
Soup
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Soup is a primarily liquid food, generally served warm or hot, that is made by combining ingredients such as meat and vegetables with stock, juice, water, or another liquid. Hot soups are additionally characterized by boiling solid ingredients in liquids in a pot until the flavors are extracted, traditionally, soups are classified into two main groups, clear soups and thick soups. The established French classifications of clear soups are bouillon and consommé, other ingredients commonly used to thicken soups and broths include egg, rice, lentils, flour, and grains, many popular soups also include carrots and potatoes. Soups are similar to stews, and in some there may not be a clear distinction between the two, however, soups generally have more liquid than stews. Evidence of the existence of soup can be found as far back as about 20,000 BC, boiling was not a common cooking technique until the invention of waterproof containers. Animal hides and watertight baskets of bark or reeds were used before this, to boil the water hot rocks were used. This method was used to cook acorns and other plants. The word soup comes from French soupe, which comes through Vulgar Latin suppa from a Germanic source, from which comes the word sop. In 1765, a Parisian entrepreneur opened a shop specializing in such soups and this prompted the use of the modern word restaurant for the eating establishments. A1772 cookbook, The Frugal Housewife, contained a chapter on the topic. English cooking dominated early colonial cooking, but as new immigrants arrived from other countries, in particular, German immigrants living in Pennsylvania were famous for their potato soups. In 1794, Jean Baptiste Gilbert Payplat dis Julien, a refugee from the French Revolution, opened an establishment in Boston called The Restorator. The first American cooking pamphlet dedicated to soup recipes was written in 1882 by Emma Ewing, Soups, portable soup was devised in the 18th century by boiling seasoned meat until a thick, resinous syrup was left that could be dried and stored for months at a time. Commercial soup became popular with the invention of canning in the 19th century, doctor John T. Dorrance, a chemist with the Campbell Soup Company, invented condensed soup in 1897. Today, Campbells Tomato, Cream of Mushroom, and Chicken Noodle Soup are three of the most popular soups in America, americans consume approximately 2.5 billion bowls of these three soups alone each year. Canned soup can be condensed, in case it is prepared by adding water, or it can be ready-to-eat. Canned soup can be prepared by heating in a pan, on the stovetop or in the microwave, such soups can be used as a base for homemade soups, with the consumer adding anything from a few vegetables to eggs, meat, cream or pasta. Condensing soup allows soup to be packaged into a smaller can, the soup is usually doubled in volume by adding a can full of water or milk
7.
Pudding
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Pudding is a kind of food that can be either a dessert or a savory dish. The word pudding is believed to come from the French boudin, originally from the Latin botellus, meaning small sausage, in the United Kingdom and some of the Commonwealth countries, the word pudding can be used to describe both sweet and savory dishes. Unless qualified, however, the term in everyday usage typically denotes a dessert, in the UK, savory dishes include Yorkshire pudding, black pudding, suet pudding and steak and kidney pudding. In Commonwealth countries these puddings are known as custards if they are egg-thickened, blancmange if starch-thickened, Pudding may also refer to other dishes such as bread pudding and rice pudding, although typically these names derive from the origin as British dishes. The most famous examples still surviving are black pudding, which was a favourite of King Henry VIII, Yorkshire pudding and haggis. The original pudding was formed by mixing various ingredients with a product or other binder such as butter, flour, cereal, eggs, and/or suet. These puddings are baked, steamed or boiled, depending on its ingredients, such a pudding may be served as a part of the main course or as a dessert. Boiled or steamed pudding was a main course aboard ships in the Royal Navy during the 18th and 19th centuries. Pudding was used as the dish in which daily rations of flour. Steamed pies consisting of a completely enclosed by suet pastry are also known as puddings. These may be sweet or savory and include such dishes as steak, the second and newer type of pudding consists of sugar, milk, and a thickening agent such as cornstarch, gelatin, eggs, rice or tapioca to create a sweet, creamy dessert. These puddings are made either by simmering on top of the stove in a saucepan or double boiler or by baking in an oven, often in a bain-marie. These puddings are easily scorched on the fire, which is why a double boiler is used, microwave ovens are also now often used to avoid this problem. Creamy puddings are typically served chilled, but a few, such as zabaglione and rice pudding, instant puddings do not require boiling and can therefore be prepared more quickly. Rice pudding The proverb The proof of the pudding is in the dates back to at least the 14th century. The phrase is attributed to the Spanish author Cervantes in his novel The Ingenious Gentleman Don Quixote. The phrase is often stated as the proof is in the pudding. Pink Floyds Another Brick In The Wall, Part 2 ends with the voice of a Scottish-accented schoolmaster shouting, If you dont eat your meat, how can you have any pudding if you dont eat your meat
8.
Paint
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Paint is any liquid, liquefiable, or mastic composition that, after application to a substrate in a thin layer, converts to a solid film. It is most commonly used to protect, color, or provide texture to objects, Paint can be made or purchased in many colors—and in many different types, such as watercolor, synthetic, etc. Paint is typically stored, sold, and applied as a liquid, in 2001 and 2004, South African archeologists reported finds in Blombos Cave of a 100, 000-year-old human-made ochre-based mixture that could have been used like paint. Further excavation in the cave resulted in the 2011 report of a complete toolkit for grinding pigments. Cave paintings drawn with red or yellow ochre, hematite, manganese oxide, ancient colored walls at Dendera, Egypt, which were exposed for years to the elements, still possess their brilliant color, as vivid as when they were painted about 2,000 years ago. The Egyptians mixed their colors with a substance, and applied them separately from each other without any blending or mixture. They appear to have used six colors, white, black, blue, red, yellow and they first covered the area entirely with white, then traced the design in black, leaving out the lights of the ground color. They used minium for red, and generally of a dark tinge, pliny mentions some painted ceilings in his day in the town of Ardea, which had been done prior to the foundation of Rome. He expresses great surprise and admiration at their freshness, after the lapse of so many centuries, Paint was made with the yolk of eggs and therefore, the substance would harden and adhere to the surface it was applied to. Pigment was made from plants, sand, and different soils, Most paints used either oil or water as a base. The process was done by hand by the painters and exposed them to lead poisoning due to the white-lead powder, in 1718, Marshall Smith invented a Machine or Engine for the Grinding of Colours in England. It is not known precisely how it operated, but it was a device that increased the efficiency of pigment grinding dramatically. By the proper onset of the Industrial Revolution, paint was being ground in steam-powered mills, interior house painting increasingly became the norm as the 19th century progressed, both for decorative reasons and because the paint was effective in preventing the walls rotting from damp. Linseed oil was also used as an inexpensive binder. In 1866, Sherwin-Williams in the United States opened as a large paint-maker and it was not until the stimulus of World War II created a shortage of linseed oil in the supply market that artificial resins, or alkyds, were invented. Cheap and easy to make, they held the color well. The vehicle is composed of the binder, or, if it is necessary to thin the binder with a diluent like solvent or water, it is the combination of binder + diluent. In this case, once the paint has dried or cured very nearly all of the diluent has evaporated, thus, an important quantity in coatings formulation is the vehicle solids, sometimes called the resin solids of the formula
9.
Ink
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Ink is a liquid or paste that contains pigments or dyes and is used to color a surface to produce an image, text, or design. Ink is used for drawing or writing with a pen, brush, thicker inks, in paste form, are used extensively in letterpress and lithographic printing. Ink can be a medium, composed of solvents, pigments, dyes, resins, lubricants, solubilizers, surfactants, particulate matter, fluorescents. The components of inks serve many purposes, the carrier, colorants. Pigments are solid, opaque particles suspended in ink to provide color, pigment molecules typically link together in crystalline structures that are 0. 1–2 µm in size and comprise 5–30 percent of the ink volume. Qualities such as hue, saturation, and lightness vary depending on the source, dye-based inks are generally much stronger than pigment-based inks and can produce much more color of a given density per unit of mass. However, because dyes are dissolved in the phase, they have a tendency to soak into paper, making the ink less efficient. To circumvent this problem, dye-based inks are made with solvents that dry rapidly or are used with quick-drying methods of printing, other methods include harder paper sizing and more specialized paper coatings. The latter is particularly suited to inks used in non-industrial settings, another technique involves coating the paper with a charged coating. If the dye has the charge, it is attracted to and retained by this coating. Cellulose, the material most paper is made of, is naturally charged. Such a compound is used in ink-jet printing inks. A more recent development in dye-based inks are dyes that react with cellulose to permanently color the paper, such inks are not affected by water, alcohol, and other solvents. As such, their use is recommended to prevent frauds that involve removing signatures and this kind of ink is most commonly found in gel inks and in certain fountain pen inks. Many ancient cultures around the world have discovered and formulated inks for the purposes of writing and drawing. The knowledge of the inks, their recipes and the techniques for their production comes from archaeological analysis or from written text itself. Evidence for the earliest Chinese inks, similar to modern inksticks, is around 256 BC in the end of the Warring States period and produced from soot, the best inks for drawing or painting on paper or silk are produced from the resin of the pine tree. They must be between 50 and 100 years old, the Chinese inkstick is produced with a fish glue, whereas Japanese glue is from cow or stag
10.
Explosive material
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An explosive charge is a measured quantity of explosive material, which may be composed of a single ingredient or a combination of two or more. Materials that detonate are said to be high explosives and materials that deflagrate are said to be low explosives, Explosives may also be categorized by their sensitivity. Sensitive materials that can be initiated by a small amount of heat or pressure are primary explosives. A wide variety of chemicals can explode, a number are manufactured specifically for the purpose of being used as explosives. The remainder are too dangerous, sensitive, toxic, expensive, unstable, in contrast, some materials are merely combustible or flammable if they burn without exploding. The distinction, however, is not razor-sharp, though early thermal weapons, such as Greek fire, have existed since ancient times, the first widely used explosive in warfare and mining was black powder, invented in 9th century China. This material was sensitive to water, and it produced copious amounts of dark smoke, the first useful explosive stronger than black powder was nitroglycerin, developed in 1847. Since nitroglycerin is a liquid and highly unstable, it was replaced by nitrocellulose, TNT in 1863, smokeless powder, dynamite in 1867, World War I saw the adoption of TNT trinitrotoluene in artillery shells. World War II saw a use of new explosives. In turn, these have largely replaced by more powerful explosives such as C-4. However, C-4 and PETN react with metal and catch fire easily, yet unlike TNT, C-4 and PETN are waterproof, the largest commercial application of explosives is mining. In Materials Science and Engineering, explosives are used in cladding, a thin plate of some material is placed atop a thick layer of a different material, both layers typically of metal. Atop the thin layer is placed an explosive, at one end of the layer of explosive, the explosion is initiated. The two metallic layers are forced together at high speed and with great force, the explosion spreads from the initiation site throughout the explosive. Ideally, this produces a metallurgical bond between the two layers and it is possible that some fraction of the surface material from either layer eventually gets ejected when the end of material is reached. Hence, the mass of the now welded bilayer, may be less than the sum of the masses of the two initial layers, there are applications where a shock wave, and electrostatics, can result in high velocity projectiles. Thus, explosives are substances that contain an amount of energy stored in chemical bonds. Consequently, most commercial explosives are compounds containing -NO2, -ONO2 and -NHNO2 groups that
11.
Cosmetics
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Cosmetics, also known as make-up, are substances or products used to enhance or alter the appearance or fragrance of the body. Many cosmetics are designed for use of applying to the face and they are generally mixtures of chemical compounds, some being derived from natural sources, and some being synthetics. Common cosmetics include lipstick, mascara, eye shadow, foundation, rouge, skin cleansers and skin lotions, shampoo, hairstyling products, perfume and this broad definition includes any material intended for use as a component of a cosmetic product. The FDA specifically excludes soap from this category, Egyptian women and men also used makeup. They were very fond of eyeliner and eyeshadows in dark colors including blue, red, Ancient Sumerian men and women were possibly the first to invent and wear lipstick, about 5,000 years ago. They crushed gemstones and used them to decorate their faces, mainly on the lips, also around 3000 BC to 1500 BC, women in the ancient Indus Valley Civilization applied red tinted lipstick to their lips for face decoration. Ancient Egyptians extracted red dye from fucus-algin,0. 01% iodine, and some bromine mannite, lipsticks with shimmering effects were initially made using a pearlescent substance found in fish scales. Six thousand year old relics of the hollowed out tombs of the Ancient Egyptian pharaohs are discovered, according to one source, early major developments include, Kohl used by ancient Egypt as a protective of the eye kohl Castor oil used by ancient Egypt as a protective balm. Skin creams made of beeswax, olive oil, and rose water, vaseline and lanolin in the nineteenth century. The Ancient Greeks also used cosmetics as the Ancient Romans did, Cosmetics are mentioned in the Old Testament, such as in 2 Kings 9,30, where Jezebel painted her eyelids—approximately 840 BC—and in the book of Esther, where beauty treatments are described. One of the most popular traditional Chinese medicines is the fungus Tremella fuciformis, used as a beauty product by women in China, the fungus reportedly increases moisture retention in the skin and prevents senile degradation of micro-blood vessels in the skin, reducing wrinkles and smoothing fine lines. Cosmetic use was frowned upon at many points in Western history, for example, in the 19th century, Queen Victoria publicly declared make-up improper, vulgar, and acceptable only for use by actors. During the sixteenth century, the attributes of the women who used make-up created a demand for the product among the upper class. As of 2016, the worlds largest cosmetics company is LOréal, the market was developed in the US during the 1910s by Elizabeth Arden, Helena Rubinstein, and Max Factor. These firms were joined by Revlon just before World War II, during the 18th century, there was a high number of incidences of lead-poisoning because of the fashion for red and white lead makeup and powder. This led to swelling and inflammation of the eyes, attacked tooth enamel, heavy use was known to lead to death. Concealer is commonly used by men, Cosmetics brands release products especially tailored for men, and men are increasingly using them. Cosmetics are intended to be applied externally, a subset of cosmetics is called make-up, refers primarily to products containing color pigments that are intended to alter the users appearance
12.
Emulsion
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An emulsion is a mixture of two or more liquids that are normally immiscible. Emulsions are part of a general class of two-phase systems of matter called colloids. Although the terms colloid and emulsion are sometimes used interchangeably, emulsion should be used when both phases, dispersed and continuous, are liquids, in an emulsion, one liquid is dispersed in the other. Examples of emulsions include vinaigrettes, homogenized milk, mayonnaise, the word emulsion comes from the Latin word for to milk, as milk is an emulsion of fat and water, along with other components. Two liquids can form different types of emulsions, as an example, oil and water can form, first, an oil-in-water emulsion, wherein the oil is the dispersed phase, and water is the dispersion medium. Second, they can form an emulsion, wherein water is the dispersed phase. Multiple emulsions are also possible, including a water-in-oil-in-water emulsion and an oil-in-water-in-oil emulsion, emulsions, being liquids, do not exhibit a static internal structure. The droplets dispersed in the matrix are usually assumed to be statistically distributed. The term emulsion is used to refer to the photo-sensitive side of photographic film. Such a photographic emulsion consist of silver halide colloidal particles dispersed in a gelatin matrix, nuclear emulsions are similar to photographic emulsions, except that they are used in particle physics to detect high-energy elementary particles. Emulsions contain both a dispersed and a phase, with the boundary between the phases called the interface. Emulsions tend to have an appearance because the many phase interfaces scatter light as it passes through the emulsion. Emulsions appear white when all light is scattered equally, if the emulsion is dilute enough, higher-frequency and low-wavelength light will be scattered more, and the emulsion will appear bluer – this is called the Tyndall effect. If the emulsion is concentrated enough, the color will be distorted toward comparatively longer wavelengths and this phenomenon is easily observable when comparing skimmed milk, which contains little fat, to cream, which contains a much higher concentration of milk fat. One example would be a mixture of water and oil, two special classes of emulsions – microemulsions and nanoemulsions, with droplet sizes below 100 nm – appear translucent. This property is due to the fact that lightwaves are scattered by the only if their sizes exceed about one-quarter of the wavelength of the incident light. Due to their similarity in appearance, translucent nanoemulsions and microemulsions are frequently confused, the required surfactant concentration in a microemulsion is, however, several times higher than that in a translucent nanoemulsion, and significantly exceeds the concentration of the dispersed phase. Because of many undesirable side-effects caused by surfactants, their presence is disadvantageous or prohibitive in many applications, in addition, the stability of a microemulsion is often easily compromised by dilution, by heating, or by changing pH levels
13.
Personal care
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Personal care or toiletries is the industry which manufactures consumer products used in personal hygiene and for beautification. Subsectors of personal care include personal hygiene and cosmetics, there is a distinction between personal hygienic items, which are necessities, and cosmetics, which are luxury goods solely used for beautification. In practice such sundries are often intermixed in retail store aisles, cosmetics Pharmaceuticals and personal care products Toiletry kit Sachet
14.
Gel
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A gel is a solid jelly-like material that can have properties ranging from soft and weak to hard and tough. Gels are defined as a substantially dilute cross-linked system, which exhibits no flow when in the steady-state, by weight, gels are mostly liquid, yet they behave like solids due to a three-dimensional cross-linked network within the liquid. It is the crosslinking within the fluid that gives a gel its structure, in this way gels are a dispersion of molecules of a liquid within a solid in which the solid is the continuous phase and the liquid is the discontinuous phase. The word gel was coined by 19th-century Scottish chemist Thomas Graham by clipping from gelatine, gels consist of a solid three-dimensional network that spans the volume of a liquid medium and ensnares it through surface tension effects. This internal network structure may result from physical bonds or chemical bonds, virtually any fluid can be used as an extender including water, oil, and air. Both by weight and volume, gels are mostly fluid in composition, edible jelly is a common example of a hydrogel and has approximately the density of water. Polyionic polymers are polymers with a functional group. The ionic charges prevent the formation of tightly coiled polymer chains and this allows them to contribute more to viscosity in their stretched state, because the stretched-out polymer takes up more space. A hydrogel is a network of polymer chains that are hydrophilic, hydrogels are highly absorbent natural or synthetic polymeric networks. Hydrogels also possess a degree of flexibility very similar to tissue, due to their significant water content. The first appearance of the term hydrogel in the literature was in 1894, common uses for hydrogels include, Scaffolds in tissue engineering. When used as scaffolds, hydrogels may contain human cells to repair tissue and they mimic 3D microenvironment of cells. Hydrogel-coated wells have been used for cell culture Environmentally sensitive hydrogels and these hydrogels have the ability to sense changes of pH, temperature, or the concentration of metabolite and release their load as result of such a change. Wound gels are excellent for helping to create or maintain a moist environment, reservoirs in topical drug delivery, particularly ionic drugs, delivered by iontophoresis. Natural hydrogel materials are being investigated for tissue engineering, these materials include agarose, methylcellulose, hyaluronan, an organogel is a non-crystalline, non-glassy thermoreversible solid material composed of a liquid organic phase entrapped in a three-dimensionally cross-linked network. The liquid can be, for example, a solvent, mineral oil. The solubility and particle dimensions of the structurant are important characteristics for the elastic properties, often, these systems are based on self-assembly of the structurant molecules. Organogels have potential for use in a number of applications, such as in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, art conservation, a xerogel /ˈzɪəroʊˌdʒɛl/ is a solid formed from a gel by drying with unhindered shrinkage
15.
Colloid
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A colloid, in chemistry, is a mixture in which one substance of microscopically dispersed insoluble particles is suspended throughout another substance. Sometimes the dispersed substance alone is called the colloid, the colloidal suspension refers unambiguously to the overall mixture. Unlike a solution, whose solute and solvent constitute only one phase, a colloid has a dispersed phase, to qualify as a colloid, the mixture must be one that does not settle or would take a very long time to settle appreciably. The dispersed-phase particles have a diameter between approximately 1 and 1000 nanometers, such particles are normally easily visible in an optical microscope, although at the smaller size range, an ultramicroscope or an electron microscope may be required. Homogeneous mixtures with a phase in this size range may be called colloidal aerosols, colloidal emulsions, colloidal foams, colloidal dispersions. The dispersed-phase particles or droplets are affected largely by the surface chemistry present in the colloid, some colloids are translucent because of the Tyndall effect, which is the scattering of light by particles in the colloid. Other colloids may be opaque or have a slight color, Colloidal suspensions are the subject of interface and colloid science. This field of study was introduced in 1861 by Scottish scientist Thomas Graham, because of the size exclusion, the colloidal particles are unable to pass through the pores of an ultrafiltration membrane with a size smaller than their own dimension. The smaller the size of the pore of the ultrafiltration membrane, the measured value of the concentration of a truly dissolved species will thus depend on the experimental conditions applied to separate it from the colloidal particles also dispersed in the liquid. This is particularly important for solubility studies of readily hydrolyzed species such as Al, Eu, Am, Cm, the colloid particles are attracted toward water. They are also called reversible sols, hydrophobic colloids, These are opposite in nature to hydrophilic colloids. The colloid particles are repelled by water and they are also called irreversible sols. In some cases, a colloid suspension can be considered a homogeneous mixture and this is because the distinction between dissolved and particulate matter can be sometimes a matter of approach, which affects whether or not it is homogeneous or heterogeneous. The following forces play an important role in the interaction of particles, Excluded volume repulsion. Electrostatic interaction, Colloidal particles often carry a charge and therefore attract or repel each other. The charge of both the continuous and the phase, as well as the mobility of the phases are factors affecting this interaction. Van der Waals forces, This is due to interaction between two dipoles that are permanent or induced. Even if the particles do not have a permanent dipole, fluctuations of the electron density gives rise to a dipole in a particle
16.
Deformation (mechanics)
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Deformation in continuum mechanics is the transformation of a body from a reference configuration to a current configuration. A configuration is a set containing the positions of all particles of the body, a deformation may be caused by external loads, body forces, or changes in temperature, moisture content, or chemical reactions, etc. Strain is a description of deformation in terms of displacement of particles in the body that excludes rigid-body motions. In a continuous body, a deformation field results from a field induced by applied forces or is due to changes in the temperature field inside the body. The relation between stresses and induced strains is expressed by constitutive equations, e. g. Hookes law for linear elastic materials, deformations which are recovered after the stress field has been removed are called elastic deformations. In this case, the continuum completely recovers its original configuration, on the other hand, irreversible deformations remain even after stresses have been removed. Another type of deformation is viscous deformation, which is the irreversible part of viscoelastic deformation. In the case of elastic deformations, the response function linking strain to the stress is the compliance tensor of the material. Strain is a measure of deformation representing the displacement between particles in the relative to a reference length. A general deformation of a body can be expressed in the form x = F where X is the position of material points in the body. Such a measure does not distinguish between rigid body motions and changes in shape of the body, a deformation has units of length. We could, for example, define strain to be ε ≐ ∂ ∂ X = F ′ − I, hence strains are dimensionless and are usually expressed as a decimal fraction, a percentage or in parts-per notation. Strains measure how much a given deformation differs locally from a rigid-body deformation, a strain is in general a tensor quantity. Physical insight into strains can be gained by observing that a given strain can be decomposed into normal and this could be applied by elongation, shortening, or volume changes, or angular distortion. However, it is sufficient to know the normal and shear components of strain on a set of three perpendicular directions. In this case, the undeformed and deformed configurations of the continuum are significantly different and this is commonly the case with elastomers, plastically-deforming materials and other fluids and biological soft tissue. Infinitesimal strain theory, also called small strain theory, small deformation theory, small displacement theory, in this case, the undeformed and deformed configurations of the body can be assumed identical. Large-displacement or large-rotation theory, which assumes small strains but large rotations, in each of these theories the strain is then defined differently
17.
Polysaccharide
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They range in structure from linear to highly branched. Examples include storage polysaccharides such as starch and glycogen, and structural polysaccharides such as cellulose, polysaccharides are often quite heterogeneous, containing slight modifications of the repeating unit. Depending on the structure, these macromolecules can have distinct properties from their building blocks. They may be amorphous or even insoluble in water, natural saccharides are generally of simple carbohydrates called monosaccharides with general formula n where n is three or more. Examples of monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and glyceraldehyde, polysaccharides, meanwhile, have a general formula of Cxy where x is usually a large number between 200 and 2500. When the repeating units in the backbone are six-carbon monosaccharides, as is often the case, the general formula simplifies to n. Polysaccharides are an important class of biological polymers and their function in living organisms is usually either structure- or storage-related. Starch is used as a polysaccharide in plants, being found in the form of both amylose and the branched amylopectin. In animals, the structurally similar glucose polymer is the more densely branched glycogen, glycogens properties allow it to be metabolized more quickly, which suits the active lives of moving animals. Cellulose and chitin are examples of structural polysaccharides, cellulose is used in the cell walls of plants and other organisms, and is said to be the most abundant organic molecule on Earth. It has many such as a significant role in the paper and textile industries, and is used as a feedstock for the production of rayon, cellulose acetate, celluloid. Chitin has a structure, but has nitrogen-containing side branches. It is found in arthropod exoskeletons and in the walls of some fungi. It also has multiple uses, including surgical threads, polysaccharides also include callose or laminarin, chrysolaminarin, xylan, arabinoxylan, mannan, fucoidan and galactomannan. Nutrition polysaccharides are common sources of energy, many organisms can easily break down starches into glucose, however, most organisms cannot metabolize cellulose or other polysaccharides like chitin and arabinoxylans. These carbohydrate types can be metabolized by bacteria and protists. Ruminants and termites, for example, use microorganisms to process cellulose, even though these complex carbohydrates are not very digestible, they provide important dietary elements for humans. Called dietary fiber, these carbohydrates enhance digestion among other benefits, the main action of dietary fiber is to change the nature of the contents of the gastrointestinal tract, and to change how other nutrients and chemicals are absorbed
18.
Starch
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Starch or amylum is a polymeric carbohydrate consisting of a large number of glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds. This polysaccharide is produced by most green plants as an energy store and it is the most common carbohydrate in human diets and is contained in large amounts in staple foods such as potatoes, wheat, maize, rice, and cassava. Pure starch is a white, tasteless and odorless powder that is insoluble in water or alcohol. It consists of two types of molecules, the linear and helical amylose and the branched amylopectin, depending on the plant, starch generally contains 20 to 25% amylose and 75 to 80% amylopectin by weight. Glycogen, the store of animals, is a more branched version of amylopectin. In industry, starch is converted into sugars, for example by malting and it is processed to produce many of the sugars used in processed foods. Dissolving starch in water gives wheatpaste, which can be used as a thickening, stiffening or gluing agent. The biggest industrial non-food use of starch is as an adhesive in the papermaking process, starch can be applied to parts of some garments before ironing, to stiffen them. The word starch is from a Germanic root with the strong, stiff. Amylum for starch is from the Greek αμυλον, amylon which means not ground at a mill, the root amyl is used in biochemistry for several compounds related to starch. Starch grains from the rhizomes of Typha as flour have been identified from grinding stones in Europe dating back to 30,000 years ago, starch grains from sorghum were found on grind stones in caves in Ngalue, Mozambique dating up to 100,000 years ago. Pure extracted wheat starch paste was used in Ancient Egypt possibly to glue papyrus, the extraction of starch is first described in the Natural History of Pliny the Elder around AD 77–79. Romans used it also in cosmetic creams, to powder the hair, persians and Indians used it to make dishes similar to gothumai wheat halva. Rice starch as surface treatment of paper has been used in production in China. In addition to starchy plants consumed directly,66 million tonnes of starch were being produced per year world-wide by 2008. In the EU this was around 8.5 million tonnes, with around 40% being used for applications and 60% for food uses. Most green plants use starch as their energy store, an exception is the family Asteraceae, where starch is replaced by the fructan inulin. In photosynthesis, plants use light energy to produce glucose from carbon dioxide, the glucose is used to make cellulose fibers, the structural component of the plant, or is stored in the form of starch granules, in amyloplasts
19.
Natural gum
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Natural gums are polysaccharides of natural origin, capable of causing a large increase in a solution’s viscosity, even at small concentrations. In the food industry they are used as thickening agents, gelling agents, emulsifying agents, in other industries, they are also used as adhesives, binding agents, crystal inhibitors, clarifying agents, encapsulating agents, flocculating agents, swelling agents, foam stabilizers, etc. Most often these gums are found in the elements of plants or in seed coatings. Natural gums can be classified according to their origin and they can also be classified as uncharged or ionic polymers
20.
Pectin
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Pectin is a structural heteropolysaccharide contained in the primary cell walls of terrestrial plants. It was first isolated and described in 1825 by Henri Braconnot and it is produced commercially as a white to light brown powder, mainly extracted from citrus fruits, and is used in food as a gelling agent, particularly in jams and jellies. It is also used in dessert fillings, medicines, sweets, as a stabilizer in fruit juices and milk drinks, and as a source of dietary fiber. In plant biology, pectin consists of a set of polysaccharides that are present in most primary cell walls and are particularly abundant in the non-woody parts of terrestrial plants. Pectin is a component of the middle lamella, where it helps to bind cells together. The amount, structure and chemical composition of pectin differs among plants, within a plant over time, Pectin is an important cell wall polysaccharide that allows primary cell wall extension and plant growth. A similar process of cell separation caused by the breakdown of pectin occurs in the zone of the petioles of deciduous plants at leaf fall. Pectin is a part of the human diet, but does not contribute significantly to nutrition. The daily intake of pectin from fruits and vegetables can be estimated to be around 5 g, in human digestion, pectin binds to cholesterol in the gastrointestinal tract and slows glucose absorption by trapping carbohydrates. Pectin is thus a soluble dietary fiber, Pectin has been observed to have DNA repair properties. Pectinaceous surface pellicles, which are rich in pectin, create a layer that holds in dew that helps the cell repair its DNA. Consumption of pectin has been shown to reduce cholesterol levels. The mechanism appears to be an increase of viscosity in the intestinal tract, in the large intestine and colon, microorganisms degrade pectin and liberate short-chain fatty acids that have positive influence on health. A study found a mean of 4.5 ppm methanol in the breath of subjects. The mean endogenous methanol production in humans of 0.45 g/d may be metabolized from pectin found in fruit, methanol is poisonous to the central nervous system and may cause blindness, coma, and death. However, in amounts, methanol is a natural endogenous compound found in normal. Pectins, also known as polysaccharides, are rich in galacturonic acid. Several distinct polysaccharides have been identified and characterised within the pectic group, homogalacturonans are linear chains of α--linked D-galacturonic acid
21.
Protein
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Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, responding to stimuli, a linear chain of amino acid residues is called a polypeptide. A protein contains at least one long polypeptide, short polypeptides, containing less than 20–30 residues, are rarely considered to be proteins and are commonly called peptides, or sometimes oligopeptides. The individual amino acid residues are bonded together by peptide bonds, the sequence of amino acid residues in a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene, which is encoded in the genetic code. In general, the code specifies 20 standard amino acids, however. Sometimes proteins have non-peptide groups attached, which can be called prosthetic groups or cofactors, proteins can also work together to achieve a particular function, and they often associate to form stable protein complexes. Once formed, proteins only exist for a period of time and are then degraded and recycled by the cells machinery through the process of protein turnover. A proteins lifespan is measured in terms of its half-life and covers a wide range and they can exist for minutes or years with an average lifespan of 1–2 days in mammalian cells. Abnormal and or misfolded proteins are degraded more rapidly due to being targeted for destruction or due to being unstable. Like other biological macromolecules such as polysaccharides and nucleic acids, proteins are essential parts of organisms, many proteins are enzymes that catalyse biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism. Proteins also have structural or mechanical functions, such as actin and myosin in muscle and the proteins in the cytoskeleton, other proteins are important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, and the cell cycle. In animals, proteins are needed in the diet to provide the essential amino acids that cannot be synthesized, digestion breaks the proteins down for use in the metabolism. Methods commonly used to study structure and function include immunohistochemistry, site-directed mutagenesis, X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance. Most proteins consist of linear polymers built from series of up to 20 different L-α-amino acids, all proteinogenic amino acids possess common structural features, including an α-carbon to which an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a variable side chain are bonded. Only proline differs from this structure as it contains an unusual ring to the N-end amine group. The amino acids in a chain are linked by peptide bonds. Once linked in the chain, an individual amino acid is called a residue, and the linked series of carbon, nitrogen. The peptide bond has two forms that contribute some double-bond character and inhibit rotation around its axis, so that the alpha carbons are roughly coplanar
22.
Arrowroot
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Japanese arrowroot, Pueraria lobata, also called kudzu, is used in similar ways. Archaeological studies in the Americas show evidence of cultivation as early as 7,000 years ago. The name may come from aru-aru in the language of the Caribbean Arawak people and it has also been suggested that the name comes from arrowroots use in treating poison-arrow wounds, as it draws out the poison when applied to the site of the injury. In the early days of carbonless copy paper, arrowroot, because of its grain size, was a widely used ingredient. After an economical way of separating wheat flour was devised. St. Vincent has a history of arrowroot production. The industry started as the food and medicine of the Carib and Garifuna peoples and it became an important commodity in colonial trade in the 1930s. As the sugar industry declined in the century, cultivation of arrowroot was developed to fill the void. Since then, the area cultivated has declined steadily as other crops, evidence of its former importance is indicated by the ruins of the various magnificent 19th-century factories located in valleys on the St. Vincent mainland. Arrowroot cultivation is now concentrated on farms located north of the Rabacca River and this is also the area where the population of Carib descent is concentrated. In 1998/99, the industry produced 312,000 lb of starch, the plant is propagated from other rhizomes and cultivation takes place at elevations up to 300 metres on the eastern and windward facing side of the highlands of St. Vincent. Cultivation covers an area of about 3,700 ha and some 80% of the crop is grown by small farmers, the arrowroot plant is very hardy and not very demanding in its requirements. St. Vincent, particularly the north-east coast, provides the ideal growing conditions for optimal yields, deep, well drained, slightly acidic soils, some farmers produce the crop by shifting cultivation on the cleared forested slopes. The harvesting season extends from October to May, on the larger estates, the harvesting of the rhizome usually proceeds from the base of a hill towards the top. Harvesting involves breaking off the rhizome from the shoot, planting and harvesting are inter-related in that when the rhizomes are harvested the shoot is replanted at the same time. In St. Vincent, much use is made of rural unemployment, mechanical harvesters have recently been introduced, allowing faster arrowroot harvesting. Six factories process the islands arrowroot and large processing plants are located at Belle Vue, arrowroot tubers contain about 23% starch. They are first washed, and then cleaned of the paper-like scale, the scales must be carefully removed before extracting the starch because they impart a disagreeable flavour
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Corn starch
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Corn starch, cornstarch, cornflour or maize starch or maize is the starch derived from the corn grain or wheat. The starch is obtained from the endosperm of the kernel, corn starch is a popular food ingredient used in thickening sauces or soups, and is used in making corn syrup and other sugars. When mixed with a fluid, cornstarch can rearrange itself into a non-Newtonian fluid, for example, adding water transforms cornstarch into a material commonly known as Oobleck while adding oil transforms cornstarch into a Electrorheological fluid. The concept can be explained through the mixture termed cornflour slime, cornstarch was discovered in 1840 by Thomas Kingsford, superintendent of a wheat starch factory in Jersey City, New Jersey. Until 1851, corn starch was used primarily for starching laundry, cornstarch is used as a thickening agent in liquid-based foods, usually by mixing it with a lower-temperature liquid to form a paste or slurry. It is sometimes preferred over flour alone because it forms a translucent mixture, as the starch is heated, the molecular chains unravel, allowing them to collide with other starch chains to form a mesh, thickening the liquid. It is usually included as an agent in powdered sugar. A common substitute is arrowroot, which replaces cornstarch on a 1,1 ratio, chicken nuggets with a thin outer layer of cornstarch allows increased oil absorption and crispness after the latter stages of frying. Baby powder often includes cornstarch among its ingredients, cornstarch can be used to manufacture bioplastics. Food producers reduce production costs by adding varying amounts of cornstarch to foods, for example to cheese and this is more common in the United States of America where the Congress and the Department of Agriculture subsidize and reduce its cost to food manufacturers. When roasted in a standard oven it produced dextrin, a compound with uses ranging from adhesive to binder for fireworks. Cornstarch is the preferred anti-stick agent on medical products made from latex, including condoms, diaphragms. Prior usage of talc was abandoned as talc was believed to be a carcinogen, cornstarch has properties that allows it to slowly releases a type of glucose over time. Thus, cornstarch has been used to supply glucose and maintain blood sugar levels to humans who have glycogen storage disease, cornstarch can be used starting at age 6 –12 months which allows feeds to be spaced and glucose fluctuations to be minimized. The corn is steeped for 30 to 48 hours, which ferments it slightly, the germ is separated from the endosperm and those two components are ground separately. Next the starch is removed from each by washing, the starch is separated from the corn steep liquor, the cereal germ, the fibers and the corn gluten mostly in hydrocyclones and centrifuges, and then dried. This process is called wet milling, finally, the starch may be modified for specific purposes. Called cornstarch in the United States and Canada, called cornflour in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Israel and some Commonwealth countries
24.
Erythronium japonicum
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It is a spring ephemeral, blooming April–June in woodlands. Erythronium japonicum has a stem up to 20 centimetres long, although as much as 30% of the stem may be underground, bulb is elongated, up to 6 cm long but rarely more than 1 cm wide. Leaves are broadly elliptical to lanceolate, the blade up to 12 cm long and 7 cm wide, reporting is mixed on whether it should be regarded as endangered in Japan. This woodland plant is vulnerable, since it has a very short season and is slow-growing. It needs to grow into a 7-8 year old plant before it finally blooms, in Niiharu, the colony was entirely wiped out overnight shortly after media coverage about it blooming in the area. A colony that can be viewed within the confines of metropolitan Tokyo is at Shimizuyama-ikoi-no-mori which translates approximately to Shimizuyama grove of respite and this is somewhat in the neighborhood of the Tomitaro Makino memorial garden which also has a small number of plants planted. The katakuriko, is a starch that bears the name of this plant, because of its small quantity, this starch is no longer common, potato starch has taken its place and name nowadays. This plant is not known to be farmed, and has been harvested from wild colonies by poachers, but probably not by seekers of starch sources, the plant powder was also used as ointment to treat rashes. Line drawing of Erythronium japonicum, Flora of China Illustrations vol
25.
Potato starch
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Potato starch is starch extracted from potatoes. The cells of the tubers of the potato plant contain starch grains. To extract the starch, the potatoes are crushed, the grains are released from the destroyed cells. The starch is then washed out and dried to powder, Potato starch contains typical large oval spherical granules, their size ranges between 5 and 100 μm. Potato starch is a very refined starch, containing minimal protein or fat and these typical properties are used in food and technical applications. In pastry, e. g. sponge cake, it is used to keep the cake moist and it is also occasionally used in the preparation of pre-packed grated cheese, to reduce sweating and binding. Other examples are helmipuuro, a made from monodisperse grains of potato starch and milk. It is also used in applications as wallpaper adhesive, for textile finishing and textile sizing, in paper coating and sizing. Potato starch was used in one of the earlier color photography processes. Many types of potatoes are grown, for the production of potato starch, potato varieties with high starch content, recently, a new type of potato plant was developed that only contains one type of starch molecule, amylopectin, the waxy potato starch. Waxy starches, after starch gelatinisation, retrograde less during storage, some potato starch is also produced as a byproduct from the potato processing industry, recovered from the potato cutting circuit during the production of French fries and potato chips. Starch granules exhibit characteristic dark crosses in polarized light, if potato starch is wetted, it will turn sticky. Corn starch Katakuri Potato starch production Potato flour Memorandum on potato starch, International Starch Institute Potato starch gelatinization film, Youtube
26.
Sago
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Sago /ˈseɪɡoʊ/ is a starch extracted from the spongy centre, or pith, of various tropical palm stems, especially that of Metroxylon sagu. It is a staple food for the lowland peoples of New Guinea and the Moluccas. The largest supply of sago comes from Southeast Asia, particularly Indonesia and Malaysia, large quantities of sago are sent to Europe and North America for cooking purposes. It is traditionally cooked and eaten in various forms, such as rolled into balls, mixed with boiling water to form a glue-like paste, Sago is often produced commercially in the form of pearls. Sago pearls can be boiled with water or milk and sugar to make a sweet sago pudding, Sago pearls are similar in appearance as the pearled starches of other origin, e. g. cassava starch and potato starch, and they may be used interchangeably in some dishes. The name sago is also used for starch extracted from other sources, especially the sago cycad. The sago cycad is also known as the sago palm. Extracting edible starch from the sago cycad requires special care due to the nature of cycads. Cycad sago is used for many of the same purposes as palm sago, the fruit of palm trees from which the sago is produced is not allowed to ripen fully. The full ripening completes the cycle of the tree and exhausts the starch reserves in the trunk to produce the seeds. It leaves a hollow shell and causes the tree to die, the palms are cut down when they are about 15 years old, just before or shortly after the inflorescence appears. The stems, which grow 10 to 15 metres high), are split out, the starch-containing pith is taken from the stems and ground to powder. The powder is kneaded in water over a cloth or sieve to release the starch, the water with the starch passes into a trough where the starch settles. After a few washings, the starch is ready to be used in cooking, a single palm yields about 800 pounds of dry starch. The sago palm, Metroxylon sagu, is found in lowland forest and freshwater swamps across Southeast Asia. It tolerates a variety of soils and may reach 30 meters in height. Several other species of the genus Metroxylon, particularly Metroxylon salomonense, Sago palms grow very quickly, in clumps of different ages similar to bananas, one sucker matures, then flowers and dies. It is replaced by another sucker, with up to 1.5 m of vertical stem growth per year, the stems are thick and are either self-supporting or have a moderate climbing habit, the leaves are pinnate
27.
Tapioca
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Tapioca is a starch extracted from cassava root. This species is native to the North Region of Brazil but spread throughout South America, the plant was carried by Portuguese and Spanish explorers to most of the West Indies, and the continents of Africa and Asia, including the Philippines and Taiwan. Its a shrubby, tropical, perennial plant that is common in the temperate zone. Tapioca thrives better in poor soils than any other major food plant, as a result, fertilization is rarely necessary Around the world, Tapioca is a vital staple food for about 500 million people. Tapiocas starchy roots produce more energy per unit of land than any other staple crop. Its leaves, commonly eaten as a vegetable in parts of Asia and Africa, provide vitamins, nutritionally, the Tapioca is comparable to potatoes, except that it has twice the fiber content and a higher level of potassium. Its used as an agent in various foods. Tapioca is derived from the word tipióka, its name in the Tupí language spoken by natives when the Portuguese first arrived in the Northeast Region of Brazil around 1707 and this Tupí word refers to the process by which the cassava starch is made edible. Tapioca is one of the purest forms of food. The cassava plant has red or green branches with blue spindles on them. The root of the green-branched variant requires treatment to remove linamarin, a cyanogenic glycoside occurring naturally in the plant, konzo is a paralytic disease associated with several weeks of almost exclusive consumption of insufficiently processed bitter cassava. In the north and northeast of Brazil, traditional community-based production of tapioca is a by-product of manioc flour production from cassava roots, in this process, the manioc is ground to a pulp with a small hand- or diesel-powered mill. This masa is then squeezed to dry it out, the wet masa is placed in a long woven tube called a tipiti. This liquid is collected and the water allowed to evaporate, leaving behind a fine-grained tapioca powder similar in appearance to corn starch, commercially, the starch is processed into several forms, hot soluble powder, meal, pre-cooked fine/coarse flakes, rectangular sticks, and spherical pearls. Pearls are the most widely available shape, sizes range from about 1 mm to 8 mm in diameter, flakes, sticks, and pearls must be soaked well before cooking, in order to rehydrate, absorbing water up to twice their volume. After rehydration, tapioca products become leathery and swollen, processed tapioca is usually white, but sticks and pearls may be colored. Traditionally, the most common color applied to tapioca has been brown, Tapioca pearls are generally opaque when raw, but become translucent when cooked in boiling water. Brazil in South America, Thailand in Asia, and Nigeria in Africa are the worlds largest producers of cassava, currently, Thailand accounts for about 60 percent of worldwide exports
28.
Alginic acid
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Alginic acid, also called algin or alginate, is an anionic polysaccharide distributed widely in the cell walls of brown algae, where through binding with water it forms a viscous gum. Its colour ranges from white to yellowish-brown and it is sold in filamentous, granular or powdered forms. The monomers can appear in homopolymeric blocks of consecutive G-residues, consecutive M-residues or alternating M, alginates are refined from brown seaweeds. A wide variety of seaweeds of the phylum Phaeophyceae are harvested throughout the world to be converted into the raw material commonly known as sodium alginate. Sodium alginate has a wide use across a variety of industries including food, textile printing. Dental impression material utilizes alginate as its means of gelling, Alginate is both food and skin safe. Seaweeds can be classified into three groups based on pigmentation, brown, red and green. These broad groups are the Phaeophyceae, Rhodophyceae and Chlorophyceae, respectively, brown seaweeds are usually large, and range from the giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera that is often 20 m long, to thick, leather-like seaweeds from 2-4 m long, to smaller species 30–60 cm long. None of the usual seaweeds for alginate production are cultivated and they cannot be grown by vegetative means, but must go through a reproductive cycle involving an alternation of generations. This makes cultivated brown seaweeds too expensive compared to the costs of harvesting and transporting wild seaweeds. The only exception is for Laminaria japonica, which is cultivated in China for food, alginates from different species of brown seaweed often have variations in their chemical structure, resulting in different physical properties. Commercial varieties of alginate are extracted from seaweed, including the giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera, Ascophyllum nodosum and it is also produced by two bacterial genera Pseudomonas and Azotobacter, which played a major role in the unravelling of its biosynthesis pathway. Bacterial alginates are useful for the production of micro- or nanostructures suitable for medical applications, sodium alginate is the sodium salt of alginic acid. Sodium alginate is a gum, extracted from the walls of brown algae. Potassium alginate is a compound that is the potassium salt of alginic acid. It is an extract of seaweed and its empirical chemical formula is KC6H7O6. Calcium alginate, made from sodium alginate from which the salt has been removed and replaced with calcium, has the chemical formula C12H14CaO12. The processes for the manufacture of sodium alginate from brown seaweeds fall into two categories, 1) Calcium alginate method and, 2) Alginic acid method, the chemistry of the processes used to make sodium alginate from brown seaweeds is relatively simple
29.
Guar gum
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The guar seeds are dehusked, milled and screened to obtain the guar gum. It is typically produced as a free-flowing, off-white powder and it is classed as a galactomannan. The guar bean is grown in India, Pakistan, U. S. India produces 2.5 -3.5 million tons of guar annually, making it the largest producer with about 80% of world production, while Pakistan produced 250,000 tons of guar in 2013. In India, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Haryana are the main producing regions, the United States has produced 4,600 to 14,000 tonnes of guar over the last 5 years. Texas acreage since 1999 has fluctuated from about 7,000 to 50,000 acres, the world production for guar gum and its derivatives is about 1.0 Million tonnes. Industrial guar gum accounts for about 70% of the total demand, mainly it is used as a proppant transport / proppant suspending agent in hydraulic fracturing. In 2012 guar prices increased by 900-1000%, at its peak it reached to $28000 per ton. However later stabilised to $8000 per ton,2013 was a strong year for guar sowing and production in India. The total sowing area rose by 21 percent in 2013 to reach 10.6 million acres, Rajasthan, Haryana, and Gujarat – the three key guar-producing states – exceeded the sowing area target set by their respective agriculture departments. Non-traditional guar cultivators in other Indian states also showed keen interest in the crop in 2013, calgary-based Trican Well Services Ltd. touts its trademarked guar substitutes TriFrac-C and Novum. Baker Hughes trademarked something called “AquaPerm, ” while Halliburton rolled out “PermStim”, by 2013, Schlumberger was advertising its trademarked guar-substitute, “HiWay. ”Most of these laboratory substitutes use biodegradable polymers. But according to market trends analyst Thomasnet. com, “…there isnt anything currently available with the reliability and quantities of guar gum. One of India’s biggest guar exporters, Vikas WSP, gave away 3,000 tons of seeds to encourage farmers to switch away from cotton. Chemically, guar gum is a composed of the sugars galactose and mannose. The backbone is a chain of β1, 4-linked mannose residues to which galactose residues are 1, 6-linked at every second mannose. Guar gum is more soluble than locust bean gum, as it has more galactose branch points, unlike locust bean gum, it is not self-gelling. However, either borax or calcium can cross-link guar gum, causing it to gel, in water, it is nonionic and hydrocolloidal
30.
Xanthan gum
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Xanthan gum is a polysaccharide secreted by the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris, used as a food additive and rheology modifier, commonly used as a food thickening agent and a stabilizer. It is composed of pentasaccharide repeat units, comprising glucose, mannose and it is produced by the fermentation of glucose, sucrose, or lactose. After a fermentation period, the polysaccharide is precipitated from a medium with isopropyl alcohol, dried. Later, it is added to a medium to form the gum. This links the synthesis of xanthan to the carbohydrate metabolism. The repeat units are built up at undecaprenylphosphate lipid carriers that are anchored in the cytoplasmic membrane, specific glycosyltransferases sequentially transfer the sugar moieties of the nucleotide sugar xanthan precursors to the lipid carriers. Acetyl and pyruvyl residues are added as non-carbohydrate decorations, mature repeat units are polymerized and exported in a way resembling the Wzy-dependent polysaccharide synthesis mechanism of Enterobacteriaceae. Products of the gum gene cluster drive synthesis, polymerization, the polysaccharide is prepared by inoculating a sterile aqueous solution of carbohydrate, a source of nitrogen, dipotassium phosphate, and some trace elements. The medium is well-aerated and stirred, and the polymer is produced extracellularly into the medium, the final concentration of xanthan produced will vary greatly depending on the method of production, strain of bacteria, and random variation. In the United States, the manufacture of one kilogram of cheese creates nine kg of the byproduct whey, whey is composed mostly of water and lactose, so researchers developed a strain of X. campestris that would grow on lactose rather than glucose. The newly developed lactose-using bacteria produced 30 g/L of xanthan gum for every 40 g/L of whey powder, whey-derived xanthan gum is commonly used in many commercial products, such as shampoos and salad dressings. It was brought into production by CP Kelco under the trade name Kelzan in the early 1960s. It was approved for use in foods after animal testing in 1968 and it is accepted as a safe food additive in the USA, Canada, Europe, and many other countries, with E number E415. Xanthan gum derives its name from the strain of bacteria used during the fermentation process, X. campestris is the same bacterium responsible for causing black rot to form on broccoli, cauliflower, and other leafy vegetables. The bacterium forms a slimy substance that acts as a stabilizer or thickener. One of the most remarkable properties of xanthan gum is its ability to produce an increase in the viscosity of a liquid by adding a very small quantity of gum. In most foods, it is used at 0. 5%, the viscosity of xanthan gum solutions decreases with higher shear rates, this is called shear thinning or pseudoplasticity. This means that a product subjected to shear, whether from mixing, shaking or even chewing, will thin out, but, once the forces are removed
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Collagen
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Collagen /ˈkɒlədʒᵻn/ is the main structural protein in the extracellular space in the various connective tissues in animal bodies. As the main component of tissue, it is the most abundant protein in mammals. Depending upon the degree of mineralization, collagen tissues may be rigid, compliant, Collagen, in the form of elongated fibrils, is mostly found in fibrous tissues such as tendons, ligaments and skin. It is also abundant in corneas, cartilage, bones, blood vessels, the gut, intervertebral discs, in muscle tissue, it serves as a major component of the endomysium. Collagen constitutes one to two percent of muscle tissue, and accounts for 6% of the weight of strong, tendinous muscles, the fibroblast is the most common cell that creates collagen. Gelatin, which is used in food and industry, is collagen that has been irreversibly hydrolyzed, Collagen also has many medical uses in treating complications of the bones and skin. The name collagen comes from the Greek κόλλα, meaning glue and this refers to the compounds early use in the process of boiling the skin and sinews of horses and other animals to obtain glue. Collagen occurs in places throughout the body. Over 90% of the collagen in the body, however, is type I. So far,28 types of collagen have been identified and described, type IV, forms basal lamina, the epithelium-secreted layer of the basement membrane. Type V, cell surfaces, hair and placenta The collagenous cardiac skeleton which includes the four valve rings, is histologically, elastically and uniquely bound to cardiac muscle. The cardiac skeleton also includes the separating septa of the heart chambers – the interventricular septum, Collagen contribution to the measure of cardiac performance summarily represents a continuous torsional force opposed to the fluid mechanics of blood pressure emitted from the heart. With support from collagen, atrial fibrillation should never deteriorate to ventricular fibrillation, Collagen is layered in variable densities with cardiac muscle mass. The mass, distribution, age and density of collagen all contribute to the required to move blood back. Individual cardiac valvular leaflets are folded into shape by specialized collagen under variable pressure, gradual calcium deposition within collagen occurs as a natural function of aging. Pathology of the underpinning of the heart is understood within the category of connective tissue disease. Collagen has been used in cosmetic surgery, as a healing aid for burn patients for reconstruction of bone and a wide variety of dental, orthopedic. Both human and bovine collagen is used as dermal fillers for treatment of wrinkles
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Egg white
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Albumen is the name for the clear liquid contained within an egg. In chickens it is formed from the layers of secretions of the section of the hens oviduct during the passage of the egg. It forms around fertilized or unfertilized egg yolks, the primary natural purpose of egg white is to protect the yolk and provide additional nutrition for the growth of the embryo. Egg white consists primarily of about 90% water into which is dissolved about 10% proteins, unlike the yolk, which is high in lipids, egg white contains almost no fat, and carbohydrate content is less than 1%. Egg whites contain just over 50% of the protein in the egg, Egg white has many uses in food and also many other uses. Egg white makes up around two-thirds of an egg by weight. Water constitutes about 90% of this, with protein, trace minerals, fatty material, vitamins, and glucose contributing the remainder. A raw U. S. large egg contains around 33 grams of egg white with 3.6 grams of protein,0.24 grams of carbohydrate and 55 milligrams of sodium and it contains no cholesterol and the energy content is about 17 Calories. Egg white is a solution and contains around 148 proteins. The table below lists the major proteins in egg whites by percentage, ovalbumin is the most abundant protein in albumen. Classed as phosphoglycoprotein, during storage, it converts into s-ovalbumin, Denaturation temperature is around 84°C, but it can be easily denatured by physical stresses. Conalbumin/ovotransferrin is a glycoprotein which has the capacity to bind the bi-, at its isoelectric pH, it can bind two cations and assume a red or yellow color. These metal complexes are more stable than the native state. Ovomucoid is the major allergen from egg white and is a heat-resistant glycoprotein found to be a trypsin inhibitor, ovomucin is a glycoprotein which may contribute to the gel-like structure of thick albumen. The amount of ovomucin in the thick albumen is four times greater than in the thin albumen, the physical stress of beating egg whites can create a foam. Two types of stress are caused by beating them with a whisk. The second stress comes from the mixing of air into the whites, when beating egg whites, they are classified in three stages according to the peaks they form when the beater is lifted, soft, firm, and stiff peaks. Overbeaten eggs take on a dry appearance, and eventually collapse, Egg whites do not beat up correctly if they are exposed to any form of fat, such as cooking oils or the fats contained in egg yolk
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Gelatin
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Gelatin or gelatine is a translucent, colorless, brittle, flavorless food derived from collagen obtained from various animal body parts. It is commonly used as an agent in food, pharmaceutical drugs, vitamin capsules, photography. Substances containing gelatin or functioning in a way are called gelatinous. It is found in most gummy candy, as well as other such as marshmallows, gelatin desserts, and some ice creams, dips. Gelatin for recipe use comes in the form of sheets, granules, instant types can be added to the food as they are, others need to be soaked in water beforehand. During hydrolysis, the molecular bonds between individual collagen strands are broken down into a form that rearranges more easily. Its chemical composition is, in respects, closely similar to that of its parent collagen. Photographic and pharmaceutical grades of gelatin generally are sourced from beef bones, Gelatin readily dissolves in hot water and sets to a gel on cooling. When added directly to water, it does not dissolve well. Gelatin also is soluble in most polar solvents, Gelatin solutions show viscoelastic flow and streaming birefringence. Solubility is determined by the method of manufacture, typically, gelatin can be dispersed in a relatively concentrated acid. Such dispersions are stable for 10–15 days with little or no changes and are suitable for coating purposes or for extrusion into a precipitating bath. The mechanical properties of gelatin gels are very sensitive to variations, the previous thermal history of the gels. The upper melting point is below human body temperature, a factor that is important for mouthfeel of foods produced with gelatin, the viscosity of the gelatin-water mixture is greatest when the gelatin concentration is high and the mixture is kept cool at about 4 °C. The gel strength is quantified using the Bloom test, the worldwide production amount of gelatin is about 375, 000–400,000 tonnes per year. On a commercial scale, gelatin is made from by-products of the meat, recently, fish by-products also have been considered suitable because they eliminate some of the religious obstacles surrounding gelatin consumption. Gelatin is derived from pork skins, pork, and cattle bones, the raw materials are prepared by different curing, acid, and alkali processes that are employed to extract the dried collagen hydrolysate. These processes may take weeks, and differences in such processes have great effects on the properties of the final gelatin products
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Agar
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Agar or agar-agar is a jelly-like substance, equivalent to vegan gelatin, obtained from algae. It was discovered in the late 1650s or early 1660s, by Mino Tarōzaemon in Japan, where it is called kanten. Agar is derived from the polysaccharide agarose, which forms the structure in the cell walls of certain species of algae. These algae are known as agarophytes and belong to the Rhodophyta phylum, Agar is actually the resulting mixture of two components, the linear polysaccharide agarose, and a heterogeneous mixture of smaller molecules called agaropectin. Throughout history into modern times, agar has been used as an ingredient in desserts throughout Asia. The gelling agent in agar is an unbranched polysaccharide obtained from the walls of some species of red algae, primarily from the genera Gelidium. For commercial purposes, it is derived primarily from Gelidium amansii, in chemical terms, agar is a polymer made up of subunits of the sugar galactose. Agar was discovered in Japan in 1658 by Mino Tarōzaemon, an innkeeper who was said to have discarded surplus seaweed soup, over the following centuries, agar became a common gelling agent in several Southeast Asian cuisines. Agar was first subjected to analysis in 1859 by the French chemist Anselme Payen. Beginning in the late 19th century, agar began to be used heavily as a medium for growing various microbes. Agar was first described for use in microbiology in 1882 by the German microbiologist Walther Hesse, Agar quickly supplanted gelatin as the base of microbiological media, due to its higher melting temperature, allowing microbes to be grown at higher temperatures without the media liquefying. With its newfound use in microbiology, agar production quickly increased and this production centered on Japan which produced most of the worlds agar until World War II. However, with the outbreak of World War II many nations were forced to establish domestic agar industries in order to continue microbiological research, around the time of World War II, approximately 2,500 tons of agar were produced annually. By the mid-1970s, production worldwide had increased dramatically to approximately 10,000 tons each year, since then, production of agar has fluctuated due to unstable and sometimes over-utilized seaweed populations. The word agar comes from agar-agar, the Malay name for red algae from which the jelly is produced and it is also known as Kanten, Japanese isinglass, Ceylon moss or Jaffna moss. Gracilaria lichenoides is specifically referred to as agal-agal or Ceylon agar, Agar consists of a mixture of two polysaccharides, agarose and agaropectin, with agarose making up about 70% of the mixture. Agarose is a polymer, made up of repeating units of agarobiose. Agar exhibits hysteresis, melting at 85 °C and solidifying from 32–40 °C and this property lends a suitable balance between easy melting and good gel stability at relatively high temperatures
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Carrageenan
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Carrageenans or carrageenins are a family of linear sulphated polysaccharides that are extracted from red edible seaweeds. They are widely used in the industry, for their gelling, thickening. Their main application is in dairy and meat products, due to their binding to food proteins. There are three varieties of carrageenan, which differ in their degree of sulphation. Kappa-carrageenan has one group per disaccharide, Iota-carrageenan has two, and Lambda-carrageenan has three. Gelatinous extracts of the Chondrus crispus seaweed have been used as food additives since approximately the fifteenth century, carrageenan is a vegetarian and vegan alternative to gelatin in some applications or may be used to replace gelatin in confectionery. Carrageenans are large, highly flexible molecules that curl forming helical structures and this gives them the ability to form a variety of different gels at room temperature. They are widely used in the food and other industries as thickening and stabilizing agents, all carrageenans are high-molecular-weight polysaccharides made up of repeating galactose units and 3,6 anhydrogalactose, both sulfated and nonsulfated. The units are joined by alternating α-1,3 and β-1,4 glycosidic linkages, there are three main commercial classes of carrageenan, Kappa forms strong, rigid gels in the presence of potassium ions, it reacts with dairy proteins. It is sourced mainly from Kappaphycus alvarezii, iota forms soft gels in the presence of calcium ions. It is produced mainly from Eucheuma denticulatum, lambda does not gel, and is used to thicken dairy products. The primary differences that influence the properties of kappa, iota, higher levels of ester sulfate lower the solubility temperature of the carrageenan and produce lower strength gels, or contribute to gel inhibition. Many red algal species produce different types of carrageenans during their developmental history, for instance, the genus Gigartina produces mainly kappa carrageenans during its gametophytic stage, and lambda carrageenans during its sporophytic stage. All are soluble in hot water, but in cold water, when used in food products, carrageenan has the EU additive E-number E407 or E407a when present as processed eucheuma seaweed. Technically carrageenan is considered a dietary fibre, the end-product is a kind of jelly similar to pannacotta, tapioca, or blancmange. 5oz rinsed Irish moss is cooked with 8 quarts of water for 10 minutes, hard water should be mixed with 1/2 oz of borax. Two quarts of water are rapidly added to the hot brew. It is then cooled for 24 hours and becomes gelatinous, as of 2011, global sales of carrageenan were estimated at $640 million
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Tetrasodium pyrophosphate
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Tetrasodium pyrophosphate, also called sodium pyrophosphate, tetrasodium phosphate or TSPP, is a colorless transparent crystalline chemical compound with the formula Na4P2O7. It is a composed of pyrophosphate and sodium ions. Toxicity is approximately twice that of salt when ingested orally. There is also a form, Na4P2O7 ·10. Tetrasodium pyrophosphate is used as an agent, an emulsifier, a dispersing agent, and a thickening agent. In toothpaste and dental floss, tetrasodium pyrophosphate acts as a control agent, serving to remove calcium and magnesium from saliva. Tetrasodium pyrophosphate is used in commercial dental rinses before brushing to aid in plaque reduction, alternatively, it can be created by the molecular dehydration of dibasic sodium phosphate at 500 °C
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Casein
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Casein is the name for a family of related phosphoproteins. These proteins are found in mammalian milk, making up 80% of the proteins in cows milk. Casein has a variety of uses, from being a major component of cheese, to use as a food additive. As a food source, casein supplies amino acids, carbohydrates, casein contains a high number of proline residues, which do not interact. There are also no disulfide bridges, as a result, it has relatively little tertiary structure. It is relatively hydrophobic, making it soluble in water. However, in sharp contrast to surfactant micelles, the interior of a micelle is highly hydrated. The caseins in the micelles are held together by calcium ions, any of several molecular models could account for the special conformation of casein in the micelles. One of them proposes the micellar nucleus is formed by several submicelles, another model suggests the nucleus is formed by casein-interlinked fibrils. Finally, the most recent model proposes a link among the caseins for gelling to take place. All three models consider micelles as colloidal particles formed by casein aggregates wrapped up in soluble κ-casein molecules, the isoelectric point of casein is 4.6. Since milks pH is 6.6, casein has a charge in milk. While it is insoluble in neutral salt solutions, it is readily dispersible in dilute alkalis and in salt solutions such as aqueous sodium oxalate. The enzyme trypsin can hydrolyze a phosphate-containing peptone and it is used to form a type of organic adhesive. Casein paint is a fast-drying, water-soluble medium used by artists and it is still widely used by scene painters, although acrylic has made inroads in that field as well. Casein-based glues, formulated from casein, water, hydrated lime and sodium hydroxide were popular for woodworking, including for aircraft, casein glue is also used in transformer manufacturing due to its oil permeability. While largely replaced with synthetic resins, casein-based glues still have a use in niche applications, such as laminating fireproof doors. Cheese consists of proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats and it is produced by coagulation of casein
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Flour
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Flour is a powder made by grinding raw grains or roots and used to make many different foods. While wheat is the most common base for flour, maize flour has been important in Mesoamerican cuisine since ancient times, rye flour is a constituent of bread in central Europe. The English word flour is originally a variant of the word flower, both derive from the Old French fleur or flour, which had the literal meaning blossom, and a figurative meaning the finest. The phrase fleur de farine meant the finest part of the meal, since flour resulted from the elimination of coarse, the earliest archaeological evidence for wheat seeds crushed between simple millstones to make flour dates to 6000 BC. The Romans were the first to grind seeds on cone mills, in 1879, at the beginning of the Industrial Era, the first steam mill was erected in London. In the 1930s, some began to be enriched with iron, niacin, thiamine. In the 1940s, mills started to enrich flour and folic acid was added to the list in the 1990s, an important problem of the industrial revolution was the preservation of flour. Transportation distances and a relatively slow distribution system collided with natural shelf life, the reason for the limited shelf life is the fatty acids of the germ, which react from the moment they are exposed to oxygen. This occurs when grain is milled, the fatty acids oxidize, depending on climate and grain quality, this process takes six to nine months. In the late 19th century, this process was too short for a production and distribution cycle. As vitamins, micronutrients and amino acids were completely or relatively unknown in the late 19th century, without the germ, flour cannot become rancid. Degermation started in densely populated areas and took approximately one generation to reach the countryside, heat-processed flour is flour where the germ is first separated from the endosperm and bran, then processed with steam, dry heat or microwave and blended into flour again. Milling of flour is accomplished by grinding grain between stones or steel wheels, today, stone-ground usually means that the grain has been ground in a mill in which a revolving stone wheel turns over a stationary stone wheel, vertically or horizontally with the grain in between. These terms are now applied broadly to uses of water. More recently, the Unifine mill, a mill, was developed in the mid-20th century. Home users have begun grinding their own flour from organic wheat berries on a variety of electric flour mills, the grinding process is not much different from grinding coffee but the mills are larger. This provides fresh flour with the benefits of wheat germ and fiber without spoilage, Flour contains a high proportion of starches, which are a subset of complex carbohydrates also known as polysaccharides. The kinds of used in cooking include all-purpose flour, self-rising flour
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Wheat
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Wheat is a cereal grain, originally from the Levant region but now cultivated worldwide. In 2016, world production of wheat was 749 million tonnes, making it the second most-produced cereal after maize, since 1960, world production of wheat and other grain crops has tripled and is expected to grow further through the middle of the 21st Century. This grain is grown on land area than any other commercial food. World trade in wheat is greater than for all other crops combined, globally, wheat is the leading source of vegetal protein in human food, having a protein content of about 13%, which is relatively high compared to other major cereals and staple foods. The archaeological record suggests that wheat was first cultivated in the regions of the Fertile Crescent around 9600 BCE. In a small part of the population, gluten – the major part of wheat protein – can trigger coeliac disease, non-coeliac gluten sensitivity, gluten ataxia. Cultivation and repeated harvesting and sowing of the grains of wild grasses led to the creation of domestic strains, in domesticated wheat, grains are larger, and the seeds remain attached to the ear by a toughened rachis during harvesting. In wild strains, a more fragile rachis allows the ear to easily shatter, as the traits that improve wheat as a food source also involve the loss of the plants natural seed dispersal mechanisms, highly domesticated strains of wheat cannot survive in the wild. Cultivation of wheat began to spread beyond the Fertile Crescent after about 8000 BCE, jared Diamond traces the spread of cultivated emmer wheat starting in the Fertile Crescent sometime before 8800 BCE. Archaeological analysis of wild emmer indicates that it was first cultivated in the southern Levant with finds dating back as far as 9600 BCE, Genetic analysis of wild einkorn wheat suggests that it was first grown in the Karacadag Mountains in southeastern Turkey. Dated archeological remains of wheat in settlement sites near this region, including those at Abu Hureyra in Syria. With the anomalous exception of two grains from Iraq ed-Dubb, the earliest carbon-14 date for einkorn wheat remains at Abu Hureyra is 7800 to 7500 years BCE. Remains of harvested emmer from several sites near the Karacadag Range have been dated to between 8600 and 8400 BCE, that is, in the Neolithic period and these remains were dated by Willem van Zeist and his assistant Johanna Bakker-Heeres to 8800 BCE. They also concluded that the settlers of Tell Aswad did not develop this form of emmer themselves, the cultivation of emmer reached Greece, Cyprus and India by 6500 BCE, Egypt shortly after 6000 BCE, and Germany and Spain by 5000 BCE. The early Egyptians were developers of bread and the use of the oven, by 3000 BCE, wheat had reached the British Isles and Scandinavia. A millennium later it reached China, the oldest evidence for hexaploid wheat has been confirmed through DNA analysis of wheat seeds, dating to around 6400-6200 BCE, recovered from Çatalhöyük. The first identifiable bread wheat with sufficient gluten for yeasted breads has been identified using DNA analysis in samples from a dating to approximately 1350 BCE at Assiros in Macedonia. From Asia, wheat continued to spread throughout Europe, in the British Isles, wheat straw was used for roofing in the Bronze Age, and was in common use until the late 19th century
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Maize
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Maize, also known as corn, is a large grain plant first domesticated by indigenous peoples in Mexico about 10,000 years ago. The six major types of corn are dent corn, flint corn, pod corn, popcorn, flour corn, the leafy stalk of the plant produces separate pollen and ovuliferous inflorescences or ears, which are fruits, yielding kernels or seeds. Maize kernels are used in cooking as a starch. Most historians believe maize was domesticated in the Tehuacan Valley of Mexico, recent research modified this view somewhat, scholars now indicate the adjacent Balsas River Valley of south-central Mexico as the center of domestication. The Olmec and Mayans cultivated maize in numerous varieties throughout Mesoamerica, cooked and its believed that beginning about 2500 BC, the crop spread through much of the Americas. The region developed a network based on surplus and varieties of maize crops. Nevertheless, recent data indicates that the spread of maize took place even earlier, according to Piperno, A large corpus of data indicates that it was dispersed into lower Central America by 7600 BP and had moved into the inter-Andean valleys of Colombia between 7000 and 6000 BP. Since then, even earlier dates have been published, the study also demonstrated that the oldest surviving maize types are those of the Mexican highlands. Later, maize spread from this region over the Americas along two major paths and this is consistent with a model based on the archaeological record suggesting that maize diversified in the highlands of Mexico before spreading to the lowlands. Before they were domesticated, maize plants only grew small,25 millimetres long corn cobs, Maize is the most widely grown grain crop throughout the Americas, with 361 million metric tons grown in the United States in 2014. Approximately 40% of the crop—130 million tons—is used for corn ethanol, genetically modified maize made up 85% of the maize planted in the United States in 2009. After the arrival of Europeans in 1492, Spanish settlers consumed maize and explorers and traders carried it back to Europe, Spanish settlers far preferred wheat bread to maize, cassava, or potatoes. Maize flour could not be substituted for wheat for bread, since in Christian belief only wheat could undergo transubstantiation. At another level, Spaniards worried that by eating indigenous foods, which they did not consider nutritious, that not only would they weaken, despite these worries, Spaniards did consume maize and archeological evidence from Florida sites indicate they cultivated it as well. Maize spread to the rest of the world because of its ability to grow in diverse climates and it was cultivated in Spain just a few decades after Columbuss voyages and then spread to Italy, West Africa and elsewhere. The word maize derives from the Spanish form of the indigenous Taíno word for the plant and it is known by other names around the world. The word corn outside North America, Australia, and New Zealand refers to any cereal crop, in the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, corn primarily means maize, this usage started as a shortening of Indian corn. Indian corn primarily means maize, but can more specifically to multicolored flint corn used for decoration
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Rice
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Rice is the seed of the grass species Oryza sativa or Oryza glaberrima. As a cereal grain, it is the most widely consumed staple food for a part of the worlds human population. It is the agricultural commodity with the third-highest worldwide production, after sugarcane and maize, wild rice, from which the crop was developed, may have its native range in Australia. Chinese legends attribute the domestication of rice to Shennong, the emperor of China. Genetic evidence has shown that rice originates from a single domestication 8, previously, archaeological evidence had suggested that rice was domesticated in the Yangtze River valley region in China. From East Asia, rice was spread to Southeast and South Asia, Rice was introduced to Europe through Western Asia, and to the Americas through European colonization. There are many varieties of rice and culinary preferences tend to vary regionally, in some areas such as the Far East or Spain, there is a preference for softer and stickier varieties. Rice, a monocot, is grown as an annual plant, although in tropical areas it can survive as a perennial. The rice plant can grow to 1–1.8 m tall, occasionally more depending on the variety and it has long, slender leaves 50–100 cm long and 2–2.5 cm broad. The small wind-pollinated flowers are produced in a branched arching to pendulous inflorescence 30–50 cm long, the edible seed is a grain 5–12 mm long and 2–3 mm thick. Rice cultivation is well-suited to countries and regions with low costs and high rainfall, as it is labor-intensive to cultivate. However, rice can be grown practically anywhere, even on a hill or mountain area with the use of water-controlling terrace systems. Although its parent species are native to Asia and certain parts of Africa, centuries of trade, the traditional method for cultivating rice is flooding the fields while, or after, setting the young seedlings. The name wild rice is used for species of the genera Zizania and Porteresia. The Greek word is the source of all European words, the origin of the Greek word is unclear. It is sometimes held to be from the Tamil word அரிசி, however, Krishnamurti disagrees with the notion that Old Tamil arici is the source of the Greek term, and proposes that it was borrowed from descendants of Proto-Dravidian *wariñci instead. The varieties of rice are typically classified as long-, medium-, the grains of long-grain rice tend to remain intact after cooking, medium-grain rice becomes more sticky. Medium-grain rice is used for dishes, for risotto in Italy
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Natural foods
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Natural foods and all natural foods are widely used terms in food labeling and marketing with a variety of definitions, most of which are vague. The term is assumed to imply foods that are minimally processed and whose ingredients are all natural products. But the lack of standards in most jurisdictions means that the term assures nothing, in some countries, the term “natural” is defined and enforced. In others, such as the United States, it is not enforced, the terms are variously used and misused on labels and in advertisements. The international Food and Agriculture Organization’s Codex Alimentarius does not recognize the term “natural” but does have a standard for organic foods. The guidance, in general, restricts the use of natural to foods that have produced by nature. There are different standards for types of food, such as dairy products. It also gives standards for food processing techniques, such as fermentation or pasteurization. The standard explicitly rules out foods derived from novel processes, GM or cloning, a natural food or ingredient of a food does not have any constituent or fraction thereof removed or significantly changed, except the removal of water. In Israel, natural ingredients are defined as part of the Labelling of Prepacked Food Standard, the standard offers a list of 33 processes which are allowed in natural ingredients, all of which are physical treatments and not chemical modifications. These include blending, cleaning, extrusion, freezing, drying, a specific ingredient can be called natural if it didnt go through any processing except for the listed ones. The whole food can be called if the food is not a blend of foods, has no added ingredients. In the United States, there are laws/regulations and agencies to protect the consumer when purchasing food products, some laws and organizations include the Nutrition and Labeling Education Act, the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, and the Food Safety and Inspection Service. The USDA partnered with the Food and Drug Administration to develop and issue regulations in appropriate usage of labels, yet. It advised on their website the agency has not objected to the use of the if the food does not contain added color, artificial flavors. Furthermore, the FDA has not developed any rules or regulations on the features of what qualifies a product as natural. The Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act prohibits labeling that is false or misleading, the USDAs Agricultural Marketing Service has a standard for organic food. As of August 2005, the USDA had a section governing natural claims in its Food Standards and Labeling Policy Book, the USDAs regulatory jurisdiction applies only to meat, poultry, and egg products
